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lnt1toduction
Cosmetics represent a highly diversified field involving many subsections of
science and "art." Indeed, in these days of high technology, "art" and intuition
continue to play an important part in the development of formulations, their
evaluation and the selection of raw materials. There is a move toward more
sophisticated scientific methodologies in the field of cosmetic formulation
design, safety, formulation evaluation with a better understanding of the
properties of application sites i.e. skin, nails, eyes and hair etc.
Today a new hot topic in the cosmetic industry is 'active cosmeceuticals', which
is the fastest growing segment of the natural personal care industry.
Cosmeceuticals are topical cosmetic-pharmaceutical hybrids intended to
enhance the beauty through ingredients that provide additional health-related
function or benefit via cosmetic formulations through topical effects.
These cosmeceuticals serving as a bridge between personal care products and
pharmaceuticals, which are developing specifically for their medicinal and
cosmetic benefits.
1.1 Chronology of Cosmetics
India has enormous resources of medicinal and herbal plants. The pre-historic
knowledge of Ayurveda and its applications to cure illnesses effectively hasn't
been explored fully by India. If this happens successfully, India could gain a
very significant competitive edge in the global market, especially in the beauty
care, and healthcare segments. Since this traditional knowledge of Ayurveda is
1 ij CHAPTER 1 1
not available to other countries, India could be leader in this sector. Thirty
thousand year ago, early men used color in cave paintings, mostly of bulls and
calves, apparently to attract the animals they wished to hunt. They survived by
hunting and fighting and in both cases colored their skin and adorned their body
for protection, either as camouflage or to provoke fear in an enemy, whether
man or animal.
Some are born beautiful and others are "made" beautiful; for both type of
persons, cosmetics are vital tool. The first group of beautiful people is required
to maintain their natural beauty and to safe guard from environmental hazards
which may effects beauty adversely. For the second type of people, cosmetics
are must to make them attractive 1.
Cosmetics are used by all ages with economic and social strata for
beautification and protective purposes since ancient time. In facts, the concept
of beauty and cosmetic is as old as mankind and civilization. It is as long as
people use face paintings and eye shadows as mentioned in the old testament
of Egypt, China, and India. Especially for females, the desire is to look beautiful,
charming and young by using different beauty ways bring various herbs and
things known by the world since centuries2.
The famous depictions in the Ajanta and Ellora caves, Khajurao art proves that
not only women but men also adorned themselves with jewelry, scents and
cosmetics. Ancient scriptures like Abhijnana Shakuntalam and Meghadootam of
Kalidasa and many mythological epics encompass the reference of cosmetic
like; Tilak, Kajal, Agarw (Aqvilarie agulbeha) and Ubatan (wheat floor oat and
turmeric paste) were used as body decorative and to create beauty spots on
2 ~ CHAPTER t]
the chin and cheeks in the era ruled by gods and their deities. Enscripted in
history of the Aryan period also witnessed the use of turmeric-haridra (Curcuma
tonga Linn), saffron, alkanet, agaru chlorophyll green from nettle and plants and
indigos for bodily-decorations apart from using raktachandan (Pterocarpus
santalinus Linn), chandan ( Santalnm album), henna (Lawsonia inermis) for skin
and hairs dying in different color and conditioning were practiced in the olden
times. The origin of cosmetics as recorded the use of cosmetics is attributed to
Egyptians, in 4000 BC. The ancient Sumerians, Babylonians, and Hebrews
(Yahudiees) also applied cosmetics. The Neolithic age ended in Egypt in about
4000 BC. and copper working with the discovery of tin used to harden it, this led
to the bronze age, evidenced by the implements found: combs, hair pins,
tweezers and small clamp like instruments believed to be curling tongs, and
beautifully made spoons and ladels. As early as ten thousand B.C., Egyptians
men and women used scented oils and creams to clean, soften their skin and
mask the body odor. Dyes and paints were used to color the skin and hairs. A
plant that has been used in ancient Egypt much today it is known as henna.
The pungent odour of the flowers was probably used to perfume oils and
ointments. In modern times in the Eastern countries, the heena leaves are used
to redden the nails, the palms of the hands and soles of the feet 3.
This seems to have the fashion in ancient Egypt as the mummies are similarly
stained. In religious processions in ancient Egypt there was always a lavish use
of perfumes and no any king was ever crowned without being anointed with
fragrant oils by priests4•
3 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
In earlier times the women painted the undersides of their eyes with green
colour made from malachite, a copper carbonate ore, and the lids, lashes and
eyebrows were painted black with khol. These powders were pulverized on
stone or metal plates and the powder applied to the eyes by a finger dipped in
water5.
Indian women have rouged their faces hands, palm, cheeks with clay and
fingers, palm and hairs stain with henna paste. They painted their body parts
with sign of sun, moon, flowers, stars and birds by using natural paints. The
paste of henna is being applied several times by every strata of Indian
population for the purposes of staining to improve the beauty on each festival
and occasion.
There were plant oils from sesame seeds, croton, saffron, pumpkin seeds,
linseeds and olives. Animal fats were obtained from cows, sheep and goats,
were used to cure baldness and other skin disorders6• Oil baths perfumed with
sandal wood and floral extracts since times were considered to be a skin tonic,
and physically and mentally refreshing. Stem baths were popular where the
bather sits besides the tub of boiling water in to which neam leaves have been
thrown, under an all- enveloping blankef.
India had a medical code since 1000 B.C., in the Ayurveda and used the native
raw materials in medicines as well as domestic cosmetic preparations with
religious rites for decorative as well as other body ailments benefit.
The ancient civilization in India, China, Greece and Egypt had rich knowledge
of the utility of medicinal and cosmetically active plants. In modem times, the
utility of medicinal and cosmetically active plants declined with the advent of
4 ~ CIIAPTERl 1
synthetic substances, e.g. shampoos contain antibacterial and antidandruff
components, coloring effects can be seen drastically by using the synthetic
dying process, which effects can be seen directly by acute changing in the
biological system But now again time came to explore the natural flora as
cosmetic ingredients with more and long-term effects with reduced side effects.
Now each and every event of cosmetic application reflects real picture as
pharmacological and physiological effects associated with plants and
extractives.
In our routine life, we use many cosmetic preparations without accessing quality
of product, but now in present scenario consumer demands quality, efficacy
and safety of cosmetic products. Such requirements of cosmetic products are
satisfied country wise, therefore every country obeys own definitions of
cosmetics products.
1.2 Definitions
According USFDC 1938, a cosmetic is defined as an article intended to be
rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed on, introduced in to, or otherwise applied
to the human body or any part thereof for cleansing, beautifying, promoting
attractiveness, or altering the appearance without effecting the structure and
function8• It is noteworthy that in this definition the cosmetic is not allowed to
have any activity, means without effecting the structure and function.
This definition was revaluated and described by the European council
directive (2) and defined A "cosmetic product" shall mean any substance or
preparation intended to be placed in contact with the various external part of
human body epidermis, hair system, nail, lips and external genital organs or
5 ~ CHAPTER l 1
with the teeth and the mucous membrane of the oral cavity with a view
exclusively or mainly to cleaning them, perfuming them, changing their
appearance and! or correcting body odour and! or protecting them and keeping
them in good condition.
European cosmetics directive (Article ?a) describe the product information
requirement, it is stated that proof of effect should be included. In the United
state, on the other hand, a product would be regarded as a drug if proof of
effect is mentioned9•
Pharmaceutical affairs law of Japan define cosmetic with slight difference
from the definition of the Europe. Both definitions allow cosmetics to have mild
activity. Japanese definition are as The term cosmetic means any article
intended to be used by means of rubbing, sprinkling or by similar application to
the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness and
altering appearance of the human body, and for keeping the skin and hair
healthy, provided that the action of the article on the human body is mi/d. 10•
A current definition of cosmeceuticals covers all formulations "that will achieve
cosmetic results by mean of some degree of physiological action" and known
as quasi drug11•
The Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act USA defines cosmetics by their intended
use, as articles intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed on,
introduced into, or otherwise applied to the human body for cleansing,
beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance. Among the
products included in this definition are skin moisturizers, perfumes, lipsticks,
fingernail polishes. eye, and facial makeup preparations, shampoos, permanent
6 ~ CIIAPfER 1 1
waves, hair colors, toothpastes, and deodorants, as well as any material
intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product12•
In the series of cosmetics the herbal cosmetics comes in the sequence of
definitions according to Saudi Arabia, Ministry of health "Herbal cosmetic
preparations are as a product prepared for therapeutic and prophylactic use,
the active ingredients of which are of plant origin"12•
In India the defination of cosmetic was reevaluated and described by the Drug
and Cosmetic act 1948. "Any article intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled or
sprayed on, or introduced into, or other wise applied to the human body or any
part thereof cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the
appearance and includes any article intended for use as a component of
cosmetic"
According to the official definitions given by different countries, it has been clear
that all such cosmetic preparations can be broadly classified as two types
• Synthetic cosmetics
• Natural cosmetics
Synthetic cosmetics are the products, which are made by use of synthetic
ingredients including active materials. Synthetic colorants, treated pigments,
synthetic softeners, sun screeners, whiteners, foamier etc. are widely used to
make elegancy of formulations.
Natural cosmetics are designed by using natural ingredients as base or as
natural active materials. Natural cosmetics are being used since ancient time in
different forms or some time direct usable forms e.g. mucilaginous form of Aloe
vera and ordinary extracts of Pterocarpus santa/urn, Curcuma longa, and
7 ~ CHAPTER 1 ,
pastes made up of oat meal floor were widely used for smoothening, protection,
cooling, rejuvenations for the cuts and burns of the skin. Oils and plant
extractives are mostly used to maintain the viscoelastic properties of skin in
different mode of applications like lepas, message oils etc.
1.3. Skin and Cosmetics
New insights about the function of the skin as well as the development of new
formulations for skin care make it necessary to redefine the definitions of
cosmetics and drugs. Skin structure and physiology has provided evidence that
even small changes in environment (temperature, humidity, dusty air) can
modify the functioning and activity of skin.
Cosmeceuticals being integral content of cosmetic preparations having
medicinal or drug-like benefits are able to affect the biological functioning of
skin as properties of functional ingredients. So many skin-care products that go
beyond decorating the skin these improve the functioning texture of the skin via
encouraging collagen growth by combating harmful effects of endogenous free
radicals. Thus, maintaining keratin structure in good condition and making the
skin healthier 13'15
.
In the formulation design, initially ingredients knowledge is required because
cosmetic ingredients influences the primarily quality and efficacy of any
cosmetic formulation.
Fundamentally there may be two incompatibilities occur due to ingredients
i.e.intolerance and toxic reactions. Toxic reactions are passive damage to
organism caused by the action of some poison or toxic materials. When toxic
materials applied to the skin are called caustic or primary irritant and the effects
8 ~ CHAPTERl 1
called primary irritation. Such irritation reactions depends not only chemical
nature of compinents but also on its applied concentrations and duration of
contact. These irritation reactions reflect the nature of skin, either allergic or
nonallergic.
It is comparatively easy to avoid primary irritant effects of cosmetic ingredients
because irritant substances are generally known. But in case of new substance,
it irritant effects can be easily determined by using patch tests. It is never
possible to guarantee that any formulation will be perfectly free from
allergenous effects.
Even if a formulation has been made with nothing but basic materials of proved
compatibility, it cannot necessarily to assume quite safe formulation. Because
there is always possibility that two ingredients, both of which are safe in alone
concentration, can cause an irritation when combined14• The skin reacts to
external conditions such as heat, sunlight, smoke, dust, gases and other
radiations. Skin secretes several different kinds of substances i.e. endogenous
waste materials as toxins, secrete metabolic waste materials that is result of
poor diet, poor digestion, infection, illness, and pharmaceutical drugs inform of
sweat to maintain its texture. It also secretes sebum in order to protect the skin
from dryness in hot environment. The sebum and sweat composition affect the
quality and texture of our skin sometimes positively and sometimes negatively.
To maintain healthy nature of skin, cosmetic preparations play an important role
via direct application to site of action.
9 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
Cosmetic preparations affects the moisture content of the corneal layer (upper
layer), which directly influence the mechanical, electrical and optical properties
of the skin 15•
1.3.1 Structure and Anatomy of skin
In adults, the skin covers an area of about two square meters and weights
about four to five kilograms. It ranges in thickness from 0.5 - 4 mm.
cosmetically, the skin structure consists of two main parts. The superficial
thinner portion, which is composed of epithelial tissues, is the epidermis. The
deeper, thicker connective tissue part is the dermis.
The epidermis is the outer most layer of skin, which consists of five sub-layers,
which are progressively more compressed and horny as they approach the
surface, many small nerve endings and no blood vessels (Figure 1 F-1 & 1 F-2).
1.3.1.1 Epidermis
The epidermis is keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. It contains four
standard types of cells that are more responsible compare to anatomy of skin
for cosmetic formulations.
• Keratinocytes
• Melanocytes
• Langerhans
• Merkel
About 90% cells are keratinocytes, which are arranged in four layers and
produced the protein keratin. Keratin is tough, fibrous protein that helps to
protect the skin and underlying tissues from heat, microbes and chemicals.
10 ~ CIIAI"fER 1 1
Keratinocytes also produces lamellar granules that release a water repellent
sealant.
About 8% of the epidermal cells are melanocytes that produce the pigment
melanin. It is a brown black pigment that contributes to skin color and absorbs
damaging ultraviolet light.
Langerhans cells arise from red bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis
where they constitute a small fraction of the epidermal cells. They participate in
immune responses mounted against microbes that invade the skin and are
easily damaged by UV light.
Merkel cells are the least numerous of the epidermal cells. These are located in
the deepest layer of the epidermis where they contact the flattened process of
sensory neurons known as tactile. Merkel cells detect tactile aspects of different
touch sensations.
The anatomy of skin accounts five sub layers of epidermis.
Stratum corneum
The upper layer called the stratum corneum is composed of twenty five to thirty
layers of flattened dead keratinocytes. These cells are continuously shed and
replaced by cells from the deeper strata. The interior of the cells contains
mostly keratin. Between the cells are lipids from lamellar granules that help to
make this layer an effective water repellent barrier. Constant exposure of skin
to friction and UV light stimulates the formation of a callus, an abnormal
thickening of the stratum corneum.
11 ~ CHAPTERl 1
Stratum Lucidum
It is present only in the thick skin of the fingertips, palms and soles. It consists
of three to five layers of flattened clear and dead keratinocytes that contain
large amount of keratin and thickened plasma membrane.
Stratum Granulosum
It consists of three to five layers of flattened keratinocytes that are undergoing
apoptosis (an orderly genetically programmed cell death in which the nucleus
fragments before and cell die). A distinctive feature of these cells in this layer is
the presence of darkly staining granules of a protein called keratohyalin which
converts the tonofilaments into keratin. A membrane enclosed lamellar granules
keratinocytes are also present which secrete lipid rich secration. This secretion
fills the spaces between cells of the stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum and
stratum corneum. Lipid rich secretion acts as a water replent and retard loss of
body fluid and entry of foreign materials.
Stratum Spinosum
Superficial to the stratum basale is the stratum spinosum where eight to ten
layers of many sided keratinocytes fit closely together. Cells in the more
superficial portion of this layer become flattened. This provides strength and
flexibility to the skin. Langerhans and melanocytes also appeared in this
stratum.
Stratum Basale
This is the deepest layer of the epidermis composed of a single row of cuboidal
or columnar keratinocytes. Some cells in this layer are stem cells that undergo
cell division to continually produce new keratinocytes.
12 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
1.3.1.2 Dermis
The dermis lies between the epidermis and subcutaneous fat, it is responsible
for the thickness of the skin. It plays the key role in the cosmetic appearance.
The thickness of the dermis varies over different parts of the body and doubles
between the age of three and seven years and again at puberity (Leslie). With
aging, this basic layer decreases in thickness and moisture. It is composed of
the connective tissues containing collagens and elastic fibers16. The few cells
present in the dermis include fibroblast, macrophases, and some adipocytes.
Blood vessels, nerves, sweat and sebaceous glands and hair follicles are
embedded in dermal tissues. Collagen, one of the strongest and natural
proteins yields the durability and resilience characteristics of the skin. The
importance of the collagen is emphasized in the literaure regarding many of the
topical agents that claim to increase collagen synthsis such as glycolic acid,
ascorbic acid. Type I collagen comprises 80-85% of the dermal matrix and is
responsible for the tensile strength of the dermis. Elastin fibres are also found
at the periphery of the collagen bundles and endow the skin with recoil
properties. These fibres are assembled on bundles of microfibrils composed of
fibrillin which is a form of a template on which elastin is deposited. The optimum
level of sun exposure, elastin is degrade and seen as an amorphous substance
in the dermis. This resultant elastosis is a hallmark of the photoaged skin17•
It is responsible for the skin's pliability and mechanical properties and is
involved in the regulation of the body temperature. The dermis supplies the
nutrients to epidermis by means of its vascular network. It contains sense
organs for touch, pressure, pain and temperature (Meissner"s corpuscles,
I
13 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
Pacinian corpuscles, free nerve endings} as well as blood vessels, nerve fibres,
sebaceous and sweat glands and hair follicles.
Subc.riBrutous rayar
r-;::;;;;J::;;;:;;::=== B,.~al coli ! SQ""'"<>""' cell Horny t&y<or
He.lf toi\\Cie
oendrlttc: cells
Melanoq•tes
MeiSSner· a CO(I)UGCUIO!I
J-11'-J--+- l;;et>aceous (llanos
"""Q,j"'!-- Arrector pili muscle
B\O<>d """&-a\11
~~~~!~~ Sw".slglands Free nerve endongs
L)llllPha!rC channels
Nerve fibres
Figure 1 F-1: General structure of skin
Figure 1F-2: Cellular structure of skin
Blood vessels
These are tiny pipes through which blood circulates. The blood vessels supply
the skin with fresh blood, which contain nutrients and oxygen, and carry away
waste products.
14 ~ CIL\PTER 1 1
Meissner's corpuscle
These touch receptors are expecially effective in detecting light touch and soft,
fleeting movements.
Pacinian corpuscles
Pacinian corpuscles function as receptors for deep pressure and vibrations.
Free nerve endings
Free nerve endings are sensitive to pain, temperature changes and itchiness
and they forwards the information's to counterbalance the reflex activities.
Sebaceous glands
Sebaceous or oil glands are small, sacculated organs that secrete sebum. This
oily substance is a natural moisturizer, which conditions the hair and skin.
Sebaceos glands are found all over the body, but they are more numerous in
the scalp area and around the forehead, chin, cheeks and nose.
Sweat glands
These are sweat-producing structures consisting of a single tube, a coiled body
and a superficial duct. They are involved in thermoregulation as they cool the
skin by sweating.
Hair follicles
Hair follicles are downward growth into the dermis of epidermal tissue and
produce hair. They are found all over the body except on the palms of the
hands and soles of the feet as well as on the lips. When the body gets cold, the
hair stands upright with the help of the arrector pili muscle, closing up the skin's
pores and keeping the warmth in.
15 ~ CI!APTER 1 1
Arrector pili muscle
This small muscle is attached to the base of the follicle. When it is stimulated by
cold or fright, it pulls the hair follicle up, causing it to stand upright.
Glands
Several kinds of exocrine glands are associated with the skin e.g. sebaceous
(oil) gland, sudoriferous (sweat) gland and ceruminous glands. Sebaceous
glands are especially abundant in the scalp and face, and on the face they are
more abundant on the nose, cheeks, forehead and chin than other areas.
These glands are small, sacculated, glandular organs, lodged in the substance
of the dermis. Each gland has a single duct, which typically opens into a hair
follicle, but also along the free margin of the lips. On the nose and face the
glands are of large size and often become much enlarged from the
accumulation of pent-up secretion 18•19
.
Sebum is produced in the sebaceous glands and secreted through the
sebaceous ducts into the hair follicles, from which it ascends to the skin
surface. The flows of sebum carry dead skin cells with it that flake off from the
inside of the duct or follicle. The composition of sebum is given in table 1T-1.
Table1T-1: Composition of sebum
Composition Percentage
Ceramides 13
Fatty acids 47
Cholestrol 7
Cholestrol esters 2
Squalene 11
Tnglycerides 3
Waw. esters 17
16 ~ CIL\I"TER 1 1
Sebum protects the skin by reducing the evaporation of water from the skin
(dehydration) and blocking the penetration of excess water into the skin.
Cholesterol, ceramides and triglycerides in sebum also aid in the healing of the
skin tissue and prevent foreign organisms from infecting the skin18.
Environmental conditions, such as a cold, dry, wind and topical chemicals can
reduce sebum's protectiveness20•
Typically, sebaceous glands are more active in young condition. The lipid film
present on the surface of the skin is composed of both sebum and the lipids of
the epidermal cells. The composition of the epidermal lipids is briefed in Table
1T -2. Pores are the openings in the epidermis for the hair follicles. Pore size is
related to sebaceous gland size. Pores enlarge to accommodate greater oil
flow. Often acne clears up because the pores enlarge enough so that the
sebum no longer gets stuck there.
Table1T -2: Composition of epidermal lipids
Composition Percentage
Triglycertdes 47.8
Free fatty acids 3.0
Phospholipids 9.7
Waxes 4.0
Squalene 3.0
Hydrocarbons 10.0
Free cholestrol 7.4
Fasting acting sterols 0.4
Cholesteryl esters 3.0
Unidentified 11.7
17 ~ CIIAYI'ER 1 1
1.3.1.3 Subcutaneous layer
The subcutaneous layer below the dermis consists of loose connective tissue
and much fat. It acts as a protective cushion and helps to insulate the body by
monitoring gain and loss of heat. Not all authors consider this layer a part of the
skin, but it definitely has a strong impact on the way the skin looks.
1.3.2 Composition
The most characteristics features of stratum corneum lipid composition are its
heterogeneity, dominant presence of saturated chemical species, extensive
amounts of cholesterol and complexity in ceramides chemistry. Ceramides
constitute 47%, cholesterol 24%, fatty acids 11% and cholesterol esters 18%
21• Cholestrol has an important role to play in the lipid mixtures, as it can
increases the chain mobility of lipids in the gel state and decrease their mobility
in the liquid crystalline state, a property likely to be important for barrier function
during processing of glucosylceramides to ceramides in the lower and upper
regions of the stratum corneum22• Cholestrol sulphate is another intercellular
lipid that is believed to be hydrolysing in the surface layers of the stratum
corneum 23. These types of compositional changes could therefore dramatically
influence the conditions of the skin. The lipid packing states might not only
influence the barrier properties of the skin but also its desquamation22•
1.3.2.1 Sweat glands
There are three to four million sweat bearing glands. The cells of sweat glands
release their secretion by exocytosis and empty them into hair follicles or onto
the skin surface through pores. They are divided in to two main types, ecrine
and apocrine, based on their structure, location, and type of secretions~. The
18 ~ CHAPTERt]
gland consists of a single tube, the lower part of which is coiled into a ball, and
the upper part, or duct, which traverses the dermis and cuticle and opens onto
the surface of the skin. Their primary function is to regulate body temperature,
but they also eliminate toxic substances and waste products. The clear
perspiration they continually secrete is mostly water with traces of salt,
carbohydrates, protein and oil; it cools the body as it evaporates. Eccrine sweat
usually does not have an odor problem. Apocrine sweat glands are
concentrated in the underarm area, around the nipples, and in the genital area.
They are stimulated by the same hormones that cause hair growth in the
underarms and genital area. They secrete milky fluid which is rich in organic
material. This subjected to bacterial decay and is the primary cause of body
odor24.
Compositions of sweat
Sweat mainly consists of secretions of the ecrine glands. It is the most dilute of
all animals' fluids. The human sweat has specific gravity of about 1.001-1.006,
pH 3.8-6.5 and the average compositions is as given in Table 1T- 3. The only
conspicious constituents is NaCI, which varies between 0.2- 0.5 percent.
19 ~ CIL\PTER 1 1
1.3-2.2 Tissues
Table 1T -3: Composition of sweat
Content
Water
Solids
Ash
Creatinme
Urea
Lactic acid
Carbolic acid
Sugar as glucose
Uric acid
Ascorbic acid
Total nitrogen
Non protein nitrogen
Amino acid
Ammonia
Urea
Calcium
Iodine
Iron
Chloride,Sodium,Potassium, Sulphur, Copper
Total amino acids
. g or mg. per 100m!. .
99.22-99.74 g
1.174-1.1589
0.14- 0.56g
0.1 -1.3mg
12-57mg
285-336 mg
2-8 mg
1-3 mg
0.07- 0.25mg
0.07-0.1 mg
33.2 mg
27-64mg
1.1 -10.2mg
5-9mg
5-36 mg
1-8 mg
0.0005 - 0.001 mg
0.022-0.045 mg
0.7-36 mg
43.62 mg
In the skin, connective tissue is chiefly composed of collagen and elastin.
Collagen, elastin and reticulin are dermal proteins; they are composed of
protein fibers. These fibers are, at the macromolecular level, composed of fine
cross-striated fibrils of mucopolysaccharides linked with protein. Collagen,
elastin, and reticulin are composed of the 20 amino acids in differing
proportions. Collagen alone comprises 33% of the total body protein and 70%
of connective tissue. In the denmis it provides elasticity and strength.
20 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
Smooth, elastic skin contains mainly non-crosslinked, flexible, "soluble"
collagen. Lined, wrinkled, inelastic skin is caused by crosslinked, insoluble
collagen. Collagen is called soluble when it can absorb large quantities of
water, which allows it to remain elastic. Cross linking occurs when the sulfur
containing amino acids in protein oxidize and form a disulfide bond. Cross
linking also affects all the other components of connective tissue.
There is a close association between the skin and the nervous system;
nervousness or anxiety can be reflected in the skin, especially as acne,
psoriasis, and eczema.
1.3.3 Properties of skin
Skin has varity of properties that directly and indirectly influences the
appearance of the skin. Color, pH, firmness, emmolliency, elasticity are the
dominating properties of skin which are influenced by aging of skin either
intrinsic or extrinsic25•
1.3.3.1 Color
The skin color is not solely depends on the pigments, it is associated with other
components and factors i.e. blood flow, micro and macro nutrients availability,
oxygen availability, thickned skin, eleidin etc. The pigments are more especially
distinct in the cells of the stratum basale (lowest level). As cells approach the
surface and desiccate, the color becomes partially lost. The pigment (melanin)
consists of dark brown or black granules of very small size, closely packed
together within the cells, but not involving the nucleus 26• The color of skin is
determined by a number of factors27•
• The amount of melanin pigments in the epidermis.
21 ~ CHAPTER1 1
• The amount of carotene in the epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous
tissues.
• The proportion of reflected and scattered light.
• The amount of blood in the dermal and subcutaneous blood vessels.
In the normal skin the brown lelanin granules are contained predominantly in a
supranuclear cap in the bassel cell (previously discussed) and to a lesser
extent in other epidermal cells. The blood vessels contributes role in skin color
reflexation due to the superficial venous plexux, which runs parallel to the skin
surface. The shade of skin also depends on the reddish or bluish appearance
produced by oxidized or reduced hemoglobin in varying ratios in the skin
vessels28. The varying ratio of oxidized and reduced form depends in turn on
the rate of blood flow through the skin. A bluish tint of skin indicates the lack of
oxygen or shortage of cell respiration, mostly seen with aged cells. At more
rapid flow rate, more of the oxidized hemoglobin from the arteries, which
reaches to the augmentory system, thus appearance of skin is reflect reddish29•
1.3.3.2 Acid mental
The acidity of skin seems to play a role in the defence against microorganisms
either bacteria or fungai. The acid mental of the skin depends on pH values,
which shows that the general body surface of the adult has a pH of 3.0-5.0. The
alkaline area of body becomes more sensitive to infections and microbial attack
like streptococci. The reconstitution of the acid pH after exposure to alkaline
materials (soap materials) forms an important defence against cheminals or
adverse pH to skin buffer. The skin physiology provides the natural buffer
system to the skin, which maintained the skin pH in adverse conditions30•
22 ~ CI!API"ER 1 1
A temporary treatement of the skin with alkaline formula results in only slight
shift of the pH values. The moment alkaline formula is removed from skin the
normal pH of skin re-established. The overall mainmtainance (re-establishment
of pH) of skin buffer is found as acid mental of skin. The pH values represent
the presence of water-soluble components on the skin surface. Prolonged
immersion of the skin in water results in the extraction of water soluble
substances from the surface and from the loosely packed harney layer, so at
this condition the the buffering capacity of the skin became greately reduced31•
1.3.3.3 Breathing
The disposal of carbon dioxide also occurs mostly through the blood and only to
a small degree into the surrounding atmoshphere. The direct breathing of skin
is restricted, even though certain amount of respiratory oxygen taken directly
from the atmosphere28•
1.3.3.4 Hydroregulatory balance
The skin has very limited water permeability. The barrier that controls the
escape of moisture from and penetration in to body does not lie immediately on
the skin surface, but below the corneal layer (Rein's barrier). When the corneal
layer dries out, it becomes brittle and will not regain its elasticity through only
fatty sunstance but only through the supply of water.
1.3.3.5 Emmolliency
Prevention of drying of skin is called emolliency or moisturizing skin.
Moisturizers are expected to increase skin hydration and via modifying the
physical and chemical nature of the skin surface provides the smoothness,
softness and flexibility or pliability of the skin 32.33
•
23 ~ CUAPTERl 1
1.3.3.6 Luster
The surface character (luster) of the skin also plays important role in skin
properties. This depends on site-to-site and avilabilty of the gland secretory
material and hairs availability, e.g. fore head, nose tends most shine as
compared to upper and lower limbs.
1.3.3. 7 Texture
Skin morphological characterics can be sense be sensory and tectile means,
texure may be smooth and rough. Healthy and nutritional skin texture is always
smooth with good emmoliency.
1.3.3.8 Firmness and Extensibility
Addition changes in skin behavior resulting from the aging process are losses
of firmness and elasticity. Looseness in skin firmness is usually accompanied
by loss of skin elasticity. Firmness is the skin ability to resist deformation and
elasticity is the rate at which a specific deformation is resolved34"35
•
1.3.3.9 Wrinkles and Folds
The loss of the elasticity into the skin's upper layer (corneum) appears the
wrinkles and folds primarily. The constantly forming of folds leave traces on the
skin and finally develop in to deep lines and wrinkles. The fine lines do not
present a cosmetic problem, but the skin pores are another matter, when these
porese swell or distend and becomes visible to naked eyes33• The skin not just
only gives us our appearance and shape, it also serves other important
functions as:
24 ~ CJIAPTER 1 1
Protection
Stratum corneum, which is the outermost layer, is horny and formed by the
keratinized stratified epithelial cells, resists the action of external agencies.
Skin is a shield that protects from:
• Mechanical impact such as pressure and stroke.
• Thermic impact such as heat or cold.
• Environmental impact such as chemicals, UV-radiation and bacteria.
Regulation of body temperature
The skin regulates body temperature and the production of sweat, which
evaporates on the skin surface, will cool down the temperature. The cutaneous
vasoconstriction diverts the blood to the interior of the body and so diminishes
heat loss. This is an important mechanism of protection against cold
environment. Vasodilatation in the skin also helps in elimination of heat from the
body and regulates the body temperature36•
Sensation
Besides the senses of smell, taste, sight and hearing the sense of touch is one
most important sense of body. The skin serves as the medium for receiving the
general sensation. Touch, pain, temperature etc., are sub served by the
respective nerve ending present in the skin. The hair roots are richly supplied
with nerves. Various cells and nerve endings in the skin, which send impulses
to our central nervous system, and made it sense possible.
Synthetic function
Vitamin D is synthesized by ultra-violet rays of the sun acting upon the
ergosterol present in the skin and subcutaneous tissue.
25 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
I
Absorption
Lipids are easily permeable through the skin. Lipid soluble substances like
vitamins are easily absorbed through the skin but hydrophilic substances are
absorbed at some limit. Waxy layer hinders water absorption through the skin.
But the skin is not completely waterproof and on prolonged exposure to water,
there is water absorption causing swelling of the stratum corneum.
The skin absorbs different nutrients and other micromolecules out of them
certain substances penetrate the epidermal and dermal layers and are
subsequently absorbed into the systemic circulation: their path is through the
hair follicles and the sebaceous glands. These substances provide the nutrition
to the skin and maintained the normal physiology against the different kind of
environmental hazards. Other substances seem to penetrate the interstitial
spaces (the gaps between the cells of the skin). Some substances are effective
carrying agents, which, when combined with other cosmetic ingredients, enable
the latter to better penetrate the skin's surface and helpful to maintain the
normal skin physiology 37•
All these functions of skin reflect properties of skin that helps a cosmetic
scientist to formulate and evaluate a cosmetic product.
1.3.4 Types of Skin
Different geographical-racial groups of people can have different skin
characteristics. These characteristics based on the variations in physiology of
skin and alterations in the structural components of the skin. These variations
are affected by the climatic conditions. For instance, the Mongols have thick
26 ~ CHAPTER I 1
skin with fewer pores, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands, and the nerve
endings are farther from the surface than the skin of caucasians.
1.3.4.1 General Classifications
The skin can be classified in different ways accordingly to the susceptibility of
individual to environmental conditions. In broad skin could be considered as
normal and abnormal.
The skin often describes as oily, normal, dry, combination, sensitive, acne-
prone, and mature, but what it really is balanced (normal), unbalanced (oily,
dry, combination, acne), and damaged (wrinkled, lined, etc.).
Normal skin is usually defined as skin that is neither oily nor dry. It produces
enough oil to prevent dehydration but not enough to thickly coat the skin. It is
the optimal condition for skin.
1.3.4.2 Physiologically based classification
Normal skin
Normal skin has an even tone, soft, a smooth texture, no visible pores or
blemishes, and no greasy patches or flaky areas. This type of skin has a clear,
fine-textured, supple and smooth surface, which is neither greasy nor dry. It
glows with an inner health, which stems from good blood circulation and
excellent health. There may be occasional pimples in women just before
menstruation due to increased hormonal activity, which makes the sebaceous
glands overactive. Acne is, however, not a problem for people with normal
27 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
Oily skin
Oily skin is shiny, thick and dull colored. Often a chronically oily skin has coarse
pores and pimples and other embarrassing blemishes. It is prone to
blackheads. In this type of skin, the oil producing sebaceous glands are
overactive and produce more oil than is needed. The oil oozes and gives the
skin a greasy shine. The pores are enlarged and the skin has a coarse look.
Dry skin
Dry skin has a low level of sebum and can be prone to sensitivity. The skin has
a parched look caused by its inability to retain moisture. It usually feels "tight"
and uncomfortable after washing unless some type of moisturizer or skin cream
is applied. Chapping and cracking are signs of extremely dry or dehydrated
skin39• Dryness is exacerbated by wind, extremes of temperature and air
conditioning, all of which cause the skin to flake, chap and feel tight. This type
of skin is tightly drawn over bones. It looks dull, especially on the cheeks and
around the eyes. There may be tiny expression lines on these spots and at the
corners of the mouth.
Sensitive skin
A sensitive skin is a thin or a fine-textured skin. It reacts quickly to both heat
and cold; therefore, it sunburns and windburns easily. It is commonly dry,
delicate and prone to allergic reactions. Temperature changes, some
detergents, cosmetics and alcohol (used on the skin) can all cause irritation,
leaving the skin red and blotchy, with visible surface veins40•
28 ~ CIW'TERl,
Combination skin
Combination skin is a combination of both oily and dry skin. There is a greasy
center panel consisting of nose, forehead and chin and a dry panel consisting
of cheeks, mouth and the areas around the eyes. This type of skin is very
common, and it should be treated as if it were two different types of skin.
Acne-prone skin
Acne-prone skin is prone to one or more of the forms of acne. Acne-prone skin
usually has at least one "spot", although it can experience brief intervals of no
spots. It is usually also oily skin. Acne often begins when a person enters
puberty; it is thought to be a response to the hormones that are activated at that
time. It can extend into the late 40s and even beyond41•
1.3.4.3 Photosensitive classification
The photosensitive skin is classified into six categories e.g., always burn, easily
burn, some time burn and moderately burn etc. The sensitivity to sun light (UV
rays) and required sun protection factor (SPF) and detailed in table 1T-4.
Table 1T -4: Characteristics of photosensitive skin
Type Characteristics Examples Suggested SPF
A'mays burn easily, never tans Blue eyes, red hairs 15
II Bum easily, tan slightly Faired skinned 12-15
Ill Some time bum. tan gradually Most Caucasians (Pale color
8-10 skinned)
IV Bum minimally, Always tanned Asians and Hispanics (Spanish) 6-8
v Bum rarely, Tan deeply Indians 6-8
VI Almost never bum, deeply pigmented Blacks 6-8
29 ~ CIIAP'fER 1 1
1.3.5 Ageing of Skin
Aging of skin is commonly associated with increased wrinkling, sagging and
increased laxity. There are two main process of skin aging: intrinsic and
extrinsic. Intrinsic aging reflects the genetic background of an individual and
results from the passes of time. It is inevitable; thus, it is beyond voluntary
control. Extrinsic aging is caused by external factors such as smoking,
excessive use of alcohol, poor nutrition and sun exposure. This process then is
not predictable and, by, definition refers to pre mature skin aging42-4
3• However,
the vast majority of the skin's age related cosmetic problems are thought to be
as a result of cumulative exposure to sunlight.
In ageing, the skin becomes fewer firms, dry and more wrinkled, because of the
decrease level in the amount of mucopolysaccharides, collagens and elastin.
As well as the level of enzymes like sodium dismutase (SOD), catalase, and
vitamins like ascorbic acid and alpha tocopherol becomes declined. The
mitrochondrial theory of aging (MTA) was first proposed in 1972 by Denham
Harman, which supported the normal aging process. '
1.3.5.1 Natural and Intrinsic ageing
The process of intrinsic skin ageing is similar to that occurring in the most
internal organs, involving slow deterioration in tissue function. The stratum
corneum remains relatively unchanged, but the epidermis and dermis thins with
a flattening of the derma-epidermal junctions44• In natural process of skin
ageing, some changes occur abruptly in the physiology of sebaceous gland.
Glands became less active solely as a result of the lower level of circulating
30 ~ CHAPTER I J
androgens, or male sex hormones. Sweat glands become less active with age,
and the number of active eccrine glands is reduced.
Intrinsic ageing, also known as the natural aging process, is a continuous
process that normally begins in mid-20Yrs, the skin collagen production
became slows, and elastin, the substance that enables skin to snap back into
place, which has a bit less spring. Dead skin cells do not shed as quickly and
turnover of new skin cells may decrease slightly. While these changes usually
begin in twenty year, the signs of intrinsic ageing are typically not visible for
decades. The signs of intrinsic ageing are:
• Fine wrinkles
• Thin and transparent skin
• Loss of underlying fat, leading to hollowed cheeks and eye sockets as
well as noticeable loss of firmness on the hands and neck
• Bones shrink away from the skin due to bone loss, which causes sagging
skin
• Dry skin that may itch
• Inability to sweat sufficiently to cool the skin
• Graying hair that eventually turns white
• Hair loss
• Unwanted hair
1.3.5.2 Exagrated or Extrinsic ageing
A number of external factors act together with the normal aging process to
prematurely age our skin. Cigarette smoke; some topical chemicals like mineral
oil and coal tar dyes (common in makeup); allowing dead skin cells to pile up on
31 ~ CHAPTER I J
the skin; diet (caffeine beverages, alcohol, sweets, excessive red meat);
genetics heredity45. Premature aging is mostly caused by sun exposure over
the years, results in trickles, age - spots, spider veins on the face, rough and
leathery skin fine wrinkles that disappear when stretched, loose skin, a blotchy
and blemished complexion, actinic keratosis and skin cancers. Premature aging
of the human skin is result of a number of extrinsic, or external, factors often act
together with the normal aging process. Other external factors that prematurely
age our skin are repetitive facial expressions, gravity, sleeping positions, and
smoking.
• Sunburn and immune suppression occurs acutely in response to excessive
exposure to the sun, where as skin cancer and photoaging results from
accumulated damage caused by repeated exposure46•
• Skin cancer is the most prevalent form of cancer in humans typically occurs
in skin that is photoaged. Photoaged skin is characterized by wrinkles,
toxicity, uneven pigmentation, brown spots and leathery appearance, and
chronologically aged skin that have been protected from the sun47.
Photo aging
Mild sunburn is a first-degree radiation bum, which produces reddening of the
skin with accompanying pain. Generally, as the skin heals, redness may persist
and the outer layers of the epidermis will peel within a week with accompanying
itching. Prolonged exposure can result in a second-degree burn, which is
characterized by blistering of the skin and more severe pain48•
Ultraviolet rays are broadly divided into three sections according to their
wavelengths. Ultraviolet light is artificially divided into three ranges47•
32 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
UVA- Radiation in the 320-400 nm range.
UVB - Radiation in the 290-320 nm range.
UVC- Radiation in the 100-290 nm range.
UVC is totally blocked by the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere of the earth.
The ozone layer blocks some of the UVB and the entire UVA pass through the
ozone layer. Generally, UVB has been blamed for sunburn, but some studies
indicate that UVA may also cause skin damage.
The abundant literature was found, which describes the harmful effects of UV
radiations on the skin. The excessive exposure induces the extensive
generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and its reaction to DNA, proteins,
fatty acids and saccharides causing oxidative damage. Study suggests that
such injuries result in a number of harmful effects: disturbed cell metabolism,
morphological and ultrastructural changes, attack on the regulation pathways
and, alterations in the differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis of skin cells49•
50
A) Effects of UVB radiations
Solar UV radiation is the most important environmental factor involved in
the pathogenesis of skin cancers. These rays only have the strength to
penetrate the epidermis. The epidermis is the very top layer of the body
and the same thickness as a silk scarf. Melanocyte cells synthesize
tyrosinase and the pigment melanin that is transferred to the
keratinocytes or skin cells for color. UVB rays simulate the melanocyte
cell to produce more melanin, which is more color known as a suntan or
age spot5'. UVB radiations are the primary cause of sunburn because
33 ~ CHAPTER 1 J
of its shorter wavelength and Its effects on the outer skin layers. UVB
appear to damage skin cells by directly bombarding the genetic
materials, the DNA inside the skin cells. The well-known genotoxic
properties of UVB radiation (290-320 nm) mostly involve bipyrimidine
DNA photoproducts on UVB irradiation52. The bipyrimidine
photoproducts are generated in the DNA of human skin upon UVB
irradiation. The formation of photoproducts was found linear with respect
to the applied UVB dose (0-0.2 J/cm2)
53• The chronic effects of UV-B
radiation were found to be induced the biochemical changes in the skin
of mice with insufficient collagen fibers to support the increasing mass of
the tissue54.
B) Effects of UVA radiations
An UVA effect is initially seen through the epidermis then disperses in
the dermis. The dermis is dominantly affected by UV A radiations, and
slow down the normal renewing process itself in the middle age. Skin
after this age is considered "mature skin" and damages incurred are not
repairable.
UVA radiation is composed of longer wavelengths. These penetrate
more deeply and efficiently into the inner skin layers and are responsible
for tanning and allergic reactions to sunlight.
UVA radiation provokes the generation of reactive oxygen species
(ROS), which induce oxidative stress in the exposed cells leading to
extensive cellular damage and cell death either by apoptosis or
necrosis55.
34 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
Occurrence of skin cancers, which mostly arise from exposure to solar
UV radiation, has constantly increased in the recent years due to
changes in life habits. Harmful effects of UV radiation are mostly
associated with both direct and indirect photoinduced damage to DNA 53
(Cadet et al. 2005) that can lead to the induction of mutations. The
chemical nature and the formation efficiency of the DNA lesions greatly
depend on the wavelength of the incident photons. UVB radiation (290-
320 nm), the most energetic mutagenic and carcinogenic component of
solar radiation, is directly absorbed by DNA, giving rise to dimeric
photoproducts between adjacent pyrimidine bases. Two types of these
bulky modifications are produced, namely cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers
(CPDs) and pyrimidine (6-4 hydroxyl linkage) pyrimidone
photoproducts56. Evidence for the involvement of these lesions in
photocarcinogenesis is provided by the high proportion of p53 mutations
(TC to TT or CC to TT transitions) detected at bipyrimidine sites in skin
tumors52.57.ss.
UVA radiation of the range 32D-400 nm is mutagenic in cultured cells59
and induces skin tumors in mice. In addition, UVA has been shown to
be involved in immunosuppression60 and is suspected to play a major
role in the induction of melanoma54•
61, the most severe type of skin
cancers. Consequently, the carcinogenic properties of UVA have
become a matter of concern.
I
35 ~ CHAPTER 1 ,
Histopathological alterations
The immediate after exposure to a large influence of UV radiation, significantly
decreased the enzymic and non enzymic antioxidant capacity of the skin62• So
many studies showed the histologically alterations in collagen due to different
intensity of different wave length on skin exposure which become appeared as
wrinkling of skin63. The high UVA exposure produced greater skin atrophy and
fine wrinkles than the 1 MED solar stimulated UV treatment. These finding
revealed that damage to the dermal components is responsible for the clinical
manifestation of sagging and wrinkles64.
The effects of repetitive UV-A and UV-B irradiation on human showed marked "
pigmentation and thickening of the epidermis and inflammation, elastosis in the
The biochemical mechanisms responsible for the connective tissue changes
are seen in actinically sun damaged skin. Diminution and ultrastructural
alterations of collagen fibrils and deposition of elastotic material in the papillary
dermis characterize the actinic skin histologically. Such study suggests that
direct stimulation of collagenase synthesis by human skin fibroblasts by UVA
radiation may contribute to the connective tissue damage induced by ultraviolet
radiation leading to photoaging65•
The acute effects of a single exposure to near (UVA) above >320 nm on
various skin antioxidants were examined in hairless mice immediately after
irradiation. Impairment of cutaneous catalase and glutathione reductase activity
was observed. Superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase were not
significantly influenced, but found that inhibition of catalase may render skin
36 ~ CJlAI"fER 1 1
more susceptible to the damaging effects of hydrogen peroxide and its
reactions product such as the hydroxyl radical62. There was tangential (non
significant) decrease in cutaneous tocopherol ascorbic acid level, indicates
direct photo-oxidative stress.
The main damaging effects of UVA appear to be the promotions of the release
of oxidants (oxygen free radicals). These unstable particles are the results of
many chemical processes in the body66• Figure 1F-3 showed molecular
damaging mechanism of sunlight and natural healing pathway.
Ageing Mechanism
Skin tissues composed of proteins and are therefore major target for photo
oxidation with in cell. The direct photo oxidation arises from the absorption of
W radiation by the proteins. There by generating excited state species (sing let
or triplet) or radicals (as a result of photo ionization). The indirect photo
oxidation of proteins arises from the formation and subsequent reactions of
singlet oxygen generated by the transfer of energy to ground state (triplet)
molecular oxygen by either protein bound or chromophores.
Small amount of ultraviolet radiations trigger the negative effects on the skin
and damages the collagen fibers, which are the major structural proteins in the
skin and causes accumulation of abnormal elastic (this is the protein that
causes tissues to stretch). This accumulation leads to production of large
amounts of enzymes called metalloproteinases67•
These metaloproteinases degrades the collagen in extracellular matrix of the
dermis. Normal functions of these enzymes are generally positive to remodel
the sun-injured tissues by manufacturing and reforming collagen process.
37 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
The reforming collagen process causes an uneven formation (skin matrix) of
disorganized collagen fibers called solar scars and than this process recycled69•
The sign of skin aging reflects the condition of the skin matrix disarrangement.
The weaker and less regular the matrix, the more wrinkles, rung fries and sag
occur in skin.
The reactive oxygen species (ROS) can react with cellular components like cell
walls, lipid membranes, mitochondria and DNA, leading to skin damage and
increasing the visible signs of aging. Direct oxidation of amino acid, peptides
and proteins by ultraviolet light is only a significant process, if the structural
protein absorbs the incident light69•
In the whole process of skin ageing, the enzymes, which are critical moieties to
protect the skin from oxidation or oxidative stress the level of these enzymes
like sodium dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione, peroxidase etc. become
less 70. Therefore as people get older, they age faster and the body's ability to
protect itself is reduced. As the persons ages help can be given to supplement
natural defense systems by helping to protect the skin from the ravages of time
and environmental attack by formulating cosmetics containing safe protective
supplements.
Damage of skin cells results from photochemical reactions leads to the
stimulation of inflammatory pathways. UVB irradiations are considered the
major cause of typical sun bum, which starts to develop within a few hours.
So many studies suggest that such extrinsic damages results in a number of
harmful effects: disturbed cell metabolism, morphological and ultrastructural
changes, attack on the regulation pathways and, alterations in the
38 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis of skin cells. The extensive
generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and its reaction to DNA, proteins,
fatty acids and saccharides is one of the causes of oxidative damage. These
damages can be minimized using naturally occurring herbal ingredients such as
phenolic acids, flavonoids, and high molecular weight polyphenols, which could
be use to gained considerable attention as beneficial protective agents in skin
formulations70.
The acute effects of near UV and visible light on the cutaneous antioxidant
defense system were examined. After single exposure to near (UV-A) above
>320 nm on various skin antioxidants studied in hairless mice immediately after
irradiation. Impairment of cutaneous catalase and glutathione reductase activity
was observed. Superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase were not
significantly influenced, but found that inhibition of catalase may render skin
more susceptible to the damaging effects of hydrogen peroxide and its
reactions product such as the hydroxyl radical. There was tangential (non
significant) decrease in cutaneous tocopherol ascorbic acid level, indicates
direct photo-oxidative stress62•
There is increasing evidence that the incidence of the three main types of skin
cancers (Basal cell carcinoma, Gnamons cell carcinoma and malignant
melanoma) is linked to sun exposure, individual sun sensitivity and to some
extent to the history of sunburn.
1.4 Hair and cosmetics
Ebling and Johnson have shown how each hair follicle originates from an
interaction between epidermal and dermal layers of the skin. The hair follicle is
39 ~ CIL\PTER 1 1
a sheath of epidermal cells and connective tissue that encloses the root of the
Specific cells from the superficial dermis increase in number and grow forward
to form a "peg or hook". Beneath this are specialized fibroblasts which will
become the dermal papilla. Epidermal cells adjacent to the dermal papilla
multiply and push a column of keratinizing cells towards the scalp surface, and
these keratinizing cells become the hair shaft. The hair peg migrates
downwards to form the follicle with swellings appearing as the column
elongates. These are the sites of the erector pili muscles and sebaceous
glands. The hair follicle has one of the highest rates of cell division in the
human body and makes considerable demands on energy to sustain such
growth.
1.4.1 Structure
It is the nature of the hair shaft which is of primary interest. The outermost
structure is the cuticle which surrounds the cortex. It is composed of flat cells
which overlap in a roof tile formation with an intercellular cement to bind them
together. Each cell has an outer membrane and contained within the membrane
are three distinct layers, the A layer, the exocuticle and the endocuticle.
The hair is formed by the shaft and the piliferos bulb, the visible part of the hair
is the shaft has the diameter ranging between from 40-120 microns; it is made-
up of dead cells and completely keratinized. Three concentric layers form a
cross sectional section of hair:
• The cuticle (External part)
• Marrow (Core part)
40 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
• The Cortex (Actual structure)
The cuticle is the outermost layer made-up of flattend cells that overlap in the
forms of tiles and are 45 micron long with thickness 0.5-1.0 microns. The
medulla is the core of the hair and it is made-up of overlapping cells with a low
cellular density. It has a relative importance in comparision to two other parts of
the hairs, as it contributes in little way to its chemical and physical behaviors.
The medulla forms only a small proportion of the total fibre mass and
contributes very little to the mechanical and chemical properties of the hair. It
comprises a series of vacuoles or air spaces formed due to dehydration of the
loosely packed cells during the keratinization process.
The cortex comprises the majority of the fiber mass, consisting of elongated
keratinized cells bounds together with intercellular material. The cortex is
formed by the cells, which are 1-6 micron thick and 1 DO micron in length. The
cortex made-up for about 90% of total weight of hair fiber. The fiber is formed
by long twisted proteins chain, which gave its elasticity; the color pigments re
tucked among these proteins strands and protected against external agents like
sunlight, dust, humidity.
Melanins (natural color pigments) occur within the cortex. These are derived
from an aminoacid, tyrosine and are of two types, eumelanin and pheomelanin.
These pigments are formed by melanocytes situated in the pigmented part of
the hiar bulb and the outer sheath of the hair follicle. The eumelanin gives
brown to black coloration and the pheomelanin gives an auburn tone.
An outer hair cell is a self-supporting cylinder that is attached to adjacent
epithelial cells only at the extreme base and apex72"74
• Cell shape is maintained
41 ~ CHAPTER 1 ,
I
by cortical structures, particularly by the cortical lattice, a two dimensional
cytoskeleton that lies beneath the lateral plasma membrane. One interpretation
of the structure of this lattice is that it is an anisotropic network composed of
long, circumferential filaments, 6-7 nm thick, which are cross-linked by filaments
3-4 nm thick and 40-50 nm long75-77
. Neither of these filaments has been
identified although immunofluorescence labeling suggests that they may be
composed of actin and spectrin76• Another interpretation is that the cortical
lattice is based primarily upon the thin filaments linked together by short
fragments of aclin78, thus resembling the spectrin skeleton in erythrocytes79
-80
•
The cortex of outer hair cells is further specialised by a system of concentric
endoplasmic membranes that lies immediately beneath the cytoskeletal
lattice81•
1.4.2 Chemistry of hair
Hair fibres are composed of approximately 85% of the complex protein keratin,
with some 7% of associated water. The other principal constituents are lipids
3%, and pigment 2%. The pigments are melanin, dervived in biosynthesis from
the aminoacid tyrosine. The most important material is keratin which has been
formed biochemically from the condensation of some 18 types of amino acids.
Chemically it is composed of hains:
Carbon (50%), Oxygen (25%), (Hydrogen6.5%), (Nitrogen 7.0%) and Sulphur
(4.5%). Trace amounts of many metals such as aluminium (AI), chromium (Cr),
calcium (Ca), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg) and
zinc. Phosphorous compounds are also abundant (80mg/100gm hair), mainly
derived from degraded nuclei of the cortex cells.
42 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
I
1.4.3 Hair growth biology
Hair grows from primary follicles. Actively growing hair follicles penetrate the
entire epidermis and dermis. There are approximately 5 million total body body
hair follicles, of which 100,000 to 150,000 are scalp follicles. In adults, 90% of
the hair follicles are in the growing (anagen) stage and the remainder is in the
resting stage (telogen) stage. Follicular density decreases with age (1135/cm2
at birth to 485/cm2 at age of 30 years and till 80 years decreases to 435/ cm2).
Scalp hair grows at a rate of 0.37 to 0.44 mm/day and normal scalp hair loss or
sheding in adults ranges from 50 to 100 hairs per day82•
The growth of hair in human is controlled by complicated mechanisms that can
differ among various body locations. Morphologically, there are three types of
hair; vellus, terminal, and intermediate. Vellus hair are short, fine (<0.3mm in
diameter), soft and usually nonpigmented and unmedullated.
Terminal hairs are large (>0.3mm in diameter), dark pigmented and medullated.
Ninety percent of the hairs on the chest, trunk, shoulders, legs and arms of men
are terminal hairs, whereas only 45 percent of hairs in the same regions on
women's are terminal83. Intermediate hairs occur on the scalp and they
demonstrate morphology between those of terminal and vellus hairs.
Intermediate hairs are medullated and contain a moderate amount of pigment
i.e. less than that found in terminal hairs84•
1.4.4 Hair disorders
Alopecia
Androgenetic alopecia is the most common type of hair loss in human. Its
prevalence in any population has been accurately studied, but it occurs much
43 ij CJ lAPTER 1 1
more often in Caucasians than other races85• Androgenetic alopecia affects
approximately 50 o/o of men over 40 years of age and may also affect just as
many women86•
Stretching strength
The environmental factors like temperature, humidity and major are the sun
light, which decreases the strength of hairs and hair becomes loose and
dwelling. The Sunlight produces the deleterious effects on hairs also. The photo
oxidation of hair elements, such as melanin and cuticle proteins, occurred.
In the hair fiber, the lipids and protein bound in the epicuticle, belying that this is
indeed a filament of cellular origins, not a man made fiber. The keratin of hair
gives rise to its final physical form and structure properties87. This primary
component consists of a hard, keratinized protein, with a high level of sulfydryl
amino acid and virtually none of the marker aminoacid, hydroxyl praline, found
in fibrillar connective tissue, such as collagen.
The layer of the cuticle, the cystine content can be as high as 35%. Other UV
absorbing aminoacids present in the hair includes the aromatics, tyrosine and
to a lesser extent tryptophan88. All three of these protein monomers in the pure
state and insitu are photo labile and give rise to active oxygen species, chain
reaction propagating free radicals, such as singlet oxygen, when hairs exposed
in sun light89-90
•
Loss of hair properties
Hair is the recipient of a constant series of environmental assaults termed as
weathering. Such potentially damaging influences as rain, air pollutants, wind,
sea water, chemicals contributes to the environmental process known to cause
44 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
structural and chemical degradation to hairs. Most damaging of all
environmental factors is ultraviolet radiations exposed from sun light. Most
damaging portion of hair is cuticle, the condition of a cuticle covering hair that
has been exposed to UV radiation and with other elements also.
The cuticle is considered to play a key role in determining the overall physical
properties in relation to keratin fibers. The cuticle dictates the frictional
properties of the hair fibers and also largely responsible for the integrity of the
interior portion of hairs, which ultimately decides the appearance of hairs.
In normal hair, cuticle cells are smooth rounded and tightly packed on to the
cortex, while long term exposure to sun light and other environmental damages,
results in breakdown of cuticle cells that coat exposed hair surface.
The scientific data shows that photochemical reaction occurs in hair after
exposure to ultraviolet radiations. Discoloration is the most obvious chemical
alteration caused by the high intense ultraviolet exposure. Other subtler
changes also occur due to environmental factors like changes in sorption
characteristics and the urea and bisulfite solubility of hair have been detected
after weatering exposure91•
Mechanism
A free radical mechanism has been proposed that may account for many of the
photochemical changes occurring in weathered hair.
UV radiations is absorbed by inert hair amino acids like cystine, tyrosine,
phenylalanine and other aminoacids as well as possibly some peptide bonds,
which results in the formation of free radicals and due to this hemolytic scission
of disulfide bonds, occur in hair. In the presence of such free radicals carriers
45 ~ CUAPTERt)
I as water present as humidity in the atmosphere, a sequence of radical transfer
reactions, involving hydroxyl radicals can take place. This causes random
displacement along the protein back bone that leads to an assortment of
degradation and ultimately tensile strength of hair became decreased91-92
.
Although pronounced tensile alteration is due to primarily to photochemical
effects on disulfide linkage, deamination or decarboxylation of amino acids,
disorientation of hydrogen bonds and the chemical alteration of the aromatic
nuclei in tyrosine and phenylalanine so contribute to a chemical reduction in
tensile strength of hair.
Protection of Hair
Such hair damages can be control and minimize by using conditioning
ingredients as well as photo protective types of substances, which can impart
role in ultraviolet radiations absorption at the surface level.
1.5 Cosmetic strategies
In modern skin care the cosmetic sunscreen formulations used widely for more
benefit than simple moisturizing and cosmetics, demands of users are good fed
factor. Formulation contains substances like antioxidants components, which
have cellular protective nature or maintain biochemistry of skin. Sun protective,
free radical scavengers, anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial substances
provides all the benefits, which are able to improve skin protection and delay
the onset of visible ageing and such benefits are confirmed by natural
materials. Many plants and their products are being used as medicine since
ancient time. Several studies are still going on the properties and mechanism of
these plants extracts in skin care.
46 ~ CJIAPTER 1 1
1.5.1 General skin care
The aging process can be delayed by using daily balanced diet in food and
properly utilization of micronutrients as a topical formulation application.
General skin care requires balance nutritional diet orally and topically.
The micronutrients like vitamins, enzymes, proteins and antioxidants are
capable of directly scavenging lipophilic and hydrophilic pro-oxidants through or
the topical delivery serve as an antioxidant.
Flavonoids, polyphenol and vitamins contribute to antioxidant defense
mechanism, may also contribute to retard endogeneous aging process.
Vitam in-C regenerates tocopherol from the tocopheroyl radical and transfer the
radical load to the aqueens compartinent where it is finally eliminated by
antioxidant enzymes93.
Now a day, peptide technology also is proving its ability against natural aging
via penetrating the skin without redness or irritation to improve the skin
morphometric parameters. The use of specific active peptides able to target
and regulate cell function, maximize collagen production by stimulating the
growth of collagen cells, results in reduction of fine lines, increasing skin
firmness and tone. Polyphenols are also found as efficient antioxidants
obtained from fruit and plant extracts94• These extracts are utilized as cosmetics
ingredients, having the effects on skin and hairs.
1.5.2 UV Care
Care from UV rays through the natural substances is undoughtily possible.
Substances containing variety of vitamins, proteins, peptides, flavonoids,
47 ~ CIW'TERl 1
pigments and sterols can plays protective role via different ways against the
skin aging.
1.5.2.1 Photoprotectants
These are the substances, which screen on or filter out the complete ultraviolet
radiations rages from 290-400 nm. Photoprotective products containing
ultraviolet radiation absorbing or scattering ingredients provides varying degree
of protection from sunlight, thus minimizing the deleterious effect on the skin.
When skin is exposed to sunlight, ultraviolet radiations is absorbed by skin
molecules that then can generate harmful compounds, called reactive oxygen
species (ROS) which are highly reactive molecules that can cause oxidative
damages. ROS can react with cellular components like cell wall; lipid
membranes, mitrocondria and DNA, leading to skin damage and increase the
visible sign of aging. UV filter contained in the sunscreen cut down the amount
of UV radiation that can penetrate the skin UV radiation.
Natural
Human skin is protected against UV radiation by melanin, an endogenous
pigment that scatters and absorbs UV light. The use of sun screening agents
for topical protection is promoted against skin aging process and skin cancer.
UV absorbing compounds and inorganic pigments like titanium dioxide, zinc
oxide are combined in many sunscreen formulations95• Thus, protection can be
mediated via absorption, reflection and light scattering or ultraviolet rays.
Natural protectants like minerals e.g. bentonite, china clay, soft stone, titanium
dioxide and oils e.g. tea tree, cinnamon, jajoba, bergamut oil and plant juices
and extracts like tulsi, cinnamoun, callendul\a, orange peel brahmi, rose are
I
48 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
being used since last so many time. Chlorophyll pigments, henna powder, oil
layers were used as a thick barrier system. All these natural ingredients were
used as such in paste and as an extracts lapas form. These natural
photoprotectants contained variety of substances, which plays different role in
the mechanism of the photo protection.
The naturally occurring herbal compounds such as phenolic acids, flavonoids,
and high molecular weight polyphenols have could be use to gained
considerable attention as beneficial protective agents96•
The potential effects of aloe gel revealed that significant protection on
(Giutathion, oxidative glutathion by decreasing in level and significant increment
in MDA (Melanodialdehyde) level and controlled the second-degree burns in
controlled manner was controlled by aloe gel topical administration96-97
•
Synthetic
Sunscreens were introduced in 1928, in the United States. An emulsion
containing two-sun screening chemicals i.e. Benzyl salicylate and Benzyl
Cinnamate was commercially introduced in early 1930. Australia introduces a
cosmetic sunscreen formulation containing phenyl salicylate96• In 1936, In
France a chemist E. Schueller introduce first commercial sunscreen formulation.
The varieties of synthetic sunscreen agents are given in Table 1T-5.
Sunscreen formulations contain special molecules - called UV filters, which cut
down the amount of UV radiation that can penetrate the skin. Over time,
though, these filters penetrate into the skin below the surface of the epidermis.
The additional ROS are generated only when the UV filters have penetrated
I
49 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
into the skin and, at the same time, sunscreen has not been reapplied to
prevent ultraviolet.
Hansen et al. report that three UV filters (Octyl methoxy cinnamate,
Benzophenone-3, and octocrylene}, widely used in sunscreen, generate ROS
in skin themselves when exposed to UV radiations. Many studies indicate that
the additional ROS are generated only when the UV filters have penetrated in
to the skin and can become harmful to the skin99•
In the United state lotions containing quinine oleate and quinine bisulphate
appeared in 1935, but cause of photoallergic reactions, skin rashes were found.
Para- amino benzoic acid (PABA} was first patented in 1943, leading the way
for the several PABA derivatives in sunscreen formulations. The growing public
awareness to the photosensitization reactions of PABA and its derivatives has
encouraged the use of PABA free products 100• The production of another
sunscreen, containing 4-isopropyl dibenzoyl methane was ceased in 1993 due
to the high number of photoallergy incidents.
Moreover, some of the cases of adverse reactions to sunscreen active
ingredients related to the adverse reactions with cross reactivity of several
sunscreen ingredients like cinnamate derivatives (Ibid}. In addition, several
studies have demonstrated the photoinduced DNA damage and phototoxicity of
sunscreen agents, including padimate, and phenylbenzimidazole sulfonic
acid101. Physical sunscreens angents such as titanium dioxide are known to be
photocatalysis capable of rupturing covalent bonds and have been shown to
produce reactive oxygen species under illumination 102'103
•
50 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
I Table 1T-5: Synthetic Sunscreens agents
Chemical ·Approved Type Concentration % '
Oxybenzone 2-6 UV-A Absorber
Sulisobenzone 5-10 UV-A Absorber
Dioxybenzone 3 UV-A Absorber
Avobenzone 3 UV-A Absorber
Methyl anthralinate 3-5 UV-A Absorber
Amino benzoic acid 1-5 UV-B Absorber
Amyl dimethy PABA 5-15 UV-B Absorber
Diethanolamine p- methoxycinnamate 8-10 UV-B Absorber
2-Ethoxyethyl p- methoxycinnamate . 1-3 UV-B Absorber
Benzophenone 1-10 UV-B Absorber
Butyl methoxy dibenzoyl methane 1-8 UV-B Absorber
Digaloyl trioleate 2-5 UV-B Absorber
Ethyl 4-bis hydroxy propyl amino 1-5 UV-B Absorber
benzoate
2-ethy hexyl-2-cyano-3,3 diphenyl 7-10 UV-B Absorber
acrylate
Ethyl hexyl p- methoxycinnamate 2-7.5 UV-B Absorber
2- ethyl hexyl salicylate 3-5 UV-B Absorber
Glyceryl amino benzoate 2-3 UV-B Absorber
Homomenthyl salicylate 4-25 W-B Absorber
lawsone dihydroxy acetate 0.25-3 W-B Absorber
Octyl dimenthyl PABA 2-8 UV-B Absorber
2· Phenyl bezimidazole- 5- sulphonic 1.5 UV-B Absorber
acid
Ethanolamine salicylate 5-12 W-B Absorber
Mechanism of photo protection
Structural requirements for suitable photoprotecting agent depend on the
mechanism of action of photoprotection:
(i) Increasing the barrier for UV light (UV absorbing compounds)
;o:murrrn CHAPTER 1 1 T 21847
(ii) Protecting through molecules which act as scavengers e.g.
antioxidants.
(iii) Repairing UV induced damage by induction of repair system.
(iv) Suppression cellular responses e.g. anti-inflammatory agents.
The active sun protecting agent's affects in different ways either by absorbing,
reflecting, or scattering some or all of the sun rays. Most of the sunscreen
products contain combinations of ingredients. Possible mechanism of sun
protections via natural substances includes free radical acceptance, blocking of
catalytic effect of UV, anti-inflammatory effects and in long term inhibition of UV
induced cellular stress 98. General Photoprotecting follow the mechanism are:
o Agents that attenuate the level of actinic insult (e.g. by absorbing or
acting as barrier to UVrays) in case of topical protectants104"105
.
o Agents that compete with the target molecules for the damaging product
of the aberrant agent106.
o Agents that provide restoration action (repair of the damaged target
molecules) and prevent UV suppression and contact hypersensitivity107-
108
o Agents that suppress various stages of the inflammatory responses and
mask certain manifestations of UV damages 109•
UV filter contained in the sunscreen cut down the amount of UV radiation that
can penetrate the skin UV radiation. Hansen et al. report that three UV filters
(Octyl methoxy cinnamate, Benzophenone-3, and octocrylene), widely used in
sunscreen, generate ROS in skin themselves wh~n exposed to UV radiations.
52 ~ CHAPTERl 1
They observed that the additional ROS are generated only when the UV filters
have penetrated in to the skin.
The synthetic Oxybenzone, are absorbed and subsequently excreted in human
urine with low acute toxicity in animal studies; its chronic toxicity and disposition
after topical application in people were found. Study concluded that sunscreen
in the product (i.e. greater than 1 0%) over the period of application showed
critical condition of skin. That's why sunscreens should not be the sole method
of sun protection 110•
Side effects and toxicity
The synthetic sunscreen compounds like butyl methoxy dibenzoyl methane
(BMDBM) and bezophenone are the most efficient and frequently used UV
filters. These agents generate carbon centered free radicals, when illuminated
with simulated sunlight and causes in vitro strand breaks in DNA and oxidative
modification 111"112
• Many studies on photoinduced allergic reactions were
carried out. The photoallergic reactions of sunscreen were noticed from study of
355 consecutive patients with suspected photosensitivity test with different UV
filters. Schauder et al. (1998) showed the sunscreen allergy and photoallergy
reactions in 402 patients with suspected clinical photosensitivity via patch and
photo patch testing with the commercial sunscreens and facial cosmetics
containing chemical UV absorbers, fragrance materials, preservatives, and
emollients 100• The study found that such allergies are due to the real frequency
of sunscreens exposure.
The intolerance of sunscreen agents with suspected photodermatosis and
positive reactions was noted in sixty one positive photopatch for photocontact
53 ij CHAI'TER t 1
allergy to sunscreens contains-oxybenzone and to para-aminobenzoic acid and
its derivatives.
More than one third photoallergies had due to a moisturizer contained
oxybenzone. The butyl methoxy dibenzoylmethane, methoxycinnamate and
benzophenone were found to be major cause of photoallergic contact
dermatitis 113.114
.
Topically applied sunscreens penetrated into human viable epidermis to put the
local keratinocyte causing risk of toxicity (e.g. avobenzone, octinoxate,
octocrylene, oxybenzone and padimate) showed by keratinocyte culture
response curves (changes in cell morphology and proliferation) 115"116
• The fetus
malformations was observed after use of widely suncreening agent (2-3' ,5'-Di
tert -butyl-2' -hydroxyphenyl)-5- ch lorobenzotriazole 117.
1.5.2.1 Photoprotection via antioxidants
From the earlier, it appeared that natural antioxidants are photoprotective.
Pauling codedfirst time that diet rich in ascorbic acid was beneficial in reducing
UV-B induced neoplasma in animals 118• Diet rich in antioxidants mixtures was
found to be reduced UV induced carcinogenesis119. Vitamin E alone decreases
lipid peroxidation reaction generated due to sunlight. Ascorbic acid is one of the
most effective antioxidant in vivo, and found to be logical candidate as topical
photoprotectant to control sunburn cell formation and tumor formation63•
Besides the vitamin C and E, another natural antioxidants has been studied for
their photoprotective efficiency i.e. polyphenolic components, carotene and
enzymes like SOD which are found to be regenerative of vitamin E, vitamin C
and glutathione. More with these compounds ability, to alter the physical and
54 ~ CIIAPTER 1 1
mechanical properties of the skin, thereby inhibiting penetration of UV
wavelengths and counter act the oxidative stress in skin 98•
Like most antioxidants, idebenone is primarily preventive and another super
antioxidant, plant-derived ferulic acid, fern extract and green tea has been
shown to strengthen the natural photoprotective effects of topically applied
vitamin C and E.
An extract obtained from buckwheat herb and compared with rutin, which is the
main constituent of the extract, regarding their antioxidant and radical
scavenging activity with, the photoprotective properties. These extract were
compared to those of a commercial UV absorber, indicates the extract prevents
the UV-induced peroxidation of linolic acid effectively than rutin and the
commercial UV absorber. The use of the extract from buckwheat herb seems to
be more beneficial than the use of pure rutin. This could be referred due to the
presence of minor phenolic compounds in the extract. The results indicate that
it is advisable to use antioxidants rather than only UV absorber to obtain a
maximum of photo protection 120.
The methanol extracts of Eucommia ulmoides (52%), Evodia officina/is (45%),
and Pleuropterus multiflorus ( 41%) was used to get potent inhibitory effect on
the matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) production in ultraviolet 8 (UV-8)
irradiated human fibroblasts 57•
From the abovementioned studies, it can be appreciated that the overwhelming
evidence of natural suggests that phytochemical, antioxidants are effective at
inhibiting UV damages to skin and could be used as a potential agent in
preventing photoaging.
55 ~ CHAPTER I ,
1.5.2.2 Photoprotection via enzymes
The herbs as biological additives in form of extracts are utilizing since long
period of time in the cosmetic formulation and scientific evidences proven that
many plant extracts showed their photo protective activity and shows significant
improvement in enzymes like superoxidedismutase, catalase, and total protein
and ascorbic acid level121-122
. Many plants, citrus fruits and leafy vegetables as
source of ascorbic acid, vitamin C and phenolics compounds containing
enzyme extracts of different varieties possess the ability to reduce the oxidative
damage. These oxidative damages ultimately reduce the protective enzyme
level and maintain the level of total protein and ascorbic acid in cells.
Klingman L.H. (1986) studied on histological examination of skin samples that
had been irradiated with daily dose of UV-A light for a week, results revealed
that a strong degradation of dermal collagen could be preserved or minimized
after treatment with palmitoyi-Giy-His-Lys123.
The potential roles of herbal enzymes were studied several times. The
aqueous extract of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) contains its peroxidase
enzymes in the form of peroxisomes delivery with excellent cosmetic
properties124• The treatment with such herbal extracts containing creams could
be utilized for the protection of photo induced intrinsic oxidative stress as well
as structural alteration in skin.
Proteolytic enzymes like bromelaine, papain etc. has been used125 for skin
peeling and smoothing. the review provide condensed studies regarding
topically applied DNA repair enzymes to prevent UVB radiation - induced skin
damage and the protective mechanism of superoxide dismutase and
56 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
peroxidase which were extracted from yeast are utilized as efficient tool to
reduce UV-induced erythema, which can also be thought of as free radical
scavenging ability125• Recent studies indicated that endogeneous SOD activity
is important in the severity and treatment of a wide range of inflammatory skin
disease 126•127
• Superoxide dismutase (SOD) plays a prominent role in regulating
cellular superoxide anion level, and does so by dismutation to hydrogen
peroxide (HzOz). A hyaluronidase derived protein, SOD are effective in
treatment of a wide range of inflammatory responses. Lipid peroxidation has
been suspected of being a source of sunlight induced cellular damage and
initiated by free radical attack126•129
. The SOD activity in those patients with
severe disease who were highly recalcitrant to therapy was found to be slightly
elevated and marked decrease. These studies have opened up new avenues to
photoprotection reaction occurring within the cell. Several non-enzymatic
(ascorbic acid, vanillin, propyl gallate) superoxide anion and scavenging
antioxidants also have a photoprotective and anti aging effects on repeated UV
induced cutaneous damage116· 119.
1.5.2.3 Photo protection via Vitamins
There are different strategies for protection of skin against the UV radiations
damages, which are closely associated with skin aging. It has been speculated
that an increased topical protection against UV light might affect endogenous
vitamin D synthesis in the skin and may causes disorders related to vitamin D
deficiency. Even, like reduce bone strength at present use of vitamin D in
sunscreen and in cosmetics are controversially. Vitamin C does slowdown the
skin-damaging free radical activity 118• It is also required for collagen synthesis,
57 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
which declines markedly in aging skin. As humans age, they suffer diminished
microcapillary circulation within the skin, thereby depriving skin cells of the
supply of vitamin C it needs for youthful collagen synthesis. The topical
application of vitamin C in a skin-penetrating medium can enhance the
availability of vitamin C for collagen production. Vitamin C helps to regenerates
vitamin E in the skin and can only suppress a limited number of free radicals
before it runs out of electrons to donate66• Vitamin C regenerates vitamin E and
enables vitamin E to provide sustained antioxidant protection in the skin's
elastin fibers. Vitamin C also plays a vital role in skin repair. When skin is
injured, its vitamin C content is used up rapidly in the scavenging of free
radicals, and in synthesizing collagen to speed healing. The protective effects
of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) containing formulation proved that the ascorbic acid
levels of the skin was severely depleted after UV irradiation, which would lower
skins innate protective mechanism as well as reduces the risk of impaired
healing after photoinduced damage. These damages can be minimize using
topical application of vitamin C, which can enhance the collagen production118•
1.5.2.4 Photo protection via Extracts
Botanicals are playing an increasingly important role in the activity and safety of
cosmetics, they allow for renewal of the source of active ingredients. Cosmetic
formulas contain plant extracts, were tested and conventionally grouped into
four major classes.
1. Primary antioxidants (Considered as free radical acceptors).
2. Secondary antioxidants (Acts synergistically with primary antioxidants.
3. UV absorbers (Blocks the catalytic effect of UV and visible light).
I
58 ~ CHAPTER 11
4. A miscellaneous group that comprises largely reducing agents with free
5 H-groups including some radioprotectors that are not considered as
antioxidants.
Topical application of polyphenols to human skin inhibited the UV-B induced
erythema response and decreased the formation of cyclobutane pyrimidine
dimer in skin found both in epidermis and dermis. There are numerous
mechanisms by which a cell may deal with electronically activated species and
some mention is warranted of naturals, endogenous free radical defense
mechanism 130.
Flavonoids recently been shown to have one of the highest 'active-oxygen'
scavenging abilities of different plant extracts tested. Such extracts are more
powerful anti-oxidants than vitamin E, and also exhibit potent cell-protective
effects, which are linked to the well-known anti-ageing properties of anti-
oxidants 131•
1. 6 Cosmetic Classifications
All the cosmetic formulations can be classified on the basis of-
1. Site of application
2. Dosage forms
3. Pharmacological and Physiological
4. Consumers
1.6.1 Site of application: According to site, cosmetics are classified as-
(i) Skin cosmetic: These are directly and indirectly used to adorn the skin
via improving luster and glow of skin. e.g. bath products, deodorants,
antiperspirant, powders, rouges, perfume, oils, colorants, face packs.
59 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
(ii) Eye cosmetics: These are directly or indirectly used to improve the
appearance of eyes. e. g., eye pigment, shadow, linear lashes, wax
carbon.
(iii) Hair cosmetics: Strengthening, antidandruff and antioxidants agents
are used in many hair formulations like shampoos, coloring materials,
detangling hair care, hair grooming and cream and gels.
(iv) Nails: Nail formulations like nail liquor and polishes contains hydrating
agents, coloring pigments and reflectors.
1.6.2 Dosage Form
Solid
(a) Powders: For scenting, washing, coloring, dyeing and pigmentation
(Insoluble in liquids).
(b) Pearls: Drugs are encapsulated within layers of protein and
calcium carbonate. These layers reflect sunrays and act as sunscreen.
Semisolids
Liquid
Creams, lotions, ointment, gels, sticks, eyeliners, cheek shave,
shampoos.
Hair oils, after shave lotions, shampoos, color dyes, bath oil and body
oils.
Novel cosmetics: Lioposomal, microspherical beads, nanosoms, multiple and
micro emulsion
Aerosols: Air brushing, mist color foundations
60 ~ CHAPTERl 1
1.6.3 Pharmacological and Physiological
Antiaging: Creams and lotions
Antiperspirants and deodorants: Sticks, powder and sprinkles via
different physiological mechanism.
Antidandruff: Shampoos and creams,
Antiwrinkles-Antiaging: Antioxidant creams, herbal extracts and
anticellutile skin toners.
Antiseptic: Creams and lotions.
Photoprotective: Creams, lotions and oils.
Aromatic: Oils and creams.
Skin whiteners: Creams, solutions and lotions (Chemical like
antitryosinase properties)
1.6.4 Consumer classification
1.6.4.1 Face and skin preparation
i. Powders: Compact powders, face powders, talcum powders.
face mask, face packs, triple mild talc powder, luminizing
powders and concealer powder.
ii. Cosmetic Creams: Barrier creams, antiwrinkles, antiseptic,
sun protectives, cold creams, cleansing creams, emollient,
massage creams, bleaching creams, lubricating or night
creams, skin protective and hand creams, vanishing creams
foundation creams. liquid creams and miscellaneous creams.
iii. Sticks: Anti perspirants, deodorants, lipsticks and colorants.
61 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
iv. Lotions: Moisturizers, photoprotetives, hand lotions, skin
toning lotions, skin fresheners, astringent lotions, bleaching
and freckle lotions, medicated lotions, after shaving lotions.
v. Shaving preparation: Lather shaving stick, lather shaving
creams, shaving foam, shaving gels, after shave lotions.
1.6.4.2 Hair Preparations
Hair shampoos (Clear liquid, aerosol egg shampoo, bath foams) hair
tonics, hair conditioners, hair lotions, hair waiving, hair strengthens,
rinses, oily scalp hair tonics, hair dressings, fixatives, bleaches.
1.6.4.3 Dental preparations
Tooth powders, toothpastes, dentifrices, anti carries liquid solutions,
mouth washes, cosmetics for teeth and mouth washes
1.6.4.4 Foot preparation
Foot powders, foot sprays, foot creams and lotions for sportsmen are
available.
1.6.4.5 Manicure preparations
Nail polish, nail liquor and bleaches.
1.6.4.6 Eye preparations
Shadows, liners, erasers, flesh toned crayon, Mascara, Lashes, Brows
putty.
1.6.4.7 Lip preparations
Nondrying lipsticks, color coordinate lip liners, lip glows,dual pencil
sharpeners.
62 ~ Cl L\l'TER 1 1
1.6.4.8 Color makeup
Lipsticks, rouges, mascaras, eye make-up, eyeliner, eyebrow pencils,
liquid foundation, stick foundation.
1. 7 Herbal cosmetics
Cosmetics are used almost regularly and universally in different forms
according to the body needs. The purpose of developing a cosmetic, such as
one for reducing wrinkles, fighting acne, or for oil control and for more any types
of (skin protective, hair protective) formulations are designed using varieties of
materials either natural or synthetic with the aim of quality standard. The
development process for cosmetic formulation needs maintenance of quality
standard as per the requirement. The qualities of a formulation should satisfy
the consumer's need in terms of its performance. Recently herbal cosmetics
(lipsticks, shampoos, toothpaste, body and hair oil, soaps, sun blocking cream
or gel, moisturizer, facial scrub etc.) products have gained much recognition
and became very popular in Indian consumers as well as abroad. These
formulations claims to have no side effects commonly seen with synthetic
products. The herbs used in preparation of these cosmetic products also have
varieties of properties like antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic and
antibacterial. Popularity of herbal cosmetic in society and technological
advances in manufacturing process has resulted in flooding of market with
herbal fonmulations in India. So in the present study we explore the scientific
data of traditionally used herbs in skin and hair preparations and tried to
develop herbal cosmetic preparations.
63 ~ CIL\PTER 1 1
1.7.1 Traditional system
India is a land of sandalwood, cinnamon and precious spices, of exotic flowers
like gardenia, rose, lavender and hibiscus and oils of exotic roses, lemon grass,
and sensuous jasmine. Indian system of cosmetic is rich in history and well
tested in the use of plants, through the practices of Ayurveda, Unani and
Siddha systems of medicine.
The medicinal herb mentioned in Ayurveda by experienced sage basically state
about function of Ayurvedic herbs in to blood and eliminates doshas (vata, pitta
kapha) from the body, as they are mainly responsible for any type of body
ailments132•
Among the written information in Ayurveda also, like is Charak sahita, the sage
charakh stated numerous medicinal plants in Varnya kashaya. The herbs like
chandan, halid, khus, nagkheshara, manjistha, yastimadhu, are use to obtained
glowing complexion and arusa, amala, bavchi, guduchi, chakmard, are
mentioned as kustaharan 133.
There are certain herbs which are mentioned in Kushthagna Mahakashiya like
amalaki, haridra, abhaya, khadira, vidyanga, jati, saptapama, karavira of
various potential for effective curative skin disorder.
Charak and other sages Sushruit stated in the literature that the Eladi Gana
containing ela, tagar, kusstha, jatamani, tvak, dhmamaka, potra harenuka,
shutki, stouneyaka, choraka, guggol sarjarasa, aganu, devdanu and
padmakesher could be use to eliminate toxins from the body and clear the
complexion that leads to glow on the skin and protect from kushtha and boils' 3'.
64 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
Among the naturals, plant extracts are gaining popularity as ingredients in
cosmetic formulations, primarily because of "the poor image that animal-derived
extracts have acquired during the past few years." Historically, plants were the
main source of cosmetic ingredients, until methods for synthesizing substances
with similar properties were discovered. Although natural molecules derived
from plant extracts are currently the constituents of many commercial cosmetic
products and offer "a particularly exciting avenue for further research". The
stability, color, odor, and transparency of many extracts are limiting factors.
Additionally, plant extracts may be perceived as more dilute than are purified
synthetic agents.
1. 7.2 Present status
The global market for cosmetics and toiletries reached nearly $150 billion in
2004, up by more than 4 per cent from 2003, according to a new study that also
highlights major growth in key developing markets 135.
The herbal market has been boosted by increasing demand for natural
alternative medicines. World demand for herbal products has been growing at a
rate of 10% -15% per annum. The medicinal plants related trade in India alone
is approximately Rs. 5.5 billion. Disappointment with conventional medicines is
growing and customer perceptions of the health benefits of herbals and
botanicals are under going major change. W.H.O. (World Health Organisation)
has forecasted that the global market for herbal products would be worth $5
trillion by the year 2050. Global sales of herbal products are expected to reach
$26.2 billion dollars in 2007. Europe and the United States are the two major
65 ij CHAP'IT:.R 1 1
herbal products markets in the world, with a market share of 41 percent and 20
percent respectively 136.
According to the worldbank, the global market for medicinal plants and products
includes the potential sectors of pharmaceuticals, neutraceuticals, and
cosmeceuticalis to be estimated of worth US$ 62 billion, offers a plethora of
opportunities for the Indian pharma and cosmetic companies (Figures as
quoted by Asia-Pacific Traditional Medicine and Herbal Technology Network
(APTMNET). India's current share in the global herbal market is just $1 billion
and a huge opportunity awaits the indeginious Indian cosmaceuticals.
1.7.3 Natural extractives
Natural extracts, whether from animal (Enzymes, Proteins, peptides vitamins
etc.), botanical, and mineral origin (bentonites, titanium dioxides and different
forms of clays and mud), have been used as active cosmetic ingredients or
cosmetics for as long as human history can go.
Herbal extracts have been used for centuries and are present in today's
cosmetic formulations either for their own properties or as substitutes of
synthetic materials that may have to be removed from formulations because
toxic and unwanted post used effects.
The botanical extract is active cosmetic ingredient, it may contain hundreds of
chemical structures and it has a proven activity. These botanical cosmetic
ingredients can be separated out from drug, because the drug needs to know
the chemical structure of the active ingredient within the extract, required
purifying it or sythesizing it.
66 ij CHAPTER 1 1
These natural extractives can be utilizes in different forms like:
I. Total extracts
II. Selective extracts
Ill. Biotechnology extracts
From these natural extractives, total extracts are the most common in the
cosmetic formulations. They are generally known from traditional usages, which
have a long history. Their activities are often impirical and their active
ingredients are not always identified, but their benefits are, very often, without
possible doubt. Their mode of pareparations is also adopted from traditional
systems of different countries like China, India, Africa, Europe America or from
traditional practitioners.
The contents of such total extracts are very much a function of the type of
solvent, the temperature, plant solvent ratio, the time of contact, the part of
plant use, their species and seasonal collection.
Here is need to clarify the ambiguity of such cosmetic extracts from the drug
extractive materials. In the drug industry, especially, the extract must be
concentrated and isolated by selective techniques like chromatographic, UV
spectrophotomteric, and electrophoresis.
The solvent used for herbal extracts is again matter of selection criteria, solvent
selection is not only considered for extraction of materials, but also for their
compatibility with the final formulation and harmlessness94•
Historically, many herbals have been used for the treatment of various skin and
hair conditions. Traditional uses and scientific studies of these natural extractive
demonstrate the potential functional actions (anti-inflammatory, antioxidants,
67 ij CHAPTER 1 1
antimicrobial, antihyluronidase, antityrosinase and antimelanogenesis) in
cosmetics
1.7.3.1 Cosmeceuticals
In ancient Greece and Rome, countless ointments and tonics were
recommended for the beautification of the hair, as well as remedies for the
treatment of scalp diseases. Henry de Mandeville was the first to make a
distinction between medicinal therapies intended to treat diseases and cosmetic
agents for the purpose of beautification 137• But today's delineation of cosmetics
from pharmaceuticals has become more complex through the development of
cosmetics with physiologically active ingredients, i.e. cosmeceuticals.
Cosmeceuticals are topical cosmetic-pharmaceutical hybrids intended to
enhance the beauty through ingredient that provide additional health related
function or benefits. They are applied topically as cosmetics, but contain
ingredients that influenced the skins biological function 138. These
cosmeceuticals, serving as a bridge between personal care products,
pharmaceutical and phytomaterial, have been developed specially for their
medicinal and cosmetic benefits.
Cosmeceutically active ingredients are now constantly being used by big and
small corporations engaged in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology,
natural products, and cosmetics. The advances in the field of cosmetics and
knowledge of skin biology and pharmacology have facilitated the cosmetic
formulations139. The development of novel active and natural compounds is
being rapidly used as cosmeceuticals. The desirable features of cosmeceutical
68 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
agents are efficacy, safety, formulation stability, novelty, and easy metabolism
within skin and inexpensive, which became essentiality of cosmetics 140.
Natural extracts from plant, animal, mineral origin, have been used as active
ingredients of cosmetics for as long as human history can go. Oil, butter, honey,
beeswax, lead and lemon juice and aloe gel etc. were common ingredients of
the beauty recipes.
Natural functional actives play an important role in alteration of skin physiology
and cosmetic science. With the great advances in research, now it is possible
to think of a single substance that can alter the skin function and tactile sense
of skin or hair. The most convincing example is water, which is considered
innocuous or safe. On the other hand, when cotton pad moistened with water is
sealed to human skin for two days, pro inflammatory substances such as
interleukins are released from the dead stratum corneum. These provoke a
series of cytotoxic changes in the viable epidermis 141• In another few days, an
inflammatory reaction is provoked in the dermis. This the basis for the adverse
clinical events associated with prolonged exposure to water.
Another traditional substance considered inert is petrolatum. However, various
studies show that petrolatum promotes healing of wounds and prevent
ultraviolet induced tumors, even though it is not a sunscreen 141•
These are clearly medicinal effects that affect the structure and function of skin.
From these and any other examples, it is apparent that nearly all cosmetic
articles would have to be reclassified as drugs, if a strict interpretation of the •
Structure and function" proviso of the FDC act of 1938" A cosmetic is defined
as an article intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed on,
69
introduced into, or other wise appled to the human body or any part thereof for
cleansing, beautyfing, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance
without affecting structure or function. It is noteworthy that in this defination the
cosmetic is not allowed to have any activity (i.e. without affecting structure or
function).
In India the defination of cosmetic was reevaluated and described by the Drug
and Cosmetic act 1940. "Any article intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled or
sprayed on, or introduced into, or other wise applied to the human body or any
part thereof cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the
appearance and includes any article intended for use as a component of
cosmetic"
Antioxidant
Natural antioxidants includes minor lipids are of increasing interest for cosmetic
and skin care formulations. They also offer extended shelf-life to vegetable oil
based formulations as well as protection of skin cell constituents such as
proteins, lipids and DNA.
Many common natural oils such as rapeseed oil, sunflower oil and soybean oil
are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, mainly linoleic (18:2n-6) and linolenic
(18:3n-3) acids. These natural oils are of significant nutritional importance and
are also desirable emollients for skin care applications. However, the drawback
of the unsaturated oils is their high sensitivity to oxidation and many of them
present limited shelf-life during storage as well as in application. Natural oils like
bergamot, levender, rose, majoram, chamomile also proves cosmetic values via
different activities like antityrosinase, antielsatage and antioxidant142.
70 ij CHAPTER t 1
In addition, natural oils are good sources for tocopherols and phytosterols,
components offering both antioxidant activity and bioactivity for skin care
applications. By careful processing of these minor lipids can be retained and
even enriched during the purification of vegetable oils 143.
Mechanism
The changes in skin contour are always symptoms of aging process of skin,
either by external or internal oxidative stress. Besides external inducers of
oxidative attack, the skin has to cope with endogenous generation of reactive
oxygen species (ROS) and other free radicals, which are continuously
produced during physiological cellular metabolism. To counter act the harmful
effects of reactive oxygen species, the skin is equipped with antioxidant
systems, which an equilibrium between prooxidants and antioxidants.
In the recommendation of skin advancement, a variety of primary (preventive,
vitamin C) and secondary (interceptive, vitamin E) antioxidant mechanism have
been developed, which form an antioxidative network of closely interlinked
components.
Antioxidants intervene at different levels of oxidative process 144-145
i. Scavenging free radical.
ii. Scavenging lipid peroxyl radicals.
iii. Binding with metal ion.
iv. Removing oxidatively damaged biomolecules.
However, the antioxidant defense in cutaneous tisues can be overvvhelmed
either by an increased exposure to exogenous (e.g., UV exposure) or
endogenous (e.g., inflammatory disorders) sources of reactive oxygen species
71 ~ CllAM'ER 1 1
or by primarily depleted antioxidant defense (e.g. malnutrition) facing a normal
level or prooxidative challenge.
The imbalance of the prooxidant or antioxidant may results in oxidative damage
of biomolecules, such as lipids, proteins and DNA, and has been termed as
oxidative stress 146'147
•
Vitamins
Dietary ascorbate is absorbed and distributed throughout the body with in a few
hours. The biochemical importance of Vit.C in cosmetic is primarily based on its
reducing potential, as is required in a number of hydroxylation reactions.
Several hydroxylases involved in collagen synthesis require ascorbate as a
reductant93•
In human skin, which is dependent on dietary vitamin C, the epidermis
apparently contains apptroximately five foild higher levels than the dermis99•
The major lipophilic antioxidant are vitamin E, which is collectively refers to
eight naturally occurring molecules (four tocopherols and four tocotrienols),
which exhibit antioxidant activity. In human skin a- tocopherol is the most
abundant vitamin E homologue, followed by y- tocopherol.
Vitamin E is act as an antioxidant by scavenging free radicals, which can
either directly or indirectly. initiate ( HO*, and 0* 2} or propagate (lipid peroxyl
radical) lipid chain reactions147'148
•
Tocopherols are important antioxidants frequently used in both food and skin
care applications. In vegetable oils their main function is to protect
polyunsaturated fatty acids against oxidation, properties of importance also for
72 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
the shelf-life of the oil during storage. In the human skin they are part of the
natural defence system with tocopherol being the predominant lipid-soluble
antioxidant in human stratum corneum. The tocopherols protect cellular
components such as DNA, proteins and lipids against free radicals and reactive
oxygen species caused by UV radiation, pro-oxidative environments and air
pollutants 149.
Dietry vitamin A is available in the form of provitamin A compounds (e.g., a-13-
carotene, and cryptoxanthin)142• Vitamin A generically encompasses retinol,
retinal and retinoic acid. The main focus of retnoid usage in cosmeceuticals has
been its role as the mythical "fountain of youth" (i.e. reversal of photoaging).
Retinol is necessary dietry nutrient, required for growth and bone development,
and skin keratosis.
Besides the Vitmin E, C and A, several other compounds with antioxidative
potential have been found to skin care, when applied topically. Application of
different plant extracts, particularly flavonoids, were found to diminish acute and
chronic skin damages Flavonoids (e.g., apigenin, catechin, epicatechin, a
glycosylrutin and silymarin) are polyphenolic compound that occur in plants and
due to their free phenolic groups, exhibit antioxidative capacity.
1.7.3.2 Skin effectiveness
Protecting and preserving the skin is essential to good health. Environmental
elements, air pollution, exposure to solar radiation as well as normal aging
process cause cumulative damage to building blocks of skin - DNA, collagen,
and cell membranes. Use of simple cosmetics or beauty products will not cause
73 ~ CHAPTER! 1
the skin to change or heal. These products are just meant to cover and
beautify, while natural cosmeceuticals provides over all protection to body.
Cosmeceuticals being cosmetic products having medicinal benefits and able to
affect the biological functioning of skin owing to type of functional ingredients
they contain. There are skin-care products that go beyond coloring and
adorning the skin. These products improve the functioning/texture of the skin by
encouraging collagen growth by combating harmful effects of free radicals, thus
maintaining keratin structure in good condition and making the skin healthier150•
Kuno and Matsumoto had patented an external agent for the skin comprising an
extract prepared from olive plants as a skin-beautifying component, in
particular, as an anti-aging component for the skin and/or a whitening
component151• Dry emollient preparation containing monounsaturated Jojoba
esters was used for cosmeceutical purpose 140• Martin utilized plant extract of
genus Chrysanthemum in a cosmetic composition for stimulating skin and/or
hair pigmentation 152. Novel cosmetic creams or gels with active ingredients and
water-soluble barrier disruption agents such as vitamin A palmitate have been
developed to improve the deteriorated or aged skin 142.
Moisturizers are used to smooth out the age lines, help brighten, and tone the
delicate skin. Moisturizers usually consist of emollients to smoothen the skin
surface by working their way into the nonliving outer layers of the skin, filling
spaces between the layers and humectants to help skin cells to absorb and
retain moisture in these layers. Healthy balancing lotion has been created for
menopausal women, which diminish the appearance of fine lines, and wrinkles,
74 ~ CHAPTER11
uplift the neck area and moisturize the dry sagging skin. Some of those
ingredients include black cohosh, soy extract, and natural oils.
Augmenting the skin's natural moisture balance are a nourishing complex
containing hyaluronic acid and a revival complex containing green tea leaf
extract, and glutathione153.
Skin lightening
A variety of herbal skin lightening formulations is available in the word market.
Such formulations contain natural extracts, which directly or indirectly influence
the melanization process in the skin. The first and rate-limiting step of melanin
formation is mediated by tyrosinase. This enzyme catalyses the hydroxylation
of tyrosine in to 3, 4- dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) and the subsequent
oxidation of DOPA into DOPA quinone. The pharmacological inhibitors of
tyrosinase or other melanogenesis pathway targets may serve as topical
inhibitors of melanogenesis resulting as skin lightening properties.
A variety of skin lightening formulations is commercially available. They contain
one or several different combination of natural extractives like Arbutin (Uvae
ursifoliumt), Azelaic acid (Malassezia), Kjoic acid (Aspergillus spp), a.- and p -
hydroxyacids from citrus fruits, Resveratrol (Morus alba) and Liquorice (G.
glabra) 154• The synergistic action of these extracts with each other or separately
in formulations could be used as an additive in skin whitening cosmetic
formulations.
Skin pigmenting
Certain plant extracts have been used as traditional herbal cosmetics for the
utilization in vitiligo. These extracts now known to contain furocoumarins, which
75 ~ CHAPTI.R 1 1
was first characterized with the isolation of beregapten (5- methoxy psoralen)
from oil of bergamot155. Psora/ea corlifolia and Amni majus have been tested to
treat depigmented areas of the skin in India and Egypt respectively.
1. 7 .3.3 Hair effectiveness
The appearance of the hair is a feature of the body over which humans, unlike
all other mammals, has direct control. One can modify the length, color and
style of hair according to wish to appear. Hair care, color, and style play an
important role in person's physical appearance and self-perception. Among the
earliest forms of hair cosmetic procedures in ancient Egypt were hair setting by
the use of mud and hair coloring with henna.
Shampooing is by far the most frequent form of cosmetic hair treatment. While
shampoos have primarily been products aimed at cleaning the hair and scalp.
Current formulations are adapted to the variations associated with hair quality,
hair care habit, and specific problems such as treatment of oily hairs156,
dandruff157 and for androgenic alopecia related to the superficial condition of the
scalp158.
Cosmetics for the treatment of hair are applied topically to the scalp and hair
while they can never be used for therapeutic purposes; they must not be
harmful! to the skin and scalp, hair and to the mucous membranes and should
be nontoxic. A patented shampoo composition is reported to clean the hair and
scalp without causing any damage to the fragile biological equilibrium of the
scalp and hair159• A haircare cosmetic composition comprising synthetic
ingredients with a nonallergenic dry extract of yarrow (Achillea millefolium) has
been patented, prepared from oxidation of a water- alcohol solution extract of
76 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
flower tops of yarrow. The extract contains less than 0.5% by weight of
polyphenolic derivatives and is used for the treatment of hair, particularly in oily
hairs 156•
The other functional ingredients include butcher's broom, chamomile, vitamin E,
antioxidants - vitamins A, C and E, green tea (Marticaria chamomilla), tiare
flower, Ginkgo biloba, cucumber, calendula and a-bisabolol (an active
constituent of chamomile) to calm irritated skin. A key ingredient in the eye
lifting moisture cream, that treats puffiness, irritation, and also protects against
future skin damage is yeast which helps to plump up the wrinkles. The eye
wrinkle cream helps forestall the signs of aging and generally contains wheat
germ and corn oil, squalene and carrot extract. Eye firming fluid has aosain, an
algae extract from seaweed that helps the skin to maintain elasticity.
1.7.4 Need
As discussed previously that India is the birthplace of renewed system of
indigenous medicine such as Siddha, Ayurveda and Unani and enriched with
flora and therefore plants have been used since ancient times for the simple
remedies and became popular. The physician of the traditional medicines in
different parts of India and local believer (base on traditional used) always tried
to utilize the local plants as cosmetics for the maintenance of skin appearances
as well as to maintain their beauty.
• Selection can be done easily based on recognized natural system of
cosmetic by referring to well recognized, validated and well accepted
books on natural system of medicines as well as cosmetics, where the
safety and effects are time tested.
77 ij ClL\P"ffiR 1 1
• Selection of plants in present study is based on new claim and
discoveries mentioned in the research review.
Following criteria for the selection of herbal cosmetics-
• 80% of the world populations still depend on natural products.
• It is in line with nature without hazardous reactions.
• Many of these having some scientific as well as traditional evidences
that are based on experiment data on animals and ethno botanical
survey.
1. 7.5 Benefits
• It helps to cleanse and purify the body without the side effects.
• It normalizes the body functions.
• It is extremely nutritional, high contents in vitamins and minerals.
• It raises the energy level of the body.
• It stimulates the body immune system.
• It works synergistically with the body and without disturbing inherent
physiology of the body.
• Variety of phytoconstituents could be used.
1.7.6 Limitations
• At present poor scientific justification.
• More susceptible to microbial and inorganic contamination.
• Poor stability.
• Poor organoleptic properties.
• Low efficacy.
78
• Substantial identity of herbs.
• Multi phytoconstituents evaluation is hard-hitting.
• Staining at the site of applications may occur.
• High dose is required.
• Limited incorporation of naturals.
1.7.7 Advantages
However, in developing countries, the use of easily accessible, low cost herbal
products are still continued, along with modern agents in the form of
biotechnologically produced extracts and isolated effective components. Lately
there has been a revival of interest in the use of herbal cosmetics because of
observed and proven efficacy of natural oil like almond, sesame, mustered and
many herbs like Aloe vera, Curcuma /onga, Melaleuca alternifolia, Sesamum
indicum, Santa/urn album, Lavendula angustifolia, Embellica officina/e.
Pomegranatum as paste or face mask. Because of the fact that herbal
cosmetics are free from serious toxic effect associated with synthetic agents
e.g. Butyl methoxy dibenzoyl methane (BMDBM), bezophenone,
phenylbenzimidazole and sulfonic acid, whidh are found to be allergic and free
radical generator and may be natural cause of aging 16o-161.
The synthetic cosmetic ingredients protect the skin from extrinsic aging
process, but they may produce other kinds of damage. A number of studies
suggest that the use of sunscreens may actually increase their risk of
melanoma because they spend too much time in the sun. Serious side effects
79 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
like interference with normal sexual development, ooze, rashes, burning and
pus in hair follicles etc. observed with synthetic sunscreen 162"163
•
The profile of various plant extracts and oils 164.181 used in cosmetics and toiletry
preparations as, hair care 182-207 and skin care208
"262 as antiaging ingredients as
cosmeceutical are shown in Table 1T-6-1T-8.
Table 1 T -6: Profile of cosmetically active plant extracts and oils
Extracts , Application Efficacy Reference
Green tea Skin tumor Protective 164
Polypodtum leucotomos Eryhemal skin Protective aginst UV 165-166 phototoxiity induced damages
Epigallocatechin Skin tumor Protective 167
Silymarin (ThisHe herb) Edema sunburn Protective 168
Cysteine derivative UV induced binding of epidermal Protective 169 biomacromolecules
Melatonin Erythemal skin Protective 169-170
Superoxide dismutase Skin wrinkle, erythematic ski~ Protective 171-172 Bitidus extract
Wheat germ oil Aged skin Antioxidant and antiaging 173
Rosa canina Erythemal and aged skin Antioxidant as source of 174 ascorbic acid
C. asiatica Aged and photoirradiated skin Antioxidant Elastin and 175 collagenase inhibitor
MafpMg1a punicifofia Erythemal skin Antioxidant and skin 176 protective
Fagopyrum Loose skin Antifree radical and 177 histamine inhibitor
Eucalyptus sambucus Erythemal skin Antffree radical 178
Sophora japonica Erythemal skin Antifree radical 179
Syzygium aromaticum Erythemal skin and aged Skin Protect collagenase activity 180
Gennanium thumbergii Erythemal skin and aged Skin Protect collagenase activity 180
Chamaemelum nobile Topical Antiinflammatory and 181
antihy/uronidase
80 ~ CHAPTER11
~ § ~
Table 1T-7: Profile of cosmetically active plats used for hair care
Plant Source Plant Activity Use Reference part
Aloe A. vera Leaf Moisturizing Emolhency 182-183
Ami a £mbflca Fruits Prevents grayness Hair care 184-185 officina/is and Anti stress
Bhringraj Ecfipta alba Entire Promoting hair growth Hair oil as 186-187 herb strengthening
Brahmi B.monneri Entire Hair strenthining and Hair promoting and 188-189 herb antioxidant cooling
China rose Hibiscus Flower Improves hair Prevents premature 166/190 rosasinensis greyness
Gotukola C. asiatica Entire Hair strengthening Hair promoting cooling 191-195 herb and antioxidant and darkening Lemon
Citrus limon Peel Conditioning Prevents hair loss 196-198 Peel
Neem A. indica Leaf Ant fatigue Hair growth and 199-202 HaJr promoting antidandruff
Orange Citrus Peel Soaps, Shampoos
203 aurantium Conditioning
Shikakai Aconcina Pod Detergency Cleansing 202 Antidandruff
Baheda Terminalia Fruit Hair tanning Halrtonic 203-205 belerica
Benjamin Moringa oteifera Seed Scalp strengthen Hair oils 203
Chamomile Marticaria Flower Antioxidant Hair tonic 203-206 chamomffla
Fenugrick T. gracecum Seed Improves hair, Washing Shampoo 203-204 Conditioning and massage oils
Henna Lawsonia alba Leaf Hair growth Natural dye and 205 Natural conditioner
Soap wort Sapindus Frwt Natural detergent Washing Shampoos 205 trifoliatus
Til Sesamum Seed Hair tonic Check hair fall 206 indicum
Wheat Triticum Germ Vit- E Scalp strengthen and
207 germ sativum Improves hair
81 ~ CHAPTER11
~ t:l
9 0 z
Table 1T-8: Modern plats widely used in Skin care cosmetics
Plant Source Plant Activity Use Reference part
Aloe Aloe vera leaf Moisturizer, Emollient Protective, Sun
208-210 and antioxidant screen,
Beetle nut A. catechu Seed Anthy!uronidase Antiaging and
211-213 anti elastase firmimg agent
Psorolea Antigranulating, Pigmenting agent
Bavchi Seed and melanin spot 214-217 corylifolia Keratinocyte inhibitor
formation
Carrot Daucus carota Seed Ant1oxida nt Natural source of Vit
218 A ProtectiVe
Chakramard Cassia tora Seed Antifungal and Nourishing and
219-225 antioxidant moisturizer
Marticaria Antoxidant Skin cleanser Chamomile Flower 226
chamomi/la Detergency Antiaging
Cobras Mesua ferrea
saffron Flower Astringent Coloring agent 227
Entire Antioxidant, Antiaging and
Gotukola C. asiatica firmimg agent and 228-231 herb antiproliferative
red
Garlic Allium sativum Promotes skin
Bulb Antibacterial 232 healing
Green tea Thea viridis Leaves Antioxidant Rejuvenator 233-235
Hard a Terminalia
chebula Fruit Astrmgent Skin tenner 235-236
Pongamia Antibacterial and Extemally for skin
Karanj Seed disorders and UV 237-238 glabra antifunga~
protective
Glycyrrlliza Liquorice
glabra Root
Anti inflammatory and
antioxidant
Decrease
pigmentation and 239-240
cooling effects
Manjistha Rubia cordifolia Root Wound healing lighten pigment 241
Marigold Calendula
officina/is Flower
Anti-inflammatory,
Antiseptic Skin care 242-244
Nagarmotha Cyperos
Roots rotundus
Suntan, Astringent Skin care 245
Azadirachta Antiseptic and Neem leaf Reduce dark spots 246-248
indica Antibacterial
82 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
~ § ~
Oat Avena sativa Fruit Moisturizer, Skin tonic 249
Citrus Skin protective 250 Orange Peel Anti acne, Anti bacteria
aurantium creams,
Passion Passiflora Emollients, 251 Seed Antioxidant
flower incamata Protective on skin
Pleasure oil Came/ina
Seed Antioxidant Emollients 251 sativa
Entire Skin diseases and Spurge Herb Euphorbia hirta Antiinfective 252
herb Cracked lips
Ocimum Entire Antibacterial and 253-254 Tulsi Decrease dark. spots
sanctum herb antiseptic
Turmeric Curcuma longa Rhizom Anti bacterial, Anti Pigmenting agent
254-255 microbial and antiaging
Pterocarpus Astringent, cooling, Scar remover
Sandal santalinus Wood deodorant and ant1acne, contact 256-258
disinfectant, dermatitis
Triticum Antioxidant and Natural source of Vit Wheat gemn Germ 259
sativum antibacterial E
Zizyphus Zizyphus jujuba Fruit anti-infective Skin care 260-261
Rosemary Rosemarinus Antioxidant and Flower Antiaging 262
extract officina/is antimicrobial
1.8 Objective
Many of the world's popular cosmetics brands entered the Indian market in the
1990s as the Indian market opened up to foreign companies. The cosmetics
and personal care industry has been growing at an average rate of 15-20
percent for the last few years. Growth has come mainly from the low and
medium-priced categories, which account for 90 percent of the cosmetics
market in terms of volume. Even though mass-market products still constitute
the major portion of the India cosmetics and toiletries market, increased
disposable income has led to growth in demand for premium products.
The urban population in particular, with its rising purchasing power, is the main
force that drives the demand for various cosmetic products in India. The
83 ~ CHAPTER 1 1
reasons for the growing demand for cosmetic products in India also include
greater product choice and availability.
Even with double-digit growth rates, the market penetration of cosmetics and
toiletries products in India is very low. Current per capita expenditure on
cosmetics is approximately $0.68 cents, as compared to $36.65 in other Asian
countries. This low market penetration for cosmetics and personal care
products in India can be viewed as an opportunity for more significant growth
down the road in this country of more then 1 billion people.
The current size of India's cosmetic and toiletries market is about $950 million.
The global market for natural personal care product only for skin and hair is
around 2.8 billion $and total Indian cosmetic market is about one thousand cr.
Around three billions people realizes blindly on herbal cosmetics because of the
non-polluting, renewable resources and hope for sustainable supplies of
cheaper products for world growing population. Approximately 80% of the
cosmetic product in the market are illegal, risk to consumer and fooled by
substantial claims. The herbal cosmetics have own way of caring but it needs
quality assurance.
These utility products are used extensively throughout the world for maintaining
and improving general appearance of body. Cosmetics alone are not sufficient
to take care of skin and body parts, it require association of active substances
so the herbal cosmetics are now emerged as the appropriate solution for such
formulations. The use of herbs in cosmetic formulation also serves the care of
body apart from cosmetic effects because the botanical ingredients also
influence biological function of skin.
84 ~ CHAPTER I 1
India has a great wealth of traditional knowledge and wisdom and richest in
terms of mineral resources and having naturally occurring varieties of herbs
with ingredients of proven cosmetic value. To benefit from the present global
advancement and regulatory guidelines of developed country in the field of
herbal technology regarding safety, purity, identity and efficacy of cosmetic
products will play a key role in the development and study of quality control
parameters for creating wealth to make country for globally competitive in an
increasingly technologically sophisticated world.
The objective of research was based on the utilization of scientific technology
for the development and evaluation of herbal formulation free from serious toxic
effect associated with synthetic agents for safety and quality control parameters
in the area of cosmetics. The selected herbs Cassia torra, G/ycyrriza glabra,
Centella asiatica, Aloe vera, Punica granatum, Psoro/ea cory/ifo/ia, Areca
catechu and Curcuma tonga have proven their effectiveness for the cosmetic
purposes like antiaging, sunprotective, moistening, cleanse, disinfectant,
soothe, heal, lubricate, stimulate and refine the skin. Ethano/ic extracts of these
herbs were used as such or in combination with other natural ingredients to
perform all the functions of cosmetics as similar to commercial marketed
cosmetics with inherent benefits of the natural agents as gentler and more
effective then modern day cosmetic with chemicals.
This research work provided vast information about potentiality of herbal
cosmetic and enhances the utilization of popular herbs in national and
international market.
I
85 ~ CIIAPfER 1 1
1.9 PLAN OF WORK
1 Literature Review
2. Selection of herbs
• Procurement and collection of herbs
• Identification of herbs
• Preparation of the Extracts
• Evaluation of the Extracts
3. Selection of formulation
• Cream
• Lotion
• Shampoo
4. Preparation and selection of bases
• Natural base
• Alternative base
5. Formulation preparation
6. Evaluation of formulations
• Physicochemical, Microbiological and psychometric parameters
• In-vitro
• Physiological evaluation
• In-vivo studies
•Biochemical
• Histological
7. Patent Filing.
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