Living with RiskLiving with Risk · International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Living with...

Geneva, July 2002Prepared as an inter-agency effort coordinated by the ISDR Secretariat with

special support from the Government of Japan, the World Meteorological Organization and the Asian Disaster Reduction Center (Kobe, Japan)

I S D RInternational Strategy

for Disaster Reduction

Living with RiskLiving with RiskA global review of disaster

reduction initiativesA global review of disaster

reduction initiatives

Preliminary version

United Nations WMO

EDR U R CE TT IOS

NAS I C

D E NN TA EI S RA

NOTE

This edition of "Living with Risk. A global review of disaster reduction initiatives" is a preliminary version of afinal publication, which will be published early 2003. The final revised version will consider comments receivedand will track further developments in risk and disaster reduction thinking. It will also elaborate more on thoseregions not fully addressed in this preliminary issue. It will propose a systematic and continuing process to moni-tor progress in this field. Comments, corrections and additional information are all welcomed and can be sent tothe ISDR Secretariat by 30 September, 2002, for them to be considered. Related information is available on a ref-erence database maintained by the ISDR Secretariat, and soon available online at: www.unisdr.org

The final version will contain a full thematic index, yet not available.

Please send comments and feedback to the ISDR Secretariat: [email protected] or [email protected], or by mail tothe ISDR Secretariat (see address below).

This publication may be freely quoted or reprinted, but acknowledgement of the source is requested. The ISDR Secretariat would like to encourage the full utilization of this review and would appreciate

receiving a copy of any publication containing quotation or reprint of material from this report.

DISCLAIMERThe views expressed in this publication are those of the review team and do not necessarily

reflect the views of the United Nations Secretariat.

The designations employed and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the UN Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country,

territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Copyright © United Nations, 2002.All rights reserved.

Geneva, Switzerland.

United NationsInter-Agency Secretariat

International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR)Palais des Nations

CH-1211 Geneva 10, [email protected]

www.unisdr.orgTel: (41-22) 917-2759Fax: (41-22) 917-0563

Cover design: Mario BarrantesBased on the World Map of Natural Hazards, by MünichRe

Table of ContentsAcknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

CChhaapptteerr 11 LLiivviinngg wwiitthh rriisskk - ffooccuuss oonn ddiissaasstteerr rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..991.1 Setting the scene - understanding disaster risk reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111.2 Contexts and processes linked to disaster risk reduction: sustainable development . . . . . . .26

CChhaapptteerr 22 RRiisskk aawwaarreenneessss aanndd aasssseessssmmeenntt .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..33992.1 Understanding the nature of risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412.2 Emerging trends in disaster impact, hazards and vulnerability patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482.3 Risk assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

CChhaapptteerr 33 PPoolliiccyy aanndd ppuubblliicc ccoommmmiittmmeenntt:: tthhee ffoouunnddaattiioonn ooff ddiissaasstteerr rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..77993.1 Institutional frameworks: Policy, legislation and organizational development for

national and local decision-making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .813.2 Regional cooperation, interaction and experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1133.3 Community action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141

CChhaapptteerr 44 BBuuiillddiinngg uunnddeerrssttaannddiinngg:: ddeevveellooppmmeenntt ooff kknnoowwlleeddggee aanndd iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn sshhaarriinngg .. .. .. ..1155334.1 Information management and communication of experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1554.2 Education and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1784.3 Public awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188

CChhaapptteerr 55 AA sseelleeccttiioonn ooff ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn aapppplliiccaattiioonnss .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..2200335.1 Environmental management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2055.2 Land use planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2215.3 Protection of critical facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2315.4 Networking and partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2455.5 Financial and economic tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2535.6 Early warning systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261

CChhaapptteerr 66 RReellaatteedd iinntteerrnnaattiioonnaall ccoommmmiittmmeennttss aanndd tthhee UUNN rroollee iinn ddiissaasstteerr rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn .. .. ..2288556.1 Selected international development agendas and commitments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2876.2 UN agencies and scope of activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301

CChhaapptteerr 77 CChhaalllleennggeess ffoorr tthhee ffuuttuurree .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..332255

AAnnnneexxeess .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..3333551. Terminology: Basic terms of disaster risk reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3372. Directory: International, regional, national and specialized organizations involved in

disaster reduction and related issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3433. List of acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3654. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375

Additional specific reference are available at the www.unisdr.org website,including the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action and the ISDR background paper for the World Summit on Sustainable Development: Disaster Reduction and Sustainable Development: understanding the

links between vulnerability and risk related to development and environment

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe ISDR Secretariat gratefully acknowledges the many individual and institutional contributions for the global review of dis-aster reduction initiatives received from around the world.

The material in this review was drawn from special ISDR studies carried out by regional partner organizations, solicitedinputs from UN agencies, experts and individuals, and from publicly available information. In addition, a questionnaire wascirculated by the Secretariat to all countries for self-assessment of their institutional and policy development, risk assessmentsand planning for disaster risk reduction. Valuable contributions were also made by members of the Inter-Agency Task Forceon Disaster Reduction. Additional contributions have been provided by participants in the on-line debate, held in preparationfor the World Summit on Sustainable Development, organized by the NGO network Multi Stakeholder Forum for Our Com-mon Future and the ISDR Secretariat during May, 2002 (see: www.earthsummit2002.org).

An Advisory Panel comprising experts from around the world (see below) met twice to provide guidance for the preparationof the report.

FundingSpecial appreciation is extended to the Government of Japan, the Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC) and the WorldMeteorological Organization (WMO) who kindly contributed funds and resources for the realisation of this project. Addi-tional ISDR resources were drawn from contributions received from the Governments of Austria, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland,Germany, Iceland, the Philippines, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, and from the World Bank.

Regional contributors• Central America: Coordination Center for the Prevention of Natural Disasters in Central America (CEPREDENAC), with

supplementary input from North America• Andean nations: Andean Development Corporation (CAF) Disaster Prevention Programme (PREANDINO), with supple-

mentary input from South America• Caribbean: Caribbean Disaster and Emergency Response Agency (CDERA) • Asia: Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) with supplementary input from ADRC, Japan, Iran and Kazakhstan• Pacific island states: South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC)• Southern Africa: Disaster Mitigation for Sustainable Livelihoods Programme (DiMP) , University of Cape Town, with sup-

plementary input on the Horn of Africa and North Africa• Central Europe: Central European Disaster Prevention Forum (CEUDIP) • Europe: European Directorate General Joint Research Centre (JRC) with additional contributions from Germany and

Switzerland.

Advisory PanelGerhard Berz , Member of Executive Management, MunichRe, GermanyIan Davis, former Professor at University of Cranfield, UKCorazón de León , former Chair, Civil Service Commission, Government of the PhilippinesClaude de Ville de Goyet, former Chief of the Disaster Preparedness Program, PAHO/WHO, Washington D.C.Robert Hamilton, International Council for Science (ICSU) and National Academies, USA. Isabelle Milbert , Professor, University Institute for Development Studies (IUED), Geneva , SwitzerlandEvans A. Mukolwe , Director Coordinator, Scientific and Technical Programmes, WMO, GenevaSatoru Nishikawa, Executive Director, ADRC, Kobe, Japan

Individual contributorsThe ISDR Secretariat thanks all those individuals, country and agency representatives who have provided contributions orcomments and who have helped in reviewing the current preliminary text of this review. The list is long and not all are men-tioned by name. Special thanks are extended to Kenzo Oshima, UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs,whose encouragement and support throughout the process have been very valuable, and to Professor Denis Martin Benn,former interim Director of the ISDR Secretariat, who launched the idea of a global review on disaster reduction initiativesin 2001.

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Bastien Affeltranger, FranceTom Alcedo, CARE, IndiaMargaret Arnold, DMF, World Bank, Washington D.C.Andrea Athanas, Shell Global Solutions Yasemin Aysan, UNDP, GenevaDjillali Benour, University of Bab Ezzour, AlgeriaNeil Britton, New ZealandJohn Campbell, University of Waikato, New ZealandBarbara Carby, ODPEM, Jamaica Ed Clay, ODI, UKHe Changchui, FAO, Rome Jeremy Collymore, CDERA, BarbadosLouise Comfort, University of Pittsburg, USA Claude De Ville de Goyet, PAHO, Washington D.C.Amod Dixit, NSET, Nepal Norberto Fernandez, UNEP, NairobiDaria Ferrari, OCHA, GenevaHenry Gaudru, Société Volcanologique Européenne, FranceMohsen Ghafory-Ashtiany, IIEES, IranJohann Goldammer, GFMC, Germany Robert Hamilton, National Research Council, National

Academies, USAMaria Hartl, former DAW/UNDESA, New YorkTom Harrer, Mozambique Ailsa Holloway, University of Cape Town, South Africa Kari Juhani Keipi, IADB, Washington D.C.Sylvester Kalonge, USAID, Zambia Kamal Kishore, ADPC, ThailandAllan Lavell, FLACSO and LA RED, Costa RicaAlessandro Loretti, WHO, Geneva Kirsi Madi, UNICEF, GenevaJean-Pierre Massue, EUR-OPA Major Hazards, Council of

Europe, Strassbourg, FranceAlan Mearns, SOPAC, FijiStefan Micallef, UNEP, NairobiTanya Miquilena de Corrales, PREANDINO/CAF,

VenezuelaStuart Mustow, Hazards Forum, UKJaromir Nemec, CEUDIP, Czech RepublicAli Neumann, SDC/PREVAC, Nicaragua

Christopher Newhall, University of Washington, USASaturo Nishikawa, ADRC, Kobe, JapanToshiyasu Noda, former Disaster Preparedness Office,

Cabinet Office, JapanEva von Oelreich, IFRC, GenevaKenji Okazaki, UNCRD, Kobe, JapanBrett Orlando, IUCN, Switzerland Mary Otto-Chang, York Centre for Applied Sustainability,

CanadaDennis Parker, Middlesex University, UKJean Luc Poncelet, PAHO, Washington D.C.Carlos Manuel Rodríguez Otero, Instituto de Planificación

Física, CubaTim Radford, UKBadaoui Rouhban, UNESCO, ParisJack Rynn, AustraliaJohn Scott, USARajib Shaw, UNCRD, Kobe, JapanJan Sheltinga, UNCCD secretariat, BonnJosephine Shields, IFRC, GenevaOwen Shumba, SAFIRE, ZimbabweAnil Sinha, National Centre for Disaster Management, IndiaFranz Stoessel, PLANAT, SwitzerlandKen Sudo, JICA, Japan, Institute of Seismology, KazakhstanJason Switzer, IISD, Geneva, SwitzerlandPablo Torrealba, CEPREDENAC, Panama Christopher Tucker, OCIPEP, CanadaJaime Valdés, UN-HABITAT, GenevaDewald Van Niekerk, African Centre for Disaster Studies,

South Africa Ana Lisa Vetere A., European Commission, JRC, ItalyCarlos Villacis, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard

University, USAFlorian Wieneke, CubaDonald Wilhite, National Drought Center, University of

Nebraska, USAZheng Yuan-Chang, National Committee ISDR, ChinaKarl-Otto Zentel, DKKV, GermanyDave Zervaas, CRID, Costa Rica

Replies to the ISDR questionnaire on disaster reduction were received from: Angola, Armenia, Bangladesh, Bahrain, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Cambodia, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Cook Islands,Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Guam, Honduras,India, Ireland, Israel, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Laos, Lebanon, Lithuania, Madagascar, Maldives, Mali, Marshall Islands, Mexi-co, Monaco, Mongolia, Nauru, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Salomon Islands, Samoa, SriLanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tonga, Tunisia, Turkey, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Viet Nam, Zimbabwe.

The production team for the global review ISDR Secretariat: Mohamed Abchir, Pedro Basabe, Marie-Lou Darricau, John Harding, Abdullahi Majeed, Helena Molin Valdés (editorial and project coordination), Marianne Muller, Elina PalmMain consultants: Terry Jeggle, Haris Sanahuja, Carmen SchlosserSpecial advisor: Ian DavisEditorial support/proof reading: Michelle Katz, Fabien Nathan, Cristian NitschDesign and layout: Mario Barrantes Züniga

Other current and former ISDR Secretariat staff contributed in many different ways:Christine Alessi, Nicole Appel, Sálvano Briceño (ISDR Director), Stephanie Boubault, Astrid Gallecier, Elena Dokhlik, Sam Hammond,Susanne Jacobsen, Francesco Pisano, Christel Rose, Etsuko Tsunozaki

Photos: ADRC, ISDR Secretariat, MünichRe, PAHO, GFMC

FOREWORD

In recent years the world has witnessed an interminable succession of disasters -- floods, storms,earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions and wildfires that have claimed many thousands of lives, causedmaterial losses in the tens of billions of dollars, and inflicted a terrible toll on developing countries in particu-lar, where disasters divert attention and resources needed desperately to escape poverty.

Communities will always face natural hazards, but today's disasters are often generated by, or at leastexacerbated by, human activities. At the most dramatic level, human activities are changing the natural bal-ance of the earth, interfering as never before with the atmosphere, the oceans, the polar ice caps, the forestcover and the natural pillars that make our world a livable home. But we are also putting ourselves in harm'sway in less visible ways. At no time in human history have so many people lived in cities clustered around seis-mically active areas. Destitution and demographic pressure have led more people than ever before to live inflood plains or in areas prone to landslides. Poor land-use planning; environmental mismanagement; and alack of regulatory mechanisms both increase the risk and exacerbate the effects of disasters.

Living with risk: a global review of disaster reduction is the first comprehensive effort by the Unit-ed Nations system to take stock of disaster reduction initiatives throughout the world. Coordinated by thesecretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), the report discusses current disastertrends, assesses policies aimed at mitigating the impact of disasters, and offers examples of successful initia-tives. It also recommends that risk reduction be integrated into sustainable development at all levels - global,national and local.

Most of all, Living with risk shows that we are far from helpless in the face of natural hazards. Earlywarning and risk reduction measures have been important factors in helping to reduce significantly the num-ber of people who lose their lives to disasters. New planning and forecasting tools are helping to mitigate thedevastation regularly wrought by floods. We can and must build a world of resilient communities and nations.I hope that this publication reaches the widest possible readership and rouses the international community todo its utmost to better equip people everywhere for life in our hazard-filled planet.

Kofi A. AnnanSecretary-GeneralJuly, 2002

UNITED NATIONS NATIONS UNIES

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IntroductionThis is a preliminary version of Living with Risk - a global review of disaster reduction circulated for consulta-tion. It includes a compilation of initiatives and reference information. It focuses on disaster risk reduction asenvisioned in the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. Therefore, it does not discuss specific expe-riences of disaster preparedness, response or recovery. It is intended for practitioners in disaster management,environmental and sustainable development, to provide guidance, policy orientation and inspiration.

It is a first effort to collect and systematise information on disaster risk reduction initiatives, by illustrating thefull range of activities and some of the many actors involved. While it is still limited geographically, it has thegoal to reach common understanding of the issues.

The review is based on examples of activities and various applications, identifying trends where possible. Itstarts with the important contexts of sustainabledevelopment surrounding disaster risk reduction,followed by a chapter on risk trends and assessment.Sections then describe some of the different elementsof disaster risk reduction illustrated from global,regional and national examples. Policy and institu-tional frameworks; knowledge and informationmanagement; and the application of specific meas-ures, such as environmental management, land useplanning, engineering protection of critical facilities,financial tools and early warning systems are high-lighted elements. A section on relevant internationalagendas and the role of the different parts of theUnited Nations involved with disaster risk reductionprovides for fuller understanding of the linksbetween them. Finally, the report outlines some ofthe challenges for the future by suggesting the needfor setting specific targets and monitoring progress. The report provides users with reference material and adirectory of many international, national and educational organizations dedicated to risk reduction.

Some development organizations have published reports and adopted policies to address disaster risk in thecontext of development. These are valuable tools and help increase public and political interest in risk reduc-tion and the objectives of ISDR. For example, in 2001, UNDP prepared a vulnerability risk index for leastdeveloped countries and is currently preparing a World Vulnerability Report, which focuses on the links betweendevelopment and disasters. UNEP has released the Global Environmental Outlook, GEO3, in 2002 prior to theWorld Summit for Sustainable Development, which includes a thorough analysis of environmental changeand vulnerability with a special section on disasters. In its reports for 2001 and 2002, the World Bank analysedthe relations between environment, poverty and natural disasters. The International Federation of Red Crossand Red Crescent Societies publishes its World Disasters Report annually. This year 2002, the focus is on reduc-ing risk.

Yet, a comprehensive and systematic review of ongoing initiatives is still lacking. The elaboration of a com-prehensive framework to measure disaster risk reduction efforts over time, which could set the ground fordeveloping specific risk reduction targets and thereby contribute to enhancing capacities in governments andcommunities is also needed. This review is a step in that direction, inviting consultation and partnership.

In recent years, there has been a major conceptu-al shift in how people seek to cope with disastersfrom natural hazards. While humanitarianresponse capacities are vital and need continuedattention, the focus on addressing risk underlinesthe recognition that human interventiondesigned to reduce the vulnerability of commu-nities and assets can reduce the impact of disas-ters. Gradually environmental and developmentstakeholders are becoming more involved in themanagement of risk and vulnerability reductiondue to its close interaction with natural resourcesmanagement.

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PrefaceA journey to a safer world

Living with risk – disaster reduction strategy

A disaster reduction strategy is a global challenge today and for the future. It involves every humancommunity, and almost every human endeavour. It also involves almost every physical phenomenonon the planet, from the high stratosphere to the abyssal depths.

The challenge of a disaster reduction strategy – and the theme of this review – is to find a way tolive with these phenomena, rather than die from them. The earthly powers are not just a fact of life,but one side of the coin of a good life anda “natural” disaster is only a disasterbecause people happened to be in the way– or had no other choice – and were caughtunawares when it happened.

The UN International Decade for Natur-al Disaster Reduction (IDNDR), 1990-99, was a decade dedicated to promotingsolutions to reduce risk from natural haz-ards. At the doorstep of the new millenni-um, the decade ended with more deathsfrom more disasters, involving greater eco-nomic losses and more human dislocationand suffering than when it began. Butcould dedicating one decade to the topic beexpected to solve the consequences of cen-turies of mismanagement and of passivefatalism before the vagaries of nature?

What the IDNDR put in motion was anirreversible and beneficial political andsocial process. That is what this review andthe International Strategy for DisasterReduction will build upon: foster moreawareness, more public commitment, moreknowledge and partnerships to implementrisk reduction measures of all kinds, at alllevels.

Earthly powers that offer wealth – and hazard

This is the paradox of a living planet: The earthlypowers that create wealth and fuel human securitycan also destroy it, depending on the ability ofhumankind to cope and to live with risk.

The subterranean violence beneath the famousPacific “ring of fire” also created the sublimelandscapes of Japan and Kamchatka, Sumatra andNew Zealand, from Alaska, Seattle and PugetSound to San Francisco, Valparaiso and Tierra delFuego.

The heat of the sun evaporates the top metre ormore of all the oceans of the world, every year. Italso drives powerful winds, and clouds that carrytorrential rain. At intervals the swollen rivers floodand deposit rich silt on what geographers callflood plains and farmers call fertile soil. In time,such wind and rain will erode all mountains, andremove the differences that drive regional cli-mates. Fortunately, the process of mountain build-ing goes on, accompanied, of course, by earth-quakes that lift bedrock towards the skies and vol-canic discharges that deliver new minerals to thesoil and new moisture to the air.

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A more vulnerable world

The trend shows increasing losses from disasters (see chapter 2). The reason is both simple andcomplex – it has to do with how people and societies are becoming more vulnerable. Although thefrequency of dramatic natural events may be constant, human activities contribute to theirincreased intensity. It depends on development practices, environmental protection, regulatedgrowth of cities, distribution of people and wealth in the safest places, and government structures.Human activity also has an impact on the planet’s climate, which will result in increased sea lev-els and potential disasters.

The number of people at risk has been growing by 70 to 80 million per year. More than 90 percent of population growth is in the developing world, among people with the smallest share ofresources and the biggest burden of exposure to disasters.

In theory, natural hazards, including earthquakes, floods, drought, storms, tropical cyclones andhurricanes, storm, wildfire, tsunami, volcanic eruptions and avalanches, can threaten everyone. Inpractice, proportionally, they tend to hurt the poor most of all. This is because the poor outnum-ber the rich, and live in greater density in more poorly built housing on land most at risk.

The price of life, like the price of liberty, is constant vigilance. Natural hazards are constant threats.But every year the potential loss to life and livelihood soars as people converge in cities, where nowhalf of the people of the planet live. With the growth of the cities, and population, come changesin the landscape – and the disruption of natural ecosystems.

Hillsides are cleared of trees for building materials andfirewood, but not replanted. Wetlands are drained tomake space for new housing or workplaces. Rivers areengineered to follow unnatural routes. But with no trees,there is more erosion, and more silt to clog the rivers. Allof these things make landslides, floods or drought morelikely – and when they happen, more devastating.

People who have to struggle every day just to survive donot have the time or the strength to worry about more dis-tant environmental and natural hazards. So a disasterreduction strategy is inseparable from social and econom-ic development, and from thoughtful environmentalmanagement. These three things are at the heart of sus-tainable development.

A disaster reduction strategy must therefore be built onsustainable development policies, which take into accountthe potential risks for disasters and plan to reduce theserisks, involving everyone and providing not just help buthope.

“Imagine all the people…”

It would be quite possible to imagine a community or even a nation that lived with a regard fornature, despite its hazards, thanks to a coherent disaster risk reduction strategy in place.

Housing would be built out of appropriate materials, adapted to local conditions and according tobuilding codes. Its houses, hospitals, schools, markets, factories, government offices, power sup-plies and other critical services would be on the sites least exposed to risk.

Inhabitants would maintain forested or wetland areas as a form of natural flood control, as sourcesof local renewable revenue, and as security against other threats such as erosion and landslide.

People and government officials would be aware that a hazard that threatened one family or set-tlement would also be a threat to all. They would maintain a network of early warning and watch-fulness, linked to the experts who monitored weather signals or seismic instruments.

Elected or traditional leaders would have regular dia-logue not just with local, regional or national govern -ment officials and citizens, but also with the governmentagencies and scientists. Village councils would haveensured structures that serve as safe shelters in acyclone, or ground safe for livestock in the event offlood. Schools would teach children what to do when theriver rises, or the earth begins to shake. Farmers wouldhave granaries or fodder stores safe from storm andabove any likely flood level.

Health facilities would be safe, and health centres wouldwork with communities to reduce risk from disaster.Householders would have small but secure savings tohelp them through disruption caused by storm or inun-dation.

These communities would accept that information andcommunication were the most important elements of all.People would routinely listen to daily weather reports,and follow local political and economic debate throughradio, newspapers or television. Such communitieswould be more likely to shore up their own flooddefences, maintain their drainage or secure their ownhousing against destruction, by communal action. Leg-islators would understand that public safety was part oftheir obligation and administrators, of course, would beexpected to police such legislation.

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It is possible...

Safer communities, living with acceptable risk, doexist in, among other places, New Zealand, Cali-fornia, Japan, along the Gulf of Mexico andamong the low-lying coastal regions of westernEurope. All these regions are potentially vulnera-ble to natural hazard. All have suffered from theimpacts of major natural disasters but have metthem with lower loss of life and greater economicresilience. The difference is that these placesbelong to richer nations – rich enough to believethat life can and will always improve. Economicwealth is not the only factor in reducing risk.Political will and a communal sense of hope arepart of the collective protection against calamity.

Chile and Colombia have local disaster risk man-agement committees watching for future trouble.Bangladesh long ago established a local earlywarning system to alert the millions at risk whenfloods and tropical cyclones threaten. Safer fromthe hazards of weather or tectonic forces, peoplecan begin to build more economically secure livesfor themselves and their children.

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Journey to a safer world

This review, aimed mainly at practitioners as a guide and reference, is about how we cancontinue to develop a “culture of prevention”. It is a voyage of both discovery and redis-covery, about how human decisions increase or reduce vulnerability to natural hazards. Itillustrates lessons and experiences in disaster risk reduction. It explores the way in whichthe understanding of disaster management and risk has evolved over recent years. It takesaccount of the technologies of the future – the satellite sensors that might read telltalesigns of volcanic activity, seismic shift or collapsing hillsides days or weeks before anycatastrophe occurs, or telemetry that can monitor the build up of soil moisture in a water-shed that could serve as a warning of sudden flooding downstream.

Most of all, it looks at how societies organize themselves, how communities interact witheach other, how civic and national authorities respond to the challenges of natural hazard.It will explore the mosaic of interests, the kaleidoscope of attitudes and the network ofactors that must be mobilised towards risk reduction and disaster prevention, rather thanassessing the need for disaster relief.

It is, at bottom, about foreseeing danger and averting it. It will consider how warningsproceed from the work of technical specialists to the government authorities and fromthese to the people at risk. It will consider the political short-sightedness and the errors ofthinking – the increasing vulnerabilities and the unmet challenges – that turn enviromen-tal degradation, natural and technologyical hazards into social and economic disasters indifferent cultures and societies.

It will begin to explore the different strategies demanded by different kinds of human andenvironmental conditions. But it will also address a set of universal truths. Any disasterreduction strategy demands first of all political will to recognise and address the issues ofrisk. This calls for statesmanship rather than political shrewdness. This commitment mustthen be linked to national and local development planning and sustainable action.

It builds on an understanding that risk reduction and disaster prevention always make bet-ter economic sense than reliance on disaster relief. Although small groups cooperate spon-taneously because of immediate shared danger, larger societies need coherent legal obliga-tions and responsibilities that foster the involvement of the community, and the participa-tion of its people to face long term risks.

None of these things can happen without some form of public debate and education atevery level of society. It will require shared thinking at both international and regional lev-els because nations often share a forested terrain, or a river, or two sides of a mountainchain. Inevitably, they have a common interest in disaster prevention. It will also requirenew ways of looking at the landscape, with an eye not just to how it might be exploited butalso at the price it might exact for the wrong kind of exploitation.

Secure societies are those that have learned to live with their land, as well as from it. Dis-aster reduction strategies will have succeeded when people – governments, specialists,leaders and citizens – understand that a “natural disaster” is more a failure of foresight orevidence of their own neglected responsibility rather than the presumed consequence ofnatural forces or some other-worldly act of god.

1Chapter

9

Living with risk - focus on disaster risk reduction

11..11 SSeettttiinngg tthhee sscceennee - uunnddeerrssttaannddiinngg ddiissaasstteerrrriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn

11..22 CCoonntteexxttss aanndd pprroocceesssseess lliinnkkeedd ttoo ddiissaasstteerr rriisskkrreedduuccttiioonn:: ssuussttaaiinnaabbllee ddeevveellooppmmeenntt

EErruuppttiioonn ooff MMoouunntt AAgguunngg,, BBaallii,, IInnddoonneessiiaaInk painting by Ida Bagus Nyoman Rai (1915-1999)

Mount Agung is Bali’s highest and most sacred mountain. In 1963 it erupted for the first time in living memory. Entire vil-lages and temples were toppled or burned under the lava. Those more prepared saved their lives and escaped with only afew possessions.

1.1. Setting the scene – understanding disaster risk reduction

The power and drama associated with natural disasters have always fascinated people. Prior tothe widespread use of global communications, disasters seldom had the possibility to influencedecisions and events beyond the area of immediate impact. The initial reaction of people whowere not immediately affected by the tragedy was to organize urgent specialized services orother forms of help to respond to the needs of the victims.

This chapter intends to set the scene and discuss the strategic shift from disaster managementpractices towards an integrated disaster risk reduction approach in the context of sustainabledevelopment. Further discussion on trends in disaster impact, hazard and vulnerability is devel-oped in chapter two.

• Natural disasters shaping the agenda• The shift towards disaster reduction• Reducing the impact of disasters in practice • International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action• International Strategy for Disaster Reduction• Disaster risk reduction - a shared responsibility• Understanding the meaning of disaster risk reduction• The disaster risk reduction framework

11

1Living with risk - focus on disaster risk reduction

Central American countries that are yet torecover fully. This was followed one year laterby the worst cyclone in 100 years to hit theIndian state of Orissa, which affected ten timesas many people as Mitch, destroying 18,000villages in one night. The powerful typhoonLingling caused extensive damage and over500 fatalities in the Philippines and Viet Namat the end of 2001.

Floods of a previously unremembered scaleoccurred several times in the past 10 years; inChina, Bangladesh and Southern Africa, wherepeople had no recourse but to escape to safetyin trees. In 1999, Mexico experienced its worstfloods since 1600. Almost 300,000 people weremade homeless.

The trend during the last three decades showsan increase in the number of natural hazardevents and of affected populations. Eventhough the number of disasters has more thantripled since the 1970s, the reported death tollhas decreased to less than half (see graphicsnext page).

Natural ddisasters sshaping tthe aagenda

During the final years of the 1990s, severalpowerful natural disasters occurred in differentparts of the world, in countries large and small,industrialized or agrarian, technologicallysophisticated or traditionally focused. Thetypes of natural hazards that triggered thesedisasters varied from the seemingly unexpectedoccurrence of earthquakes, to more predictableseasonal floods and periodic storms.

Other less immediate and slowly evolving haz-ards such as drought and environmentaldegradation affected even more people withpotentially greater costs for their future. Morethan anything else, the media images of naturaldisasters at the close of the twentieth centuryunderscored the human consequences andsocial dimensions of these events.

One need only recall the power of hurricaneMitch that damaged up to 70 per cent of theinfrastructure in Honduras and Nicaragua in1998, devastating the economies of all of the

age was covered. For more information ontrends in disaster impact, see chapter two.

Generally, disaster statistics tend to be moreprecise on a smaller scale; in particular on thenational and regional level where the evalua-tion of damages is undertaken in a more sys-tematic manner, based on agreed methodolo-gies. However, this is not the case in all regionsand notably in Africa, where the lack of coher-ent disaster-related figures means the impact ofdisasters is highly underestimated. In addition,mega-disasters receive much media attentionand the setbacks that these events create in thedevelopment process are well noted, whilesome experts estimate that if the perniciouseconomic impact of the smaller, but recurrent,disasters were assessed, all of these figureswould be much higher.

Not appropriately reflected in these statisticsare the millions of poor people who have seentheir lives indirectly shattered by the economicimpact of the natural disasters, their ability toraise a modest income reduced or annihilatedand the prospect to escape poverty postponedindefinitely. These losses, modest in absoluteeconomic terms, are devastating at a social andsometimes political level.

There is a demand for reliable and systematicdata on disasters by the development sector toassess their socio-economic impact in the short

12

1 Living with Risk: A global review of disaster reduction initiatives

Despite losses of US$ 30 billion in 2000, anamount that must, unfortunately, be termedmoderate in comparison to the average ofannual losses during the past decade, both thenumber of major natural disasters and theircosts have increased rapidly in recent years.

In 2000, the insurance industry recorded 850major loss events in the world, one hundredmore than the previous record year in 1999.While the losses recorded in 2000 were lowerthan the US$ 100 billion incurred in 1999,they provide little comfort to the overall trendduring the past decade. Overall the 84 greatnatural disasters recorded in the 1990s werethree times as many as those that occurred inthe 1960s, whereas the combined economiclosses of US$ 591 billion were eight timesgreater than those of the 1960s.

Ten thousand people died in natural disastersin 2000, compared to more than 70,000 in theprevious year, or over 500,000 in the previousten years. These figures must be treated withcaution, as the social and economic cost of dis-asters is difficult to estimate. By and large,insurance claims tend to be misleading as anestimate of the economic impact of disasters.Considering insured damage claims for the1999 floods in Austria, Germany and Switzer-land, at least 42.5 per cent of damage was cov-ered by disaster insurance. But in Venezuelathe same year, only four per cent of flood dam-

Source: OOFDA/CRED IInternational ddisaster ddatabase, 22002Includes: drought, earthquake, epidemic, extreme temperature, famine, flood, industrial accident, insect infestation, miscellaneous accident,slide, transport accident, volcano, wave/surge, wild fire, wind storm

term and, even more importantly, in the longterm, if the consequences of the many smallerand unrecorded disasters could be taken intoaccount. While attempted in limited areas, apressing need remains to consistently docu-ment these incremental and often recurrentlosses that are continuously eroding the capac-ities of communities to grow and develop.

While hazards may induce a crisis, it is nowwidely understood that prevailing conditionswithin any group of people in a society candetermine the extent of their susceptibility orresilience to loss or damage. There is insightacross a growing number of professional fieldsand in some governments that different popu-lation segments can be exposed to greater rela-tive risks because of their socio-economic con-ditions of vulnerability. Because of this, disas-ter reduction has become increasingly associat-ed with practices that define efforts to achievesustainable development. Equally, as the possi-bility of human-induced influences on climatechange are better understood, the detrimentaleffects of forestry exploitation become evident,or the effectiveness of earlier engineering solu-tions for controlling natural phenomena arequestioned, the relationships between humanactions, environmental stewardship and disas-ter risks are becoming ever more crucial.

It is remarkable that disasters not only affectthe poor and traditionally vulnerable countriesbut also those thought well protected: Canada,

13


the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Poland,the United Kingdom and the United Statesexperienced record-setting floods in recentyears of such magnitude that previouslyaccepted procedures for protection and think-ing about the utility of structural barriers haveto be re-evaluated.

The extraordinarily heavy rainfall associatedwith hurricane Mitch caused a landslide at theCasita volcano in Nicaragua that was 18 kmlong and 3 km wide, and totally destroyedthree towns and killed more than 2,000 people.Torrential rains triggered the landslide ofdenuded and unstable slopes in Venezuela in1999 with more than 20,000 fatalities.

Less than two years later, one of the earth-quakes in El Salvador caused a landslide on aslope destabilized by deforestation and slopemining, burying almost 500 people living inill-placed communities that were probablycompromised at least in part by lax control ofbuilding regulations.

In 2001 similarly disastrous floods and mudslidescaused more than 800 fatalities, most extraordi-narily in the Algerian capital, Algiers. The mostsevere winter storms in a century swept throughCanada in 1998, through Western Europeancountries in 1999, and the following year inMongolia, with even greater loss of livelihoodsand longer-term consequences because of thedecimated flocks of nomadic herders.

Effects of hurricaneMitch in Tegucigalpa,Honduras, 1998

14


In the past three years, severe earthquakes in Colombia, Greece, India, Peru, Taiwan and Turkeyhave shaken previously complacent official views on building practices. El Salvador experiencedtwo major earthquakes within one month, one of them measuring 7.6 on the Richter scale, the sec-ond strongest in 90 years.

Meanwhile during 2001, persistent drought conditions eroded already fragile livelihoods inAfghanistan (which also experienced an earthquake in 1998 and 2002) and in several other coun-tries of Central Asia, in Eastern and Southern Africa, and in much of Central America. The con-sequences of uncontrolled wildfire and related conditions of severe atmospheric pollution and hazeintruded into neighbouring areas of North-Eastern Africa, Central and North America, South-East Asia, Southern Europe, and within individual states of Australia.

The El Niño/La Niña events of 1997-1998 were the most intense occurrence of this cyclical cli-matic phenomenon during the twentieth century. Beyond representing economically costly varia-tions to normal climate expectations, these events also created conditions around the world, whichspawned extensive flooding, extended drought conditions and widespread wildfires.

The village of Carmen de Uria, Venezuela, was completely covered by the debris flow in December 1999. Thelocation of the former settlement is marked. Source: Prof. Roberto Prado, 1999.

Oldcoast-line

Debrisflow

impactarea

New coastline

The sshift ttowards ddisaster rreduction

In all of these cases the drama of the disastersand the urgent international activities to provideemergency relief assistance, command the atten-tion of the international media – generally onlyfor a few days. The consequences of the disasterslast much longer and are more poignantly meas-ured in solitude: lives lost, livelihoods disrupted,property destroyed and often increasingly fragileenvironments damaged. All of these lossesimpede the development of the human conditionand often sacrifice previously hard-won individ-ual and national accomplishments. They alsocompromise both immediate and long-termresources upon which current societies, as well asfuture generations, depend.

The subject of disaster and risk reduction drawsits relevance from earlier contributions and pre-vious practices in the disaster managementfields, where traditionally the focus has been onpreparedness for response. Before proceedingfurther though, it is important to establish acommon understanding of the basic tenets ofdisaster reduction that this review addresses.Thus, the review’s outlooks, abilities and prac-tices will be clearly distinguished from the con-ventional understanding of expressions related toemergency or disaster management issues.


Those closest to affected populations – politicalauthorities, professionals from many differentfields, commercial interests, public organizations,educational institutions and local community lead-ers – are increasingly recognizing the essential pub-lic value of sustained efforts to reduce the social,economic and environmental costs of natural disas-ters. There has, for example, been a tidal change inthe understanding of countries in Central Americaover the past three years, following the repeateddevastating effects of natural disasters. There isnow increased emphasis placed on risk, and anacceptance that disaster, development and environ-mental problems are inextricably linked.

This understanding is essential if communities areto become more resilient to the effects of hazards sothat disaster losses can be reduced in coming years.These activities make the news much less often,perhaps because they are mostly concerned withpeople during their ordinary work, focused onincorporating risk awareness into their daily exis-tence.

Disaster reduction policies and measures need to beimplemented, with a twofold aim: to enable societies tobe resilient to natural hazards while ensuring thatdevelopment efforts do not increase vulnerability tothese hazards.

SSoommee MMaajjoorr CCaattaassttrroopphheess iinn tthhee 2200tthh CCeennttuurryy

Local crop preservation techniques were alsoused as a hedge against possible drought or otherconditions of food shortage.

Traditional practices of farmers around the worldhave been influenced by locally developed knowl-edge of weather patterns or naturally occurringindicators in plants and animals, to forecast partic-ularly harsh conditions. If imprecise, such meth-ods did demonstrate an awareness of potential riskthat led people to consider alternate courses ofaction in order to protect their livelihood.

More recently, with the increase of scientificknowledge, policies have developed in somecountries that have tried to protect people from orto control the forces of nature. With mixed successover the long term, these efforts grew from con-cepts seeking to prevent or to reduce the immedi-ate consequences of potentially hazardous condi-tions and the adverse effects that they could causeto nearby human life, habitation and property.

The Japanese experience of monitoring volcanicactivities, early warning and effective evacuationfrom Mount Usu in Hokkaido is a telling exam-ple of how science and technology do save livesand assets.

Long-accepted policy measures and principlesdesigned to prevent forest fires are now under-stood to have created conditions of fuel accumu-lation that resulted in more intense, uncontrol-lable, and ultimately more costly, wildfires at alater date. Now more subtle measures are beingemployed in managing the relationship betweennatural fire hazards, human use of forested natu-ral resources and sustainable environmental ben-efits for a vital society.

16


There are early historical examples of societies protectingtheir people and their important resources. This was accom-plished first, by aannttiicciippaattiinngg potential catastrophes based onknowledge of hazardous conditions and possible destructiveevents, then by investing in protective measures. Inca rulers,living in the Andes between the thirteenth and fifteenth cen-tury, took great care to create terraces on steep slopes to con-serve the scarce soil and water necessary for their crops.Many of these terraces remain today, as do similar con-structions maintained for over a thousand years in themountain provinces of Indonesia and the Philippines.

Structures were built in places to provide protection fromfloods, like the embankments in Shanghai and Singaporewhich have protected lucrative commercial and port activi-ties since the middle of the nineteenth century.

Low countries in Northern Europe, such as the Nether-lands, are famous for having constructed an extensive sys-tem of sea dykes that have both reclaimed land and protect-ed inhabitants from flooding since the eighteenth century.

In Viet Nam, villagers are obliged to clean, repair andstrengthen their crucial irrigation channels and sea dykesprior to the start of every annual cyclone season. This wasrecognized as a necessary precaution to ensure the contin-ued cultivation of rice, on which the society depends.

Traditionally, Pacific islanders built their houses from local,lightweight, but strong materials that could absorb torren-tial rains, yield superficially to the high winds of typhoonsand withstand the shaking of earthquakes.

Learning rrisk rreduction ffrompractices iin tthe ppast

Taking these developments into account, duringthe past 30 years, there has been a continuousevolution in the common understanding andpractice of disaster management. To differentpolitical constituencies or various professionalinterests at particular times, there have beenmany different approaches to addressing cata-strophic circumstances from natural hazardsand their impacts on societies. These bodies ofpractice have variously been known as emer-gency assistance, disaster response, humanitari-an assistance, civil defence, civil protection,homeland security and disaster prevention.

Currently, a more holistic approach focussingon risk and vulnerability has brought about theconcept of risk reduction or disaster risk man-agement.

There is no doubt that the role of relief assis-tance during the acute phase of a crisis willremain important and need to be enhanced atall levels. However, the question must beasked: Can modern societies afford to valuetheir social and material assets only aafftteerr theyhave been lost in a disaster? In many placespolitical commitment and the allocation ofresources to address hazardous conditions havebeen concentrated overwhelmingly on short-term emergency contingencies. Much greaterattention will need to be given to protectivestrategies that can contribute to saving livesand protecting property and resources beforethey are lost.

From 1990 to 1999, during the InternationalDecade for Natural Disaster Reduction(IDNDR) proclaimed by the General Assem-bly of the United Nations, work was done toadvance a wider commitment to activities thatcould reduce the consequences of natural dis-asters, under the theme Building a Culture ofPrevention. The Yokohama Strategy and Plan ofAction for a Safer World (World Conference onNatural Disaster Reduction, Yokohama, 1994)stressed that every country had the sovereignand primary responsibility to protect its people,infrastructure and national social or economicassets from the impact of natural disasters.Experience gained since then has demonstrat-ed that by focusing on the socio-economic fac-tors involved, human actions can reduce vul-nerability of societies to natural hazards andrelated technological and environmental disas-ters.

17


Initially, the IIDDNNDDRR was influenced bylargely scientific and technical interestgroups. However, a broader global awarenessof the social and economic consequences ofnatural disasters developed as the decadeprogressed, highlighting the increasingimportance of engaging a much broadercommunity in hazard awareness and riskmanagement practices. The importance givento socio-economic vulnerability as a rapidlyincreasing factor of risk in most of today’ssocieties underlined the need to encouragethe wider participation of local communitiesin hazard and risk reduction activities.

TThhee rroollee ooff sscciieennccee aanndd tteecchhnnoollooggyy

The idea of launching a decade dedicated to natural disas-ter reduction came from the scientific community.It wasmotivated by a desire to expand the scope and access ofscientific and technical abilities and knowledge for disasterreduction into the decision-making processes and widerpractical implementation.

Science and technology play key roles in monitoring haz-ards and vulnerabilities, developing an understanding oftheir continually changing patterns and in developing toolsand methodologies for disaster risk reduction. The dissem-ination and application of new strategies and measures toprotect lives, livelihoods and property within societies expe-riencing dynamic change are key areas of work for the sci-entific and technical communities. Scientific knowledge,technical expertise and experiences to reduce risk have tobe shared and made widely available as an integral part ofmulti-disciplinary technical cooperation. Efficient disasterreduction needs a mutually reinforcing interaction betweenscientists, decision-makers and informed citizens.

However, the limitations of science and technology inresponding to the fundamental problems of people andpolitical processes in identifying and managing risk factorsneed to be carefully considered. An over-concentration ontechnical abilities at the expense of being able to motivatethe human aspects that compose the economic, social andpolitical dimensions of societies will continue to provide dis-appointing results in effective or sustained commitments torisk reduction. It must also be recognized that in particularcircumstances science and technology can be misapplied,sometimes provoking or aggravating risks to a society.

The scientific and technical applications relating to eachaspect of disaster risk reduction are extensively addressedthroughout this report.

development focused on target groups byappropriate education and training of thewhole community.

8. The international community accepts theneed to share the necessary technology toprevent, reduce and mitigate disaster.

9. Environmental protection as a componentof sustainable development consistent withpoverty alleviation is imperative in the pre-vention and mitigation of natural disasters.

10. Each country bears the primary responsi-bility for protecting its people, infrastruc-ture, and other national assets from theimpact of natural disasters. The interna-tional community should demonstratestrong political determination required tomake efficient use of existing resources,including financial, scientific and techno-logical means, in the field of natural disas-ter reduction, bearing in mind the needs ofthe developing countries, particularly theleast developed countries.

Although articulated in 1994, the principlescontained in the Yokohama Strategy and Plan ofAction for a Safer World are possibly more rele-vant to risk reduction now than when they wereconceived.

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1. Risk assessment is a required step for theadoption of adequate and successful disasterreduction policies and measures.

2. Disaster prevention and preparedness are ofprimary importance in reducing the need fordisaster relief.

3. Disaster prevention and preparedness shouldbe considered integral aspects of developmentpolicy and planning at national, regional,bilateral, multilateral and international levels.

4. The development and strengthening of capac-ities to prevent, reduce and mitigate disastersis a top priority area to be addressed so as toprovide a strong basis for follow-up activitiesto the IDNDR.

5. Early warnings of impending disasters andtheir effective dissemination are key factors tosuccessful disaster prevention and prepared-ness.

6. Preventive measures are most effective whenthey involve participation at all levels from thelocal community through the national govern-ment to the regional and international level.

7. Vulnerability can be reduced by the applica-tion of proper design and patterns of

World CConference oon NNatural DDisaster RReduction, Yokohama SStrategy aand PPlan oof AAction ffor aa SSafer WWorld ((May 11994)

YOKOHAMA MESSAGE

"We, the States Members of the United Nations and otherStates, having met at the World Conference on Natural Disaster

Reduction, in the city of Yokohama, Japan, from 23 May to 27May 1994, in partnership with non-governmental organiza-

tions, and with the participation of international organizations,the scientific community, business, industry and the media, delib-

erating within the framework of the International Decade fornatural Disaster Reduction, expressing our deep concern for the

continuing human suffering and disruption of development causedby natural disasters, and inspired by the Yokohama Strategy andPlan of Action for a Safer World…." …."adopted the following

Principles, Strategy and Plan for Action"

Basis for the Strategy:"Natural disasters continue to strike and increasein magnitude, complexity, frequency and econom-ic impact. Whilst the natural phenomena causingdisasters are in most cases beyond human con-trol, vulnerability is generally a result of humanactivity. Therefore, society must recognize andstrengthen traditional methods and explore newways to live with such risk, and take urgentactions to prevent as well as to reduce the effectsof such disasters. The capacities to do so areavailable."

IISSDDRR iinn aa nnuuttsshheellll

The International Strategy for Disaster Reduc-tion was launched by the General Assembly ofthe United Nations to provide a global frame-work for action with the objective of reducinghuman, social, economic and environmentallosses due to natural hazards and related tech-nological and environmental phenomena. TheISDR aims at building disaster resilient com-munities by promoting increased awareness ofthe importance of disaster reduction as an inte-gral component of sustainable development. InJanuary 2000, through its resolution 54/219,the General Assembly established two mecha-nisms for the implementation of the ISDR, theInter-Agency Secretariat and the Inter-AgencyTask Force on Disaster Reduction. This wasreconfirmed in resolution 56/195 in December2001. ISDR builds on the learning fromIDNDR, the Yokohama Strategy and Plan ofAction and the Geneva Mandate of 1999.

The General Assembly also calls upon govern-ments to establish national platforms or focalpoints for disaster reduction, and to strengthenthem where they already exist, with a multisec-toral and inter-disciplinary approach.

((aa)) the Inter-Agency Secretariat for the ISDR(UN/ISDR)

The UN/ISDR is the focal point within theUnited Nations system for co-ordination ofstrategies and programmes for disasterreduction and to ensure synergy between

19


disaster reduction activities and those in thesocio-economic and humanitarian fields.

The secretariat also serves as an interna-tional clearinghouse for the managementand the dissemination of information, inparticular on current knowledge and statusof disaster reduction through the publica-tion of this global review of disaster reductioninitiatives. It develops activities such asadvocacy campaigns to promote widerunderstanding about natural hazards anddisaster risk to motivate a world-wide com-mitment to disaster reduction. A particu-larly important role is to encourage bothpolicy and awareness activities by promot-ing national committees dedicated to disas-ter reduction, and working in close associ-ation with regional initiatives. An outreachprogramme has been established in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean to this effect,and plans are underway to collaborate withadditional regional institutions in Africaand in the Asia and Pacific regions.

The ISDR secretariat has a facilitatingrole, bringing agencies, organizationsand different disciplines together, pro-viding a common platform and under-standing of the scope of disaster riskreduction. In this regard, one main func-tion of the secretariat is to support theInter-Agency Task Force (IATF) for thedevelopment of policies on natural disas-ter reduction.

TThhee IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall SSttrraatteeggyy ffoorr DDiissaasstteerr RReedduuccttiioonn

IDNDR provoked the recognition that disaster reduction was a social and economic imperativethat would take a long time to fulfil.

As the successor to IDNDR in 2000, the United Nations International Strategy for DisasterReduction (ISDR) was designed to foster this need by proceeding from the previous emphasis ofprotection against hazards to the processes involved in the awareness, assessment and manage-ment of disaster risks.

This development highlights the integration of disaster risk reduction into the broader context ofsustainable development and related environmental considerations. By means of this globalreview of disaster reduction initiatives, ISDR seeks to further multidisciplinary advocacy for widerprofessional understanding of disaster risk reduction practices which can be achieved by workingthrough political, professional, institutional and public collaboration.

FFrraammeewwoorrkk ffoorr aaccttiioonn ffoorr tthhee iimmpplleemmeennttaattiioonn oofftthhee IISSDDRR

The IATF/DR, supported by the secretariat, hasformulated a framework for action for the imple-mentation of the ISDR with four main objectives:

• Increase public awareness to understand risk,vulnerability and disaster reduction.

• Promote the commitment of public authori-ties to disaster reduction.

• Stimulate multidisciplinary and intersectoralpartnerships, including the expansion of riskreduction networks.

• Improve scientific knowledge about the caus-es of natural disasters, as well as the effectsthat natural hazards and related technologicaland environmental disasters have on societies.

The framework also incorporates two additionalactivities specifically mandated to the ISDR secre-tariat by the United Nations General Assembly:• Continue international co-operation to reduce

the impact of El Niño and other climate vari-ations.

• Strengthen disaster reduction capacitiesthrough the development of early warningsystems.

In pursuing these objectives, the framework foraction outlines the following areas of commonconcern:

• Incorporating the recognition of the specialvulnerability of the poor in disaster reductionstrategies

• Environmental, social and economic vulnera-bility assessment with special reference tohealth and food security;

• Ecosystems management, with particularattention given to the implementation ofAgenda 21;

• Land use management and planning, includ-ing appropriate land use in at-risk rural,mountain and coastal areas, as well asunplanned urban areas in megacities and sec-ondary cities;

• National, regional and international legisla-tion with respect to disaster reduction.

20


((bb)) the IInntteerr-AAggeennccyy TTaasskk FFoorrccee oonn DDiiss-aasstteerr RReedduuccttiioonn ((IIAATTFF//DDRR))

The Task Force was established in2000 as the main forum within theUnited Nations system for devis-ing strategies and policies for thereduction of natural hazards. It isalso tasked with identifying what islacking to improve disaster reduc-tion policies and programmes andrecommending remedial actionwith particular attention to ensur-ing complementary action by thedifferent United Nations agenciesinvolved in disaster reduction.

The Task Force is chaired by theUnder-Secretary General forHumanitarian Affairs of the Unit-ed Nations and is composed of upto 14 representatives of agenciesand organizations of the UnitedNations system; up to eight repre-sentatives from regional entitiesand up to eight representatives ofcivil society and relevant profes-sional sectors. The Director of theISDR secretariat acts as the Secre-tary of the Task Force.

The Task Force has establishedfour Working Groups to work onclimate variability, early warning,vulnerability and risk analysis, andwild-land fires. More details ontheir work are outlined in otherchapters of this review.

The Task Force has since its firstmeeting expressed interest in pur-suing additional areas, as opportu-nities allow. These includedrought, ecosystem management,land-use planning, integrating dis-aster reduction issues into sustain-able development and nationalplanning agendas, raising the polit-ical profile of disaster reduction orexploring private and public sectorpartnerships.

Disaster rrisk rreduction - aa sshared responsibility

Governments and communities must under-stand that disaster reduction policy is a wiseinvestment. Direction and resource allocationsoften need to be provided from higher levels ofauthority within a society, as much as decisionsand individual commitment need to growfrom the local understanding and active par-ticipation of those people most immediatelyaffected by disaster risks.

Where governments have not done so already,there is a need to regain a level of wide andinclusive national participation, before a disas-ter occurs. This public responsibility willrequire a collective discipline that can be sus-tained through the education and practice ofmany trades and professions.

Since disaster reduction is based on a continu-ous strategy of vulnerability and risk assess-ment, many actors need to be involved, drawnfrom governments, technical and educationalinstitutions, professions, commercial interestsand local communities. Their activities willneed to be integrated into planning and devel-opment strategies that both enable andencourage the widespread exchange of infor-mation. New multidisciplinary relationshipsare essential if disaster reduction is to be bothcomprehensive and sustainable.

Vulnerability to disasters should be consideredin a broad context encompassing specific

21


human, social/cultural, economic, environ-mental and political dimensions, that relate toinequalities, gender relations and ethical andracial divisions. A disaster with all its negativeconsequences offers a good opportunity to for-mulate forward-looking policy concepts per-taining to social development and equity, eco-nomic growth, environmental quality and jus-tice, i.e. sustainability.

However, to be successful, the integration ofholistic disaster reduction strategies intodevelopment policies should happen from theoutset, thereby solving a broad range of social,economic and environmental problems as well.This requires the participation of all relevantsectors (such as environment, finance, indus-try, transport, construction, agriculture, edu-cation and health). It also requires differentforms of management than in the case ofemergency or disaster management. Theresponsibilities of risk reduction are even morebroadly extended than is commonly under-stood.

This is why the most efficient forms of hierar-chical “command and control” practices forcrisis management are much less suited to thedeliberate and more widely considered formsof public, private and professional participa-tion in risk reduction which draw their infor-mation and inspiration from many differentsources in a society. The following chart out-lines some of these comparisons in manage-ment approaches (Jeggle 2001):

Emergency aassistance, ccrisis mmanagementPrimary focus on HAZARDS and DISASTER events.Single, event-based scenarios.Basic responsibility to respond to an event.Often fixed, location-specific conditions.Responsibility in single authority or agency.Command and control, directed operations.Established hierarchical relationships.Often focused on hardware, equipment.Specialized expertise.Urgent, immediate-to-short time frames in outlook,planning, attention, returns.Rapidly changing, dynamic information usage. Oftenconflicting or "sensitive". Primary, "authorized" or sin-gular sources. Need for definitive "facts".Operational, or public information-based use of com-munications.In-out, or vertical flows of information.Matters of public security, safety.

Disaster rrisk rreduction sstrategiesFocus on VULNERABILITY and RISK issues.Dynamic, multiple risk issues and development scenarios.Fundamental need to assess, monitor, update.Extended, changing, shared or regional, local. Involves multiple authorities, interests, actors.Situation-specific functions, free association.Shifting, fluid and tangential relationships.Dependent on related practices, abilities, software.Specialized expertise, squared with public views.Comparative, moderate-to-long time framesin outlook.Planning, values, returns.Accumulated, historical, layered-updated,comparative, information.Open or public.Multiple and diverse or changing sources. Differingperspectives, points of view.Multiple-use, shared exchange, intersectoral use of information.Matrix, nodal communication.Dispersed, lateral flows of information.Matters of public interest, investment and safety.

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Difference bbetween aa hhazard and aa ddisaster

“Strictly speaking, there are nosuch things as natural disasters,but there are natural hazards.

A disaster is the result of a hazard’simpact on the society. So the effects of adisaster are determined by the extent ofa community’s vulnerability to the haz-ard (or conversely, its ability, or capaci-ty to cope with it). This vulnerability is

not natural, but the result of an entirerange of constantly changing physical,

social, economic, cultural, political, andeven psychological factors that shape peo-

ple’s lives and create the environmentsin which they live. ‘Natural’ disasters

are nature’s judgement on what humanshave wrought”

John Twigg

Disaster reduction strategies include, first and foremost, vul-nerability and risk assessment, as well as a number of institu-tional capacities and operational abilities. The assessment of thevulnerability of critical facilities, social and economic infra-structure, the use of effective early warning systems, and theapplication of many different types of scientific, technical, andother skilled abilities are essential features of a disaster reduc-tion strategy.

The sharing of information and experience, both for the pur-poses of public information and all forms of education and pro-fessional training are as important for creating a safety culture,as are the crucial involvement of local community action andnew forms of partnership motivated by cooperation and sharedresponsibilities.

Fortunately, modern forms of information access and commu-nications can facilitate the wider exposure and networking thatthese new and shifting forms of association require. Above all,despite these many contributions, functions associated with dis-aster reduction need to be viewed not as an expense, but as aninvestment in a society’s future.

As common as all of these attributes are to any sustained strat-egy of disaster reduction, one must also take account of the var-ious political, cultural, and social distinctions that exist amongall countries. There are fundamental elements in every disasterreduction strategy, but the priorities, relative emphasis, avail-able resources, and specific ways of implementation must takeaccount of practices that are most suited to local conditions,understanding and effectiveness.

The graphic representation on next page describes the maincontext and activities involved in disaster risk reduction. Theseare elements to take into consideration for any disaster riskreduction strategy. The sections of the global review have beenorganized around these issues, with exception of preparedness,response and recovery initiatives.

Understanding tthe mmeaning oof disaster aand rrisk rreduction

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CCOONNTTEEXXTT::SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT•Socio-cultural•Political•Economic•Ecosystems

RRIISSKK FFAACCTTOORRSS

Vulnerability•Social•Economic•Physical•Environmental

Hazards•Geological •Hydrometeo-rological•Biological•Technological

Vulnerability/capability

analysis

Hazardanalysis

& monitoring

KKNNOOWWLLEEDDGGEE DDEEVVEELLOOPPMMEENNTT•Education, training•Research•Information

PPUUBBLLIICC CCOOMMMMIITTMMEENNTT

•Institutional framework •Policy development•Legislation and codes

AAPPPPLLIICCAATTIIOONN OOFFRRIISSKK RREEDDUUCCTTIIOONN MMEEAASSUURREESS

•Environmental management•Land use planning•Protection of critical facilities •Networking and partnerships •Financial tools

RREECCOOVVEERRYY

RREESSPPOONNSSEE

PPRREEPPAARREEDDNNEESSSS EEAARRLLYY WWAARRNNIINNGG

RRIISSKK AASSSSEESSSSMMEENNTTand analysis

AAWWAARREENNEESSSSfor change in behaviour

DDIISSAASSTTEERRIIMMPPAACCTT

FRAMEWORK FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION

RRiisskk aasssseessssmmeenntt//aannaallyyssiissA process to determine the nature and extent ofrisk by analysing potential hazards and evalu-ating existing conditions of vulnerability/capacity that could pose a potential threat orharm to people, property, livelihoods and theenvironment on which they depend.

The process of conducting a risk assessment is basedon a review of both technical features of hazardssuch as their location, intensity and probability, andalso the analysis of the physical, social and econom-ic dimensions of vulnerability, while taking partic-ular account of the coping capabilities pertinent tothe risk scenarios.

CCooppiinngg ccaappaabbiilliittiieess//CCaappaacciittyy The manner in which people and organisationsuse existing resources to achieve various benefi-cial ends during unusual, abnormal, and adverseconditions of a disaster event or process.

The strengthening of coping capacities usually buildsresilience to withstand the effects of natural andother hazards.

RReessiilliieennccee//rreessiilliieenntt The capacity of a system, community or socie-ty to resist or to change in order that it mayobtain an acceptable level in functioning andstructure. This is determined by the degree towhich the social system is capable of organis-ing itself, and the ability to increase its capaci-ty for learning and adaptation, including thecapacity to recover from a disaster.

DDiissaasstteerrA serious disruption of the functioning of a com-munity or a society causing widespread human,material, economic or environmental losses whichexceed the ability of the affected community/soci-ety to cope using its own resources.

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Defining aa ffew kkey tterms

One of the continuous functions of the ISDR is to support a more homogeneous use of disaster related terms.This Global Review, provides concise definitions, based on a broad collection of different internationalsources, in order to create a common terminology on disaster reduction issues, useful for the public, authori-ties and practitioners. This effort will be continued in future reviews and answers a need expressed in sev-eral international forums, regional commentary and national responses to the ISDR questionnaire. Keyterms used in this review are explained below. Definitions of additional terms can be found in Annex 1.

HHaazzaarrddA potentially damaging physical event, phe-nomenon or human activity, which may causethe loss of life or injury, property damage,social and economic disruption or environmen-tal degradation.

Hazards can include latent conditions that may rep-resent future threats and can have different origins:natural (geological, hydrometeorological and biolog-ical) and/or induced by human processes (environ-mental degradation and technological hazards).Hazards can be single, sequential or combined intheir origin and effects. Each hazard is charac-terised by its location, intensity and probability.

VVuullnneerraabbiilliittyyA set of conditions and processes resultingfrom physical, social, economical and environ-mental factors, which increase the susceptibili-ty of a community to the impact of hazards.

Positive factors, that increase the ability of people andthe society they live in, to cope effectively with haz-ards, that increase their resilience, or that otherwisereduce their susceptibility, are considered as capacities.

RRiisskkThe probability of harmful consequences, orexpected loss (of lives, people injured, proper-ty, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted orenvironment damaged) resulting from interac-tions between natural or human induced haz-ards and vulnerable/capable conditions. Con-ventionally risk is expressed by the equationRisk = Hazards x Vulnerability / Capacity

Beyond expressing a probability of physical harm, itis crucial to appreciate that risks are always creat-ed or exist within social systems. It is important toconsider the social contexts in which risks occur andthat people therefore do not necessarily share thesame perceptions of risk and their underlying causes.

A disaster is a function of the risk process. It resultsfrom the combination of hazards, conditions of vul-nerability and insufficient capacity or measures toreduce the potential negative consequences of risk.

RRiisskk mmaannaaggeemmeennttThe systematic management of administrativedecisions, organisation, operational skills andresponsibilities to apply policies, strategies andpractices for disaster risk reduction.

DDiissaasstteerr rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn ((ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn))The systematic development and application ofpolicies, strategies and practices to minimisevulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout asociety, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (miti-gation and preparedness) adverse impact ofhazards, within the broad context of sustain-able development.

PPrreevveennttiioonnActivities to provide outright avoidance of theadverse impact of hazards and related environ-mental, technological and biological disasters.

Depending on social and technical feasibility andcost/benefit considerations, investing in preventivemeasures is justified in areas frequently affected bydisaster. In the context of public awareness raising

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and education, prevention refers to attitude andbehaviour leading towards a “culture of prevention”.

MMiittiiggaattiioonnStructural and non-structural measures under-taken to limit the adverse impact of natural haz-ards, environmental degradation and technolog-ical hazards.

PPrreeppaarreeddnneessssActivities and measures taken in advance toensure effective response to the impact of disas-ters, including the issuance of timely and effec-tive early warnings and the temporary removalof people and property from a threatened loca-tion.

EEaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg The provision of timely and effective informa-tion, through identified institutions, that allowindividuals at risk of a disaster, to take action toavoid or reduce their risk and prepare for effec-tive response.

Early warning systems consist of three elements (i)forecasting and prediction of impending events, (ii)processing and dissemination of warnings to politicalauthorities and population, and (iii) undertakingappropriate reaction to warnings.

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1.2. Contexts and processes linked to disaster risk reduction: sustainable development

Political support for disaster risk reduction has to be established from the apex of political powerbut that can only be realistic if the perceptions of risk and the actions proposed accord with thecultural beliefs and habits of society. In today’s interconnected world, societies are confrontedwith rapid winds of change. Therefore, the value of disaster risk reduction can only be realizedthrough rigorous identification and continuous evaluation of the relationships that exist betweenthe distinctive beliefs and human conditions in which people live, the changing environmentpeople inhabit and depend upon for their livelihoods, and the immutable forces of nature. Mostimportantly, disaster risk reduction relies upon the consequences of collective decisions made andindividual actions taken – or not taken.

The emergence of a disaster reduction culture is conditioned by contexts and processes that aredescribed below:

• The sustainable development context, the ultimate international goal; • The political context, essential for action; • The three contexts linked to the pillars of sustainable development:

(a) The socio-cultural system(b) The economic system(c) The environmental system

Sustainability means recognizing and making best use of the interconnection between social, eco-nomic and environmental goals to reduce significant hazard risks. This entails the ability to reduceone’s exposure to, and recover from, infrequent large-scale, but also frequent smaller scale, natu-ral and human driven events.

The bottom line for any country, especially the poorest, is to build sustainable communities thriv-ing from generation to generation with a social foundation that provides for health, respects cul-tural diversity, is equitable and considers the needs of future generations. They require has ahealthy and diverse ecological system that is life-sustaining and productive, a healthy and diverseeconomy that adapts to change and recognizes social and ecological limits. This cannot be achievedwithout the incorporation of disaster reduction strategies, one of the six principles of sustainabili-ty supported by a strong political commitment.

The six principles of sustainability

1. Maintain and enhance quality of life2. Enhance economic vitality3. Ensure social and intergenerational equity 4. Maintain and enhance environmental quality5. Incorporate disaster resilience and mitigation

into actions and decisions6. Use a consensus-building, participatory

process when making decisions

Source: J. Monday, 2002

Disaster risk management and reduction areabout looking beyond hazards alone to consid-er prevailing conditions of vulnerability. It isthe social, cultural, economic, and political set-ting in a country that makes people vulnerableto unfortunate events. The basis of this under-standing is simple: the national character andchosen form of governance can be as much ofa determinant in understanding the risks in agiven country, as are the various social, eco-nomic and environmental determinants.

The motivation to invest in disaster riskreduction is first and foremost a human, peo-ple centred concern. It is about improvingstandards of safety and living conditions withan eye on protection from hazards to increase

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resilience of communities. A safer society to with-stand disasters may be argued as a case of ethics andsocial justice and equity. It is also motivated by eco-nomic gains. Socio-economic development is seri-ously challenged when scarce funds are divertedfrom longer-term development objectives to short-term emergency relief and reconstruction needs. Itis considered by some as illusory to quantify bene-fits from disaster reduction. They see the issue fore-most as a human and social concern rather thanbased on economic rationale and efficiency. Othersadvocate that effective planning and developmentoptions can only be based on a careful estimation ofthe economic gains and poverty impacts of disas-ters, accompanied by economic justification for therequired investments in vulnerability reduction.

Environmentally unsound practices, global environ-mental changes, population growth, urbanization,social injustice, poverty, and short-term economicvision are producing vulnerable societies. Theimpact of development on disasters should be fullyembraced if disaster risk reduction is to yield itsexpected benefits. “Instead of demonising hazardsfor their impacts on society, it would be probablymore correct to demonise society for its impacts onhazards!” (A. Lavell, IDNDR Programme ForumProceedings, 1999).

“While we cannot do away with natural hazards,we can eliminate those we cause, minimize those

we exacerbate, and reduce our vulnerability tomost. Doing this requires healthy and resilient

communities and ecosystems. Viewed in this light,disaster mitigation is clearly part of a broader

strategy of sustainable development-making com-munities and nations socially, economically, and

ecologically sustainable.”J. Abramovitz

Children preparing to com-bat wildland fires in

Indonesia

Photo: Global Fire Monitoring Centre, 2000


The ssustainable ddevelopment ccontext

“Can sustainable development alongwith the international instruments

aiming at poverty reduction and envi-ronmental protection, be successful

without taking into account the risk ofnatural hazards and their impacts?Can the planet afford the increasing

costs and losses due to so-called naturaldisasters? The short answer is, no.”

ISDR background paperfor WSSD, 2002

The escalation of severe disasters is increasingly posing a threat to both sus-tainable development and poverty reduction initiatives. As a consequenceprinciple 1 of the Rio Declaration is imperilled. This states that humanbeings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development and areentitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature. Repeatedexposure to disasters can lead to a downward spiral of poverty.

It is still the post-disaster reconstruction period that provides the mostopportune time to introduce disaster reduction into sustainable develop-ment planning. Therefore, political commitment and social acceptance ofthe value of risk reduction are necessary for forward-looking developerswho want to increase the sustainability of communities. When perceived asa distinct set of activities, risk management initiatives are placed in compe-tition with other developmental objectives, rather than being seen as inte-gral parts of the same whole.

RReeggiioonnaall ccoonnssiiddeerraattiioonnss

Progress can be shown by some examples of regional strategies for sustainable development that strive to reduce vul-nerability to disasters. In some cases, it was only after unacceptable losses occurred, or when provoked by angrydemands of the public after particularly disastrous events (e.g. after the Gujarat earthquake in India, following hurri-cane Mitch in Central America, or in the aftermath of the floods in Mozambique), that international developmentbanks and development assistance agencies have begun to require risk assessment and management processes to beincluded in new infrastructure development projects.

• IInn AAssiiaa,, although there have been few examples of effective, systematic and long-term integration efforts betweendisaster reduction and poverty alleviation programmes, a dialogue between the two interest groups is beginning to takeplace.

In February 2001, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) organized the Asia Pacific Forum on Poverty. One of the keyfocus areas was social protection to diminish vulnerability to risks, generate employment and improve productivity andworking conditions in Asia and the Pacific. It was one of the few times that a discourse on poverty alleviation in theregion recognized disaster reduction as one of the key interventions for social protection.

The region, however, has a long way to go in terms of integrating poverty alleviation and disaster reduction pro-grammes in practice. More research is required on understanding the nature of linkages between poverty and vulner-ability in different social, political, economic and hazard-specific contexts. Only then can specific frameworks, toolsand methodologies be developed and applied to integrate poverty alleviation and disaster reduction programmes.

A notable example of an integrated program is the recent initiative of the Mekong River Commission (MRC). Follow-ing the extensive floods in Viet Nam and Cambodia in 2000, it developed a holistic strategy for flood management andmitigation that emphasizes land-use planning, structural measures, flood preparedness and emergency response.

The Phnom Penh Regional Platform on Sustainable Development for Asia and the Pacific adopted in the participa-tory phase leading up to WSSD, notes that the financial crisis of 1997, the isolation and vulnerability of Small IslandDeveloping States (SIDS) and recurrent natural disasters had posed major constraints to the achievement of sustainabledevelopment. Coping with natural disasters is perceived as an essential issue to be addressed in the region. Measuresare called for to ensure that populations suffering the consequences of natural disasters, severe environmental degra-dation and other relevant humanitarian emergencies are given every assistance and protection so that they can resumenormal life as soon as possible.

• IInn tthhee PPaacciiffiicc, the crucial relationships that exist between natural disaster risks, the environment and their combinedimpacts on human societies are particularly evident. In the Pacific small island states people are highly depend-

ent on the natural environment, and historical records testify to the devastating effects that natural disasters causein the region.

There is growing concern among government officials and scientists about the potential for increasingly frequent andmore severe meteorological and hydrological hazards resulting from climate change, and how they may affect Pacificislands.

• IInn AAffrriiccaa poverty levels remain high, especially among the rural poor. High levels of foreign debt have discouragedinvestment and growth. Under these austere conditions, it is unrealistic to expect significant investments at householdor national level to mitigate the impact of natural or other threats.

In Southern Africa, in preparation for WSSD, the Southern African Development Community (SADC) expressed concernthat ten years after the adoption of international agreements at the United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment, Southern Africa was still “confronted by social, economic and environmental crises”.

Among the core issues identified, poverty was highlighted as the primary constraint to socio-economic development, butmatters of health, food security, climate change, water availability, land degradation and market access were also cited ascritical issues. Each of these factors has a bearing on prevailing vulnerability and risk issues in the region. In a regionstill heavily dependent on agriculture to maintain household livelihoods and national food security, drought and extremerain events present serious challenges to sustainable development.

The African Ministerial Statement to WSSD states that the increased incidence of natural disasters in Africa poses amajor obstacle to the African continent’s efforts to achieve sustainable development, especially in view of the region’sinsufficient capacities to predict, monitor, handle, and mitigate natural disasters.

Reducing the vulnerability of the African people to natural disasters and environmental risks is mentioned as a require-ment to achieve the poverty reduction goals of the Millennium Declaration alongside other basic requirements includ-ing economic growth, access to sources of energy and basic health services. Extreme weather events such as floods anddroughts induced by climate change are singled out.

• IInn LLaattiinn AAmmeerriiccaa aanndd tthhee CCaarriibbbbeeaann,, the health sector has recognized that risk reduction is a key consideration for animproved health sector. The hurricanes and earthquakes affecting the region in the nineties have convinced the Pan Amer-ican Health Organization (PAHO) and most health authorities that a culture of prevention must include mitigation ofstructural and non structural damages in health facilities and water supply systems. This was made clear following thecollapse of a hospital during an earthquake in Mexico in 1995. Action requires significant capital investment, a decisionin the hands of ministries and financing organizations. As a result, only a limited number of hospitals have been retrofit-ted, illustrating once more that disaster reduction requires a large consensus and political decisions across the board.

• In CCeennttrraall AAmmeerriiccaa, natural hazards are exacerbated by the high level of vulnerability in the region. Therefore, anysustained commitment to reduce risk should be considered in the context of poverty reduction. Increasing attention isbeing given to the global notion of risk as opposed to a more restricted view of disaster management. UNDP in El Sal-vador is proposing the use of risk management as a uniting concept in the design of its next five-year programme withthe government. The conceptual framework used in the Lower Lempa Valley implemented with the Salvadoran Min-istry of Environment was elaborated around the notion of global or total risk, where risk reduction is regarded as a com-ponent of development investment.

The severity of the El Niño/La Niña phenomenon of 1997-1998, led to the establishment of the Andean Regional Pro-gramme for Risk Prevention and Reduction (PREANDINO) with the objective of promoting the development of disasterrisk prevention and mitigation policies and new institutional arrangements aimed at incorporating prevention into devel-opment planning.

The Rio de Janeiro Platform for Action on the Road to Johannesburg 2002 was adopted by the Regional Preparatory Con-ference of Latin America and the Caribbean for WSSD. Ministers of environment and other senior representativesfrom Latin American and Caribbean countries stressed the need for actions that reduce disaster vulnerability and pro-mote a culture of risk awareness by means of education, improved information dissemination and the use of early warn-ing systems.


ernment including health, agriculture andenvironment. National and regional policiesare addressed in chapter three.

To be feasible, disaster reduction needs to showit is able to address short-term and immediateneeds of survival as well as to take care oflonger-term objectives of prevention andcapacity building. This approach is illustratedby efforts undertaken in the cities of Manizalesand Medellin in Colombia.

There, the death toll and economic damage dueto landslides and floods have decreased consider-ably thanks to initiatives undertaken by themunicipalities, together with universities, the pri-vate sector and community groups, throughreforestation, plant cover works, improveddrainage systems and engineering works. Insome cases, these investments are even generat-ing income through harvesting and tourism.

Political change, economic reform and devel-opment of public policy to protect people andresources are fundamental solutions to treatingcauses rather than only symptoms. Politiciansthat undertake no-regret policies and applyprecautionary principles in matters of environ-mental protection should be able to take thesame stance regarding disaster reduction.

Similarly, the public that exercises great pres-sure to bring about environmental policychanges should become a political force put-ting pressure on governments to protect peo-ple from disasters. If it becomes a popularissue, disaster risk reduction will gainmomentum.

While disaster reduction will not reign withoutpolitical willingness, a word should also be saidabout the negative consequences political deci-sions can have on disaster impacts. For exam-ple, huge hydraulic projects may change land-scape references of communities and their per-ception of risk, thereby increasing vulnerabili-ty by reducing the people’s capacity to assessand anticipate hazard-related threats.


The ppolitical ccontext

Political commitment is an essential quality forsustained efforts of risk reduction. Only politi-cal willingness can give disaster reduction theplace it deserves. Obtaining political commit-ment from public authorities is one of the fouroverriding objectives of ISDR to effectivelyreduce the impacts of disasters. This objectiveneeds to be addressed through increased coor-dination at all levels, risk management strate-gies and the allocation of appropriate resourcesincluding development of new funding mecha-nisms. Disaster reduction should be dealt withas a policy issue across relevant fields of gov-

"The state of a country's . . . political condition atthe time of the onset of a disaster is a major deter-minant in the impacts on society of that event." M. Glantz, 2000

“Managing risk depends on political will. Political will dependson political leadership and a shifting set of incentives, pressures

and polemics. The political costs of redirecting priorities from vis-ible development projects to addressing abstract long-term threatsare great. It is hard to gain votes by pointing out that a disaster

did nnot happen. How can we, who see risk management as acentral priority and who have valuable technical knowledge andskills to contribute, enter this policy arena? This question is at the

centre of the [disaster risk reduction] discourse. We know nowthat we must engage, but do we know how?”

I.Christoplos, J. Mitchell and A. Liljelund, 2001

TThhee ppoolliittiiccaall ccoonntteexxtt iinn SSoouutthheerrnn AAffrriiccaa

In Southern Africa, other forces have combined to influencethe political context of disasters. Decades of armed conflict,political instability and population displacement have condi-tioned more recent approaches to disaster management. Inaddition to the loss of lives, war-related damage anddestruction to infrastructure, the prevalence of prolongedrelief operations was widespread in places, creating a senseof dependency on external assistance.

International humanitarian assistance that often inundatescountries facing severe drought or flood crises, is seldomaccompanied by support for longer-term institutionalchange that promotes practical mitigation efforts. To a sig-nificant extent, the emphasis given to the urgent supply ofmaterial requirements and logistical capabilities born of cri-sis and responding to the needs of unsettled populations,persists long after the acute conditions have been resolved.Too often a memory of relief supplies or a legacy of externalassistance remains to discourage local initiatives or sus-tained institutional investments in disaster risk reduction.

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Links tto tthe ppillars oof ssustainable development

TThhee ssoocciioo-ccuullttuurraall ccoonntteexxtt

The links between disaster and the socio-cul-tural system are an important component indisaster risk reduction and a pillar of sustain-able development. Social vulnerability is fur-ther discussed in chapter two.

The term culture is understood in a myriad ofways and represents an extremely complexnotion. It is, therefore, useful to provide a def-inition.

Differences exist among groups of people, andthese differences reflect a variety of factorsincluding language, socio-economic and politicalsystems, religion and ethnicity as well as histori-cal experience and relationships towards nature.Each cultural group has its own set of experi-ences and expectations. Furthermore, relation-ships between people and groups of differentcultures are often embedded in different sets ofvalues, unequal power relations with somegroups becoming dominant and others beingmarginalized. All of these factors are highly rele-vant in the context of natural disasters.

Much early thinking about disasters was basedon a notion of nature and culture being sepa-rate. Disasters were seen as the products of aprecocious and unpredictable nature andtherefore to be out of the control of humans orreferred to in terms such as acts of supernatu-ral forces, or acts of god.

31


It became increasingly obvious that the causesof disasters are complex and that beside naturepeople are a causal factor. Looking beyondbeliefs, more and more disasters are under-stood in terms of their cultural and social com-ponents. Vast differences in disaster vulnerabil-ity among countries and within individual soci-eties have their roots in unequal sets of powerrelations, leading to unequal distribution andaccess to wealth among different cultures orpolitical settings.

It is important that ownership of the disastercontext is not stripped from local people who canbe left even more powerless than would be thecase if external intervention did not occur. Thereis a growing appreciation of the need for disasterreduction activities to be based on more attentiveparticipatory approaches involving local commu-nities as much as possible, considering them asproactive stakeholders and not passive targets forintervention.

Common sense solutions in one cultural settingare often contrary to what may be commonsense in others. Local socio-political structures

PPaaiirreedd PPeerrssppeeccttiivveess: Two countries’ response to the same question in the ISDR questionnaire regarding therole of political commitment in disaster risk reduction.

CCoouunnttrryy 11:: A highly disaster-prone country, with considerable technical, material and financial resources,with strong political aspirations to modernize.

Disaster mitigation is not a priority item, except at times of disaster. With many pressing requirements related tohealth, education, development, defence, etc., disaster mitigation must during normal times be given diminished atten-tion. We do not think that an easy recipe exists to overcome these obstacles.

CCoouunnttrryy 22:: A highly disaster-prone country, with few technical, material and financial resources, and muchgreater demands to realize its strong political aspirations to develop.

It has been possible for the government to institutionalise the concept of disaster management and also to generatemomentum at the grass-roots level for self-reliance in coping with and responding to disasters.

Philosophical ddefinition oof cculture: The way of life of a peo-ple, including the attitudes, values, beliefs, arts, sciences,modes of perception, and habits of thought and activity.Cultural features of forms of life are learned but are oftentoo pervasive to be readily noticed from within.

Psychological ddefinition oof cculture: The sum total of theideas, beliefs, customs, values, knowledge and materialartefacts that are handed from one generation to the next ina society.

in the sites they have been moved to than ifthey had remained (even where the risk ofdeath is relatively high). In many cases peopleare also unwilling to leave a house in whichthey have invested most of their time andmoney and which constitutes their principallegacy to their children.

In other instances, host communities have feltimposed upon by those who have been relocat-ed and violent responses are not uncommon.The issue is that relocation of communities atrisk may be scientifically the most attractiveand reasonable prevention measure but it canbe strongly opposed culturally.

Cultural change is an important considerationin disaster reduction as is cultural continuity.For example, intercommunity cooperation fol-lowing disasters was extremely commonamong traditional Pacific island communities,and to a large extent sustained by ceremonialexchange systems. These exchange networksfell away as commercial trading, often centredin colonial capitals, replaced traditional formsof exchange, colonial governments replacedtraditional political networks and missionariesdiscouraged exchanges as threats to Christian-ity.

Relief aid also reduced the need to sustain suchnetworks. However, with the migration ofmany Pacific islanders to places such as Aus-tralia, California and New Zealand, newexchange networks have emerged. Followingdisasters, major flows of resources now enterPacific island states in the form of remittancesfrom kinfolk. Culturally, disasters have becomeimportant events through which the Pacificisland diasporas maintain links with the homeislands.

An important finding of many researchersworking in developing countries or in localcommunities is that a wide variety of measuresfor reducing disasters existed in earlier, oftenpre-colonial, times. A variety of socio-culturalor economic factors mentioned have graduallyeroded these measures, undermining culturalsupport and social activities that might havecontributed to sharing the exposure to riskamong members of the community.

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and cultural conditions such as kinshiparrangements, customary rights, communityand family networks and systems of leadershipnearly always persist during disasters and it isimportant that these are not undermined. Forexample, it is important to recognize that deal-ing with death and illness is a strong culturalprocess. Where decisions about matters suchas mass burials are imposed on cultural groupsby others, serious problems can occur that dis-rupt grieving and have long-term social, legaland psychological consequences.

The differing needs and roles of men andwomen also need to be taken into account.Men are usually seen as income generatorswhile women ensure social cohesion and conti-nuity by taking care of children, the elderly andthe disabled. Different priorities, perceptionsand abilities to cope with abnormal situationsneed careful thinking to maximize the successof risk management and to achieve sustainabledevelopment.

In many cultures, attachment to place is a crit-ically important element, thus decisions tomove people must be made carefully. In somecases, people have felt more afraid and at risk

TThhee iimmppaacctt ooff ccuullttuurraall cchhaannggee oonn ddiissaasstteerr rreessiilliieennccee

Cultural changes tend to reduce disaster resilience in tra-ditional communities and at the same time, disasters canexaggerate the influence these change agents exert. Whilesuch changes most probably would have happened any-way, there can be little doubt that they can be hastened bydisaster events, as the following examples from Pacificsmall island states demonstrate:

• Introduction of new crops, especially cassava whichis more vulnerable to high winds than yams or taro,the common traditional subsistence crops;

• Replacement of traditional hazard-resistant housingwith climatically inappropriate disaster-relief homes;

• Reduced need for food preservation and storageresulting from relief supplies, especially of rice,which has become an increasingly dominant compo-nent of diets in rural and urban areas, alike.

TThhee eeccoonnoommiicc ccoonntteexxtt

The links between disaster and the economicsystem, another pillar of sustainable develop-ment, are as clear as the financial incentive fordisaster reduction. Indeed, historically peoplehave always made investments to obtain, andthen to protect, those resources that hold thegreatest value for them. This is the principlebehind insurance or other efforts to spread riskamong a community including joint ownershipor responsibility for protecting assets.

The concern demonstrated by a farmer to protecta single cow, or a fisherman to mend nets in sub-sistence economies, as well as the rapid growth ofinvestment in business continuity practices seenin more commercialised societies, validate theeconomic basis of reducing risks in order to min-imize the negative impacts of future disasters.Economics and the awareness of the importanceof disasters that increase in severity and frequen-cy through human action, provide incentives fordevelopment banks and international assistanceinstitutions to integrate risk reduction in theirdevelopment strategies and to develop innovativeforms of financial investment. Some of thesestrategies are discussed further in chapter five.

Risk management planning involves an estima-tion of the impacts of disasters on the economy,based on the best available hazard maps andmacroeconomic data. These include assessmentsof the costs of disasters, evaluation of the costsand benefits of disaster reduction and risk trans-


fer measures (including the value of improvedforecasting systems) and incentives from theinternational community that lead towardsproactive disaster reduction projects. Such stud-ies are carried out through international cooper-ative arrangements.

Given the recurrence and frequency of naturalhazards, a concerted effort will always berequired to respond effectively to them, and toassess the frequency of emergency recovery assis-tance, as well as the prospects of reducing dam-age in the future.

EEccoonnoommiicc lloosssseess dduuee ttoo nnaattuurraall hhaazzaarrddss iinn 22000011

Altogether, 700 natural hazard losses were recorded lastyear. At around US$ 36 billion, economic losses wereabout 20 per cent above the previous year’s level.Insured losses in 2001 increased by more than 50 percent compared with the previous year. Around the globe80 earthquakes produced economic losses of US$ 9 bil-lion and insured losses of about US$ 900 million. As inprevious years, insurers’ statistics were dominated bywindstorms and floods. These accounted for more thantwo thirds of all events (480) and no less than 92 percent of all insured losses. Tropical Storm Allison (Unit-ed States) triggered an overall loss of US$ 6 billion(more than half of which was insured). Typhoon Naricaused major damage in Taipei (Taiwan, Province ofChina) and generated an insured loss of US$ 600 mil-lion.

Source: MunichRe, Topics (2001).

EEvviiddeennccee ooff tthhee eeccoonnoommiicc bbeenneeffiittss ooff ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn eeffffoorrttss

In the Caribbean, empirical evidence shows that it is significantly more cost-effective to design and build a struc-ture to standards that would withstand maximum expected wind or seismic forces in a given location, rather thanbuild to lower standards and suffer the damages. Source: OAS, 1993.

Switzerland long ago recognized the value of forests in protecting important economic assets (roads, industries,infrastructure, tourism) as well as human settlements and people against avalanches and landslides. The economyprovided by the protection afforded by forests was estimated between US$ 2 billion and US$ 3.5 billion per year. Source: OFEFP, Switzerland,1999.

In the United States, after the 1993 Midwest floods, government buyouts of flood-prone residents and movementof material property to areas outside the 100-year flood plain were successful in reducing flood claims in subse-quent flood events. The buyout initiative resulted in a significant reduction in National Flood Insurance Program(NFIP) claims and the availability of land in floodplains for other purposes. In the long run, economic sustain-ability hazard mitigation efforts plus enhanced risk assessment utilizing appropriate tools will have environmentalpay-offs.Source: Annual Hazards Research and Applications Workshops, University of Colorado, 2001.

33

34


AArreeaass ffoorr aaccttiioonn ssppeecciiffiicc ttoo eeccoonnoommiicc aassppeeccttss ooff ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn

• Assessment of natural disaster damage and loss potential (including historical perspective).• Consider costs and benefits of natural disaster management (cost-effective allocation of resources).• Assessment of hazard risks at the project appraisal stage of all potential investment projects, including cost-

benefit analyses that estimate the hazard vulnerability implications of alternative levels of overall quality andstrength as well as returns to specific disaster-proofing features.

• Evaluate trade-offs between quality and quantity of structural mitigation measures.• Create incentives, cost sharing and recovery for disaster reduction.• Consider disaster risk transfer and financing.• Enforce regulations under different levels of economic development and government capacity.• Determine pricing policy designed for rational use of resources (water, energy).

Adapted from: C. Benson, ODI, DFID, 2001 2002.

The figure shows the grossdomestic product (GDP) ofEcuador from 1980 to 2001. Thedisruption of normal growthcoincides with the occurrence ofsome major disasters, eventhough political and other cir-cumstances also have influencedthis trend. After the El Niñoevent of 1982-83 the GDPdecreased to minus 2.8 per centcompared to the previous year. In1997 a medium intensity earth-quake affected important, eco-nomic infrastructure, including akey oil pipeline, decreasing GDPto minus 6 per cent. The wide-spread damage by floods due tothe El Niño event of 1997-98, anearthquake in 1998 and politicalturmoil, was followed by adecrease of the GDP to minus7.3 per cent in 1999.

The benefits of long-term disaster management versusthe costs of repeated short-term post-disaster recon-struction need to be documented. In view of the exorbi-tant economic and social costs of recurring disasters,long-term hazard reduction planning is, more andmore, a guiding principle and prerequisite for the sus-tainability of physical investments in need of replace-ment, reconstruction or construction.

Improvement in, and enforcement of, regulatory frame-works of disaster reduction including disaster-relatedinsurance, building codes and land use planning willensure that infrastructure is properly sited and built tominimize damages as well as to reduce the costs of repair.This involves public insurance policy, market and regula-tory incentives for risk and vulnerability reduction, pro-

tection against fluctuations in insurance/reinsuranceprices, augmentation of insurance coverage at reason-able cost and backstop financial mechanisms.

The relationship between disaster and risk reductionand globalisation also needs to be researched further toexplore, on the one hand the detrimental effects ofderegulation and economic interconnection, and onthe other hand, the beneficial effects associated withtrade opportunities and economic competitiveness.

In a globalizing world, the potential of risk reduction asan essential element to building competitiveness, pro-tecting investment and securing trade opportunities,while ensuring that new risks are not created and busi-ness not interrupted, has to be fully comprehended.

AAnnnnuuaall ggrroowwtthh GGrroossss DDoommeessttiicc PPrroodduucctt ((GGDDPP)) aanndd ooccuurrrraannccee ooff mmaajjoorr ““nnaattuurraall ddiissaasstteerr”” iinn EEccuuaaddoorr

Source: ISDR, Central Bank of Ecuador, 2002


The eeconomic iimpacts oof nnatural ddisasters iin PPacific ssmall iisland sstates

Experience in Pacific small island states as in many other poor countries, shows that it is probably not the actual dollar valueof disaster losses that is most relevant, but rather the cost to the particular nation in terms of percentage of GDP –– and this canbe very significant indeed.

A major study of the economic impacts of natural disasters in Pacific island coutries was conducted as a part of the South PacificDisaster Reduction Project (SPDRP) by Te’o I.J. Fairbairn (UNDHA-SPO 1997a). The study concluded that natural disastershave a significant impact on key economic elements such as GDP, employment and trade, and macroeconomic aspects, includinggovernment finances, monetary policy, inflation and the level of international reserves. The conclusions underlined the impor-tance of adopting appropriate policy and institutional capabilities in order to minimize the extent of physical damage and econom-ic losses, in addition to the continuing role that donors have played in providing assistance for relief and rehabilitation purposes.

Fairbairn observed that “with their limited economic diversification, combined with a high agriculture-GDP ratio prevalentamong many of the small Pacific island countries, [they are] particularly exposed to disaster devastation and considerable eco-nomic losses. In the short to medium term, the destruction of standing crops, physical infrastructure and housing could besevere, with the consequences that GDP could become sharply depressed for some time, with likely consequence of provokingmacroeconomic instability. In the longer term, the study noted that damage to productive assets could lead to a loss of outputwith reduced economic growth and declining standards of living. The reallocation of financial resources after a disaster foremergency and rehabilitation purposes as well as reductions in capital investments can impede the realization of major nationaldevelopment objectives. However it was equally noted that “the extent of the destruction and economic losses that result, bothimmediately and over time, depends on a variety of factors including the degree of dependence on agricultural production, thelevel of structural diversification achieved, resource endowment and the level of disaster preparedness”.

In small countries generally, and in small development states specifically, primary attention needs to be given to a range of miti-gation strategies that can reduce the exposure or risk of damage to productive assets and associated economic losses. The pro-motion of appropriate macroeconomic policies can also be vital in cushioning the destabilizing impact of natural disasters.These can include firm adherence to fiscal and monetary policies at the time of severe demands on financial resources createdby emergency conditions or post-disaster requirements, the encouragement of property owners to adopt insurance as means ofspreading their risk, and the creation of a disaster reserve fund to facilitate a quick recovery of vital economic activities or infra-structure facilities following a disaster. At a more basic level of reducing risks long before they threaten, practices that maintaina continued commitment to strong macroeconomic fundamentals, including adequate external reserves, can serve as buffersagainst disaster-related crises.

35

Although smaller in absolute figures, the percentage of economic loss in relation to the gross nationalproduct (GNP) in developing countries far exceeds that in developed countries. This fact becomes

even more relevant for small island developing states (SIDS).

DDiissaasstteerr lloosssseess,, ttoottaall aanndd eexxpprreesssseedd aass sshhaarree ooff GGDDPP,, iinn tthhee rriicchheesstt aanndd ppoooorreesstt nnaattiioonnss,, 11998855-11999999

Adapted from MunichRe andJ. Abramovitz, 2001

EEnnvviirroonnmmeennttaall ccoonntteexxtt

The third system with which disaster reduction is closely linked is theenvironmental system, yet another pillar of sustainable development. Dis-asters do not only affect the built environment but also the natural envi-ronment. Furthermore, environmental degradation increases the intensi-ty of natural hazards and is often the factor that transforms the hazard, orclimatic extreme such as a heavy downpour, into a disaster. For example,river and lake floods are aggravated or even caused by deforestationwhich causes erosion and clogs rivers. Poverty and hazard vulnerability isintegrally linked to this situation. The poor are compelled to exploit envi-ronmental resources for survival, therefore increasing both risk and expo-sure to disasters, in particular those triggered by floods, drought andlandslides.

The natural environment provides solutions to increase protection againstdisaster impacts. Therefore, successful disaster reduction should enhanceenvironmental quality, which includes protection of natural resources andopen space, management of water run-off, and reduction of pollution.

Successful environmental policies should highlight the effectiveness ofdisaster reduction measures. This should entail an acceptance of somedegree of natural disturbance to avoid the greater consequences of

36


“Around the world, a growing share of thedevastation triggered by ‘natural’ disasters

stems from ecologically destructive prac-tices and from putting ourselves in harm’s

way. Many ecosystems have been frayed tothe point where they are no longer resilient

and able to withstand natural distur-bances, setting the stage for ‘unnatural dis-asters’ – those made more frequent or moresevere due to human actions. By degrading

forests, engineering rivers, filling in wet-lands, and destabilizing the climate, we

are unravelling the strands of a complexecological safety net.”

J. Abramovitz, 2001.

NNaattuurree’’ss ssoolluuttiioonnss ttoo rreedduuccee ddiissaasstteerr iimmppaaccttss

“The time has come to tap nature’s engineering techniques – using the services provided by healthy and resilientecosystems. Dunes, barrier islands, mangrove forests, and coastal wetlands are natural shock absorbers that protectagainst coastal storms. Wetlands, floodplains, and forests are sponges that absorb floodwaters. Nature providesthese valuable services for free, and we should take advantage of them rather than undermining them.”Source: Abramovitz, 2001.

“Open space, greenways, and riverside parks serve as habitat for wildlife protect streams from pollutants, helpmaintain water temperatures, and keep people and development from the highest-risk floodplains. Trees can dras-tically reduce storm water management costs. American Forests studied Garland, Texas, and calculated that thecity’s canopy reduced storm water runoff by 19 million cubic feet during a major storm. Annually, the trees saveGarland $2.8 million in infrastructure costs and $2.5 in air quality costs and residential energy bills.” Source: Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center, 2001.

Around the village of Guarita in Honduras, local people practiced traditional Quezungal farming methods consist-ing of planting crops under trees, maintaining ground vegetation and terracing, in order to root the soil and reduceerosion. During hurricane Mitch, only 10 per cent of the crop was lost, leaving reserves that could be shared withmore severely affected neighbouring areas.

The Viet Nam Red Cross Society conducted an environmental preservation project in Thai Binh province to addressdifferent aspects of risk relating to typhoon occurrence that threatens the people living on the coast. Two thousandhectares of mangrove plantation were created along the coastline serving to reduce wind and wave velocity andaction, thereby protecting landscape, human life and local development assets. Resource opportunities for improv-ing livelihoods were provided by a healthier natural environment. The limited damage provoked by the worsttyphoon in a decade provided the best possible indication of the effectiveness of the plantation in reducing risks andits ability to enhance the resiliency of local communities.

Source: IFRC, 2002.

extreme events, and an appraisal of alternativesolutions to an exclusively engineeringapproach.

There is growing recognition that by followingprinciples of wise environmental management,increased hazard protection as well as econom-ic benefits can be provided by the natural envi-ronment. This can be accomplished by build-ing national and local capacities, exchangingexperience and information regionally andengaging programme and investment partnersinternationally.

The wealth of information and knowledgefrom both environmental and disaster manage-ment studies should be mutually beneficial.Both areas are inherently multi-disciplinaryand dynamic in their approach and analysis ofthe socio-environmental nexus. Institutionally,both have been, and largely continue to be,operated by the public sector and NGOs. Sim-ilar tools are continuously being refined in bothfields, namely vulnerability indexing, inventorymechanisms, educational programmes for pub-lic awareness and impact assessments.

Encompassing long-term comprehensive goalsto manage growth, development and land useimplies incorporating an effective environmen-tal component into disaster reduction strate-gies. Adapted, sustainable and integrated man-agement of natural resources, including refor-estation schemes, proper land use and judi-cious settlements should increase the resilienceof communities to disasters by reversing cur-rent trends of environmental degradation and

37


dealing with hazard management in a compre-hensive way. Secondary benefits expected fromthe introduction of environmental projects indisaster reduction programmes include socialacceptance, political feasibility and economicrationale.

Disaster reduction and environmental manage-ment should become national priorities. Enti-ties responsible for disaster reduction shouldhave clear environmental mandates. Coordi-nated and inter-agency programmes are need-ed to promote a holistic problem-solving strat-egy, justifying the protection and restoration ofnatural functions of ecosystems, and assessingprogramme subsidies to create the right incen-tives for sustainability. Environmental account-ing systems that produce information suitedfor decision-making should reflect disasterreduction considerations. Additional studiesare needed to improve systems of ecologicaleconomic accounting. Translating environ-mental resources and services into convention-al economic figures is still very much a chal-lenge.

As disaster reduction and environment have alot in common, the disaster reduction com-munity should look closely at experiencegained in promoting environmental policies.The environmental community has been pro-moting its agenda for 30 years. Today, the roleof environmental strategies to achieve sustain-able development is now no longer questionedand disaster reduction policy must follow asimilar path.

LLiinnkkiinngg eennvviirroonnmmeenntt aanndd ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn aaccttiivviittiieess

• Assessment of environmental problems linked to hazards based on reliable sources of existing infor-mation, mapping of environmentally sensitive areas, description of the characteristics of the environ-ment and development trends in these areas, assessment of impacts and the need for additional data.

• Examination of environmental benefits to be drawn from disaster reduction activities throughoutsectors.

• Monitoring to provide information for decision-making purposes, e.g. removal of disaster-proneland from development (land-use plans enable local governments to gather and analyse informationabout the suitability of land for development, so that the limitations of hazard-prone areas are under-stood by policy makers, potential investors and community residents).

• Environmental tools for disaster reduction purposes: regulatory (zoning, subdivision regulations,building codes, special ordinances), incentives (tax incentives, transfers of development rights, ease-ments, land purchases, voluntary agreements, donations, leases, covenants, charitable deductions),programmes (conservation/restoration of ecosystems, wildlife, wetlands), hazard control and mitiga-tion, water/watershed, coastal-zone management.

of the full range of the hydrological cycle toboth development and disaster concerns. Themagnitude of the resulting fires, drought,flooding and landslides associated with thesedisasters inevitably stimulated discussion aboutthe relationships that exist between environ-mental mismanagement and the occurrence ofhazards. One of the most important initiativeswas the CCAD publication, Strategy for theReduction of Environmental Vulnerability in Cen-tral America when Faced with Natural Disasters:Environmental Management and the Evaluationof Vulnerability, (May 1999). Produced with thecollaboration of the Economic Commission forLatin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC),UNDP, UNEP and the World Bank, thisdocument provided an overview of the disasterand vulnerability problems in the region andproposed many wide-ranging projects forfinancing as part of the international process torehabilitate the Central American region. Thecontent of the proposals went quite beyondenvironmental problems, touching on almostevery foreseeable topic of interest to risk ana-lysts and managers.

CCoonncclluuddiinngg rreemmaarrkkss

Despite the progress achieved, much more isrequired to implement institutional changesfavouring the evolution of a disaster reductionculture. The processes conditioning the emer-gence of disaster reduction need to be con-ducive to risk and vulnerability understanding,awareness and management, leading to long-term safe development planning based onanticipation rather than cure.

Disaster reduction strategies drawing uponsustainable development concepts should beproactive, and, on a continuous basis. Theyshould promote political commitment, finan-cial rationale, environmental sensibility andcultural awareness. Such a shift in mentalityshould, in particular, meet the mitigationrequirements imposed by the slow-onset disas-ters that global environmental changes willbring about.

38


Until recently, the relationship between envi-ronmental degradation and mismanagement,hazard incidence and vulnerability was a non-issue in most regions and countries except forlip-service. Neither the subject nor the desig-nated authorities for disaster management werethought to be relevant for ecologists and envi-ronmentalists. There was little discussion, andeven less organizational contact, linking theperceived interests of environmental manage-ment and the dynamics associated with riskreduction. In fact, the primary actors frequent-ly considered one another to be antagonists,struggling to represent forces either empower-ing the interests of the people or expanding theuncompromising power and authority of theState, often played out over competing uses ofland and natural resources. It should also berecalled that the existence of environmentaldivisions in bilateral and multilateral agenciesas well as of environmental ministries was notthe norm during the 1980s.

This changed dramatically in the closing yearsof the 1990s in Latin America and theCaribbean. El Niño and Hurricanes Georgesand Mitch focused attention on the importance

LLoonngg-tteerrmm eennvviirroonnmmeennttaall cchhaannggeess aanndd ddiissaasstteerrss

At the beginning of the 21st century, there is, particularly inPacific island developing states, growing concern about thelong-term consequences of climate change, the El Niño phe-nomenon and the potential for rising sea levels. In recognizingthe heavy dependence of small island developing states on thenatural environment and that they are exposed to almost alltypes of natural, technological and human-related hazards,there is a strong rationale for considering all these hazards in ageneric sense as ultimately being environmental hazards.Environmental impact is precisely the premise for disasterreduction in five generic environments:• Built environment – property, buildings, infrastructure• Natural environment – geography, physiology• Human environment – human life, socio-economic fac-

tors integral with the surface of the earth• Terrestrial environment• Marine environment

2Chapter

39

Risk awareness and assessment

22..11 UUnnddeerrssttaannddiinngg tthhee nnaattuurree ooff rriisskk 22..22 EEmmeerrggiinngg ttrreennddss iinn ddiissaasstteerr iimmppaacctt,, hhaazzaarrddss

aanndd vvuullnneerraabbiilliittyy ppaatttteerrnnss 22..33.. RRiisskk aasssseessssmmeenntt

PPhhoottoo:: JJ.. JJeennkkiinnss//PPAAHHOO

2.1. Understanding the nature of risk

41

2Risk awareness and assessment

Disaster risk is part of every day. Awareness of risk is therefore a necessary condition to engagein disaster risk reduction. The focus on risk management, rather than on the disaster event,reflects a proactive attitude for dealing with potential threats to social and materials assets, beforethey are lost. The analysis and lessons learned from prior experiences of disasters help to defineprofiles of risk attached to people, activities and places that share attributes, in the face of partic-ular potential sources of damage. Understanding risk relates to the ability to define what couldhappen in the future, given a range of possible alternatives to choose from. Assessing risks,based on vulnerability and hazard analysis, is a required step for the adoption of adequate andsuccessful disaster reduction policies and measures

This chapter will discuss briefly:• The nature of risk, with emphasis on the linkages between hazards and vulnerability.• The emerging trends in disaster impact, hazard and vulnerability patterns.• Risk analysis and assessments with examples of application of these methodologies.

Levels of risk awareness depend largely uponthe quantity and quality of available informationand on the difference in people’s perceptions ofrisk. People are more vulnerable when they arenot aware of the hazards that pose a threat totheir lives and assets. Risk awareness variesamong people, communities, agencies and gov-ernments, according to their particular percep-tions. These can be influenced by the knowledgeof hazards and vulnerabilities, as well as by theavailability of accurate and timely informationabout them.

Two elements are essential in the formulationof risk: the probability of occurrence for agiven threat – hhaazzaarrdd;; and the degree of sus-ceptibility of the element exposed to that source– vvuullnneerraabbiilliittyy.. The negative impact, or thedisaster, will depend on the characteristics,probability and intensity of the hazard, as wellas the susceptibility of the exposed elements

based on physical, social, economic and envi-ronmental conditions.

The recognition of vulnerability as a key ele-ment in the risk equation has also beenaccompanied by a growing interest in linkingthe positive capacities of people to cope, with-stand and recover from the impact of haz-ards. It conveys a sense of the potential formanagerial and operational capabilities toreduce the extent of hazards and the degreeof vulnerability. This awareness is reflectedby the incorporation of capacity in the riskequation:

Social dimensions are intimately linked to thedecision-making process to deal with disasterrisk, as they embrace a range of risk percep-tions and their underlying causes.

A closer look at the nature of hazards and thenotions of vulnerability and capacities in thecontext of disaster risk, allows for a better andmore comprehensive understanding of thechallenges posed by disaster risk reduction.

Risk = Hazard (H) x Vulnerability (V) / Capacity (C)or

Risk = function of ( H and V / C)

RiskThe probability of harmful consequences, or expected

loss (of lives, people injured, property, livelihoods,economic activity disrupted or environment dam-

aged) resulting from interactions between natural orhuman induced hazards and vulnerable/capable

conditions.

World MMap oof NNatural HHazards

SSoouurrccee:: MMüünniicchhRRee,,

While most natural hazards may be inevitable,disasters are not. By seeking to understand andto anticipate future hazards by study of the pastand monitoring of present situations, a com-munity or public authority is poised to mini-mize the risk of a disaster. It is a measure ofpeople’s wisdom and a society’s values if acommunity is able to learn from the experi-ences of others, rather than to suffer its own.There is a wealth of knowledge about thenature and consequences of different hazards,expected frequency, magnitude and potentialgeographical impacts, but many fewer exam-ples of lessons learned from them.

Hazards are increasingly dynamic and withhighly varying potential impacts. Due tochanging environments, many countries andregional organisations call for a greater knowl-edge of hazard characteristics. Such knowledgerequires additional, more focussed research onhazards and a greater understanding of theirnature, effects and history.

A wide range of geophysical, meteorological,hydrological, environmental, technological,biological and even socio-political hazards,alone or in complex interaction, can threatenliving and sustainable development. Hazardshave often been divided into natural, human-induced technological and increasingly nega-tive effects of environmental degradation isbeing added to this list.

While natural hazards can be divided into threebroad categories -hydrometeorological, geologi-cal and biological- the variety, geographical cov-erage and types of impacts are huge. Forest fires,for example, are recognised as a natural hazardbut are often referred to as environmental, alongwith pest infestation and desertification. Inorder to distinguish between different hazardtypes, many institutions have developed hazard

43


catalogues. A table has been prepared by ISDRto summarise the current thinking (see next page).

The strong compound relation between differ-ent types of natural hazards may give theimpression that attempts to catalogue them arefatuous. At what stage does a landslide, recog-nised as a geological hazard, becomes a mud-flow, which is often classified as a hydrologicalhazard? In the same vein, primary hazardsoften give rise to a myriad of related potentialcollateral or secondary hazards. In many cases,these cause greater threat to a community thando the primary hazards. Tropical cyclones cantrigger other hazards, in particular stormsurges, flash foods and landslides. Often themost serious impact of a tropical cyclone comesfrom the associated coastal and river floods.Similarly, damages related to earthquakes areoften caused by landslides, fires, tsunamis, andfloods.

All communities – urban or rural – are vulnera-ble to most hazards. However, different regionswill be more prone to certain types of hazardsthan others. Floods and windstorms are the haz-ards that most frequently lead to disasters inAsia, the Pacific, Europe and North America,while it is droughts and epidemics that arereported in African countries. In contrast, Pacif-ic and Caribbean islands are most vulnerable tothe effects of tropical cyclones. El Niño events,floods, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes affectin greater degree the Andean and Meso-Ameri-can countries. Even within a specific region,such as the Pacific, the frequency and intensity ofspecific hazards varies from one country toanother. Hydrometeorological hazards are mostcommon and floods alone account for two-thirdsof people affected by natural hazards.

In the same way, different levels of income groupsare more or less vulnerable to certain types of haz-

Understanding the nature of natural hazards involves a consideration of almost every physical phenomenon on theplanet. The slow movements in the earth’s mantle – the convection cells that drive the movement of continents andthe manufacture of ocean floors – are the starting point and also the sticking point. They lift mountains and shapelandscapes. They also build volcanoes and trigger potentially catastrophic earthquakes. Like those other invisiblemovements that take place on a vast scale through the atmospheric medium – the carbon cycle and the water cycleand the nitrogen cycle – volcanoes and earthquakes, along with technological advancements, provide the bedrock ofstrong nations, rich industries and great cities. They do, of course, have the potential to destroy them. This is alsowhat happens with technological hazards and environmental degradation.

Understanding tthe nnature oof hhazards

44


HHAAZZAARRDD ppootteennttiiaallllyy ddaammaaggiinngg pphhyyssiiccaall eevveenntt,, pphheennoommeennoonn aanndd//oorr hhuummaann aaccttiivviittyy,,

wwhhiicchh mmaayy ccaauussee tthhee lloossss ooff lliiffee oorr iinnjjuurryy,, pprrooppeerrttyy ddaammaaggee,, ssoocciiaall aanndd eeccoonnoommiicc ddiissrruuppttiioonn oorr eennvviirroonnmmeennttaall ddeeggrraaddaattiioonn..

NNAATTUURRAALL HHAAZZAARRDDSSNatural processes or phenomena occurring in the biosphere

that may constitute a damaging event.Natural hazards can be classified by origin in: geological, hydrometeorological or biological.

OORRIIGGIINN

GGeeoollooggiiccaall hhaazzaarrddssNatural earth processes or phenomena inthe biosphere, which include geological,neotectonic, geophysical, geomorphologi-cal, geotechnical and hydrogeologicalnature.

HHyyddrroommeetteeoorroollooggiiccaall hhaazzaarrddssNatural processes or phenomena ofatmospheric, hydrological or oceano-graphic nature.

BBiioollooggiiccaall hhaazzaarrddssProcesses of organic origin or those con-veyed by biological vectors, includingexposure to pathogenic micro-organisms,toxins and bioactive substances

PPHHEENNOOMMEENNAA // EEXXAAMMPPLLEESS

• Earthquakes, tsunamis; • Volcanic activity and emissions;• Mass movements i.e.: landslides, rock-

slides, rockfall, liquefaction, submarineslides;

• Subsidence, surface collapse, geologi-cal fault activity.

• Floods, debris and mud flows;• Tropical cyclones, storm surges, thun-

der/hailstorms, rain and wind storms,blizzards and other severe storms;

• Drought, desertification, wildlandfires, heat waves, sand or dust storms;

• Permafrost, snow avalanches.

Outbreaks of epidemic diseases, plant oranimal contagion, and extensive infesta-tions.

TTEECCHHNNOOLLOOGGIICCAALL HHAAZZAARRDDSSDanger originating from technological or industrial accidents, dangerous procedures, infra-

structure failures or certain human activities, which may cause the loss of life or injury,property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Sometimesreferred to as anthropogenic hazards. Some examples: industrial pollution, nuclear activitiesand radioactivity, toxic wastes, dam failures; transport, industrial or technological accidents

(explosions, fires, spills)

EENNVVIIRROONNMMEENNTTAALL DDEEGGRRAADDAATTIIOONNProcesses induced by human behaviour and activities (sometimes combined with natural

hazards), that damage the natural resource base or adversely alter natural processes orecosystems. Potential effects are varied and may contribute to an increase in vulnerability

and the frequency and intensity of natural hazards.Some examples: land degradation, deforestation, desertification, wildland fires, loss of biodiversity,

land, water and air pollution, climate change, sea level rise, ozone depletion.

NOTES: 1. Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origins and effects.2. Some hazards may have natural or human-induced origin, i.e. wildland fires and desertification, in such a case they may be

classified as hydrometerological hazard or refered to environmental degradation.

Hazard cclassification

45


MMaapp- DDiissttrriibbuuttiioonn ooff nnaattuurraall ddiissaasstteerrss,, bbyy ccoouunnttrryy aanndd ttyyppee ooff pphheennoommeennaa ((11997755-22000011))

NNuummbbeerr ooff PPeeooppllee KKiilllleedd ((IInnccoommee CCllaassss//DDiissaasstteerr TTyyppee))((11997755-22000000)) WWoorrlldd SSuummmmaarryy

Graphic elaborated by ADRC from OFDA/CRED international disaster database

46


ards. While droughts affect primarily the lowersocial classes, the impact of earthquakes and floodsare more evenly spread out between society.

Understanding tthe nnature oof vulnerability aand ccapacity

Over the past thirty years there has been a signif-icant and important development in the under-standing about what makes people, social, eco-nomic and environmental assets susceptible tohazards. The concept of vulnerability may havebeen referred to first by engineers, in consideringconstruction values and building designs relatedto levels of resistance to physical forces exerted byearthquakes, wind and water.

During the 1980s and 1990s, there was a growinginterest in the linkages between disasters and

development. Originally focussed on consideringprimarily the impact of disaster on development, itwas then expanded also to address the impact ofdevelopment on the toll of disaster related damage.This expressed a new range of socio-economic andenvironmental concerns built around the notion ofvulnerability.

In parallel with this expanded interest on the rela-tionship between disasters and development duringthe last decades, the role of community participationas well as people’s general coping capacities was alsorecognized as key elements in explaining disasterrisk. The creative link between the negative condi-tions with which people live, and the often over-looked positive attributes which they also possess,underline the importance of socio-economic dimen-sions of risk. However, it remains a challenge toencourage the identification of locally availablestrengths and capacities to reduce risk to hazards.The importance of exposing capacities hidden innon-disaster times becomes a critical task for disas-ter risk reduction. Capacity apply to all levels ofsociety and social organizations, and a broad rangeof physical, social, economic and ecological consid-erations.

Vulnerability is a reflection of the state of the indi-vidual and collective physical, social, economic andenvironmental conditions at hand that are shapedcontinually by attitudinal, behavioural, cultural,socio-economic and political influences at the indi-viduals, families, communities, and countries.

Governed by human activity, vulnerability cannot beisolated from ongoing development efforts, and ittherefore plays a critical role in the social, economicand ecological spheres of sustainable development.

VulnerabilityA set of conditions and processes resulting from physical, social,economical and environmental factors, which increase the sus-

ceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards.

Coping ccapacity The manner in which people and organisations use existingresources to achieve various beneficial ends during unusual,

abnormal, and adverse conditions of a disaster event or process.

Risk is rooted in conditions of physical, social, economic andenvironmental vulnerability that need to be assessed and man-

aged on a continuing basis. The primary objective is to mini-mize exposure to hazards through the development and relianceon individual and societal capabilities and institutional capaci-

ties that can withstand potential loss or damage

EEccoonnoommiicc

SSoocciiaall

EEccoollooggiiccaall

PPhhyyssiiccaall

IInntteerraaccttiioonn ooffvvuullnneerraabbiilliittyyffaaccttoorrss

47


susceptibility. Deeply rooted beliefs that are destiny ori-ented or pose a fatalistic vision of disasters, can reflect areligious or ideologically inherited sense of vulnerability,and these people may present a great challenge in mov-ing towards the acceptance of a culture of preventionand protection.

Social vulnerability is also linked with other factors, likethe state of domination and power relations in the con-cerned society. A great social cohesion and regulationimproves the coping capacities, whereas social insecuri-ty increases vulnerability. In this sense, the decline oftraditional structures, civic groups or communities for-merly engaged in the collective well being, or in the pro-tection of the weakest people, can strengthen the disas-trous consequences of a hazard.

Organizational and governance structures play animportant role in the level of social vulnerability.

EEccoonnoommiicc ffaaccttoorrss:: Levels of vulnerability are highlydependent upon the economic status of individuals, com-munities and nations. The poor are in general far morevulnerable than economically better off sectors of society.This relates both to the proportional possibility of higherlosses when a disaster strikes, and to the capacity torecover from disasters. The links between the eradicationof poverty, impact consequences on recovery conditionsfrom natural disasters, and the state of the environmentalresource base upon which both depend are crucial.

Economic vulnerability also includes levels of individ-ual, community and national economic reserves, levelsof debt and the degree of access to credit and loans aswell as insurance. An economy lacking in diversity isgenerally more vulnerable. Similarly, inadequate accessto critical and basic socio-economic infrastructure,including communication networks, utilities and sup-plies, transportation, water, sewage and health care facil-ities increase people’s exposure to risk.

EEccoollooggiiccaall ffaaccttoorrss:: The discussion of environmentalaspects of vulnerability covers a very broad range of issuesin the inter-acting social, economic and ecological aspectsof sustainable development as it relates to disaster riskreduction. The key aspects of environmental vulnerabilitycan be summarized by the following five distinctions: (seepage 60 diagram on “Environmental degradation”)

• The extent of natural resource depletion. • The state of resource degradation. • Loss of resilience of the ecological systems.• Loss of biodiversity.• Exposure to toxic and hazardous pollutants.

The figure below illustrates the four broad areas inwhich different aspects of vulnerability can be grouped.They are depicted by intersecting circles to show that allspheres interact with one another.

PPhhyyssiiccaall ffaaccttoorrss:: This concept is conventionally asset-oriented, and comes from the schools of land use plan-ning, engineering and architecture. Physical aspects ofvulnerability, although continually broadening in scope,still mainly refer to the location considerations and sus-ceptibilities of the built environment. It may bedescribed as exposure to hazards – “living in harmsways” or “being in the wrong place at the wrong time.”Physical vulnerability may be determined by aspectssuch as density levels, remoteness of a settlement, its sit-ing, design and materials used for critical infrastructureand for housing.

SSoocciiaall ffaaccttoorrss:: Social vulnerability is linked to the levelof well being of individuals, communities and society. Itincludes aspects related to levels of literacy and educa-tion, the existence of peace and security, access to basichuman rights, systems of good governance, social equi-ty, positive traditional values, knowledge structures, cus-toms and ideological beliefs, and overall collective orga-nizational systems.

Some groups are more vulnerable than others, main-ly those less privileged in class and caste structures,ethnic minorities, the very young and very old, andother disadvantaged and marginalized segments ofthe population. Gender issues, particularly the role ofwomen, are also important. In many societies, womenhave a primary responsibility for domestic life, essen-tial shelter and basic needs. Therefore, women aremore likely to become more burdened, or more vul-nerable in times of crisis.

Public health, concerning physical, mental and psycho-logical well being, is a critical aspect of social vulnera-bility. The disabled, of whom there are hundreds of mil-lions world-wide, are particularly susceptible, as theirevacuation and continued care is severely hamperedduring disasters. Predisposition to infection, exaggerat-ed exposure to communicable diseases, lack of defensivemechanisms, insufficient basic infrastructure, especiallywater supply and sanitation, as well as inadequate healthcare facilities and supplies, are all expressions ofincreased vulnerability.

Levels of literacy and training, traditional knowledgesystems, and access to information on disaster risk andmeasures, as well cultural aspects, such as indigenousbeliefs, traditions and ways of coping also shape levels of

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More than 90 per cent of natural disaster related deaths are to be found in developing countries.Disaster impact statistics show the global trend – there are now more disasters but fewer peopledie in proportion, even though more population is affected and economic losses are increasing,as discussed in the next section.

Closely linked and influenced by changing perception, hazards and vulnerability is constantlyshaped by dynamic and complex socio-economic and ecological processes. They are compound-ed by stresses felt within individual societies.

The current aspects of physical exposure of human beings and economic assets have been partlyshaped by historical patterns of settlements. Beneficial climatic and soil conditions that havespurred economic activities are in many cases also associated to hazard-prone landscapes. Bothvolcanic slopes and flood plains areas have historically attracted human activities. Where settle-ment patterns have contributed to configure risk scenarios, new forces, such as ppooppuullaattiioonnggrroowwtthh and increased rruurraall//uurrbbaann mmiiggrraattiioonn, act as dynamic pressures contributing to changingpatterns in increasing people’s exposure to hazards.

The processes through which people and goods become more exposed to hazards are also socio-economic conditioned. In particular, ppoovveerrttyy lleevveellss and the impact ooff ddeevveellooppmmeenntt pprroocceesssseess,especially those associated with an increasingly gglloobbaalliisseedd ssoocciieettyy, are reflecting, to some degree,current trends in socio-economic vulnerability to disasters. The pace of modern life has alsointroduced new forms of vulnerabilities related to tteecchhnnoollooggiiccaall developments. In addition todiscouraging poverty levels, the emergence of virulent bbiioollooggiiccaall threats has revealed evengreater vulnerability.

Systemic ecological and localized eennvviirroonnmmeennttaall ddeeggrraaddaattiioonn is becoming highly influential aswell, lowering the natural resilience to disaster impact, delaying recovery time and generallyweakening the resource base on which all human activity is ultimately dependent.

At the eeccoossyysstteemm lleevveell, phenomena like El Niño/La Niña, cclliimmaattee cchhaannggee and the potential forrising sea levels, are affecting the patterns and intensity of hhyyddrroommeetteeoorroollooggiiccaall hhaazzaarrddss.. Envi-ronmental degradation influences the effects of natural hazards, by exacerbating their impactsand limiting the natural absorptive capacity and resilience of the areas affected.

BBiioollooggiiccaall hhaazzaarrddss in the forms of plant or animal contagion, extensive infestations, human dis-ease epidemics and pandemics, continue to factor into the disasters-development scenario innew and unpredictable ways. They exert considerable socio-economic impacts on food securityand human mortality, health and economic productivity, among other things.

DDiissaasstteerr ttrriiggggeerreedd bbyy tteecchhnnoollooggiiccaall hhaazzaarrddss often resulting from major accidents associated withindustrialisation and forms of technological innovation, have significant socio-economic andenvironmental impact. Although technological hazards have been part of society for hundreds ofyears, the trends are showing an increasing impact. Technological advancements, specifically inthe energy, transport and industrial sectors, are developing innovations with associated risks thatare not always understood or heeded. The adverse effects of some technological disasters, bothon society and on the environment, can considerably outlast the impacts associated with naturaldisasters.

2.2 - Emerging trends in disaster impact, hazards and vulnerability patterns

Trends iin ddisaster iimpact

While no country in the world is entirely safe,lack of capacity to limit the impact of hazardsremains a major burden for developing coun-tries, where more than 90 per cent of naturaldisaster related deaths are to be found.

Twenty-four of the 49 least developed coun-tries (LDCs) still face high levels of disasterrisk. At least six of them have been hit bybetween two and eight major disasters per yearin the last 15 years, with long-term conse-quences for human development (UNDP,2001). These figures do not include the conse-quences of the many smaller and unrecordeddisasters that cause significant loss at the localcommunity level.

The re-insurance giant Munich Re, a memberof the ISDR Inter-agency Task Force, in itsannual publication Topics for 2000, looked atthe trend of economic losses and insurancecosts over a 50 year period linked to what itcalls “great natural catastrophes”.

There were 20 of these, costing the world US$38 billion (at 1998 values) between 1950 and1959. However, between 1990 and 1999, therewere 82 such major disasters and the econom-ic losses had risen to a total of US$ 535 billion.That is, disasters had multiplied fourfold buteconomic losses were 14 times higher. And ineach decade between, both the number of greatdisasters and the economic loss involved hadrisen steadily. However, losses in 2000 and2001 were down.

These are absolute figures of economic loss,most of them to be found in developed andindustrialized countries. But seen as losses bypercentage of GDP, it is developing countriesthat lose most in relative terms, as shown in thegraphic based on figures provided byMunichRe. For example, the economic lossesof the United States from the 1997-98 El Niñoevent were estimated to US$ 1.96 billion or0.03 per cent of GDP. The economic losses inEcuador were US$ 2.9 billion, but this repre-sented 14.6 per cent of GDP (ECLAC 2000).

The International Federation of Red Cross andRed Crescent Societies, another ISDR TaskForce member, confirms the worsening trendof human suffering and economic loss during

49


the last decade. The total number of peopleeach year affected by natural disaster – that is,who at least for a time either lost their homes,their crops, their animals, their livelihoods, ortheir health, because of the disaster – almostdoubled between 1990 and 1999, by an aver-age of 188 million people per year (CRED2002). This is six times more than the averageof 31 million people affected annually by con-flict (OCHA, 2002).

Comparing the last three decades, the trendshows an increase in the number of naturalhazard events and of affected populations.Even though the number of disasters has morethan tripled since the 1970s, the reported deathtoll has decreased to less than half (see grahpicpage 12). This is among other factors due toimproved early warning systems and increasedpreparedness. This statistic varies enormouslydepending on region and figures used. Oneneeds to bear in mind that large disasters arerare events that defeat any statistical analysis in

TThhee eeccoollooggiiccaall ffoooottpprriinntt

Demographic pressure means more forest loss and moreland degradation. This means more flooding, drought, orboth. Every human requires an area of land and shallow seafor food, water, shelter, transport, energy, commerce andwaste. This is called an ecological footprint. In rich nationssuch as the US, this ecological footprint is almost 10 hectaresper person. But even in the poorest places in the US thisfootprint is at least one hectare.

Every day, another 200,000 newborns will require up to200,000 hectares of what might have been a benign and nec-essary wilderness. More people also means more fossil fuelconsumption, which means more carbon dioxide emission,which means climate change. And such a world, climate sci-entists have warned repeatedly, is a world with a greater fre-quency of extreme events.

The combination of climate change and population growthwill exact a price. The latest UN calculation is that threedecades from now, around 70 per cent of the world’s landwill be affected in some way by human activity and half thepeople in the world will be short of water. Many of the otherhalf will be at risk from increased flooding. By that time,there could be eight billion people on the planet.

Adapted from the environmentalist E O Wilson, Scientific American, February 2002

people in each year. Nevertheless, in relativeterms and counted per capita, Africa is themost heavily affected country, in particularwhen drought, epidemics and famine areincluded.

The single most terrible year in human lossduring the last decade was 1991, when acyclone devastated Bangladesh killing 139,000people, bringing the global total of deaths forthat year to 200,000. Cyclones are cyclicalevents and they continue to hit the Bangladeshcoasts but no such catastrophe has happenedagain. This is at least in part because themachinery of warning and preparedness –watchful officials, an aware public and astronger sense of community responsibility –came into play.

The worst global economic loss during lastdecade occurred in 1995, due to the GreatHanshin-Awaji earthquake in Kobe, Japan. Ahighly developed, prepared and economicallystrong nation faced serious set backs economi-cally by loosing important facilities of its pri-mary port. Even seven years after that disaster,the amount of shipping trade in Kobe hasdropped by 15 per cent. But now Kobe isrebuilt and modernised.

50


the short term. Perhaps more significant in thelife of many are those daily disasters, generallyunderreported and not reflected at all in globalfigures on losses, but accumulating to probablylarge tolls of both economic and health losses.

There is a considerable geographic variation inthe occurrence and impact of natural hazards.Asia is disproportionately affected withapproximately 43 per cent of all natural disas-ters in the last decade. During the same period,Asia accounted for almost 70 per cent of alllives lost due to natural hazards. During thetwo El Niño years of 1991-92 and 1997-98,floods in China alone affected over 200 million

TToottaall NNuummbbeerr ooff RReeppoorrtteedd DDiissaasstteerrss,, ((11999911-22000000))

GGrreeaatt nnaattuurraall ccaattaassttrroopphheess 11995500––22000011

Source: Munich Re, 2001

Source: Munich Re, 2001

Trends iin hhazards

Until recently, the intensity and frequency ofnatural hazards, as events, whether geologicalor hydrometeorological in nature, only variedon very long time-scales due to natural varia-tion in global temperatures and variation in theintensity of seismic activity.

Today, in particular hydrometeorological haz-ards are increasing due to human activities.The findings of the Intergovernmental Panel

51


on Climate Change (IPCC) provide a newoutlook about the changing patterns related tohazards themselves. Certainly, the scale of vol-canic or seismic activity is not altered byhuman-induced sources, but it appears thatour changing climate is affecting both the fre-quency and intensity of hydrometeorologicalhazards and related mass movements.Although it is very difficult to show scientificevidence of these changes, projections for thefuture invite concern.

Source: MunichRe, 2001

The figure below shows that there is currently no major change in the frequency and intensity ofreported earthquakes. Nevertheless, the economic losses caused by earthquakes are increasing.

GGrreeaatt nnaattuurraall ccaattaassttrroopphheess 11995500––22000011

EEaarrtthhqquuaakkeess LLooccaatteedd bbyy tthhee NNEEIICC,, MMaaggnniittuuddee 55 aanndd ggrreeaatteerr

ment of these changes with well establishedscientific techniques provide the best oppor-tunity to develop a warning system. Recentvolcanic disasters show that the cost of moni-toring volcanic activity and pre-disaster plan-ning is very small when compared to thepotential losses.

For early warning to be effective, sustainedpublic education and information is necessary.This includes understanding results of vol-canological studies and analysis, the possibledangers and the local plans to address themprior to the occurrence of emergency condi-tions. It can be done through the use ofbrochures, lectures, or courses although thebest prepared communities also conduct reg-ular disaster warning and prevention exercis-es.

In 1990, the International Association of Vol-canology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior(IAVCEI) launched a program to support theIDNDR and to promote the reduction ofrisks related to volcanoes. The initiativeselected 16 volcanoes for monitoring andresearch with the aim of directing attention toa small number of active volcanoes, and toencourage the establishment of a range ofresearch and public-awareness activitiesaimed at enhancing an understanding of thevolcanoes and the hazards they pose.

That commitment demonstrated a concen-trated effort within the scientific communityto publicize the realistic aspects of disasterreduction by working in close association withcommunities at risk from volcanic hazards.Such collaborative scientific activities contin-ue to show benefits as quite a lot of work con-tinues with those same volcanoes. As a resultof improvements in monitoring made duringthe IDNDR, better data has been developed,especially as those volcanoes continue to berestless. Ongoing work that would not haveoccurred were it not for this earlier concen-trated attention includes, ongoing German-Indonesian cooperation at Merapi Volcano,on the Indonesian island of Java.

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Volcanic HHazards

About 50 to 60 volcanoes erupt every yearworldwide. Large eruptions endanger lives,human settlements and livelihoods of thealmost 500 million people estimated to livenear active volcanoes in 2000. That numberwill increase in the future as today more than60 large cities are located near potentially activevolcanoes, threatened by volcanic eruption.

Volcanoes with high activity are located pre-dominantly in developing countries, particu-larly in Latin America, the Caribbean, partsof Asia and in the southwest Pacific. In thesecountries, despite the improvements in manynational civil defense agencies’ capacities tomanage volcanic emergencies, eruptions arebecoming increasingly risky because of risingpopulation density and intense interweavingof infrastructure in the areas surrounding vol-canoes.

As the physical characteristics and chemicalproperties of a specific volcano become betterknown, it can be more easily monitored.However, the prediction of an impendingeruption can still remain a major challenge forvolcanologists. Therefore, predicting futurevolcanic eruptions and related hazards mustalso be matched with a series of other forms ofmitigation, including the following:

• Volcanic risk analysis.• Early warning and short-term forecast of

eruptions.• Timely and effectively organized evacua-

tion of people from hazardous areas.• Development and application of land-use

and contingency plans to minimize futurevolcanic disasters.

• Sustained information and educationalprograms for the population.

Major volcanic eruptions do not occur spon-taneously and are preceded by a variety ofphysical, geological and chemical changes,which accompany the rise of magma towardthe surface. The monitoring and measure-

Climate rrelated hhazards

Societies are increasingly dependant on mediumto long term variations in the climate, such as ElNiño/La Niña (see box “El Niño outlooks”),which affect precipitation and temperatures overtime-scales of two to three years. These regionalclimatic shifts, the specific character of which isstill very much unknown, develop their own vari-ation in hazard trends, in particular hydro-cli-matic hazards associated with climate variability.The prevalence of droughts and floods as leadinghazards shows that many countries are particular-ly vulnerable in dealing with current natural vari-ability and extremes, let alone climate change.

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The projected changes in climate will adverse-ly affect many regions, in particular tropicaland sub-tropical regions of the planet. Whendealing with the complex issue of climatechange there are some observations that cannow be accepted as fact. It is now establishedthat temperatures are increasing globally,although these increases are not evenly distrib-uted around the planet. As the atmospherebecomes warmer throughout the world it canabsorb more water vapour, leading to a gener-al increase in humidity. As a result there is theprobability that tropical storms and cycloneswill be accompanied by extreme precipitationincreases.

NNyyiirraaggoonnggoo VVoollccaannoo,, GGoommaa,, DDeemmooccrraattiicc RReeppuubblliicc ooff CCoonnggoo,, JJaannuuaarryy 22000022

“Goma is overshadowed by two large and active volcanoes- Nyiragongo and Nyamalagira. Part of the former is alarge “hanging” crater of lava- said to be the largest active lava lake in the world. Any weaknesses in the sidescould result in catastrophic consequences.”

Nyiragongo is considered by the scientific community as one of the most notable and dangerous volca-noes in Africa. Nyiragongo and neighbouring Nyamuragira are responsible for nearly two-fifths ofAfrica’s historical eruptions. However, according to a UN/DHA mission report, despite the 500,000people living close to Nyiragongo, no serious studies has been engaged and no initiatives has been estab-lished to reduce volcanic risks.

Nyiragongo showed activity in 1977, 1982, 1994 and February 2001. Extremely fluid, fast moving lavaflows drained the summit lava lake in 1977 probably killing about 50-100 people, although other esti-mates run as high as 2,000 fatalities. Following a crater eruption of Nyamuragira in January 2000, theone local volcanologist signaled the possibility of a later eruption of Nyiragongo, as there are subter-ranean geological connections between the two.

In May 2001, the small Goma observatory requested assistance for seismographs, thermometers andfunds to conduct field surveys. At the beginning of 2001 and again in October 2001, Nyiragongoshowed signs of activity, and an earthquake was felt in Goma while black smoke was sighted above thevolcano. The same phenomena were repeated on 4 January 2002, in addition to several other signs sug-gesting an imminent eruption – signs noted prior to previous eruptions.

The local volcanologist sent additional messages to the international community on 8 January 2002, rais-ing the alarm of an imminent eruption and requesting assistance. Nyiragongo began erupting on 17 Jan-uary and continued until 23 January. One lava flow headed for the town of Goma, where it literally splitthe town in half. Another lava flow headed toward Gisenyi in Rwanda.

According to an expert report, “the eruption forced the rapid exodus of 300,000 to 400,000 persons,most into neighboring Rwanda, with dramatic humanitarian consequences… Forty-seven victims werereported as directly due to the eruption, to whom one must add about 60 people killed during the explo-sion of the petrol gas station in Goma center on January 21.” At least 16,000 homes were destroyed, leav-ing 100,000 people homeless, and 24,000 children were left without schools. Goma and Gisenyi citiesalso suffered from strong seismic activity that accompanied and followed the eruption.

Adapted from: Final report of the French-British scientific team, 2002

influenced by climate change are, possibly, vol-canic eruptions and earthquakes.

The Inter-Agency Task Force on DisasterReduction (IATF/DR) of the ISDR has aworking group dealing with climate and disas-ters (WG1) and another with wildland fires(WG4). In the area of drought preparednessand mitigation, there are a number of coordi-nated and collaborative initiatives that are fore-seen to be undertaken within the framework ofthe ISDR Task Force involving all its workinggroups.

54


Unfortunately, these factors have a compoundeffect on the occurrence and impact of disas-ters. On the one hand, they affect the intensityand frequency of extreme hydrometeorologicalevents, and on the other hand, they increase thevulnerability of societies. As we know, changein precipitation patterns, soil moisture and veg-etation cover, are linked to the occurrence offloods, droughts, but also landslides and debrisflow events. Climate change is also resulting inslight sea level rise and may cause more devas-tating storms and hurricanes in coastal areas.The only natural hazards that are not directly

EEll NNiiññoo oouuttllooookkss

Climatic factors that affect the occurrenceof natural disasters are the irregularlyrecurrent variables, such as the El Niñoand La Niña phenomena. Atmosphere-ocean circulation models project that as theearth's climate warms over the next 100years, it is likely that a more El Niño-likecondition may persist, leading to anincrease in the incidence of floods anddroughts in many parts of the world. Boththe 1981-82 and 1997-98 events, thestrongest ever recorded, had disastrousimpacts on Pacific rim countries, and theeffects were felt worldwide.

According to insurers SwissRe, the total economic impact of the 1997-98 event, amounted to US$ 98 bil-lion. This highlights the need for better monitoring of the phenomena, better forecasts of the relatedextreme events, and more importantly, stronger institutions to deal with such information and increaselocal community's preparedness and resilience.

The WMO, in collaboration with the International Research Institute for Climate Prediction (IRI) ofColumbia University in the U.S.A., has undertaken to coordinate the preparation of “El Niño outlooks”,whenever the threat of an event manifests itself, as a contribution to the UN Interagency Task Force onDisaster Reduction. These outlooks draw on contributions from the Australian Bureau of Meteorology,China Meteorological Administration, European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts, IRI,Japan Meteorological Agency, National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research in New Zealand,Met Office United Kingdom, and the Climate Variability and Predictability (CLIVAR) Project of theWorld Climate Research Programme.

Drought ddistinction

Absence of a precise and universally accepteddefinition of drought adds to the confusion asto whether it exists, and if it does the degree ofits severity. Thus, drought is often forgottenonce it ends, and everybody seems to be caughtunawares again by the next one. Most of thedrought definitions have therefore been appli-cation (impact) specific. Other drought defini-tions have been regional specific. The discus-sions of drought here are focused on threetypes of drought – meteorological, agricultur-al, and hydrological. Meteorological drought isprincipally defined by the deficiency of precip-itation from expected or normal levels over anextended period of time. Hydrological droughtis best defined by deficiencies in surface andsubsurface water supplies, leading to a lack ofwater for meeting normal and specific waterdemands. Agricultural drought may be charac-

55


terized by deficiency in the water availabilityfor specific agricultural operations such as defi-ciency of in soil moisture, which is one of themost critical factors in defining crop produc-tion potential.

During the coming decade and century, it isexpected that drought vulnerability willincrease, mainly due to development pressures,population increases, and environmentaldegradation that could itself lead to climatechange. Several efforts have therefore beenmade at international, regional and nationallevels to address drought challenges. Theinternational and regional efforts include theprogrammes and activities of the organizationssuch as WMO, FAO, WFP, IFAD, ADPC,ACMAD and the Drought Monitoring Cen-tres in Africa, US/NOAA, IRI of ColumbiaUniversity and USGS, that have establishedprogrammes to deal with drought monitoring,

IISSDDRR wwoorrkkiinngg ggrroouupp 11:: CClliimmaattee aanndd ddiissaasstteerrss ((WWGG11))

WG1 of the Inter-agency Task Forceon Disaster Reduction is led by theWMO and consists of members repre-senting UN agencies, regional and sci-entific organizations and the privatesector. It is examining how climateinformation of a scientific nature canbest be conveyed to different usergroups. Such information can be appli-cable to various space and time scales,and it is important that linkagesbetween global, regional and nationalcentres are working effectively in orderto ensure that users, who may beobtaining information from varioussources, are receiving a consistent message on a particular development and that they will know what todo with the information.

The group defined a matrix on information transfer for a more coordinated and systematic approachbetween those involved in the interpretation of scientific assessments and the wide range of user commu-nities. Under the auspices of the group, El Niño outlooks are now being prepared. (see box)

In view of the direct impact of meteorological and hydro-meteorological hazards on the increase in fre-quency and intensity of disasters, WG1 together with the working group on risk, vulnerability and impactassessment (WG3) expressed the need to improve disaster impact databases and link them to climatedatabases.

The group has prepared a background paper and proposal on the need for concerted drought informationand policies, for all the groups of the ISDR Task Force to engage in. The information on drought in thisreview draws from that paper

Case: Zimbabwe

Drought is the most common hazard in Zimbab-we, a country whose economy is dependent onagriculture. The incidence of drought is oftenlinked to the occurrence of El Niño episodes andhas worsened since the 1980s. Floods frequentlyoccurring in the southern and northernprovinces of the country compound droughtconditions in other parts of the country. In 1996,there were localized floods resulting from abnor-mally heavy downpours. However, in 2000,flooding associated with Cyclone Eline causedconsiderable infrastructure and environmentaldamage in the country. The livelihoods of morethan 250,000 people were affected in rural areas,with 100 fatalities and more than US$ 7.5 mil-lion in losses recorded.

Drought has been a recurrent feature in mostparts of Southern Africa, with five major periodsof drought since 1980: 1982-83, 1987-88, 1991-92, 1994-95 and 1997-98. Three of these eventswere regional in scale, with the 1991-92 droughtconsidered the “worst in living memory”, plac-ing more than 20 million people at serious risk.

Case: Central Asia

The persistent multi year drought in Central andSouthwest Asia is an example of climatic vari-ability that has affected up to 60 million people inparts of Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbek-istan and Turkmenistan, since November 2001.Chronic political instability in many parts of theregion and the recent military action inAfghanistan have further complicated the situa-tion. A recent study by the InternationalResearch Institute for Climate Prediction (IRI)concludes that Central and Southwest Asia rep-resent the largest region of persistent droughtover the last three years in the world. In Iranalone, 37 million people are affected. Waterreserves in the country were down by 45 per centin 2001, 800,000 heads of livestock were lost in2000, and 2.6 million hectares of irrigated landand 4 million hectares of rain-fed agriculturewere affected. Damage to agriculture and live-stock has been estimated by the UN at US$ 2.5billion in 2001 and US$ 1.7 billions in 2000.Afghanistan and Pakistan are affected on a simi-lar scale.

56


prediction, early warning and disaster pre-paredness. They are also covered by thework of the UN sustainable developmentconventions, the UNFCCC, UNCCD andCBD.

Drought, unlike sudden-onset disasters, hassome unique characteristics that may requiredifferent approaches to effectively addresshow to reduce their impacts:

• Drought does not directly destroy foodin storage, shelter or infrastructure.

• Its effects are cumulative.• It is often very difficult to detect its

onset until some major impacts such aslack of water or food become dis-cernible.

• Impacts can be spread over a largergeographical area than the damages thatresult from most of the other naturaldisasters, and hence quantification ofimpacts and provision of disaster reliefis far more difficult.

Further, there are several social and economicparameters that affect the severity of droughtincluding food prices, wars, various interven-tion methods, human activity, vegetation,water supplies and demands, making itextremely difficult to quantify its severity andalso provide universal definition and indica-tors of drought. Drought risk is a product ofa region’s exposure to the natural hazards andits vulnerability to extended periods of watershortage. To reduce serious consequences,affected nations must improve understand-ings of hazards and the factors that influencevulnerability, and establish comprehensiveand integrated early warning systems.

“Amartya Sen, the Nobel prize winning economist of Cam-bridge University, famously pointed out that ‘in the terrible

history of famines in the world, no substantial famine hasever occurred in an independent and democratic countrywith a relatively free press’. The Human Rights Watch

took this to heart, and asserts that ‘the best way to preventfamine today is to secure the right to free expression – so

that misguided government policies can be brought to publicattention and corrected before food shortages become acute’”

Source: The Economist, 18 August 2001

Climate cchange, ssea llevel rrise and ccoastal ssystems

Coastal zones are characterized by much diver-sity of ecosystems and a variety of socio-eco-nomic activities. An estimated 46 million peo-ple per year, living in coastal areas, are at risk offlooding from storm surges, and sea-level rise.Climate change will exacerbate these trendswith significant impact upon the ecosystemsand populations. A growing number of peoplewill, continue to be located in coastal areas.Many traditional communities and subsistencelevel populations also rely on the resourcewealth of coastal areas and continue to bedrawn to these higher risk coastal regions. For

57


example, indigenous coastal and island com-munities in the Torres Strait of Australia and inNew Zealand’s Pacific Island Territories areespecially vulnerable. Although adaptationoptions do exist, such measures are not easilyimplemented on low-lying land. Also, climatechange and sea-level rise issues are not as yetwell incorporated into current models andframeworks for coastal zone management.

There is a direct link between tropical sea temperature inthe oceans and the frequency of tropical cyclones, hurri-canes or typhoons. More heat in the atmosphere meansmore evaporation which means more rainfall and moreflooding in some places, more frequent drought in others,more violent windstorms or heavier snows elsewhere.

RReedduucciinngg ddrroouugghhtt iimmppaaccttss

The need to improve drought preparedness through the development of policies and plans has becomewell accepted: South Africa (early 1990’s), Sub-Saharan Africa (UNDP/UNSO, 2000), West Asian andNorth Africa countries, Mediterranean region (CIHEAM, 2001), Morocco. Some of these were developedwith UNCCD, (total number of Ratification of the Convention in January 2002: 178 countries). InAustralia, the 1992 National Drought Policy is widely recognised as a successful policy and often replicat-ed. It has three main objectives:

• Encourage primary producers and others sections of rural Australia to adopt self-reliant approach-es to managing for climatic variability.

• Maintain and protect Australia’s agriculture and environment resource base during periods ofextreme climate stress.

• Ensure early recovery of agriculture and rural industries, consistent with long term sustainablegoals.

Pho

to: P

AH

O

58


PPrroojjeecctteedd cchhaannggeess dduurriinngg tthhee 2211sstt cceenn-ttuurryy iinn eexxttrreemmee cclliimmaattee pphheennoommeennaaaannddtthheeiirr lliikkeelliihhooooddaa

Simple extremes

Higher maximum temperatures: morehot days and heat wavesd over nearly allland areas (very likelyª).

Higher (increasing) minimum tempera-tures: fewer cold days, frost days, andcold wavesd over nearly all land areas(very likelyª).

More intense precipitation events (verylikelyª over many areas).

Complex extremes

Increased summer drying over mostmid-latitude continental interiors andassociated risk of drought (likelyª).

Increase in tropical cyclone peak windintensities, mean and peak precipitationintensities (likelyª over some arease).

Intensified droughts and floods associ-ated with El Niño events in many dif-ferent regions (likelyª).

Increased Asian monsoon precipitationvariability (likelyª).

Increased intensity of mid-latitudestorms (little agreement between cur-rent models b).

RReepprreesseennttaattiivvee eexxaammpplleess ooff pprroojjeecctteedd iimmppaaccttssbaallll hhiigghh ccoonnffii-ddeennccee ooff ooccuurrrreennccee iinn ssoommee aarreeaassc

• Increased incidence of death and serious illness in olderage groups and urban poor.

• Increased heat stress in livestock and wildlife. • Shift in tourist destinations. • Increased electric cooling demand and reduced energy

supply reliability.

• Decreased cold-related human morbidity and mortality. • Decreased risk of damage to a number of crops and

increased risk to others. • Extended range and activity of some pest and disease

vectors. • Reduced heating energy demand.

• Increased flood, landslide, avalanche, mudslide anddebris flow. damage.

• Increased soil erosion. • Increased flood runoff could increase recharge of some

floodplain aquifers. • Increased pressure on government and private flood

insurance systems and disaster relief.

• Decreased crop yields. • Increased damage to building foundations caused by

ground shrinkage. • Decrease water resource quantity and quality. • Increased risk of forest fire.

• Increased risks to human life, risk of infestious diseaseand epidemics.

• Increased coastal erosion and damage to coastal build-ings and infrastructure.

• Increased damage to coastal ecosystems such as coralreefs and mangroves.

• Decreased agricultural and rangeland productivity indrought and flood-prone regions.

• Decreased hydro-power potential in drought-proneregions.

• Increased flood and drought magnitude and damages intemperte and tropical Asia.

• Increased risks to human life and health. • Increased property and infrastructure losses.

a Likelihood refers to judgmental estimates of confidence used byTAR EGI: very likely (90-99% chance); likely (66-90% chance).Unless otherwise stated, information on climate phenomena is takenfrom the Summary for Policymakers, TAR WGI.

b These impacts can be lessened by appropriate response measures.

TTaabbllee :: EExxaammpplleess ooff iimmppaaccttss rreessuullttiinngg ffrroomm pprroojjeecctteedd cchhaannggeess iinn eexxttrreemmee cclliimmaattee eevveennttss RReeppoorrtt ooff WWoorrkkiinngg GGrroouupp 22 ooff tthhee IInntteerrggoovveerrnnmmeennttaall PPaanneell oonn CClliimmaattee CChhaannggee,, 22000011))

c High confidence refers to probabilities between 67 and 95%as described in Footnote 6.

d Information from TAR EGI, Technical Summary, Section F.5.

e Information from TAR EGI, Technical Summary, Section F.5.

Environmental ddegradation

As human activity continues to alter the bios-phere, changes result in the environment inspecific places and at ecosystem levels. Envi-ronmental degradation compounds the actualimpact of disasters, limits an area’s ability toabsorb the impact, and lowers the overall gen-eral natural resilience to hazard impact and dis-aster recovery. In addition, environmentaldegradation that occurs and is significantenough to alter the natural patterns in an

59


ecosystem, also affects the regular temporaland spatial occurrence of natural phenomenon.Climate change is currently the most obviousexample.

The figure illustrates the inter-linking nature ofenvironmental degradation, natural disastersand vulnerability. It should be noted that envi-ronmental degradation is described in terms ofdiminished resources. Toxification and otherimbalanced forms of altering the natural envi-ronment also add to environmental degradation.

WWiillddllaanndd ffiirree aass aann eennvviirroonnmmeennttaall hhaazzaarrdd

Throughout the world and in many different types of vegetation, fire is part of agriculture and pastorallivelihoods. Natural wildfires are established elements in traditional land-use systems and have beneficialeffects in natural ecosystem processes and in bio-geo-chemical cycles. However, the excessive use or inci-dence of fire due to rapid demographic and land-use changes leads to the destruction of property andreduction of natural productivity by reducing the carrying capacities, biodiversity and vegetation cover ofthe landscape. Climate variability such as the periodic occurrence of extreme droughts or the protractedeffects associated with the El Niño/La Niña phenomenon add to the severity of fire impacts. Projecteddemographic and climate change scenarios suggest that these situations will become more critical duringcoming decades.

IISSDDRR wwoorrkkiinngg ggrroouupp 44:: wwiillddllaanndd ffiirreess ((WWGG44))

The overall objective of WG4 of the Inter-agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction is to propose meansand to facilitate the creation of mechanisms that can share information and undertake tasks to reduce thenegative impacts of fire on the environment and humanity. It brings together both technical members ofthe fire community and authorities concerned with policy and national practices in fire management torealise their common interests of fire risk management and disaster reduction at a global scale.

WG4 is chaired and coordinated by the Global Fire Monitoring Centre (GFMC) at the Max PlanckInstitute for Chemistry, in Freiburg, Germany. WG4 attends to the existing programmes being imple-mented by its members to ensure complementary work plans. Its priorities are to:

• Establish, and determine operational procedures for a global network of regional and national focalpoints for the early warning of wildland fire, fire monitoring and impact assessment, with the inten-tion to enhance existing global fire monitoring capabilities and facilitate the functioning of a globalfire management working programme or network.

• Propose internationally agreed criteria, common procedures, and guidelines for the collection of firedata and related damage assessments in order to generate knowledge required by the various usercommunities at global, regional, national and local levels.

• Strengthen the existing regional, national and local capabilities in fire management and policy devel-opment through the dissemination of information and increased networking opportunities to meetthe information needs of such international initiatives as the Convention on Biological Diversity, theConvention to Combat Desertification, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, theUnited Nations Forum on Forests, the FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment and the ongoinginternational criteria and indicators processes of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, as well asthe overall scope of work of the UN agencies and programmes concerned.

• Transfer knowledge to local communities to advance their participation and utilization of appropri-ate tools that contribute to wildfire prevention, fire disaster preparedness and fire disaster mitigation.

the Yangtze River Basin, in China, where con-cerns related to environmental vulnerabilityhave been incorporated in watershed manage-ment (also see chapter 1 and 5.1).

Viet Nam offers another example of the com-plex links between deforestation andfloods/landslides. Viet Nam’s forest coverdropped from 43 per cent to 28 per cent in 50years. This is due to a combination of manyyears of war, with the use of deforestation as atool of war, legal and illegal trade in timber asViet Nam’s economy became more open tointernational investment and trade, and, it isalso quite likely, climate change. Reduced for-est cover will make the people of Viet Nammore vulnerable to floods and landslides.

The chart below, shows how primary and sec-ondary effects of environmental degradationresult in increased impacts of natural disasters– in this case in relation to watershed manage-ment and floods.

TThe interconnectedness between environmen-tal degradation and progressive impact of nat-ural disasters can be illustrated by the case of


The catastrophic floods in the Yangtze River Basin,China, in 1998, brought to national attention the factthat land use changes and environmental degradation inwatersheds had greatly exacerbated flooding fromextremely high levels of rainfall in the Yangtze Basin,and rapid snowmelt from Tibet and the Himalayas.Prior to this event, the pressure for rapid developmenttended to overshadow environmental concerns. Sinceenvironmental degradation has now been firmly accept-ed as one of the root causes of increased impact fromnatural disasters, it is essential to articulate and estab-lish both the conceptual and operational links betweenenvironmental management and disaster risk reduction.In 1999, concluding that flooding was exacerbated byenvironmental degradation, the government formulateda new policy framework to promote ecological water-shed management. As a result, a massive plan to redi-rect land-use management in river basins, targeted atthe Yangtze River Basin and the Yellow River Basinwas initiated.

60

Degradation oof rresource bbase • Increased impacts of natural disasters • Less ability to absorb impacts • Decreased resilience

Alteration oof nnatural pprocesses • Global environmental change• Changes in hazard patterns

Loss of tradition-al coping prac-tices

Less acces tolivelihoods

Rapidurbanization

Drought

Extreme weather eventes

Wind storms

Floods

Wild fires

EENNVVIIRROONNMMEENNTTAALL DDEEGGRRAADDAATTIIOONN

EFFECTS

Desertification

DeforestationSea level rise

Coastal areas degradation

Regression of glaciers

Biodiversity loss

Siltation

DISASTER RISK

VVUU

LLNN

EERR

AABB

IILLIITT

YYHH

AAZZ

AARR

DDSS

LLaanndd ddeeggrraaddaattiioonn aanndd ffllaasshh ffllooooddss

According to UNEP data, two thirds of Africais dry land over 70 per cent of which is classi-fied as degraded. About 90 per cent of pastureland and 85 per cent of crop lands in the coun-tries closest to the Sahara have been affectedand there is some evidence that the desert isadvancing towards the south and east. Defor-estation is an important catalyst of land exhaus-tion and soil erosion. In Africa, more than 90per cent of all wood is used for cooking andother energy needs and the demand for fuelwood has grown considerably since the oilprice rise in 1974. Since kerosene is expensiveto buy, there is an urban shadow of strippedland around most settlements. In effect, eco-nomic and social pressures – made worse bydrought – have caused the breakdown of thetraditional system of land use which was adapt-ed to this fragile environment.

Flood risk, especially flash floods, is also exac-erbated by increasing land degradation. InSouthern Africa, escalating land degradation isstrongly associated with overgrazing, whichaccounts for more than half the soil degrada-tion in the region.

61


TTeecchhnnoollooggiiccaall hhaazzaarrddss

Technological hazards are related to quicklyoccurring, high-impact events such as haz-ardous spills and nuclear accidents, and aretherefore more linked with exposure, thanlong-term environmental degradation. In thecase of hazardous materials – chemical and

Declining agricultural yields in the SADC region are alsoattributed to water erosion. In Zambia, soil erosion by water isthe most serious form of physical soil degradation, with approx-imately 100,000 hectares at various stages degradation. Similar-ly, it is estimated that approximately 30 per cent of croplands incommunal farming areas of Zimbabwe have been abandoneddue to depleted soil fertility. In South Africa, as much as 6.1million hectares of cultivated soil are affected by water erosion,with up to 300 million tons of soil lost annually due to physicaldegradation processes (FAO/AGL, 2001). Land degradationprocesses have been particularly prominent in Zambia as aresult of deforestation, dense human population, overgrazing,poor crop cover and poor soil management techniques. This isreflected in marked deforestation, reaching 2644 km2 annuallyfrom 1990-1995. While land degradation increases the severityof flood and drought impacts in the region, it is an unsurprisingoutcome, both of widespread rural poverty as well as macro-economic forces.

Primary CCausal AAgent � Deforestation (commercial and subsis-

tence)� Increased agricultural practices� Inappropriate agricultural practices� Increased settlements and infrastruc-

ture development

Secondary EEffects� Decreased vegetative cover� Decreased soil and land stability� Increased soil erosion� Decreased soil productivity� Increased run off and siltation,

blocking

Tertiary EEffects� Flooding� Flash floods� Mud and land slides

labour force and diverting vital economicresources towards medication and treatments.Moreover, infected people living in cities, usu-ally return to their home villages to die, rein-forcing the already higher vulnerability in ruralenvironments in most African countries.

Trends iin pphysical vvulnerability

Ninety per cent of the global populationgrowth is taking place in least developed coun-tries (LDCs). In these countries, exposure tohazards is already high through dense concen-trations of population in largely unsafe humansettlements. Vulnerability levels are also exacer-bated by socio-economic and environmentalconditions. In 1980, sub-Saharan Africa had apopulation of 385 million. This figure isexpected to at least double by 2005. Populationgrowth is outstripping food production thatrepresents 40 per cent of GDP in someinstances. But even this figure is precariousgiven less reliable rainfall patterns.

The long term trends of demographic growthfor LDCs are creating environmental, as wellas political, refugees. As many as 10 millionpeople have emigrated during recent years butthere may eventually be even greater redistrib-utions of the African population in response tothe deteriorating food situation. Some of thisredistribution will likely concentrate evengreater numbers in hazardous areas.

Due to the urban concentration of population,the greatest potential for disaster exists in thehundred most populous cities. Over three-quarters of these are exposed to at least one nat-ural hazard. No less than seventy of these citiescan expect, on average, to experience a strongearthquake at least once every fifty years. Thegreatest concern is for the fifty fastest growingcities, all of which are located in developingcountries. Cities were often founded on acces-sible locations with inherent risks such ascoastlines, to facilitate transport or floodplainsbecause of their fertility and ample space forgrowth. Urbanization and increasing competi-tion for land, results in the creation of unregu-lated construction which spills over into highrisk areas, such as along hill sides, into lowlying areas, next to industries, or on floodplains.

62


toxic waste leakage – exposure is the criticalfactor. That was the case in Bhopal, India, in1984, where material leaked to form a deadlycloud that killed and injured a huge number ofpeople – most of whom came from poor fami-lies allowed to settle around the chemical plant.The fatal consequences of this chemical releasewere directly related to modernization effortsintroduced as a complex and poorly managedindustrial production system into a societyunable to cope with it.

A very important aspect of exposure to techno-logical hazards is the fact that they are notexclusively confined to urban-industrial soci-eties. Virtually every modern product andprocess is disseminated to most countries andsocial settings. Of 25 nations with operatingnuclear power stations, at least 14 are in devel-oping countries. Great oil spills and releases ofnuclear radiation are associated with the domi-nant energy and transportation technologies.Chernobyl, Exxon Valdez, Minimata andBophal, are some well known examples oftechnological disasters.

BBiioohhaazzaarrddss aanndd vvuullnneerraabbiilliittyy

HIV/AIDS can be considered a biologicalhazard. However, due to its enormous real andpotential impact on the human community, italso constitutes a major vulnerability factor tothe impact of other natural hazards. In partic-ular, HIV/AIDS exacerbates vulnerability todrought conditions. Household size andincome diversification, which count as keystrategies to cope with droughts, are severelyaffected by HIV/AIDS, both by reducing the

The situation is very critical for Southern Africa, facing cata-strophic consequences of HIV/AIDS infection. With manycountries recording adult HIV infection rates of 25-30 percent, the 1990s have seen the deaths of thousands of skilledyoung people occupying middle-management positions in theprivate and public sectors. Precious opportunities to developsustainable local and technical capacities in disaster reductionhave been undermined by continuing HIV-related deaths.With its far-reaching effects that span all professions, socialsectors and communities in Southern Africa, HIV/AIDS willcontinue to constitute a major aspect of both household andnational vulnerability for the foreseeable future.

Cities now hold disproportionate amounts ofmaterial wealth in terms of both residential andcommercial buildings and infrastructure. Thisinfrastructure is critical to the functioning ofthe city. The impact of disasters on cities candevastate national economies and industrialmarkets at an international level. This is espe-cially important true for nation states, oremerging economies, where one or perhapstwo primary urban areas will account for thevast majority of economic and social activity.

The dynamic growth of coastal areas evident inthe Andean sub-region is also seen elsewhere.Nearly 3 billion people live in coastal zones,and 13 of the 15 largest cities are also locatedon the sea.

63


1155 llaarrggeesstt cciittiieess iinn wwoorrlldd iinn 22000000aanndd ffoorreeccaassttss ffoorr 22001100 ((ppooppuullaattiioonniinn mmiilllliioonnss))

UUrrbbaann ppooppuullaattiioonn aass aa ppeerrcceennttaaggeeooff ttoottaall ppooppuullaattiioonn aannnnuuaall ggrroowwtthhrraattee aass aa ppeerrcceennttaaggee

22000000

26.4 Tokyo18.1 Mexico City18.1 Bombay17.8 Sao Paulo16.6 New York13.4 Lagos13.1 Los Angeles12.9 Calcutta12.9 Shanghai12.6 Buenos Aires12.3 Dhaka11.8 Karachi11.7 Delhi 11.0 Jakarta11.0 Osaka

22001100

26.4 Tokyo23.6 Bombay20.2 Lagos19.7 Sao Paulo18.7 Mexico City18.4 Dhaka17.2 New York16.6 Karachi15.6 Calcutta15.3 Jakarta15.1 Delhi13.9 Los Angeles13.79 Metro Manila13.7 Buenos Aires13.7 Shanghai

1970 1995 2015 1970-1995 1995-2015

Least developed 12.7 22.9 34.9 5.1 4.6All developing 24.7 37.4 49.3 3.8 2.9Industrialized 67.1 73.7 78.7 1.1 0.6

HDI: Human Development Indicator (UNDP)

Low HDI 18.2 27.4 38.6 4.1 3.7Medium HDI 23.0 37.7 52.7 3.9 2.8High HDI 52.8 70.9 78.5 3.3 1.7

Extract from The State of the World's Cities, UN-HABITAT, 2001.

In some of the Andean countries, the current trend is adynamic growth of the coastal areas, where an urbanaxis, articulated along the Pan-American highway, inte-grates the main port cities including Lima, Guayaquil,Puerto Cabello and La Guaira. Rapid urbanization inthese areas contributes to increased levels of risk. Thir-ty-five per cent of the Peruvian population now liesbetween Lima and Callao.

The triangle formed by Quito, Guayaquil and Cuencascontains more than 70 per cent of the Ecuadorian popu-lation in only 15 per cent of the national territory. Thetriangle formed by La Paz, Cochabamba and SantaCruz accounts for 80 per cent of the total GDP, andabout 70 per cent of the Bolivian population.

Trends iin ssocio-eeconomic vvulnerability

The relation of disaster risk and developmentoffers a good starting point to identify macrotrends in socio-economic vulnerability. Tosome degree, socio-economic and environmen-tal vulnerability is shaped by developmentprocesses and vice versa. Understanding howpatterns of social change and development setthe scene for future disasters become crucial toimproving disaster risk assessment and analy-sis, and therefore essential for disaster riskreduction as a whole.

DDeevveellooppmmeenntt aanndd vvuullnneerraabbiilliittyy

The analysis of disaster impact shows that anestimated 97 per cent of natural disaster relat-ed deaths each year occur in developing coun-tries (World Bank, 2001) Although smaller inabsolute figures, the percentage of economicloss in relation to the GNP in developingcountries far exceeds those in developed coun-tries. This fact becomes even more relevant forSIDS. Between 1985 and 1999, the world’swealthiest countries sustained 57.3 per cent ofthe measured economic losses to disasters,representing 2.5 per cent of their combinedGDP. During the same years, the world’spoorest countries endured 24.4 per cent of theeconomic toll of disasters, representing 13.4per cent of their combined GDP..

Some of the vulnerability factors or processesare closely associated with certain types ofdevelopment models and initiatives. The linksbetween disaster and development areexplored in detail in the World VulnerabilityReport, currently being developed by UNDP.

Increasing or permanent levels of povertyremain as a relevant issue for the analysis ofvulnerability trends.

In Southern Africa, poverty levels remainhigh, especially among the rural poor, with63.7 per cent, 36 per cent and 37 per cent ofZambians, Zimbabweans and Mozambicansrespectively, living on less than US$ 1 per day.Their GDP falls far short of per capita GDPin developing countries. Moreover, GDPs forZambia and Mozambique are around half ofthose for sub-Saharan Africa. In addition,high levels of foreign debt have discouragedinvestment and growth, with Zambia shoul-


Not only is the exposure of people exacerbated bythe occupation of hazard-prone areas, the concen-tration of industrial infrastructure and criticalfacilities are also affected. Communication net-works and educational and health infrastructureare becoming more vulnerable to the potentialimpact of natural hazards.

Behind the rapid urbanization process, rural dis-placement accounts for the rapid growth of infor-mal, illegal settlements in the most dangerousplaces near cities like Mexico City, Rio de Janeiroand Manila, amongst others. Disaster risk con-cerns go hand in hand with other equally pressingurban issues, such as decaying infrastructure, poorhousing and homelessness, hazardous industries,inadequate services, unaffordable and poor trans-port links, and unemployment.

Trade corridors are formed as a result of tradeagreements. In Latin America we find the CentralAmerican highway, the Quito-Guayaquil corri-dor, the Pan-American Highway in the Andeanregion, the Buenos Aires-Mendoza-Santiago-Val-paraiso corridor, and Brazilian coastal corridorswith maritime connections to Asian and Europeandestinations. The development of trade corridorshas political, economic, social and environmentalimplications. Their resilience to the impact of nat-ural hazards is particularly relevant to enhance thesustainable development of cities and regions.

In South Africa, it is expected that around 50 per centof the population will live within 50 km of the coast inthe near future. While this affords economic and otheropportunities, it also exposes millions of people toextreme weather events triggered by the Indian,Atlantic and Southern Oceans. Moreover, coastaldevelopment for tourism is being actively promoted inmany countries, which are prone to tropical cyclonesand tsunamis.

An example of high vulnerability to natural hazards, inthe context of trade corridors, is provided by therecurrent impacts experienced along the Pan-Ameri-can Highway. For instance, during Hurricane Mitch,in 1998, the Central American intra-regional marketwas interrupted for more than fifteen days due to thedamages in many parts of the Central AmericanHighway. In 1997-98, in Peru and Ecuador, theimpact from the El Niño event disrupted the circula-tion of the Pan-American Highway in hundreds ofsections.

64

dering external debts that constitute 181 percent of its GNP. Under these conditions, it isunrealistic to expect significant investments athousehold or national level to mitigate theimpact of natural or other threats.

GGlloobbaalliissaattiioonn aass aa ddyynnaammiicc ffoorrccee

Globalisation has a number of distinctivecharacteristics that have had a profound influ-ence on the structure of international socio-economic relations. The impact of globalisa-tion on patterns of vulnerability is critical toidentify new trends in disaster risk. The eco-nomic dimensions of globalisation include thedominance of a global market, as one of itsmain features. The combined impacts of eco-nomic adjustment measures to encouragegreater efficiencies and global competitivenesshave been reflected in significant job lossesand unemployment. In South Africa alone,between 1996-2000 more than 500,000 formalsector jobs were lost. Between 1997-2000more than 140,000 miners became unem-ployed and 50,000 primarily female workerslost their jobs in textile industries. This is anincreasingly relevant area which will requirefurther analysis and focus.


TTrraaddiittiioonnaall kknnoowwlleeddggee aatt rriisskk

The pace of technological change and the cul-tural implications of globalisation pose a realthreat to the wealth of local knowledge, andrelated skills and resources, preserved amongindigenous people and in many rural commu-nities.

Economic vulnerability is increasing as locallivelihoods are transformed from relying ontraditional forms of production to using moreintensive or modern methods of agricultureand land use systems.

In the past, people from Pacific islands used various tech-niques to cope with the impact of natural hazards, such asspecial forms of food preservation, harvesting wild foods,planting disaster-resistant crops, using hazard-resistant formsof traditional house design and construction, and relying onestablished social networks for extended community support.Many of these traditions have become neglected as morepeople gravitate towards modern lifestyles, often becomingincreasingly disassociated from a sensitive consideration ofnatural conditions in the process. It has also been observedthat crops which formerly provided food security in manycountries at times of disaster are now rarely planted.

TTrraaddiittiioonnaall vveerrssuuss ""mmooddeerrnn"" wwaayyss ttoo ccooppee.. IIss iitt nneecceessssaarryy ttoo cchhoooossee??

The traditional pattern of agricultural land use in the Sahel was well adapted to uncertain rainfall conditions. Generallyspeaking, the northern zone, with a mean annual rainfall of 100-350 mm was used for livestock, while the southern Sahel,with a rainfall of 350-800mm, was used for rain fed crops. This system permitted a degree of flexible inter-dependence.Herders followed the rains by seasonal migration, while the cultivators grew a variety of drought-resistant subsistencecrops, including sorghum and millet, to reduce the risk of failure. Fallow periods were used to rest the land for perhaps asmuch as five years in order to maintain the fertility of the soil. In the absence of a cash economy, a barter system operatedbetween herders and sedentary farmers.

During recent decades this system has collapsed for a variety of reasons. Population growth has exerted pressure on theland, resulting in soil erosion. In turn, the range-lands have been over-grazed with rapid degradation of the resource base.The need of national governments for export earnings and foreign exchange has produced a trend towards cash crops,which have competed for land with basic grains and reduced the fallowing system. Subsistence crops have been discour-aged to the extent that produce prices have consistently declined in real value for over twenty years. At the same time, thebuild-up of food reserves has been seriously neglected under pressure from international banks wanting loan re-payments.In addition, a lack of government investment to improve the productivity of rain-fed agriculture and a failure to organizecredit facilities for poor farmers have also tended to undermine the stability of the rural base.

National governments have progressively campaigned against a nomadic lifestyle. In many instances, foreign aid has been ear-marked for sedentary agriculture rather than herders. Increasingly, strict game preservation laws have been introduced whichrestrict the possibility of hunting for meat during drought. Traditional forms of employment, such as in caravan trading, havedeclined as a result of the enforcement of international boundaries and customs duties, together with competition from lorries.

Source: K. Smith, 1997

65

66


Risk assessments include detailed quantitative and qualitative information andunderstanding of risk , its physical, social, economic, and environmental factorsand consequences. It is a necessary first step for any other disaster reduction meas-ure. Its relevance for planning and development of disaster risk reduction strategieswas explicitly addressed during the IDNDR (1989), which stated that:

“In the year 2000, all countries, as part of their plan to achieve sustainable development,should have in place: a) Comprehensive national assessments of risks from natural hazards, with these assess-ments taken into account in development plans.”

This was reiterated as the first principle, in the Yokohama Strategy and Plan ofAction (1994): “Risk assessment is a required step for the adoption of adequate and suc-cessful disaster reduction policies and measures.”

Risk assessment encompasses the systematic use of available information to deter-mine the likelihood of certain events occurring and the magnitude of their possibleconsequences. As a process, it is generally agreed upon that it includes the follow-ing activities:

• Identifying the nature, location, intensity and probability of a threat. • Determining the existence and degree of vulnerabilities and exposure to the

threat. • Identifying the capacities and resources available. • Determining acceptable levels of risk.

The analytical phases involved in risk assessment include some of the basic tasks forrisk management. The following diagram shows the basic stages undertaken in a riskassessment process.

2.3. Risk assessment

Risk AssessmentA process to determine the

nature and extent of risk byanalysing potential hazards

and evaluating existing condi-tions of vulnerability that

could pose a potential threator harm to people, property,livelihoods and the environ-ment on which they depend.

SSttaaggeess ooff rriisskk aasssseessssmmeenntt

RISK

ANALYSIS

RISK

ASSESS

MENT

IDENTIFICATION OOF RRISK FFACTORS

HAZARD VULNERABILITY/CAPACITIES

Determines Determines geographical susceptibilities

location, intensity & capacitiesand probability

Estimates level of risk

Evaluates risks

Socio-economic cost/benefit analysisEstablishment of priorities

Establishment of acceptable levels of riskElaboration of scenarios and measures

The identification of hazards usually consti-tutes the departing point for the risk assess-ment process.

Both hazard and vulnerability/capacity assess-ments utilise formal procedures that includecollection of primary data, monitoring, dataprocessing, mapping, and social surveys tech-niques, among others. In the case of hazardassessment, where usually high technologicaldevelopments for monitoring and storing dataof geological and atmospheric processes areinvolved, the assessment activities are mostlyrestricted to a scientific community. On theother hand, vulnerability and capacity assess-ments make use of more conventional method-ologies and techniques, by which the commu-nity at risk may also play an active role, such asin community-based mapping.

Beyond these particularities, hazard and vul-nerability/capacity assessment follow a set ofmore or less formal procedures that are gener-ally captured under the concept of risk analysis.Seen as this, risk analysis constitutes a corestage of the whole risk assessment process bymeans of providing relatively objective andtechnical information from which levels of riskcan be estimated.

The information produced by technical riskanalysis allows for the establishment of impar-tial government policy, resources needed fordisaster preparedness, and insurance schemes.But from the estimated levels of risk to the

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determination of acceptable levels of risk, a dif-ferent range of value judgements are usuallytaken into account. Socio-economic cost/bene-fit analyses usually lead to the establishment ofpriorities that in turn help to draw levels ofacceptable risk. These levels will depend large-ly on government, community priorities, inter-ests and capacities. It is at this stage, particu-larly, when the more subjective trade-offs ofquantitative and qualitative approaches to riskassessment need to be sorted out.

The distinction between rriisskk aasssseessssmmeenntt andrriisskk ppeerrcceeppttiioonn has important implications fordisaster rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn. In some cases, as invulnerability/capacity assessment exercises,risk perception may be formally included in theassessment process, by incorporating people’sown ideas and perceptions on the risks they areexposed to. Nevertheless, the wide and increas-ing use of computer assisted techniques andmethodologies – such as those involved inGeographic Information Systems (GIS) – maywiden the breach between the information pro-duced by technical risk assessments and theunderstaning of risk by people.

Therefore, acceptable levels of risk may varyaccording to the relative contribution of views onobjective risk versus perceived risk, at the vari-ous individual, community and institutionalscales. The table below depicts the main differ-ences between risk assessment and risk percep-tion.

Phase of analysis

Risk identification

Risk estimation

Risk evaluation

Risk assessment processes

Event monitoring Statistical inference

Magnitude/frequency Economic costs

Cost/benefit analysis Community policy

Risk perception processes

Individual intuition Personal awareness

Personal experienceIntangible losses

Personality factorsIndividual action

Adapted from: K. Smith. Environmental hazards, 1997

the evaluation of the ground motion producedby the maximum conceivable earthquake in themost unfavourable distance to a specific site.Earthquake hazard assessment in areas of lowseismic activity is much more subject to largeerrors than in areas with high earthquake activ-ity. This is especially the case if the time span ofthe available data is considerably smaller thanthe mean return interval of large events, forwhich the hazard has to be calculated.

In most cases, one is able to characterise theoverall activity of a volcano and its potentialdanger from field observations by mapping thevarious historical and prehistoric volcanicdeposits. These deposits can, in turn, be inter-preted in terms of eruptive phenomena, usual-ly by analogy with visually observed eruptions.

Other hazards have less well-defined assessmentmethodologies. In the future, efforts must continue toincrease our understanding and develop methodolo-gies for the assessment of hazards such as heatwaves and dust storms; in particular, with regardto the factors which influence their development,movement and decay.

Multi-hazard assessments are difficult toachieve due in part to the different approachestaken by the various disciplines in assessing thespecific potential hazards. But multi-hazardassessments are essential, for example, in thecase of a tropical storm event. The event can-not be looked at in isolation and should con-sider the different components that actuallyrepresent the risks occurring either separatelyor all together. These components are flood,landslide, storm surge, tornado and wind. Var-ious hazards will be measured according to dif-ferent scales, which make comparisons diffi-cult. An earthquake will be quantified based onthe amount of energy released (Richter scale)or the amount of damage potentially caused(Modified Mercalli scale), while a heat wave ismeasured using maximum temperatures and awind storm using wind velocity.

Even without sophisticated assessment tools, itis possible for local communities to collect haz-ard information. Such steps are suggested inUNEP’s Technical Report N°12, HazardIdentification and Evaluation in a Local Commu-nity, consisting of basic checklists to identify,and basic approaches to map major hazards ina locality. Various tables invite more detailed


Hazard aassessment

The objective of a hazard assessment is to iden-tify the probability of occurrence of a specifiedhazard, in a specified future time period, aswell as its intensity and area of impact. Forexample, the assessment of flood hazard isextremely important in the design and settingof engineering facilities and in zoning for landuse planning. Construction of buildings andresidences is often restricted in high flood haz-ard areas. Flood assessment should be devel-oped for the design and setting of sewagetreatment as well as land and buildings havingindustrial materials of a toxic or dangerousnature, due to the potential spread of contami-nants.

Certain hazards have well-established tech-niques available for their assessment. This isthe case for floods, earthquakes and volcanichazards. Many of the analytical techniquesuseful for hazard assessment can be appliedusing medium powered computers and widelyavailable software packages.

On seismic hazards, the dynamic ground shak-ing and ground movement are the two mostimportant effects considered in the analysis.Dynamic ground shaking is a critical consider-ation for buildings and construction. Theobjective of a statistical earthquake hazardassessment is to assess the probability that aparticular level of ground motion at a site isreached or exceeded during a specified timeinterval. An alternative approach is to consider

WMO and the IDNDR Scientific and Technical Committeepromoted a project to further develop the concept of compre-hensive, multi-hazard or joint assessment of natural hazards.It was recognised that society is usually at risk from severaldifferent hazards, many of which are not water-related or nat-ural in origin. More importantly, it was also recognised thatjoint assessment of risk from these various hazards is in itsinfancy. Recognising these points, the project focused on themost destructive and most widespread natural disasters, name-ly those of meteorological, hydrological, seismic, and volcanicorigin. An example of the development and application ofsuch approach in land-use planning was provided by Switzer-land where the composite exposure to risks from floods, land-slides and avalanches were considered. The project noted thatan increased understanding of the hazard assessment method-ologies of each discipline is required, as these methodologiesvaried from discipline to discipline.

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consideration about the nature of impacts andthe severity of various consequences of differ-ent hazards on affected populations.

Hazard mmapping, aawarenessand ppublic ppolicy

A key dimension of hazard assessment is thepresentation of the results and the understand-ing of the added value by policy makers. Mapscan be prepared manually using standard car-tographic techniques or with a GIS. Differenttypes of hazards will require different mappingtechniques. The importance lies in the easyunderstanding and use of the information gen-erated.

For example, maps are the standart format forpresenting flood hazards. The flood-hazardareas are usually divided according to severity(deep or shallow), type (quiet water or highvelocity) or frequency. In the case of volcanichazards, the zoning of each direct and indirecthazards can be drawn according to the intensi-ty, the extent of the hazard, the frequency ofoccurrence or in combination. Composite phe-nomena and hazard maps are recognised as animportant tool for joint hazard assessments.These combined hazard assessments need tobe presented using a simple classification, suchas high, medium and low risk, or no danger.

One of the constraining factors in hazardmapping is not so much the lack of infrastruc-ture but the lack of proper training capabili-ties. There are many government employeesthat do not have computer access . Hazardmaps are also not as widely used as they could

69


be, were more planners and decision-makersaware of their potential. For example, inBangladesh, while many different entities arecarrying out various projects in risk and haz-ard mapping and land-use planning, thereexists no common focal point for easy access tothis information. Moreover, communication isdeficient : maps are not shared, and data iscollected several times, or mismanaged.

Vulnerability aand ccapacity aassessment

Vulnerability and capacity assessments are anindispensable complement to hazard assess-ment exercises. Despite the considerable effortsand achievements reflected in improved quali-ty and coverage of scientific data on differenthazards, the mapping and assessing of social,economic and environmental vulnerabilities ofthe population are not equally developed. Some

Several initiatives on hazard mapping were developedduring the 1990s, as part of IDNDR. One example isthe “Eastern Asia Natural Hazards Mapping Project”(EANHMP), started in Japan in 1994. The objectivesof the project were to enhance awareness on naturalhazards, in particular geological hazards among plan-ners and policy makers of national and regional devel-opment, as well as general public in a given region,promote scientific studies on geological hazards, andtransfer technology on hazard mapping to developingcountries through collaborative activities. The EasternAsia Geological Hazards Map is one of the productsalready available.

Source: Geological Survey of Japan, AIST, 2002

HHiigghh rriisskk cchhoolleerraa aarreeaass dduuee ttoo ppoolllluutteedd ssuurrffaaccee wwaatteerr ((22000011))

In South Africa, various institutions are engaged in hazard mapping. While projects are sometimesconducted in isolation and the data is not widely used, there are other examples where the resultinginformation is beneficial to additional institutions beyond the one which collected it. Most hazardmaps are becoming available online and they often function as clickable image maps containing addi-tional information about particular areas. The Agriculture Research Council, the National DisasterManagement Centre, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, and the Department of Healthare all using satellite data to compile hazard maps, which then become part of their much larger geo-graphical information systems. Use of US/NOAA satellite data further enables the generation oflocally relevant geo-referenced maps. The National Botanical Institute also embarked on the mappingof degradation patterns for the whole of South Africa. These maps provide valuable information onthe state of South Africa’s ground cover.

Source: NDMC (http://sandmc.pwv.gov.za/ndmc/cholera/Maps/Nmmp.jpg)

exercises, highly focused on in the examina-tion of the physical aspects of vulnerability.

The Organization of American States (OAS)has been one of the pioneers in Latin Ameri-ca in using GIS tools for physical vulnerabil-ity assessment, focused on infrastructure andcritical facilities. A pilot project launchedearly in the 1980s on GIS Applications forNatural Hazards Management in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean, implementedmore than 200 applications in 20 countries ofthe region, integrating hazards, naturalresources, population and infrastructuredata. The fact that it was discovered that allof the main airports in Guatemala are locatedwithin high intensity seismic areas, or that670 kilometers of paved routes in Ecuadorwere located within a 30 kilometre radius ofactive volcanos, have been instructive, to saythe least.

Several initiatives towards comprehensiverisk assessments are currently going on in thePacific islands states. In the Cook Islands, forexample, risk assessments related to tropicalcyclones and associated flooding have beenundertaken. These include both the technicalaspects of hazard mapping, vulnerabilityassessments of building stock, infrastructure,lifelines and critical facilities, and the socialaspects of potential economic losses andimpacts on communities. The risk assess-ment information provided input for commu-nity early warning systems for tropicalcyclones, ERWIN, as well as primary infor-mation for reports and technical supportmaterials such as:: Cook Islands BuildingCode; Disaster Management Work Plan;National Disaster Management Plan;Cyclone Response Procedures; TsunamiResponse Procedures.

Another good example for this region is pro-vided by Fiji, where in recent years, severalcomprehensive risk assessment projects havebeen undertaken. These have always involvedthe relevant government departments andinfrastructure agencies, and include repre-sentation from NGOs and the private sector.The participation of international agenciesand/or consultants which has ensured that


aspects of vulnerability/capacity, especiallythose related to the social nature of these con-cepts, pose a different range of challenges torisk assessment.

Often there is a huge gap in the understand-ing and application of vulnerability/capacityassessments between the institutions under-taking these tasks, and the local authoritiesand communities involved in the exercise.

A great deal of work has been focused on theassessment of the physical aspects of vulnera-bility. This has been done mainly in relationto more conventional hazardous phenome-non, such as windstorms, earthquakes andfloods. A high percentage of the vulnerabili-ty mapping developments at an earlier stageis reflecting this trend. This was accentuatedby the wide utilisation of GIS techniques forthe spatial integration of different variables inthe 1980s. The spatial overlapping of hazardzones with infrastructure such as airports,main highways, health facilities and powerlines, amongst others, is one of the common

CCoommmmuunniittyy rriisskkss iinn AAuussttrraalliiaa

One of the advantages of GIS techniques is the possibility tocarry out multi-hazard analysis. Community Risk in Cairns isthe first of a series of multi-hazard case studies by the Aus-tralian Geological Survey Organization (AGSO). It consid-ers earthquakes, landslides, floods and cyclones.

A report detailing the hazard history of Cairns, the riskassessment methodology and results has been prepared byseveral researchers and AGSO, in collaboration with CairnsCity Council and ERSIS Australia.

The AGSO Cities Project undertakes research towards themitigation of the risks posed by a range of geo-hazards toAustralian urban communities. Extensive use of GIS hasbeen made to drive analysis and assessment. Risk-GIS, as ithas been christened in the Cities Project, is a fusion of the deci-sion support capabilities of GIS and the philosophy of riskmanagement. An interactive online mapping system for Geo-science Australia’s Community Risk in Cairns project isavailable online as well as an advanced mapping system forexperienced GIS users.

Source: http://www.agso.gov.au/pdf/UC0001.pdf

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BBeerrnn –– rriisskk mmaappss//hhaazzaarrdd mmaappss

Since 1998, the canton of Bern, in Switzerland, hashad at its disposal a planning tool which indicatespotential risk areas. The maps are designed usingcomputer modelling and GIS. The maps are notexpensive and allow a complete overview of the can-ton based on a uniform set of criteria. The riskareas cover approximately 44 per cent of the territo-ry, mostly in non-residential areas. However, about8 per cent inhabitants are in potential risk zones.

• Exposed aareas. These are areas, which couldpotentially be affected by mud flow, avalanch-es, stone falls and landslides.

• Vulnerable aassets. These include habitats, rail-roads, and all roads serving residential areas.

• Potential iimpact zzones. The overlap betweenthe exposed areas and the vulnerable assets.

• Protection fforest. In this particular case, theseare forests that play an important protectiverole for residential areas and communicationnetworks.

One particular hazard is not modelled: risk relatedto floods, which cause severe social and economicimpacts. The type of impact related to floodsdepends heavily on flows that are too low to be cur-rently modelled satisfactorily.

Legend: (Original in French)

Potential hazards• Sector exposed to mud flows and other

flash floods• Sector exposed to avalanches• Sector exposed to stone falls• Sector exposed to deep landslides• Sector exposed to average to deep land-

slides

Vulnerable assets• Residential area• Main roads• Access roads• Railroads

Forest• Forest with an important protection

function• Forest with a protection function• Other forests• Exposed zones represented in a simpli-

fied manner

Source: Office des forêts du Canton de Berne,Switzerland, 1999

71

tifiable value to the variables analysed into thespatial models used by GIS is not always pos-sible for some social/economic dimensions ofvulnerability – for instance, how to quantify theideological and cultural aspects of vulnerabili-ty. Moreover, the diverse scales – individual,family, community, regional – at which differ-ent dimensions of socio-economic vulnerabilityoperate, makes the spatial representationthrough these techniques, very difficult.

The quality and detail of the informationrequired by the analysis facilitated by GIS is, inmany cases, inexistent, especially in LDCs andother developing countries. In general, thequality and availability of statistical data setslimit the information for GIS analysis to lowresolution outputs. The use of GIS for vulner-ability/capacity analysis is still at an embryonicstage, in comparison with its wide use in haz-ard mapping. Several research initiatives areaiming to bring solutions to the currentmethodological constraints, especially thequantification of social aspects of vulnerability.Still, the socio-economic vulnerability assess-ments rely on more conventional ways, whichindeed provide other opportunities and advan-tages, such as the active involvement of thecommunity at risk in exercises as communitybased mapping and assessments.

Generally speaking, the physical aspects of vul-nerability assessment are tailored from expo-sure to hazards criteria, providing answers tothe questions of what is vulnerable and whereis it vulnerable. The attempts to assess socio-economic aspects of vulnerability intend toanswer the questions who is vulnerable, andhow have they become vulnerable. Attributesof groups and individuals, such as socio-eco-nomic class, ethnicity, caste membership, gen-der, age, physical disability, and religion areamongst the characteristics that have beenlinked to differential vulnerability to hazards.

The development of models and conceptualframeworks provided a basis for vulnerabilityanalysis in relation to specific hazards. Pressureand Release, and Access models, presented in themid 1990s (see diagram), provided a goodbasis for the analysis and further identificationof specific vulnerable conditions. These mod-els linked dynamic processes at different scales,and different access to resources profiles, withvulnerability conditions.


up-to-date methodologies and technologieswere employed. These risk assessments havealso used a multidisciplinary and multi-insti-tutional approach in a proactive manner.Examples of these risk assessments areincluded in the box below.

Methodological cchallenges

While hazard mapping and physical aspects ofvulnerability analysis have been substantiallyfacilitated and improved due to the use of GIStechniques, the inclusion of social, economicand environmental variables into GIS’s con-ceptual models, remains as a major method-ological challenge. The need to assign a quan-

Risk assessments undertaken in Fiji have been based ondetailed hazard and vulnerability assessments, integrat-ing the scientific geological and meteorological (whereapplicable) information with information on the builtenvironment (building stock, infrastructure, critical facil-ities and lifelines) and the natural environment. Moderninternational methodologies have been employed, includ-ing ground surveys, remote sensing and GIS mapping.The results and outputs have had major implications inmany practical applications for disaster management,such as in helping to formulate building codes, trainingof emergency services personnel (for example: SuvaEarthquake Risk Scenario Pilot Project, SERMP, forthe City of Suva). They have also had regional signifi-cance in that these initiatives are being used as the basisof similar studies in other Pacific Island Countries.Examples of these risk assessments are:

• Suva Earthquake Risk Management Scenario PilotProject (SERMP) Undertaken for the City of Suva(1995-1998) and involved an earthquake and tsuna-mi exercise "SUVEQ 97" (based on SERMP andthe devastating 1953 Suva earthquake and associatedtsunami), and was included in the activities of theUN IDNDR RADIUS programme (CERA,1997a, b).

• Taveuni Volcano: Comprehensive study of the poten-tial for an eruption which involved international sci-entists (consultants) with senior Government officialsand infrastructure agencies (Cronin, 1999a, b;Cronin and Kaloumaira, 2000; Cronin and Neall,2000).

• Flood Mitigation: Comprehensive studies in knownflood ravaged areas on the Island of Viti Levu (west-ern, northern and south eastern regions) (Yeo, 2000,2001).

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The validation of proposed models andframeworks for vulnerability analysis havebeen, in most cases, the information gained byoccurrence of the disaster itself. The analysisof the damages experienced in disasters con-stitutes a major source of information for vul-nerability/capacity identification. The damagerevealed in disasters provides the empiricalevidence of where and for whom potentialrisks becomes a palpable reality.

As opposed to inductive analysis used in GIStechniques – where the level of risk is inducedby integrating layers of information, historicalanalysis of disaster data provide the informa-tion to deduce levels of risk based on pastexperiences. In addition, historical disasterdatabases are essential to identify the dynam-ic aspects involved in vulnerability, providingthe criteria to assign relative weights to differ-ent dimensions of vulnerability in risk assess-ment exercises. In this context, the refine-ment, maintenance and systematic feeding ofdisaster data sets are vital for risk assessmentas a whole. The insurance industry’s approachto disaster risk is based on this kind of data.Some of these issues are being addressed bythe ISDR Inter-Agency Task Force Working

73


Group 3, on Risk, Vulnerability and ImpactAssessment.

Droughts have been proved to be a particu-larly difficult task for risk assessment, as dis-cussed earlier in this chapter (see also chapter5.6, Early Warning Systems). Risk assessmenttools developed for food security issues pro-vide conceptual inputs as well as primarydata, related to vulnerability to droughts. Inthat regard, the WFP and FAO work withother UN agencies, national governments,and NGO partners to integrate vulnerabilityanalysis and mapping techniques. Neverthe-less, a food security approach is based in aslightly different understanding of risk, wherefood insecurity is the outcome, and drought isone of the vulnerability factors. The GlobalRisk Vulnerability Index, being produced aspart of the World Vulnerability Report ofUNDP, is engaged in exploring ways to inte-grate drought data in a comprehensive riskindex.

The Risk Assessment Tools for Diagnosis of UrbanAreas against Seismic Disasters, RADIUS, pro-vides a good example of comprehensive haz-ard-specific tools that contribute to define

THE PPROGRESSION OOF VVULNERABILITY

ROOT CAUSES DYNAMIC PRESSURES

UNSAFECONDITIONS

DISASTER HAZARDS

LLiimmiitteedd aacccceessss ttoo

•Power•Structures•Resources

IIddeeoollooggiieess•Political systems

•Economic systems

LLaacckk ooff •Local institutions•Training•Appropriate skills•Local investments•Local markets•Press freedom •Ethical standards in public life

MMaaccrroo-ffoorrcceess•Rapid population growth•Rapid urbanization•Debt repayment schedules•Deforestation•Decline in soil productivity

FFrraaggiillee pphhyyssiiccaall eennvviirroonnmmeenntt•Dangerous locations•Unprotected buildings and infrastructure

FFrraaggiillee llooccaall eeccoonnoommyy•Livelihoods at risk•low income levels

VVuullnneerraabbllee ssoocciieettyy•Special groups at risk•Lack of local institutions

PPuubblliicc aaccttiioonnss•Lack of disaster preparedness•Prevalence of endemic diseases

Risk=Hazard x

Vulnerability

Earthquakes

High winds(cyclone/hurri-canes/typhoon)

Flooding

Volcanic eruptions

Landslides

Droughts

Virus and pests

Technological

Adapted from: Blaikie et al., 1994

Participatory vvulnerability aand ccapacityassessment mmethodologies

The relationship between vulnerability andcapacity has been increasingly expressed in riskassessment methodologies in terms of Vulnera-bility and Capacities Assessment (VCA). Workhas been done to develop, test and validate tools,methodologies and other instruments for factor-ing in issues related to social inequity, includinggender analysis, into risk management at thelocal level. These aspects include participatorydiagnosis, training methods, and a number ofanalytical frameworks such as the Capabilitiesand Vulnerabilities Analysis (CVA) whichexamines peoples strengths and abilities, as wellas their susceptibilities, and the Socio-Econom-ic and Gender Analysis (SEAGA), which lookat disadvantaged social groups, incorporating

74


urban risk scenarios. The IDNDR secretariatlaunched the RADIUS initiative in 1996. Itaimed to promote world-wide activities forreduction of urban seismic risk (see boxbelow).

In the Americas, vulnerability assessment andtechniques (VAT) workshops are being heldunder the auspices of OAS. They provide anopportunity to explore methodological chal-lenges and applicability of risk assessments.The technical information and comments gen-erated by this and similar activities support thehemispheric policy work carried out by theWorking Group on Vulnerability Assessmentsand Indexing (VAI) of the Inter-AmericanCommittee for Natural Disaster Reduction,also a member of the ISDR Inter-Agency TaskForce.

IISSDDRR wwoorrkkiinngg ggrroouupp oonn rriisskk,, vvuullnneerraabbiilliittyy aanndd iimmppaacctt aasssseessssmmeenntt ((WWGG33))

Mobilised in 2001 and convened by the office of UNDP’s Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recov-ery (BCPR) in Geneva, WG3 of teh Inter-agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction consists of overtwenty members representing UN agencies, academic institutions, international NGOs and relatedregional and national bodies world-wide. The role of WG3 has primarily been a forum for dialogueand platform for advocacy, with collaborative activities now underway. Meeting twice annually, WG3acts as a networking system for members and external participants allowing sharing of informationregarding various conceptual models and related methodologies coming out of leading edge work, aswell as on the challenges and lessons learned from practical applications in the field.

Playing an advocacy role in keeping with the relevant priorities of ISDR-IATF, WG3 focuses onunderstanding the needs for effective risk management, particularly from the local and national lev-els, on small and medium scale disasters and on the socio-economic and environmental risks andassociated impact of disasters. Further, WG3 advocates the importance of considering the practicalapplicability of data, concepts, models and mechanisms for reducing risk as well as the need for con-tinual linking of disaster risk management to development planning and vice versa. Currently the WG3 is undertaking collective work in key technically-focused areas, including: a)information exchange and documentation; b) indicator, models and data sets for vulnerability index-ing; c) tools and best practices for risk, vulnerability at the local and urban level; d) improving disas-ter impact analysis; and e) an aggregated analysis linking climate and disaster databases.

More information is available under the http://www.unisdr.org/wgroup3.htm.

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TThhee RRAADDIIUUSS IInniittiiaattiivvee hhaass aacchhiieevveedd ffoouurr mmaaiinn oobbjjeeccttiivveess::

• It developed earthquake damage scenarios and actions plans for nine case study citiesaround the world.

• It produced practical tools for estimation and management of urban seismic risk.• It raised public awareness of seismic risk among members of society. • It promoted information exchange for seismic risk mitigation at city level.

The seismic damage scenarios developed for the nine cities describe human loss, damage tobuildings and infrastructure, and their effect on urban activities. The following cities partic-ipated: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Antofagasta, Chile; Bandung, Indonesia; Guayaquil,Ecuador; Izmir, Turkey; Skopje, Macedonia; Tashkent, Uzbekistan; Tijuana Mexico; andZigong, China. The action plans propose new priorities for urban planning and forimprovement of existing urban structures and emergency activities. The experiences ofthese nine cities were incorporated into a practical manual for damage estimation and guide-lines for RADIUS-type projects, applicable to cities anywhere. With the tools, cities canconduct similar projects to estimate earthquake damage, and to prepare a risk managementplan on their own. In addition, a comparative study was conducted to develop greaterunderstanding of various aspectscontributing to seismic risk, identi-fy solutions and share risk manage-ment practices. Over 70 citiesworldwide participated in this studyon “Understanding Seismic Riskaround the World.” More than 30cities joined RADIUS as associatecities.

Their reports and the developedtools are available on the RADIUSweb sitehttp://www.geohaz.org/radius, thatfunctioned as an interactive medi-um to exchange experiences andinformation with RADIUS partici-pants and concerned people worldwide.

A recent evaluation of RADIUS found that significant progress has been made in the man-agement of the earthquake risk in RADIUS cities. There has been an important increase ofpublic awareness about the need to reduce urban risk, and new risk management pro-grammes have begun since the project’s completion. According to the analysis, the citiesbelieve that RADIUS contributed significantly to the progress achieved in each city. In sev-eral RADIUS cities, new risk management organizations have been created, or existingones have been restructured, to promote, monitor, and report the implementation of the rec-ommendations produced by the project.

Source:ISDR, Kenji Okazaki, UNCRD

The work carried out by Ecociudad, a PeruvianNGO, provides another example of vulnerabil-ity/capacity mapping, where communities havehad active participation (see Box next page).This local NGO working with environmentalmanagement issues related to disaster riskreduction, has supported community basedrisk-mapping in Caquetá, a quarter of Lima,Peru, and one of the more threatening land-scapes found in the neighborhood of Lima,Peru (www.unchs.org/rdmu/).

In 2001, Emergency Management Australia(EMA), under the Government’s Attorney-General’s Department, in conjunction with anumber of related international and nationalagencies, released the findings of a study on theassessment of personal and communityresilience and vulnerability. The need for suchan undertaking followed a series of events inVictoria, Australia, the most significant beingthe January 1997 wild land fires in the Shire ofYarra Ranges on the outskirts of Melbourne,and the June 1998 floods in the Shire of EastGippland. The study outlines exceptionallycomprehensive and operationally-orientedguidelines on the concepts and processes ofvulnerability and resilience for practical appli-cation in community risk assessment. The

76


them into the development process as effectivechange agents, rather than only as beneficiaries.IFRC has been very proactive in promoting avulnerability/capacity approach.

VCA is as a key tool used by IFRC for riskanalysis. More than 40 exercises have been undertakenby National Red Cross and Red CrescentSocieties. Among these is that which was done in Pales-tine in 2000, which was deemed a success, and enjoyedmaximum participation from a wide cross-section ofactors. Based on the realisation that this tool is not solelyfor disaster preparedness; and was more geared at over-all capacity building, an interdisciplinary approach(involving health, organizational development, and relat-ed programmes within the Red Cross/Red Crescent, andother partners) has been adopted. This has formed thebasis for exercises, which will be implemented in 2002 infive North African countries, Mongolia, and other areasin East Asia. The lessons from this new approach will beused in carrying out other exercises in 2003. In order tofurther develop the mastery of this tool, a Training ofTrainers workshop has been developed by IFRC. IFRCpublished a guide, Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment,in 1999 and recently, in collaboration with UNICEF, areport called A Participatory Action Research Study of Vul-nerabilities and Capacities of the Palestine Society in DisasterPreparedness..

Contextual aspects

Highly vulnerablesocial groups

Identifying basicsocial needs/values

Increasing capaci-ties/reducing vulnerability

Practical assessmentmethods

Analysis of current and predicted demographics. Recent hazard events;economic conditions; political structures and issues; geophysical location;environmental condition; access/distribution of information and tradi-tional knowledge; community involvement; organizations and manage-ment capacity; linkages with other regional/national bodies; critical infra-structures and systems

Infants/Children; frail elderly; economically disadvantaged; intellectually,psychologically and physically disabled; single parent families; new immi-grants and visitors; socially/physically isolated; seriously ill; poorly sheltered.

Sustaining life; physical and mental well-being; safety and security;home/shelter; food and water; sanitary facilities; social links; informa-tion; sustain livelihoods; maintain social values/ethics.

Positive economic and social trends; access to productive livelihoods;sound family and social structures; good governance; established net-works regionally/nationally; participatory community structures andmanagement; suitable physical and service infrastructures; local plansand arrangements; reserve financial and material resources; shared com-munity values/goals; environmental resilience.

Constructive frameworks; data sources include: local experts, focusgroups; census data; surveys questionnaires; outreach programmes; his-torical records; maps; environmental profiles.

chart below reflects how these guidelines aredirected towards ascertaining a high resolutionin community risk assessment.

Objective information ascertained from riskanalysis has been improved, especially in theidentification and monitoring activitiesinvolved in hazard assessment. However, somephases in risk assessment remain weak. In par-

77


ticular, incorporating people’s risk perceptions,and the socio-economic and environmentalcontexts where they live, is essential in theidentification of risk scenarios. New trends inhazards and vulnerability also challenge theprocedures and conventional methodologies,and call for a truly integrated, comprehensiveand very dynamic risk assessment.

EEccoocciiuuddaadd - ppaarrttiicciippaattoorryy rriisskk-aasssseessssmmeenntt iinn PPeerruu

Lima is situated along the boundary of two tectonic plates, making it highly prone to earthquakes. Anever-present risk of fires, landslides and flash flooding result in death and destruction every year. Theseinner-urban risks have been increasing both in their frequency and severity as a result of uncontrolledurban growth from the rapid increase in migration. The experience of Ecociudad highlighted a numberof high-risk concerns in the local community:

• Houses located on the banks of a river are exposed to the threat of collapse in the event of a flood orlandslide.

• Human settlements are situated in numerous areas prone to landslides and subject to periodic earthtremors.

• Informal markets and more established commercial centres are densely crowded and highly vulnerable to fire.

Community meetings were then convened to map the threats, vulnerabilities and capacities based on par-ticipation of the inhabitants and their local knowledge. This process has led to the establishment of vol-unteer brigades specialized in emergency rescue, and the settlements located along the river are currentlybeing relocated by a neighborhood committee working in collaboration with local and central govern-ment authorities.

PPrreeppaarriinngg rriisskk mmaappss - ccoommmmuunniittyy ttoooollss tthhaatt bbuuiilldd aawwaarreenneessss aanndd iinnvviittee ppaarrttiicciippaattiioonn..

The winners of the ISDR risk map contest for chil-dren and communities in 2001 was the Shree BalBikash Secondary School in Kathmandu District,Nepal. Children from Piura, Peru, won the secondprize. Many interesting examples were received.These efforts show how risk assessments preparedby people working together can become powerfuleducational tools to raise the level of public aware-ness about disaster risks that they all share.

cchhaall

lleennggee

ss the quantitative measurement on a realistic and allencompassing picture of risk, it is difficult for politicaldecision-makers to acknowledge and factor in theseconsiderations into their legislative mechanisms andinto development planning efforts. Following this, fis-cal commitments need be specified in national budgets.

The acknowledgement of capacity, as a key factor in thedisaster risk formula, needs to be followed by the fur-ther enhancement of a conceptual framework to assessthis factor. The incorporation of vulnerability andcapacity into tools such as risk indexes, along with cleartargets or benchmarks and indicators, will engage thework towards highlighting disaster risk efforts. TheGlobal Risk Vulnerability Index under development byUNDP, as well as the framework to monitor progresson risk reduction, being developed by ISDR, are goodexamples of current efforts towards that objective.

Addressing nnew ttrends iin hhazards aand vulnerability

At this point, recognition and in depth analysis of thechanging nature of hazards and vulnerabilities is need-ed. The influence of ecological imbalances such as cli-mate change is affecting the frequency and intensity ofhazardous natural phenomenon. Additionally, environ-mental degradation is exacerbating the impact of natu-ral hazards. Risk assessments need to reflect thedynamic and complex scenarios to properly feed intodisaster risk reduction strategies. Multi-hazards andcomprehensive vulnerability/capacity assessments thattake into account the changing patterns in disaster riskare departing points for raising risk awareness at allscales. Conventional ways to identify, monitor, evaluate,cope and recover from risks are currently challengedwith emergent new trends in hazards and vulnerability.

The emergent trends in hazards and vulnerabilitydescribed in this chapter accounts for a major and newsource of uncertainties to the overall assessmentprocess of disaster risk. These changes affect not onlythe formal procedures of risk assessment in place, butthe prevailing patterns of risk perception too. Particu-lar knowledge or experience capitalised by communi-ties and people, by means of long exposure to classicalsources of hazards, have now been challenged by com-plex and new forms of danger. The repercussions ofenvironmental degradation on current vulnerabilityand hazard patterns and the increasing exposure totechnological hazards, as well as new forms ofunprecedented hazards, raise a different range of con-cerns. An integrated and effective process of riskassessment needs to engage these challenges to trulyprovide the foundation for disaster risk reduction in the21st century.

78


FFuuttuurree cchhaalllleennggeess aanndd pprriioorriittiieess

The notions of hazard, vulnerability and capacity formthe basis for an effective strategy of risk reduction andthe operational basis for a culture of prevention.

The following challenges and priorities are criticalareas of concern for the whole disaster reductionenterprise. These are:• Risk assessments for decision making.• Terminology, data and methodology.• Higher visibility and priority to reduce vulnera-

bility and strengthen capacities.• Addressing new trends in hazard and vulnerabil-

ity.

Risk aassessments ffor ddecision mmaking

An overall challenge is to review and document howrisk assessments have contributed to modify risk andhow they are being utilised in the decision makingprocess.

Terminology, ddata aand mmethodologies

Data is the primary input for identifying trends inhazards, vulnerability, as well as feeding the riskassessments and disaster impact analysis. For manycountries, data relevant for risk analysis are unavail-able, or their quality and accuracy do not reflect acomprehensive picture of the situation at hand. Thereis a need to work towards the standardisation and sys-temisation of all issues related to the accuracy/techni-cal soundness, political neutrality, methodologies andprocesses related to the collection, analysis, storage,maintenance and dissemination of data.

In terms of methodologies, there are many differentconceptual models attempting to examine the samethings. Still, one of the major issues, is how hazards,vulnerability and risk assessments can actually beused, in practice, to reduce risk. Mechanisms of inte-gration are needed so that issues and proposed reme-dial initiatives are not fragmentary when presented todecision-makers.

Higher vvisibility aand hhigher ppriority tto rreduce vulnerabilities aand sstrengthen ccapacities

Reducing vulnerability to risk still falls mainly underthe responsibility of the public authorities. Dataregarding disaster impact, especially concerning smalland medium scale disasters and of the social and envi-ronmental considerations, is still lacking. Politicalauthorities usually see economic considerations ashighly influential in their decision making. Without

3Chapter

79

Policy and public commitment:the foundation of disaster risk reduction

33..11 IInnssttiittuuttiioonnaall ffrraammeewwoorrkkss:: PPoolliiccyy,, lleeggiissllaattiioonnaanndd oorrggaanniizzaattiioonnaall ddeevveellooppmmeenntt ffoorr nnaattiioonnaallaanndd llooccaall ddeecciissiioonn-mmaakkiinngg

33..22 RReeggiioonnaall ccooooppeerraattiioonn,, iinntteerraaccttiioonn aanndd eexxppeerriieennccee

33..33 CCoommmmuunniittyy aaccttiioonn

Community scale model to identify hazards and vulnerabilities from Canton Daule, Ecuador, Red Cross, Guayas

81

3Policy and public commitment: the foundation of disaster risk reduction

3.1. Institutional frameworks: Policy, legislation and organizational development for national and local decision-making

Disaster risk management needs to be motivated and based within governmental responsibilities,but its success cannot be accomplished without the benefits of widespread decision-making andthe participation of many others. Leading policy direction is crucial and legal foundations assurea continuing legitimacy, but it is the professional and human resources delivered on the groundthat are a measure of success. For this to happen, there must be a systematic approach to relatelocal decision-making processes with larger administrative and resource capabilities such as thosedevised in provincial or state and national disaster plans and risk reduction strategies.

The various roles which policy determination, legal processes and the resulting evolution oforganizations play in creating a sustained, public administration environment sensitive to theidentification and management of risk are reviewed in this section. As both conditions and needsvary with geography, as well as with a wide range of professional interests involved, some of theselected examples of these institutional frameworks are presented in broadly described regions,while others will reflect more topical emphasis. In all the cases though, the institutional processesinvolved and organizational lessons cited may hold a much wider appeal and relevance to emerg-ing initiatives elsewhere. The discussion proceeds through the following headings:

• Introduction to emerging institutional frameworks for disaster reduction• Policy frameworks in practice• National planning processes, with multi-sectoral responsibilities and local participation• Risk reduction plans, linked to specific responsibilities, policies, and practices

ing with disasters. Communities were consid-ered generally unaware of the hazards theyfaced. As a result, disaster management wasmost often understood as providing relief tovictims, aiding recovery following an event,and rebuilding damaged infrastructure. Aspeople tended not to think so much about dis-aster reduction strategies beforehand or how toreduce risk to disasters, politicians and officialauthorities have tended to rely heavily uponemergency assistance whenever the need arose.These outlooks also have been perpetuated bythe extent of international funds and localemergency allocations that easily become avail-able after a disaster rather than before.

Historically there have been many fewerresources devoted to routine hazard identifica-tion and assessment activities or to support sus-tained risk management strategies in areas ofknown and recurrent natural disaster risks.This may result from an institutional lack ofappreciation for public safety and the econom-ic values of prevention in contrast to the cost ofreplacing lost assets. Alternately, it may reflect

Introduction tto eemerging iinstitutionalframeworks ffor ddisaster rreduction

The IDNDR programme not only provided aninstitutional framework for countries, but alsointroduced basic concepts of disaster reduction toadministrators and professionals. It started thetask of shifting policy emphasis from post-disas-ter relief and rebuilding to a more proactiveapproach of disaster preparedness and mitigation.

This began a new era in disaster and riskreduction concepts, with an important roleassigned to national planning and legislation.Many countries prepared national action plansfor disaster risk management and presentedthem to the World Conference on DisasterReduction held in Yokohama, Japan, in 1994.Subsequently countries have been able toreport on their activities at regional or sectoralmeetings and at the concluding IDNDR Pro-gramme Forum in 1999.

For a long time, the state was considered thecentre of all authority as well as action in deal-

82


vate sector, academic institutions, communi-ty-based organizations and NGOs.

However, there are currently few local institu-tions ready to fill the vacuum to assist commu-nities in owning and internalising the processof risk reduction, in terms of concept, knowl-edge, and implementation. Almost all coun-tries or local communities have a designatedauthority responsible for responding to crisissituations when they happen; many fewer havea recognized office or agency charged withmonitoring potential risks to the society andmotivating concerted public and private actionto minimize their potential consequences.

Such a change in the emphasis of governmentalfunctions requires that a consensus be developedon the respective roles of government agencies,commercial interests, communities and individu-als themselves. Governments have vital roles toplay in disaster risk management that must varyaccording to each of their respective needs andconditions, but there is now widespread recogni-tion that they must focus their limited resourcesand serve as co-ordinating bodies if they are tobecome more effective.

the persistent difficulty in demonstrating cost-efficiencies involved in saving lives and publicproperty from disasters before they occur.Nonetheless, it remains that the relativeeconomies of disaster reduction are most com-monly aired in public discussions followingdisasters.

While disaster management and response co-ordination can benefit from centralized com-mand there is a need to decentralize disasterrisk reduction. Along with the decentraliza-tion of power and devolution of governingauthority, disaster risk reduction at the localcommunity level needs to be encouraged, andsupported. The decentralization of responsi-bility for disaster risk reduction has to becoordinated by municipalities, townships,wards or local communities. Mutual under-standing and rules and regulations should beexplicit, transparent and uniform. Thisrequires a new structural arrangement inwhich national authorities of countries, UNagencies, bilateral development agencies andfinancial institutions implement projects inrisk reduction not only with national govern-ments but also with local authorities, the pri-

The following functions are important means by which governments can integrate disaster risk awarenessinto official responsibilities. They also can be used to involve more people and additional interests in man-aging those risks:

• Generate and disseminate basic public information widely about the most likely hazards to affect acountry or specific community, along with measures on how to reduce the risk

• Develop integrated professional and institutional abilities for the anticipation, assessment, manage-ment, and response aspects of disaster risks within the ongoing social, economic and environmentaldimensions of the society.

• Support opportunities that enable scientific, technical and academic institutions to contribute tonational disaster risk management policies and practice, and convey the utilisation and application ofresearch findings.

• Encourage the combined participation of government agencies, technical specialists and local resi-dents in the conduct of risk assessments.

• Develop and ensure the public understanding, acceptance and use of standards and codes designedfor the protection of private and public assets and critical infrastructure.

• Promote and encourage public participation in the design and implementation of risk and vulnerabil-ity strategies at local and national levels.

Policy fframeworks iin ppractice

AAssiiaa

Disaster risk management is a concept that isinterpreted differently in various Asian coun-tries. There is a wide variation among the pri-mary ministries or national agencies designatedto assume disaster management responsibilitiesin different countries. This reflects either thepredominant types of hazards which threatenindividual countries, or else stems from an his-torical outlook of what has commonly consti-tuted disaster management responsibilities.Until a recent change taking place in 2002, foralmost 50 years the central national authorityfor disaster management in India had beenlocated within the Ministry of Agriculture,reflecting that country’s historical concernswith flood, drought or famine. As elsewhere,until recently, most government institutionstended to concentrate on the emergency servic-es associated with post-disaster rescue, relief,reconstruction and rehabilitation, as well asmaintaining public law and order during timesof crisis.

Concepts of risk management have begun totake hold in some Asian countries at nationallevels. Thailand is poised to revamp its disastermanagement system and plans to set up a newdepartment of disaster management in theMinistry of Interior from October 2002. BothLaos and Cambodia have established or recon-figured their respective national disaster man-agement offices with encouragement and sup-port from UNDP and other internationalorganizations. The Philippines is consideringnew legislation to widen the scope of its exist-ing Office of Civil Defence and the NationalDisaster Coordinating Council.

Viet Nam has undertaken a major sustainedeffort to formulate a 20 year strategic plan fordisaster risk management. This effort has beensteered largely by in-country expertise and wasreviewed in an international consultation heldin March 2002. Following the establishment ofits Disaster Management Bureau in the renamedMinistry of Disaster Management and Relief in1992, the government of Bangladesh is pro-ceeding to develop and progressively imple-ment a comprehensive disaster managementprogram during 2000-2002. Increasingly,more Asian countries are also including some

83


reference to disaster risk reduction in theirnational development plans. Over the lastdecade, UNDP has supported capacity build-ing projects for disaster risk management inover ten Asian countries.

Two additional examples can be cited fromcountries in Asia, which together account foralmost a third of the world’s population: Indiaand China. These countries share many of thesame types of hazards spread over vast landareas and have adopted approaches for cen-turies that have taken risk into account in avariety of technical endeavours. While bothcountries are populated by people with manydifferent cultural outlooks, each of them hasdifferent structures of government. Tellingly,they have each demonstrated renewed commit-ments in recent years to reorient their nationalstrategies of disaster management to takegreater account of the benefits to be derivedfrom disaster risk reduction.

CCaassee:: IInnddiiaaAs the Indian sub-continent is highly vulnera-ble to natural and related disasters, with lossesmounting every year, government authoritiesin India have recognized the pressing impor-tance of developing more effective disastermanagement policies. At the operational level,there have been equal concerns to strengthenrelated organizational arrangements that canlessen the widespread impacts of disasters suchas by updating state codes, manuals and disas-ter plans on the basis of experience gained andtaking account of technological developments.Initiatives have been taken to conduct compre-hensive revisions of disaster policies givinggreater attention to reducing risk factors in thestate of Maharashtra following the devastation

In proceeding beyond its original mandate con-fined only to the preparation of plans for naturaldisasters, the HPC-DMP recommended thatthe human dimension of disasters also needed tobe included in adopting a more holisticapproach to disaster management planning. Asa result, additional considerations will beextended to include forecasting and warningsystems, public awareness, proactive measuresto reduce risk in development programmes,development of human resources, informationtechnology, networking and coordinating orga-nizational relationships, and updating buildingcodes and practices.

A National Centre for Disaster Management hasbeen engaged to undertake human resourcedevelopment studies, to develop a database andto provide documentation in the area of naturaldisaster mitigation and preparedness. Theseinstitutional developments and expanded out-looks go well beyond the more immediatelyobvious concerns first associated with the needfor updated emergency control rooms andimproved response mechanisms that will also beconsidered in the comprehensive review.

The HPC-DMP has demonstrated a high-level government commitment in forming aNational Committee on Disaster Management con-stituted under the chairmanship of the primeminister and comprising the heads of all thenational and provincial political parties. Thecommittee, which also includes technical spe-cialists, respected academicians and key civilservants, has been tasked to suggest short,medium and long-term steps for strengtheningrelief and rehabilitation capabilities and to iden-tify measures that can reduce natural calamitiesin the future.

The work program is striving to involve anexpanded range of professional interests rangingfrom the responsibilities of local government,revenue allocation and insurance, through thepractice of engineering, public works, educationand public administration. More than 30 differ-ent hazards have been identified by the HPC-DMP, and nodal ministries have been engagedto work on national plans for the potential disas-ter risks related to water and climate, geology,industrial and nuclear activities, transportationaccidents and biological threats. Even thoughthe HPC-DMP’s mandate is to produce plans,it has embarked on an inclusive planning

84


of the Latur earthquake in 1997 and in thestate of Uttar Pradesh in 1999. The creation ofthe new state of Uttaranchal has provided theopportunity to reconsider the most appropriateforms of disaster management structures for itsmountainous topography. The rapid and severerepercussions of the more recent destructionresulting from the 1999 cyclone in the state ofOrissa, and then the Bhuj earthquake in 2001 inthe state of Gujarat have spurred a similarlyintensified commitment to alter the long-stand-

ing relief commissioner system and to revisenational policies of risk reduction. A High Pow-ered Committee on Disaster Management Plans(HPC-DMP) has been constituted with theapproval of the Prime Minister to:

• Review existing arrangements for pre-paredness and mitigation of natural andhuman induced disasters including indus-trial, nuclear, biological and chemical disas-ters.

• Recommend measures for strengtheningorganizational structures.

• Recommend a comprehensive model fordisaster management at national, state anddistrict levels.

Source: VulnerabilityAtlas, India

process that emphasizes the participation of allrelevant organizations and sectors. This system-atic approach devolves disaster managementplanning activities from strictly a national con-cern to one involving state, district and localofficials.

A decision was taken by the Indian governmentin early 2002 to alter almost 50 years of practiceby relocating all matters regarding disaster andrisk management to the Ministry of HomeAffairs. This reflects a departure from the previ-ous association of natural disasters with the pre-dominant concerns of food supplies and agricul-ture and signals a promising opportunity toengage many additional functional responsibili-ties and authoritative aspects of government. Asthe influential Ministry of Home Affairs isdirectly responsible for the coordination andmanagement of the operational aspects of gov-ernment, and its influence proceeds fromnational direction of the civil service all the waydown to local levels of implementation of gov-ernment policies, this is an important step tointegrate disaster risk management issues morefully into many more national planning process-es.

CCaassee:: CChhiinnaa

China presents another approach yet also dis-plays similar emphasis. During the course of theIDNDR, the Chinese government recognizedthat working for disaster reduction wouldrequire a long-term commitment and it hasworked with dedication and political commit-ment at the highest levels of responsibility to ful-fil those objectives by actively responding to thedirection of UN/ISDR.

The Chinese government established the Chi-nese National Committee for International DisasterReduction (CNCIDR) in October 2000 consist-ing of 30 official agencies, including the StateCouncil, ministries, national committees andbureaus, the military services and additionalsocial groups. CNCIDR is an inter-ministerialcoordinating institution led by a State Council-lor responsible for designing a national disasterreduction framework, developing guiding poli-cies, coordinating relevant departments in theconduct of specific programs, and supervisingdisaster reduction works undertaken by local

85


governments. An additional advisory group of28 senior experts in relevant fields has beenformed to provide guidance to the nationalcommittee especially on applying science andtechnology in realizing disaster reduction initia-tives. The office of CNCIDR and its secretariatare located in the Ministry of Civil Affairs.

By embracing the importance of disaster reduc-tion activities, China has proceeded to integratethe subject into overall national economic andsocial development planning. The core elementof this process is the progressive implementationof the National Disaster Reduction Plan of the Peo-ple’s Republic of China (NDRP) running from1998 to 2010. The NDRP was launched by theChinese government in April 1998, and signifi-cantly, it was formulated on the basis of the over-all national development policies reflected in the“Ninth Five Year Plan for National Economicand Social Development”, and the “2010Prospective Target Outline” for national accom-plishments. The formulation of the planreceived important support and technical assis-tance from UNDP, further demonstrating theessential links between disaster risk reductionand national development interests.

The NDRP was based on several fundamentalpolicies that demonstrate both the breadth andthe depth of interests that have been marshalledto develop and implement a national strategy fordisaster reduction. The primary orientation ofthe strategy of disaster reduction is to serve theadvancement of national economic and socialdevelopment. In this respect, a principle hasbeen formulated to assign the top priority to dis-aster reduction activities, while also recognizingthat there will still be the requirement to com-bine these with disaster response and emergencyrelief efforts at the time of crisis. A focus is to beplaced on key elements of disaster reductionwork, while keeping a view throughout on thelong-term strategic objectives of disaster reduc-tion.

It is very important for China to form an overall legisla-tive system that relates to disaster reduction, and theexperience of other countries would be invaluable. To dothis will require financial and technical support fromUNDP and other channels. China response to ISDR questionnaire, 2001

China’s response to the ISDR secretariat ques-tionnaire in 2001 also cited that one of the mostimportant issues to be addressed was to improvecapacity building, especially in terms of earlywarning systems, the development of resilientinfrastructure and the application of technolo-gies to form a safer society.

In many Asian countries, however, a lack of uni-formity in policy approaches remains regardingthe various aspects of disaster management allo-cated among different ministries. This also posesadditional hindrances for improving regional orsub-regional cooperation. It is unlikely that theHome Ministry of Nepal, the national focalpoint, could have developed the degree of inter-action and understanding desired with its com-parable national disaster focal point in India, pre-viously located in the Ministry of Agriculture.

The prominent involvement of the waterauthorities, and the additional policy concerns ofthe Ministry of Disaster Management andRelief in Bangladesh further complicate thepotential for effective relationships in such mat-ters. This would be useful since the cause andprogress of floods can easily affect all threecountries. Furthermore, all three countries haveadditional ministries and related technical agen-cies concerned with water resources as well asenvironmental affairs. This represents a seriousand growing impediment as one accepts thatmany natural hazards and disaster conditionsaffect more than one country, or involve theskills and technical abilities of many professions.

These conditions underlines the challengesposed when decisions taken in one location caneasily impact the scale of consequences in neigh-bouring countries, or even among differentsocio-economic segments of the population inthe countries. More informed and consideredefforts are required to bring these various profes-sional specialists and civil authorities together,other than just through occasional internationalmeetings, if a coherent disaster risk managementstrategy with local public relevance is to be real-ized in practice.

In recent years, many countries in Asia haveupdated existing acts and regulations related todisaster management. The following tabledemonstrates the current state of administrativeand legal arrangements for disaster risk man-agement throughout the region.

86


The roles of science, technology and educationare considered to be of particular importance inbuilding disaster reduction into a national con-cept. To succeed, it will be essential to encouragethe involvement of all elements from the nation-al and local governments and the fullest possibleparticipation from all the professions and trades,working together. It will also remain importantfor China to be closely involved with interna-tional developments in disaster reduction andtherefore must strive to strengthen its ownefforts of international exchanges and multina-tional cooperation in the field.

Objectives outlined by the NDRP includeefforts to:• Develop a set of projects which are of

importance to advancing the social andeconomic development in China.

• Increase the application of scientific andtechnical experience and the benefits ofnew achievements in disaster reductionwork.

• Enhance public awareness and knowledgeabout disaster reduction.

• Establish comprehensive organizationalabilities and operational structures for real-izing specific activities in disaster riskreduction.

• Reduce the impact of natural disasters onnational economy and social development,as measured by an obvious reduction in thedirect economic losses caused by naturaldisasters.

The NDRP has also outlined specific tasks,measures and key activities that should be pur-sued nationwide. In this respect, one of the mostimportant works for CNCIDR is to implementthe plan first at provincial levels, and then also atlocal levels of responsibility. Several provinceshave issued mid-term plans on disaster reduc-tion in their specific areas, as can be seen in theProvinces of Guangdong, Jiangxi, Yunnan, andShanxi. In others, such as in Heilongjiang, thenational government is working closely with theprovincial authorities to initiate a local programstrategy.

In order to further the implementation of theNDRP, the CNCIDR is organizing a numberof meetings at senior levels to share experiencesamong the provinces and to discuss the guide-lines on forming local disaster reduction planswith officials drawn from different sectors.

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Country

Bangladesh

Bhutan

Cambodia

China

Hong Kong

India

Indonesia

Focal ppoint ffor ddisaster management

Ministry of Disaster Man-agement and Relief, DisasterManagement Bureau

Ministry of Home Affairs

National Committee for Disaster Management

China National Committeefor International DisasterReduction

National Committee on Dis-aster Management, Ministryof Home Affairs

National Natural DisasterManagement CoordinatingBoard (BAKORNAS PB),Ministry of Peoples' Welfareand Poverty Alleviation

National aaction pplans

� National Disaster ManagementPlan

� Standing Orders on Disaster

� No plan exists. Disaster manage-ment issues are contained to a limit-ed extent in the National Environ-mental Strategy of 1989 and inBhutan Building Rules of 1983.

� No plan exists except the five yearstrategy plan for the development ofthe National Committee for Disas-ter Management.

� The National Natural DisasterReduction Plan of the People'sRepublic of China

� Laws of People's Republic of Chinaon Protecting against and Mitigat-ing Earthquake Disaster

� Hong Kong Contingency Plan forNatural Disasters

� High Powered Committee DisasterManagement Plans

� National Contingency Action Plan� Drought Contingency Plan 2000

� National Action Plan

State aand pprovincial ddisasterreduction pplans

� Operation Sheba: relief andrehabilitation plan for districtsof Chittagong, Cox's Bazar,Noakhali, Feni, Laxmipur,Rangamati, Khagrachhari,Bandarban.

� Flood Action Plan

� Action plan for reconstructionin earthquake affected Maha-rashtra.

� Anti-disaster plan for the stateof Tamil Nadu.

� Cyclone contingency plan ofaction for the state of AndhraPradesh.

� Action plan for reconstructionin earthquake-affected state ofGujarat.

� Contingency plan for floodsand cyclones in Chennai.

� District disaster managementaction plan for Nainital.

� Village Contingency Plan,2002 (OXFAM Trust,Hyderabad).

� Forest fire and haze disasterin Mount Merapi disastermanagement.

� Tsunami disaster in Banuwangi.

88


Country

Iran

Japan

Kazakhstan

Korea, DPR

Korea, Rep of

Kyrgyzstan

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Maldives

Mongolia

Myanmar

Nepal


Ministry of the Interior

Cabinet Office

Emergency Agency of theRepublic of Kazakhstan

Ministry of GovernmentAdministration and HomeAffairs

Korean National DisasterPrevention and Countermea-sures Headquarters

National Disaster Manage-ment Office, Ministry ofLabour and Social Welfare

Central Disaster Manage-ment and Relief Committee,Inter-Ministerial Committee

Ministry of Planning andEnvironment and NationalCouncil for Protection andPreservation of the Environment

State Permanent EmergencyCommission

Central Committee for Dis-aster Prevention and Relief,Ministry of Home and Reli-gious Affairs

Ministry of Home Affairs


� Disaster Countermeasure Basic Act,(basic plan for disaster reduction)

� National Plan

� Natural Disaster CountermeasureAct

� Fifth Basic Disaster PreventionPlan

� Disaster Risk Management Plan

� National Haze Action Plan� Flood Action Plan

� National Action Plan

� Civil defence law� Law on environmental protection� Law on water� Law on air� Law on hydro-meteorological and

environmental monitoring

� National Action Plan for DisasterManagement


� UN System DisasterResponse Plan (involves sev-eral ministries and the RedCross & Red Crescent).

� Operational plans for disasterreduction, local plans for dis-aster reduction.

� Emergency preparedness anddisaster response plan for thehealth sector

89


Country

Pakistan

Philippines

Singapore

Sri Lanka

Tajikistan

Thailand

Turkmenistan

Uzbekistan

Vietnam


Disaster Preparedness andRelief Cell in Cabinet

National Disaster Coordinat-ing Council, Office of CivilDefence, Ministry ofDefence

Ministry of Home Affairs,Singapore Civil DefenceForce and Singapore PoliceForce

National Disaster Manage-ment Centre, Ministry ofSocial Services and HousingDevelopment

Ministery or Emergency Situations and Civil Defence

National Civil Defence Com-mittee, Ministry of Interior

Department of Dyke Man-agement and Flood Control(DDMFC) of the Ministryof Agriculture and RuralDevelopment. Secretariats ofthe Central Committee forFlood and Storm Controlresponsible for emergencyresponses to disastrousevents.


� National Disaster Plan� Karachi Emergency Relief Plan

� National Calamities and DisasterPreparedness Plans

� Civil Defence Act� Emergency or Contingency Plan� Fire Safety Act� Civil Defence Shelter Act

� National Disaster ManagementPlan

� Joint plan with Russian Federationuntil 2005

� National Civil Defence Plan

� Disaster Management Plan

� Strategy and Action Plan for Miti-gating Water Disasters in Vietnam


� Model district plan - disasterrelief cell

� Punjab provincial flood actionplan

� Earthquake plan for townsand cities in the seismicregions

� Sind provincial disaster plan� Disaster preparedness plan

Kasur Tehsil

� Contingency plan for Taal� Regional disaster prepared-

ness plan for Tacloban City� Contingency plan for Mayon

volcano

� Coastal environmental man-agement plan for the westcoast of Sri Lanka

� Major disaster contingencyplan

response agencies, and civil society. Whileserving neither as a single organization nor asystem, CONRED was given an expandedrange of responsibilities in the field of riskreduction, and has provided a focal point forexpanded attention to risk issues. By workingtogether with the Ministry of Planning, aNational Risk Reduction System is being estab-lished and efforts are underway to incorporatemulti-sector risk reduction strategies into thecountry’s National Poverty Reduction Plan.These activities complement the longstandingDisaster Response Division and an EmergencyOperations Centre.

In recent years, aided by UNDP, Nicaraguahas developed an expanded approach for aNational Program for Risk Reduction and hasdesigned a new disaster risk management strat-egy. First, studies were commissioned toanalyse the Nicaraguan legal framework fordisaster management and the implicationsregarding government, municipalities, the pri-vate sector and citizens. Early in 2000, theNicaraguan National Legislative Assemblypassed a new law creating the National Systemfor Disaster Prevention, Mitigation and Attentionand officially established the National RiskReduction Plan as a central operational instru-ment. As seen elsewhere, the institutional con-cept was built upon a broad and comprehen-sive approach to risk reduction issues, but onethat is intended to be implemented on a decen-tralized basis. The strategy and the legislationare considered by some commentators to be themost advanced examples for disaster reductionin the region at the present time. Both Swissbilateral development assistance and WorldBank support have been enlisted to strengthenthe provision of technical abilities and to aug-ment human resources. While the implementa-tion of the process can benefit by drawing onthe combined experiences of the Civil DefenceOrganization and the Nicaraguan Institute forTerritorial Studies, the key to future success willbe the extent to which productive relationshipscan be forged with other key governmentdepartments and development agencies.

CCaassee:: CCaannaaddaa

In part spurred on by the social and economicconsequences of a particularly severe ice stormin 2000, the Canadian Prime Minister

90


TThhee AAmmeerriiccaass

A major shift is now taking place in manycountries in the Americas, from the north tothe south. As mentioned in Chapter 1, thecombination of extremely severe social, eco-nomic and environmental consequences associ-ated with several disasters in the final years ofthe 1990s provided stark and unavoidable les-sons to leaders in the region.

Both official and public outlooks about disas-ters in Latin America and the Caribbean coun-tries prior to 1990 concentrated almost exclu-sively on developing humanitarian responseand improving preparedness capacities, linkedto civil defense or military institutions.

The 1990s would see some important institu-tional changes in emphasis and priorities, start-ing already in 1985 in Mexico and Colombiaafter a major earthquake and volcanic eruptionrespectively. Disaster reduction issues,expressed through terms of prevention andmitigation and given a higher status in politicaland technical discourse, although this was nottransferred into significant changes or realaction during much of the decade. Most offi-cial disaster organizations created preventionoffices in name, but their roles were limitedessentially to strengthening efforts in disasterpreparedness, conducting basic hazard map-ping or promoting early warning systems atnational scales. Few human or financialresources were committed and existing legaland institutional arrangements impeded anymajor changes. This is now slowly changingsupported by a regional process, as discussedin section 3.2.

CCaassee:: CCeennttrraall AAmmeerriiccaann ccoouunnttrriieess

Linking risk reduction with development poli-cies and environmental concerns is common inseveral Central American countries, especiallywhere the severe effects of hurricane Mitchdecimated earlier investments made in nationaldevelopment.

In 1996, Guatemala reformed its disaster leg-islation and created the National Coordinator forDisaster Reduction (CONRED) comprising asupervisory council of representatives fromdifferent development departments, disaster

announced the creation of the Office of CriticalInfrastructure Protection and Emergency Pre-paredness (OCIPEP) in February 2001. Theoffice was established to enhance the protectionof Canada’s critical infrastructure from disrup-tion or destruction, and to act as the govern-ment of Canada’s primary agency for ensuringnational civil emergency preparedness. Criticalinfrastructure (which includes energy and util-ities, communications, services, transportation,safety and government) constitutes the back-bone of the nation’s economy, and is essential tothe health, security, safety and economic well-being of all Canadians and to the effectivefunctioning of government.

The Minister of National Defence is responsi-ble for this organisation, which encompasses allthe responsibilities of the previously namedEmergency Preparedness Canada (EPC). With anecessarily broader mandate than the EPC,OCIPEP takes an all-hazards approach, re-cognizing that different hazardous events canhave similar impacts. The office providesnational leadership to help ensure the protec-tion of infrastructure, in both its physical andcyber dimensions, regardless of the source ofthe threat. This includes developing and pro-moting activities which reduce vulnerabilitiesagainst various threats and thus mitigate theimpacts of disasters.

OCIPEP seeks to enhance the capacity ofindividuals, communities, businesses and gov-ernments in Canada to effectively manage risksto their physical and cyber environments.Although OCIPEP is a new organization, itsresponsibilities relating to civil emergency pre-paredness and planning have a long history.Through the former EPC, a great deal of expe-rience in preparedness, response and recoveryactivities have been gained, resulting in Cana-da’s increasingly comprehensive ability to copewith emergency situations. Mitigation, whilean important part of disaster management, haslargely been an implicit requirement. Therehave always been efforts across the nation tomitigate disasters, including land use zoningguidelines and structural protective featuressuch as the Red River Floodway in Manitoba.These mitigating actions have a commonthread: they reduce the probability of a calami-ty or limit the effect of a disaster should it hap-pen.

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However, it had been recognised by variousgroups and individuals, that there existed aneed to address hazard mitigation in Canada ina more explicit and systematic way. A NationalMitigation Workshop was hosted by EPC andthe Insurance Bureau of Canada in 1998,attended by academic, private sector and gov-ernment representatives. It concluded that acomprehensive national mitigation initiativewould be a positive step towards the long termgoal of reducing vulnerabilities to, and lossesfrom, disasters. These ideals have been rein-forced by participants of the ongoing CanadianNatural Hazards Assessment Project (CNHAP)in which a community of scientists, scholarsand practitioners in the natural hazards anddisasters field came together early in 2000 tobegin a major new examination of the nationalunderstanding about the causes and conse-quences of natural hazards and disasters.

In light of a number of multidisciplinary dis-cussions regarding emergency managementand disaster reduction, the Government ofCanada announced in June 2001 thatOCIPEP will lead consultations on the devel-opment of a National Disaster Mitigation Strat-egy (NDMS). These consultations will includeall levels of government, private sector andnon-governmental stakeholders, in order tosolicit their input and participation in definingthe framework for this new national strategy.This important step is being taken in therecognition that new measures should bedeveloped “to save lives, reduce the impact ofdisasters and the resulting damages and coststo the Canadian public”.

As a part of this process OCIPEP intends toissue a discussion paper to help stimulate dis-cussions regarding the NDMS, in the hopes ofobtaining views from various stakeholders onthe possible scope, policies and mechanisms forcoordinating and implementing a nationalstrategy. Meanwhile, the federal governmentcontinues to conduct interdepartmental discus-sions about federal mitigation activities,through an Interdepartmental MitigationCoordinating Committee. Participants includerepresentatives from all relevant federal depart-ments who are reviewing preparedness andmitigation initiatives and conducting analysisto identify areas where additional attention isneeded.

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CCaassee:: CCoolloommbbiiaa

The National Plan for the Prevention of Disas-ters, promulgated in Colombia in 1998, gavelittle attention to anticipatory measures or spe-cific risk reduction practices during non-crisissituations. More recently, however, the Nation-al Council for Social and Economic Policy hasincorporated disaster reduction measuresexplicitly into the individual sectoral plans ofthe National Development Plan. Accordingly,in 2001, the National Council for Social andEconomic Policy developed a strategy to initi-ate the short-term and medium-term executionof the National Disaster Prevention and Manage-ment Plan.

The strategy is an example of a comprehen-sive initiative to improve the National Planfor the Prevention of Disasters. It “outlinesthe work to be advanced for the followingthree years and establishes the first steps forthe consolidation of the National Plan in themedium-term. It identifies the objectives ofaction and the responsible individuals, expe-diting the National Plan’s work in mitigatingnatural disasters and their levels of risk inColombia. Additionally, this national effortseeks to meet the goals of the UN-ISDR andto comply with the initiatives of the Meetingof the Americas in the framework of theAndean Community.”

The National Council for Social and Eco-nomic Policy has cited four accomplishments

that have to be met if its strategy is to beimplemented successfully:

• Strengthen public awareness campaignson natural disasters.

• Initiate regional and sectoral planning fordisaster prevention.

• Institutionalize the national disaster pre-vention and management plan.

• Communicate the national plan to thepublic and to the authorities.

This updated and revitalized strategy wasapproved by the President of Colombia as wellas by the country’s National Planning Depart-ment and all the relevant ministries of interior,economic development, finance and publiccredit, agriculture and rural development, edu-cation, health, environment, energy, communi-cations, transportation, labour and social secu-rity, culture and national defence. Most impor-tantly, this strategy is linked to budgetary allo-cations within the respective institutions.

One example of the strategy’s implementationin practice can be seen in the city of Manizaleswhere a local environmental action plan hasbeen established through widespread consulta-tion with the community. The plan is integrat-ed into the municipality’s development planand budget, and includes specific measures toreduce the risk of landslides and seeks to relo-cate the population living on steep slopes.These programmes are also linked to the devel-opment of ecological parks some of which arelocated on slopes too dangerous for settle-ments, and others have been integrated into thecity’s watershed thereby protecting theirimportant economic functions.

CCaassee:: BBoolliivviiaa

In Bolivia too, a comprehensive national policyfor prevention and risk management has beenestablished recently. Consistent with the inten-tions of the Andean Regional Programme for RiskPrevention and Reduction (PREANDINO), theMinister of Sustainable Development andPlanning has announced the government’scommitment to formulate policies and strate-gies for the incorporation of disaster preven-tion in the planning system through theNational Plan for Prevention and Risk Mitiga-tion. It is anticipated that mechanisms will be

AA sshhiifftt iinn ppoolliittiiccaall aapppprrooaacchh

Following the eruption and mudslide of Nevado del Ruiz in1985, CCoolloommbbiiaa has been a pioneer in promoting a systematicapproach to integrated disaster management. The creation of aNational System for Prevention and Response to Natural Dis-asters in 1989 demonstrated a shift in institutional responsibilityfor natural disasters, from a strong focus on response to one ofmore preventive action.

The 1999 earthquake in Armenia, in the coffee belt of Colom-bia, and the creation of FOREC for the reconstruction effort(Sasakawa Award 2000, see chapter 4.2), provided the opportu-nity to further enhance institutional and technical capabilities.The experience of FOREC has become a very relevant modeland success story useful as a reference for similar situations inother places.

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established with necessary legislation in orderto introduce elements of prevention with thevarious sectoral initiatives. In this regard, thework of prevention may be considered as com-plementary to the objectives of sustainabledevelopment.

The government has recently been pressingahead with several national programmes aimedat incorporating prevention into the manage-ment of development activities, such as the Pro-gramme for Risk Prevention and Reductionfinanced by UNDP and the World Bank.Another programme financed by the GermanAgency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) isthe Local Risk Management Programme. Inhousing, the National Housing Subsidy Pro-gramme, financed by employer contributions,includes a Prevention and Risk Mitigation Sub-Programme. The Ministry of Agriculture, live-

stock and rural development is implementing aNational Food Security Monitoring and Early Warn-ing System, which will be responsible for monitor-ing the impact of natural disasters on agricultur-al production. UNESCO, working jointly withthis ministry, is also progressing in its support fora programme linking developmental issues andthe risk issues associated with the El Niño phe-nomenon.

Risk management has also been introduced in aguide to adapting municipal development plans,which is to be implemented in 30 pilot munici-palities. These will ensure that municipal plansfor risk prevention and mitigation will be in linewith national and sectoral policies. Manuals arebeing prepared on how to draw up municipalplans for risk prevention and mitigation in rela-tion to town and country planning, human settle-ments and environmental management.

Bolivia

A national policy for prevention andrisk management was established in1999. Official statements on preven-tion at national level are ad hoc andrelate mainly to prevention pro-grammes during rainy periods orassociated with health and agricul-tural campaigns. With reference tothe PREANDINO, the Ministerof Sustainable Development andplanning (MDSP) has announcedthe government's commitment toformulate policies and strategies thatincorporate prevention into theplanning system through the nation-al plan for prevention and risk miti-gation.

Formal decisions: The MDSP hasbeen made legally responsible forthe development of prevention poli-cies. Some ministries such as hous-ing have incorporated this policy insome of their normal activities.

The government has recentlyadvanced several national pro-grammes to incorporate preventioninto development practices, such asthe Programme for Risk Preventionand Reduction financed by UNDPand the World Bank. Another pro-gramme, financed by GTZ, is theLocal Risk Management Pro-gramme. In housing, the NationalHousing Subsidy Programme,financed with 2 per cent of employercontributions, includes the Preven-tion and Risk Mitigation Sub-Pro-gramme. The Ministry of Agricul-ture, Livestock and Rural Develop-ment is implementing the NationalFood Security Monitoring and EarlyWarning System, which is responsi-ble for monitoring the impact of nat-ural disasters on agricultural produc-tion. PREANDINO promotes thecoordination of all initiatives, forwhich it is supposed to establishframes of reference through thenational plan, by identifying policies,programmes and projects of nationalinterest and defining policies toframe national measures.UNESCO, jointly with the MDSP,is supporting a programme in con-nection with the El Niño phenome-non.

There are plans in thehealth and agricultural sec-tors but they are focussedmainly on relief. In thehealth sector, there is a pre-paredness and responseplan and in agriculture, theministry has drawn up anagricultural emergencyplan. National and sectoralplans initiated within thecontext of PREANDINOare being prepared. Therehas not yet been anyprogress with land useplans.

Proposals for prevention havenot yet been incorporated in thedevelopment plans because theyhave been formulated onlyrecently. Some sectoral meas-ures, as in agriculture, includeproposals for reducing vulnera-bility. They have not, however,been integrated into plans fordevelopment. Guidelines arebeing prepared to incorporateprevention into local plans.

Institutional Framework High-level programmes forpromoting prevention

Prevention plans Prevention in developmentplans and control mechanisms

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CCoolloommbbiiaa

There has been a national policy onprevention and risk management since1989, encompassed in PresidentialDirective No. 33 of 1990 and Educa-tion and Health Ministry Orders No.13 of 1992 and No. 1 of 1993.

Formal decisions: The National Planfor Disaster Prevention and Manage-ment was established in Decree 919 of1989 and Decree 93 of 1998. Thepresent government's national devel-opment plan includes a chapter onprevention and risk mitigation. Theprevention decision is a state decision.The policy is maintained even thoughnational governments change.

EEccuuaaddoorr

In recent years, official statementshave been made showing the govern-ment's commitment to furthering pre-vention and risk management policies,mainly at vice-presidential and somedecentralized levels, in connectionwith the problems of disasters. Withinthat framework, the national govern-ment has decided to strengthen theprocess of incorporating prevention indevelopment through the participationof both national and sectoral workinggroups, no formal decision yet.

PPeerruu

There have been no official statementson prevention during the past decade.Only prior to the 1997-98 El Niñoepisode were a few statements issuedabout actions taken to prevent dam-age. Currently, the subject has notbeen mentioned in official speeches,nor has it been mentioned in connec-tion with the environment.

Formal decisions: There are no formaldecisions on prevention. However, thelaunching of the PREANDINO pro-

Until very recently there was nocommitment at high political lev-els to promote the preparation ofdepartmental and municipal dis-aster prevention and managementplans. Presently, in the context ofPREANDINO, there is consid-erable commitment by theNational Planning Departmentand some deputy ministers. Thisis reflected in the National Eco-nomic and Social Policy Counciland in plans which will providefor a national effort to considerprevention in development plansand actions. In higher education,risk management issues are beingpromoted as an element of thebasic syllabus.

There has been no official promo-tion of prevention programmes.However, there is support forhigh-level initiatives promoted byinternational organizations.

The Executive Committee for ElNiño Reconstruction launched anUrban Mitigation Study Pro-gramme. Although lacking inlegal endorsement, fifteen citieswere studied with UNDP support until February 2001. PREANDINO promotes theincorporation of prevention innational and sectoral developmentplanning.

There are specific plans,such as the plan for theEl Niño phenomenonand specific contingencyplans. Little attention isgiven to undertakingplanning exercises duringperiods of no apparentthreat. Plans are moretypically considered innew situations when aphenomenon is immi-nent.

Formally, there are noprevention plans. Nation-al and sectoral risk pre-vention plans are under-way..

There are no preventionplans. PREANDINOcommittees are preparingdiagnostics for sectoralplans. There has been lit-tle progress with the National PreventionPlan, due to politicalchanges.

Prevention has not been incor-porated in the sectoral plans orin the National DevelopmentPlan. Within individual sec-tors, energy and health haveshown progress, in the lattercase, mainly at decentralizedlevels. Most departments andcapital cities included the sub-ject in the government plansduring changes of administra-tion in 2001. Many referencesare, however, strictly rhetoricaldeclarations. Presently withinthe PREANDINO, all theinstitutions are working onpreparations for a NationalEconomic and Social PolicyCouncil, with specific preven-tion proposals being consid-ered in each development area.

The President's PlanningOffice has integrated preven-tion issues into the nationalplanning system. Although theNational Plan was drawn upprior to these efforts, its incor-poration is being promoted forinclusion in the plans of decen-tralized jurisdictions. Thisincludes terms of reference forprovincial development plans,which already include risk pre-vention aspects in the strategicplanning process. However,plans are yet to be finalized.

There have been some verylimited attempts to incorporateprevention issues within spe-cific sectors. An institutionallimitation is the country's lackof national planning bodies,although other channels havebeen identified through the pub-lic investment structures work-ing with individual projects.There are local experiments inplanning and the development ofprojects, for example, in the



95


gramme has been approved and organi-zations in four sectors have been invitedto participate. This decision is notbacked by legislation. Individual sectorsformally decided to establish sectoralcommittees. There has been a NationalCivil Defense System (INDECI) since1972 with responsibility for prevention,emergencies and rehabilitation. In 1997,the government decided to reactivate themulti-sectoral ENP Study Committee, abody that coordinates scientific institu-tions. This has been maintained and thedecision has proven to be a good one. In1998, the government transferredresponsibility for mitigation work onrivers from INDECI to the ministry ofagriculture.

VVeenneezzuueellaa

Following the devastating mudslides inVargas State in 1999, reference to pre-vention concepts being incorporated aspart of development policy began toappear in national and municipal state-ments. The subject was also one of themain concerns of senior governmentspokesmen involved with reconstructionprogrammes. In general, official state-ments are made when events occur, andin connection with emergency operationsif there are landslides.

Formal decisions: Important steps arebeing taken to incorporate prevention indevelopment processes. This is most evi-dent in the health sector which has beenattentive to these matters for some time, and has set up a mainte-nance programme for incorporatingchanges in school buildings. Immediatelyafter the Vargas events in 1999, the min-istry of science and technology (MCT)formally institutionalized a disaster riskmanagement policy with tools for itsimplementation. Financing was providedto support risk management, preparednessand disaster relief strategies. The nationalgovernment joined PREANDINO tocoordinate and promote these activities atall levels, and is now working within thatframework to define strategies. Somemunicipal bodies, such as those of Chacao,Sucre, Baruta, Maracaibo, Valencia andAlcaldia Mayor have formally decided toproceed with the incorporation of preven-tion in development management, even ifin an isolated fashion.

The MCT has set up the RiskManagement and DisasterReduction Programme whichtakes an integral approach tosupport the inclusion of riskmanagement into developmentplanning and sectoral and localactions, despite its emphasis onscientific development and theintroduction of technologiesinto all risk management anddisaster relief processes. PREANDINO implementeda programme in December2000 with objectives to coordi-nate the handling of disasterrisks, to incorporate risk reduc-tion issues into development policies and to support nation-al, sectoral and local exchanges among countries. There areother sectoral programmessuch as one to reduce vulnera-bility to socio-natural disastersin the education sector andanother in the ministry of theenvironment and naturalresources to prepare risk mapsfor land use planning.

There are no preventionplans but national andsectoral plans are in theprocess of being com-pleted. There are someterritorial initiatives butno prevention plans existfor municipalities.

basin of the River Rimac whereLima and eight other districtmunicipalities have mitigationplans, emergency contingencyplans and risk studies with micro-zoning maps. These municipali-ties regularly update their plansand keep the public informed inwhat is the most advanced experi-ment in local work. Lima andeight other district municipalitieshave mitigation plans, emergencycontingency plans and risk stud-ies with microzoning maps.

A start has been to incorporateprevention issues in the Nation-al Development and Social Sec-tor Plan as well as in a fewregional plans that are underpreparation. Initiatives in theutilities sector have partiallyincorporated prevention withincertain subsectors such ashydroelectric power generationand in thermal power genera-tion. Only very few municipali-ties have seismic microzoningand geodynamic risk maps for use in new techniques formunicipal planning.



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At this stage, a decision was taken to pro-duce a Green Paper on Disaster Managementfor all levels of government (national,provincial and local) as the first tangiblestep to establish a formal disaster manage-ment policy for the country. It was tabled inFebruary 1998 with the aim to ensure that acomprehensive disaster management systemcould be realized and implemented bymeans of a national strategy that would bemore fully elaborated in a subsequent policyWhite Paper on Disaster Management. TheGreen Paper provided an important concep-tual framework for disaster managementand risk reduction. A year later in January1999, the White Paper was able to build onthese views by emphasizing the risk and dis-aster reduction issues highlighted by theinternational and regional trends at the time.The White Paper was developed within theframework of the IDNDR, and importancealso was given to developing joint standardsand common practices among the other 13countries of the Southern African Develop-ment Community (SADC).

AAffrriiccaa

CCaassee:: SSoouutthh AAffrriiccaa

A methodical, if protracted, effort to develop acomprehensive national strategy for disaster

risk management has been pursued in SouthAfrica by reforming organizational structuresand creating new legislation concerning disas-ter risk management. As so often happens, itwas after a severe crisis – flooding in the CapeFlats in 1994 – that the government resolvedto assess South Africa’s ability to deal with dis-aster risk management. This initially involveda complete review of disaster managementstructures and policies. A year later, the cabinetrecommended that a formal structure for disas-ter management be established. An initialNational Disaster Management Committeewas formed in 1996 with the intended functionof coordinating and managing national disastermanagement policy. As that body never cameinto its own right, by mid-1997 the govern-ment approved the formation of an alternateInter-Ministerial Committee for DisasterManagement (IMC).

Source: Disaster Mitigation for Sustainable Livelihoods Programme, University of Cape Town

Key policy proposals contained in the WhitePaper included:• Integration of risk reduction strategies

into development initiatives.• Development of a strategy to reduce the

most vulnerable communities.• Legal establishment of a National Disas-

ter Management Centre (authority).• Introduction of a new disaster manage-

ment funding strategy.• Introduction and implementation of a new

Disaster Management Act.• Establishment of a framework to enable

communities to be informed, alert andself-reliant and be capable of supportingand cooperating with government in dis-aster reduction activities.

• Establishment of a framework to coordi-nate training and community awarenessinitiatives.

Meanwhile, in order to address South Africa’simmediate needs, an interim disaster manage-ment authority was composed with representa-tives from ten national departments. This waslater converted into a National Disaster Man-agement Centre (NDMC). However, despite thefact that it has been operational since 1999, ithas yet to become a statutory institution. AnInter-Departmental Disaster Management Com-mittee (IDMC) was also established in the sameyear to ensure better coordination among gov-ernment departments at national level. This,however, was intended as an interim measureuntil such time when the planned statutorystructures contained in a Disaster Manage-ment Bill could become functional under a newDisaster Management Act.

Following the issuance of the White Paper, thefirst Disaster Management Bill was publishedfor public comment in 2000. However, the ini-tial enthusiasm and momentum shown by thegovernment seemed to decline with numerouspostponements of the tabling of the bill. Afteranother severe crisis – this time, the devastat-ing floods in parts of Southern Africa in 2000– political priorities changed as the importanceof disaster management policy and legislationresurfaced. The National Council of Provincescalled for a disaster management conference inMay 2000 to consider disaster managementand reduction on a regional basis. After thisconference, encouraged by funding from abilateral disaster assistance agency, the South

97


African legislative process regained momen-tum and the bill was finally tabled for debate,with approval anticipated during the latter partof 2002.

During its lengthy review, the Disaster Man-agement Bill has moved away somewhat fromthe earlier policy emphasis envisioned in theGreen and White Papers and instead hasfocussed more attention on inter-governmentalstructures and related operational frameworks.The bill provides guidance with respect to thelegal establishment of the NDMC, the dutiesand powers of national, provincial and localinstruments of government and funding forpost-disaster recovery and rehabilitation. Therationale behind the robustness of the bill is toensure that clear and unambiguous guidelinescan be given through regulations once the leg-islation is promulgated. The bill also providesfor an Inter-governmental Committee on DisasterManagement to consist of cabinet membersinvolved in disaster management, members ofthe Executive Councils from the nineprovinces of the country and representatives oflocal government. A further structure pro-posed in the bill is the National Disaster Man-agement Framework, which will outline coher-ent, transparent and inclusive policies on allaspects of disaster management includingtraining and capacity building.

Expected to become law during 2002, the Billcalls for the establishment of disaster manage-ment centres at all levels of government, andalso establishes procedures for the collection anddissemination of risk assessment data and infor-mation. One of the explicit functions of the cen-tres will be the assessment of disaster risks, withthe requirement that each one also serve as arepository and conduit for information relatingto all aspects of disasters, impending disastersand disaster management. The overall thrust isone that can develop a national disaster manage-ment framework that would reflect a balancedconsideration of the different kinds of disasters,and the varying severity or magnitudes thatoccur in southern Africa. Emphasis has alsobeen given to measures that could reduce thevulnerability of disaster-prone areas, communi-ties and households. The anticipated DisasterManagement Act is expected to open up newavenues for greater commitment to be made byprovincial and local government authorities toundertake risk assessment activities.

98


The NDMC has been conceived to be respon-sible not only for pre-disaster activities, riskand vulnerability reduction but also for post-disaster rehabilitation and recovery actions. Apredominant part of the methodology underly-ing the NDMC is the management of actualdisaster situations through all aspects of thedisaster management cycle. Emphasis is alsoplaced on the important role of the NDMC inthe areas of training and community aware-ness. Consistent with regional trends, theNDMC and the IDMC are to be activelyinvolved in the SADC initiative to establish aregional disaster management coordinatingframework.

CCaassee:: MMoozzaammbbiiqquuee

One of the principal challenges for evolvinggovernment institutions in Mozambique hasbeen the recurrent need to respond to emer-gency conditions. Since its independence in1975, considerable resources have been chan-nelled into disaster management, and institu-tions have continually evolved to deal with newand challenging conditions. This hard-wonexperience has produced a seasoned cadre ofdisaster managers throughout the governmentand a well developed inter-ministerial structurefor the coordination of disaster management.

It is much to the government’s credit that forsome time it has recognized the importance ofshifting its emphasis in disaster managementfrom immediate response and rehabilitationneeds to the long-term values of mitigation andrisk reduction. In the last few years, there hasbeen a dedicated effort supported by the high-est levels of government to bring together thisexperience and establish formal structures andprocedures that can build capacities forimproved disaster risk management in thefuture.

From as early as 1981, the Government ofMozambique was attentive to the need toaddress the consequences of risk on the society.A Department for the Prevention and Controlof Natural Disasters (DPCCN) was estab-lished with the objective of promoting earlywarning and mitigation activities. During aperiod of complex national emergency fromabout 1982 to 1994 DPCCN became a princi-pal conduit for international aid to people dis-

placed by conflict and the victims of repeatedfloods and droughts, with logistics becomingits predominant activity. With improved condi-tions and changing needs in the country, aprocess was begun in 1996 supported by theWFP as DPCCN’s principal internationalpartner, to formulate a coherent National Disas-ter Management Policy and to reorient disastermanagement towards risk reduction activities.

During the closing years of the 1990s, thisinvolved sustained efforts to reinvent institu-tions and revise policies created in the pro-longed period of permanent emergency, as wellas to stimulate an evolution in attitudes, bothwithin government and in the population as awhole. As expressed in current national poli-cies, the primary objective has been to breakthe vicious cycle of continually expendingscarce resources in emergency response andreconstruction, only then to become vulnerableand unprepared for the next catastrophic event.

In 1999, with the approval of the Council ofMinisters, the Mozambican government cre-ated new institutions to give greater coherenceand a clear mandate for government structuresdealing with disasters. The Coordinating Coun-sel for Disaster Management (CCGC) was com-posed at the ministerial level as the principalgovernment body for coordinating disastermanagement in all its phases. A National Insti-tute for Disaster Management (INGC) was creat-ed to serve as its permanent technical supportunit, with the director of INGC chairing anadditional multi-sectoral Technical Committee forDisaster Management (CTGC) to assure strongcoordination and collaboration in planning,mitigation, and response activities.

A proposed National Law on Disaster Manage-ment will serve as a legal mandate for the imple-mentation of policy, with the principal objectivestated in the first article, “to avoid the occur-rence or minimize the effects of disasters”. Inparticular, it gives the National Disaster Manage-ment Plan, as approved by the Council of Min-isters, the force of law. While yet to be finalized,the national policy will entail a framework forthe coordination of government entities, the par-ticipation of civil society and collaboration withthe private sector in all aspects of disaster man-agement. In addition, the law will establish sanc-tions for individuals or organizations violatingthe provisions of a declared state of emergency.

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Under the mandate of the CTGC, a series ofstudies have been conducted to ensure thatnational policies are translated into concreteactions and that these norms are codified in thedisaster management legislation under consid-eration. As these proposed objectives requirethe evaluation of potential hazards as well astheir impacts on the local population, theorganizations that comprise the CTGC areexpected to carry out both historical analysis ofdisaster vulnerability and risk as well as to con-duct assessments of current conditions in anannual process of contingency planning. Thisexercise, led by the INGC, is intended toassure that authorities are actively addressingconcerns and recommendations throughoutthe planning cycle. At the national level, areport is produced which focuses particularlyon preparedness as well as prevention measuresin vulnerable areas.

It has become equally evident that while theintention has been clear, institutions are noteasily reformed and individuals not so readilyretrained. Unfortunately, the vicious cycle alsoaffects international agencies, from UN organ-izations to local NGOs. In October 1999, thegovernment of Mozambique released its con-tingency plan for the up-coming rainy season,noting the high probability of floods in the

southern and central regions of the country. Atthat time it requested international assistance ofUS$ 2.7 million for immediate preparednessand mitigation activities. The response to this

appeal was poor with less than half of therequested funds pledged by the internationalcommunity. Yet only six months later, in thewake of terrible flooding, the internationalcommunity gave US$ 100 million in emer-gency assistance and relief. Subsequently,international pledges for rehabilitation activi-ties following the floods exceeded US$ 450million.

At the individual level there may also be reasonfor concern as there is some indication thatpopulations have become dependent on emer-gency assistance and therefore have a strongincentive to maintain their vulnerability. Givensuch a disproportionate application of availableresources, it is not difficult to see why effectivereform may prove difficult to sustain.

SSmmaallll IIssllaanndd DDeevveellooppiinngg SSttaatteess

“In Tonga, local communities need the initialsupport and direction of government to beactive in disaster reduction. They are aware ofwhat is at risk, but cannot implement measureson a community basis because of a lack ofresources.”

Tonga response to ISDR questionnaire, 2001.

Source: Instituto Nacional de Gestão deCalamidades, Maputo, 1999


ples drawn from Fiji, Cook Islands and Van-uatu focus on the organizational frameworksand policy aspects those countries have pur-sued with respect to incorporating disasterrisk reduction into larger national interests.They should not be taken as being compre-hensive or exhaustive themselves or of theregion as a whole.

Pacific

CCaassee:: TThhee PPaacciiffiicc iissllaanndd ccoouunnttrriieess

Examples of how certain Pacific small islanddeveloping states have sought to incorporatesome of these measures into their national plat-forms, policies and development strategies aresummarized in the following table. The exam-

Recommendations ffor ssound ddisaster rrisk mmanagement

A good example of how disaster risk management functions can be structured within a national policy framework is cited below. Itis from Te’o I.J. Fairbairn, (UNDHA-SPO, 1997) as presented in the Pacific Regional Report prepared for the ISDR secretariat.The reasoning illustrates well the key issues at stake when trying to assimilate disaster reduction into accepted government policy.While the examples were conceived with specific reference to island state requirements, they also offer conceptual clarity for otherstates. Information in square brackets has been added by the authors of the present Global Review.

“There must be a commitment to implementation of particular measures of risk reduction measures incorporated within the ongo-ing practices of national economic planning and development.

Certainly a major requirement, if not even the primary one, is to promote a clearer understanding among policy makers – and thegeneral public – of the often severe and potentially far-reaching economic consequences of natural disasters. It is crucial that policy-makers in particular comprehend how such events seriously can undermine longer-term growth prospects and threaten the socialdimensions of individuals’ well-being. Failure to appreciate these consequences can exact eventual or irreparable political costs.

A second crucial prerequisite is to ensure that disaster risk management issues are integrated within the overall national develop-ment planning framework. Such an embodiment of risk awareness and evaluation can ensure that those issues are applied acrosssectoral, ministerial, and jurisdictional lines of interest or responsibility, are multi-disciplinary in nature, and are properly includedin the design of major development projects. Taken together, the interaction of multiple commitments can also contribute to riskreduction becoming a non-partisan issue, with its constituencies transcending any short-term political interests or the lifespan ofindividual governments.

Other major requirements for enhancing a Pacific small island states’ commitment to disaster risk reduction capabilities includemechanisms to:• Strengthen the institutional and organizational frameworks at both national and community levels for managing and coordi-

nating disaster-related issues.• [Strengthen national institutions by increasing their exposure to, and collaboration with, relevant regional and international

entities.]• Adopt appropriate procedures for monitoring and evaluating disaster events, especially in relation to analysing their social

[environmental] and economic consequences over time.• [Similarly adopt appropriate procedures for monitoring and evaluating the consequences of developmental choices on disaster

impacts].• Increase available information and facilitate database access about the social, [environmental] and economic aspects of natural

disasters, as a potentially valuable tool for planning and management purposes.• Promote greater uniformity in the methodology and techniques used to assess both the direct and longer-termed economic

[and environmental] costs of disasters to countries throughout the region.• Develop comprehensive and integrated land use and water management strategies capable of alleviating flooding, promoting

water conservation and environmentally sound land use practices.• Diversify agriculture through such practices as planting hardy crop varieties, early maturing crops, and encouraging the con-

tinued cultivation of various traditional root crops.• Encourage the [identification and] use of traditional mitigation and coping practices as means for achieving greater commu-

nity self-reliance in dealing with disasters.• Facilitate the post-disaster recovery of the private commercial sector through measures that provide tax and related financial

incentives.• Establish effective mechanisms for enlisting the joint support of external donors to strengthen national disaster reduction

capacities, in addition to assisting with post-disaster relief and rehabilitation needs.”

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Cook IIslands

NDMO coordinates disastermanagement.

National and Island DisasterManagement Plans call for theNational Disaster Manage-ment Council to be responsiblefor policy issues.

Establishment of a US$30,000 disaster reserve withinthe Ministry of Finance.

The Island Disaster Manage-ment stipulates for local gov-ernment to be responsible forlocal disaster managementactivities.

Red Cross disaster prepared-ness programme and first-aidtraining goes hand in handwith broader preparednessplans.

Fiji

The national coordination poli-cy is documented in theNational Disaster Manage-ment Plan 1995 and the Nat-ural Disaster Management Act1998.

From 1970 to 1989, emergencymeasures were handled by thenational government.

In 1990, the government des-ignated the Ministry ofRegional Development andMulti-Ethnic Affairs responsi

Introduction to disaster manage-ment training course implementedin every island of the Cooks reach-ing at least 35 per cent of the popu-lation of each island.

Principles of disaster managementintegrated in the social science cur-riculum of the education system, soeach child would learn of theseprinciples in their school years.

World Patent Coastal ProtectionUnits protecting the airport frombeing inundated and minimizestidal energy from surging intohotels on the beaches.

Radios placed in emergency centresin the northern islands to receivenational broadcasts from Raroton-ga, enabling communities in theNorthern Cook Islands to monitorweather and emergency warningsfor the first time.

Foreshore Protection Committee.

EMWIN early warning system fortropical cyclone is in operation.

Rarotonga Tourism VulnerabilityPilot Project

Suva Earthquake Risk Manage-ment Scenario Pilot Project(SERMP).

Taveuni Volcano Risk Project:updates eruption information foruse in preparing risk maps and indeveloping guidelines for develop-ment planning and emergency riskplanning.

Volcano Hazard Risk Mitigation inFiji: mapping and understandingvolcano hazards on the islands ofKadavu, Koro and Rotuma to

Cook Islands BuildingCode: a report on pro-moting codes, and theirapplication was complet-ed in April 1999.

A Building Control Unithas been set up for com-pliance and enforcementby the introduction ofcommerciallz experiencedconstruction personnel.

Disaster ManagementWork Plan:�National Disaster�Management Plan for

Cyclone Response Procedures

�Tsunami Response Procedures.

National GovernmentDisaster ManagementAct

National Disaster Man-agement Plan

Disaster ManagementWork Plan

A National BuildingCode formulated in1990, but yet to be legis-lated and implemented.Work is underway toaccomplish.

Development is being under-taken at the national andpolitical levels through anadvocacy strategy, with com-prehensive sectoral and soci-etal involvement:

� Ministry of Transport inthe prevention andresponse to oil pollution

� Government EnvironmentServices Unit in climatechange

� Natural Heritage Unitresponsible for communityconsultation and promotionof biodiversity

� NDMO in prevention,mitigation and prepared-ness activities.

Outer Island DevelopmentProjects (forestry on Manga-ia Island, water reticulationsystems, communication sys-tems).

Cook Islands governmenthas ratified at least 25 envi-ronmental global conven-tions.

A proactive approach to dis-aster reduction continues tobe the cornerstone of Fiji'snational effort.

A major issue is the restruc-turing of the NDMO withinthe Ministry of RegionalDevelopment and Multi-Ethnic Affairs.

Institutional frameworks High-level programmes forpromoting prevention


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ble for natural disasters and theMinistry of Home Affairs forhuman-caused disasters.

NADMO at the Ministry ofRegional Development andMulti-ethnic Affairs, managesand coordinates all activities.

Established a National Train-ing Advisory Committee.

Fiji Meteorological Service,Mineral Resource Departmentand the Public Works Depart-ment are responsible for moni-toring and detecting hazardsaffecting Fiji.

The National Disaster Man-agement Council establishedthe Disaster ManagementCommittee at National Divi-sional and District levels (DIS-MAC)

Vanuatu

NDMO coordinates disastermanagement. It is an informa-tion resource for the country atall levels of government(national, provincial, municipalcouncils, village councils),NGOs, the private sector andcommunities.

Provincial governments musthave disaster mitigation as apolicy as per the NationalManagement Act.

develop risk maps, developmentplanning and volcano responseplans.

Ba Flood Preparedness: provid-ing flood information and prepar-ing flood response plans, con-ducting local education andawareness activities.

Cyclone Preparedness at Commu-nity Level: Foundation for thePeoples of the South Pacific"Fiji's Awareness CommunityTheatre Cyclone PreparednessProgramme" uses video anddrama to better inform villagecommunities.

Construction of disaster resistantinfrastructure: mitigation meas-ures and strategies are consideredat national level (Ministry ofRegional Development andMulti-ethnic Affairs), and locallevels (District and DivisionalDevelopment Committees). Thisrisk management approach adopt-ed throughout the country.

PICCAP: Greenhouse GasInventories and Vulnerability andAdaptation Assessments. Climatechange is integrated into disasterreduction agenda.

Professional development pro-gramme.

Community resilience pro-grammes (CHARM)

Community-based volcanic riskreduction.

Involvement of the private sector(Telecom Vanuatu, Unelco -power and water facilities).

Building cyclone preparedness.

Support plans forCyclone

Operational SupportContingency Plan forTaveuni Volcano.

National Disaster Man-agement Act No. 31 of2000.

National Disaster Man-agement Plan.

Disaster ManagementWork Plan.

National Building Code(not yet enacted).

Support plan for AmbaeVolcano Operations.

In conjunction with theSOPAC-DMU CHARMProgramme, Vanuatu isdeveloping a new structurefor its NDMO office.

In 2002 the NDMO officewill be relocated from theDepartment of Police andlinked with the line min-istries of the Government.


Prevention plans Prevention in develop-ment plans and controlmechanisms

103


Caribbean

CCaassee:: DDoommiinniiccaann RReeppuubblliicc

Following the destruction caused by hurri-cane Georges across the Caribbean in 1998,the IADB and the World Bank providedalmost US$ 100 million to the DominicanRepublic for reconstruction work. Reflectingon the magnitude of such losses and furthermotivated by the subsequent social and eco-nomic consequences of hurricane Mitch feltthroughout the entire region, the IADB pro-vided nearly US$ 12 million in 2000 to theOffice of the Presidency in the DominicanRepublic for the development of disasterreduction sub-programmes.

These funds were targeted to help modernizethe country’s strategic approach and institu-tional frameworks for disaster risk manage-ment. The following year, three consultingconsortiums developed a national hazard andvulnerability information system, trainedtrainers in community-level risk and environ-mental management, and conducted trainingin modern risk management techniques forcivil servants. They also advised on the devel-opment of national public awareness cam-paigns and on the design of revised legal andinstitutional frameworks for risk manage-ment. Finance was provided to acquire mate-rials and equipment needed by risk and disas-ter management organizations, including sci-entific institutions.

Flood mitigation projects.

NDMO have initiated a veryactive program on public educa-tion through the Teachers Col-lege in Port Vila and several highschools.

The National DisasterManagement Act providesmore power for NDMO toundertake its nationalresponsibilities and for thesix provincial councils tobecome more proactive indisaster management.

Further important areas ofpublic policy are now inprogress, including thereview and revision of theNational Disaster Emer-gency Plan, development ofsupport plans, institutionalsupport for the NDMOand training and educationprogrammes.


Prevention plans Prevention in develop-ment plans and controlmechanisms

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National pplanning pprocesses, wwith multi-ssectoral rresponsibilities aand llocalparticipation

Authority and external resources normally flowfrom the apex of political power, while knowl-edge of the situation, information, localresources, and leadership all rise from the localcommunity levels. Disaster planning will alwaysbe ineffective if confined to a process of centralplanning and command and control practices. Inorder to achieve effective local disaster plans it isessential that provincial, district and local levelofficials be given power and resources to manageeffective disaster protection activities. However,such systems require national disaster risk reduc-tion plans that are fully compatible with locallevel provisions. In many countries where powerhas been devolved to local levels of administra-tive responsibility, there can be unhelpful dis-crepancies between policies, laws and practices atthe various levels of government.

Tools are required to create a “culture of pre-vention” against all forms of hazards withinlocal communities. This requires the knowl-edge of practical and low-cost methods whichaddress likely hazards that can be conveyed toa wide variety of participants including localleaders, community groups, trades people,commercial and financial interests and localgovernment employees.

CCaassee:: NNeeww ZZeeaallaanndd

In one exemplary case, taking a cue from thedevastation caused by the 1994 earthquake indistant Northridge, California in the UnitedStates, the Wellington City Council in NewZealand, began a series of local and interna-tional consultations. By working closely withthe fire service, city authorities sought toreduce their exposure to urban risks.

In reviewing their existing exposure to seismicrisk, a consensus view emerged that the pre-vailing disaster management regime wasfocused almost exclusively on response andpreparedness measures. Telling observationswere made that indicated emergency managerswere ill-placed bureaucratically and weretherefore unable to contribute to importantdecisions regarding risk management pro-gramme. Their experience could seldom betaken into account when conducting vulnera-bility assessments, nor were they involved inthe formulation of land-use policies.

In Portugal we should be prepared for disaster and thusdevelop adequate policies, such as:

• Defining safety policies.• Informing and educating the public concerning risks

and the development of a civil protection culture.• Improving risk mapping.• Promoting the study of seismic impact and other

risks facing communities and their social economicpatterns.

• Improving the scope of emergency planning.• Defining a national land-use policy.• Developing a strategy to strengthen building struc-

tures.• Providing the financial resources to facilitate compli-

ance with existing codes.• Protecting cultural assets.

Portugal response to ISDR questionnaire, 2001.

In CCaannaaddaa,, provincial and municipal jurisdic-tions have legislation, programmes and activi-ties that may not necessarily interface withnational level disaster reduction issues. How-ever, the implementation of disaster reductionmeasures is likely to occur at the municipallevel, including legislation and enforcement.

Canada response to ISDR secretariat questionnaire, 2001.

In GGeerrmmaannyy, the most important risk reduc-tion issue to be addressed concerns the harmo-nization of duties, responsibilities and legisla-tion between the state government and the dif-ferent local bodies. The key national issues are:• Stronger commitment of the federal gov-

ernment to the coordination of civil pro-tection activities.

• Stronger integration of disaster mitiga-tion in regional planning by legislation.

• Stronger support for interdisciplinaryscientific research centres for disasterprevention.

Germany response to ISDR secretariat question-naire, 2001.

Following recommendations, the city ofWellington and later the government of NewZealand embarked on the revision and imple-mentation of a variety of legislative and policyreforms in disaster risk management. With themotivation to encompass an all-hazardsapproach to risk and to appeal to all segmentsof society, the following accomplishments havebeen achieved over the past several years:

• Broadened responsibilities for localauthority emergency managers, withincreased roles in the training and devel-opment of community capacities for riskidentification, vulnerability reduction anddisaster resilience.

• Decentralized Emergency ManagementGroups, with membership includingneighbouring local authorities, emergencyservices and utility companies in order toensure that while the national emergencymanagement strategy is focused at thelocal level, there is improved cooperationand coordination of human and technicalresources across the country.

• A comprehensive risk management strate-gy that integrates disaster managementinto environmental and community man-agement practices at national and locallevels.

Elsewhere in New Zealand, the Auckland LocalAuthority Hazard Liaison Group, was estab-lished four years ago by the Auckland Region-al Council to enhance communicationsbetween local authorities on hazard manage-ment issues and to facilitate intra-council com-munication. It was composed mainly of plan-ners and policy analysts drawn from the city,district and regional councils specifically “torecognize the link between hazard mitigationand land-use planning and the related need todevelop tools to manage risk and improve com-munications among those people working insustainable development and environmentalmanagement.”

CCaassee:: SSwwiittzzeerrllaanndd

In Switzerland, long-standing federal forestlaw recognised the importance of forests withrespect to reducing water runoff. Forests alsowere recognized as a means of protection

105


against avalanches as early as the 19th century,when extreme events revealed the catastrophiceffects of large-scale timber cutting, especiallyin the pre-alpine and alpine regions. The hith-erto unhindered tree felling came to an abruptend. Simultaneously, many major river-train-ing works commenced, were renewed or com-pleted as an emphasis was placed on protectivemeasures of river engineering.

Natural hazards continued to play an impor-tant role in modifying Swiss policies into the20th century. The risk situation was aggravat-ed by development in hazardous areas. Thesocial and economic consequences of avalan-ches, floods and windstorms exerted an impacton policy considerations and Switzerland hasmoved to a more integrated approach to themanagement of risk.

In 1997, the National Platform for NaturalHazards (PLANAT) was created by the SwissFederal Council. This extra-parliamentary com-mission aims to make better use of existing syn-

The Auckland Group developed a set of guidelines withthe overarching goal to “minimize the risks to commu-nities and the environment from the effects of a range ofhazards, including (but not limited to) natural and tech-nological hazards.” The guidelines are intended toaddress the following issues:

• Achieve consistency in the way that hazard infor-mation is collected, organized and used to influ-ence decisions about managing risk among localgovernment councils in the Auckland region.

• Ensure risk management issues are appropriatelyaddressed in land-use and strategic planning.

• Maximize the effective use of hazard informationto manage risk and to promote better public under-standing of the local hazardscape.

• Encourage local authorities to reduce barriers tosound risk management and encourage effectiverisk communication practices.

• Minimize local authority liability through the effec-tive capture and storage of hazard information.

The group has produced a technical publication to elab-orate these issues, Hazard Guideline 1: Hazard Identifi-cation and Information Management for Local Authorities.

Source: The Australian Journal of Emergency Management,2001-02.

106


deal with integrated risk management.• Supporting third-party projects with sim-

ilar aims.• Seeking better utilization of synergies

among various sectors.

Information, education and creation of generalawareness about risk reduction are not onlyhigh on the priority list of PLANAT but areincreasingly recognized as being important byvirtually all players in Swiss risk management.An interesting development in this field is thevirtual campus initiated by several Swiss uni-versities and research institutes which co-operate in a Centre of Competence on NaturalDisaster Reduction. Students and researchersalready have access to courses in the field ofnatural hazards and risk management atwww.cenat.ch. This information is soon to beextended to benefit after people doing practi-cal work with natural hazards. Moves are also

ergies and therefore to avoid duplication ofefforts in natural disaster reduction. PLANATis made up of representatives of the FederalGovernment, the Cantons, research and profes-sional associations, and the economic and insur-ance sectors. The terms of reference for the firstperiod of its activities from 1997-2000 were to:

• Develop a national strategy for dealingsuccessfully with natural hazards.

• Coordinate all parties involved in disasterreduction.

• Create more awareness about natural haz-ards and to replace the conventional pro-tection approach with a global view of riskmanagement.

Plans for the second period of activities from2001- 2003 give priority attention to:• Promotion of public relations.• Initiating and supporting projects which

SSwwiissss ssttrraatteeggyy ffoorr iinntteeggrraatteedd rriisskk mmaannaaggeemmeenntt

Switzerland policy recognizes that absolute safety cannot be achieved by any means. However, great strideshave been made in the past few years in progressively proceeding from the earlier conventional hazard pro-tection to a more integrated management of risk. This latter approach is based on a balanced equilibrium ofpreventive, response and reconstruction measures. A residual risk, which is based on social, economic andecological criteria of well-being, must therefore be accepted. This ultimately leads to a sustainable manage-ment of risk

In order to establish coherent procedures that can also take account of the country’s cultural, geographicaland linguistic diversity, Switzerland gives considerable importance to the “subsidiary principle”. This princ-ple is constituted as one on the inviolable rights of the lower hierarchies of official authority and public respon-sibility. It establishes that the upper hierarchical levels only exert a degree of political power and only take overthose administrative duties that the lower hierarchic levels are not able to cope with, or accept, themselves.Hazard and risk management in Switzerland follows this subsidiary principle also in the political sphere, asthere is a distribution of responsibility between federal, cantonal (state) and communal authorities. Thisextends to individual land- and property-owners as well as to various national, regional and local institutions, organisations and associations.

The Swiss approach to hazard and risk management is furthermore founded on the three cornerstones of dis-aster “preventive”, “response” and “reconstruction” measures. While all three cornerstones are of compara-ble importance, they are in a somewhat reverse subsidiary relationship to each other. Great emphasis is placedon prevention. Response must be efficient and smooth in the face of catastrophic events. Reconstruction hasto take place subsequently, to a degree, which is necessary, feasible and compatible with far-reaching consid-erations about the environment. The ultimate aim of the Swiss strategy is to achieve sustainable developmentin all sectors of natural disaster reduction.

Beyond its own borders too, Switzerland maintains and promotes the exchange of know-how and experiencewith other countries in regard to disaster reduction, as also reflected elsewhere in this report. It equally sup-ports supranational efforts aimed at close collaboration with others involved in both sustainable developmentand the provision of humanitarian assistance when required.

107


underway to upgrade the Swiss National AlarmCentre, recognizing that communications areessential means by which information can bepassed in times of relative calm as well as dur-ing times of crisis.

Research is another priority for PLANAT, con-cerning all natural hazard sectors. One impor-tant issue is related to a better understanding ofthe forces of natural hazard as well as the cop-ing mechanisms of structural mitigation meas-ures. Research will also continue with regard tomonitoring climate change and the evaluationof its connection with natural hazards.

As financial resources are always limited, theymust be allocated in the most productive man-ner. Several relevant moves are underway inSwitzerland to ensure their most effective use.These include:

• Giving precedence to non-structural pre-ventive measures including water coursemaintenance over river-engineering meas-ures.

• Shifting resources from reconstruction topreventive measures.

• Redistributing the allocation of financesamong the primary parties concerned inorder to increase inter-cantonal collabora-tion and thus reduce the ill-effects ofexaggerated diversity of activities as wellas to avoid duplication.

• Improving the coordination and consis-tency in the use of government subsidiesand similar incentives for local authoritiesand communities, for instance throughthe activities of the Federal Office forWater and Geology and the Federal ForestDirectorate.

In any event, it is recognized that morefinances need to be allocated to build greaterawareness for disaster risk reduction amongthe public and policy makers, alike. This isreinforced by the evident experience that with-out periodic publicity, the necessary funds for acontinuous reappraisal of natural hazardrequirements simply are not provided. It is abitter fact that both individuals and politicianshave a short memory, which explains why

things normally only start to move in the wakeof a disaster such as occurred during theunusually severe series of winter storms experi-enced across the country at the end of 1999.

Risk rreduction pplans, llinked tto sspecificresponsibilities, ppolicies, aand ppractices

CCaassee:: CCoossttaa RRiiccaa

During 2000, the Ministry of Agriculture inCosta Rica took the unprecedented step of cre-ating a Risk Management Program in the Agri-cultural Planning Secretariat. Concern for agri-cultural losses increased with the impacts of ElNiño between 1997 and 1998 and with therecurrence of flooding and drought. The deci-sion to create the programme was motivatedfurther by decisions taken at the Central Amer-ican Presidential Summit held in 1999 whendisaster and vulnerability reduction issuesdominated the agenda.

This development reflects the larger impetusgiven to disaster and risk reduction by the Cen-tral American Integration System’s (SICA) spe-cialised agricultural sector organizations, theRegional Advisory Board for AgriculturalCooperation and the Central American Agri-culture and Livestock Advisory Board.

CCaassee:: IIrraann

Iran has a high exposure to seismic hazards.Considering this risk throughout the country,as indicated in the figure below, it became evi-dent that a long-term vision was required toreduce significantly the high level of risk forthe population. The development of a nationalpolicy of disaster risk reduction in Iran waslargely motivated by the participation of scien-tific and technical interests within the country.This demonstrates that the evolution of riskreduction frameworks need not originate strict-ly from civil administration or political initia-tives. Scientific interest has exerted a majorrole in driving policy relevance, in Iran and byso doing, was then able to implement a series ofactions in different segments of the society.

reduction strategy were integral to nationaldevelopment objectives. Resources had to bereoriented from responding to immediateneeds towards investing them in longer-termedand sustainable objectives. Importantly, policy-makers had to be encouraged to adopt a patientacceptance of deferred benefits.

In an operational and technical context,emphasis was given to strengthening, andwhere necessary, retrofitting structures withparticular attention given to lifeline facilitiesand the physical infrastructure. It was in thiscontext that a challenging incompatibility exist-ed between a developmental perspective thatencouraged investment in seismic design, andthinking prevalent in the public and privatesector of incurring less expenditure on con-struction.

With the calculated involvement of the engi-neering profession, backed up by its code ofprofessional training, opportunities were iden-tified that could translate a fuller use of techni-cal knowledge into everyday life. This includ-ed a wider use of seismic design and construc-tion techniques, and a more serious approachto the implementation and enforcement ofbuilding codes. Perhaps most importantly, thestrategy provided an institutional “champion”for the concept of risk reduction, exercizedthrough the practical conduct of the engineer-ing profession.

IERMP developed a plan based on the com-mon efforts among government officials, scien-tists, engineers, builders and the public, initial-ly to define acceptable and achievable levels ofrisk. This led to two parallel requirements:making seismic safety a priority policy throughrevised legislation, and creating internal mech-anisms to change existing engineering prac-tices. A High Council on Risk Reduction wascreated in the Planning and ManagementMinistry of Iran to supervise the implementa-tion of the new program. It concentrated onpreparing the proper frameworks, budgeting,coordinating, and taking necessary decisions toensure that the objectives were achieved.

The following are some of the actions pursuedthrough the IERMP in policy areas:

• Shifting attention from previous consider-ations of only responding to earthquake

108


There were a number of problems that had tobe tackled if a comprehensive and sustainablenational framework to reduce seismic risk wasto be created. Following the 1990 Manjilearthquake, the International Institute of Earth-quake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES),located in Teheran, started working with othertechnical institutions to develop a multidisci-plinary strategic national research and mitiga-tion plan for seismic risk reduction. The result-ing Iran Earthquake Risk Mitigation Program(IERMP) has been implemented by IIEES,the Building and Housing Research Centre, theGeophysics Institute of Teheran University and theGeological Survey of Iran. With the added sup-port of the Earthquake Committee of IranResearch Council and Iran’s National IDNDRCommittee, the programme members adoptedthe following objectives: • Increase the scientific knowledge required

for earthquake risk mitigation.• Reduce the risk of all structures and pro-

mote the need to build safer structures.• Increase public awareness and promote a

collective prevention culture.• Develop plans for post-earthquake activities.In the political context, the first needs were to

motivate a better understanding of the natureof seismic risks among the most senior policy-makers, and then to translate that awarenessinto political commitment throughout all thelevels of government authority. This was pur-sued by emphasizing that elements of a risk

Source: IIES, 2001

DDeevveellooppmmeenntt ooff PPGGAA aanndd ssppeeccttrraall vvaalluuee aatttteennuuaattiioonn rreellaattiioonnsshhiipp ffoorr IIrraann..

109


damage to introducing means that canreduce the risk of damage to vulnerablestructures and lifelines before it occurs.

• Establishing a special government fund tostrengthen important public buildings,including schools and hospitals, publicinfrastructure and lifeline facilities.

• Providing financial incentives for privateand commercial sector interests that areinterested in upgrading their existing vul-nerable structures.

• Encouraging more industrialization in theconstruction field to ensure better qualitycontrol.

The following are some of the actions pursuedthrough the IERMP in technical matters:• Translating scientific knowledge into a

usable and achievable format, using prac-tical knowledge to promote risk reduction.

• Developing guidelines for conductingvulnerability assessments.

• Establishing detailed technical databasesto document the necessary requirementsto strengthen public buildings, and setting

priorities to do so, based on availableresources.

• Determining the most appropriate andcost-effective means of strengthening dif-ferent types of masonry, concrete and steelbuildings.

• Promoting the use and enforcement ofcodes, quality control and inspection forall types of construction.

The following are some of the actions pursuedthrough the IERMP in public understanding:

• Increasing public awareness and motiva-tion using an active earthquake informa-tion system.

• Motivating the participation of the publicin prevention and mitigation activities.

• Promoting the use of easy do-it-yourselfconstruction techniques suited for simpledwellings in rural areas.

The following table summarizes the increase inresources allocated to seismic risk reductionduring the course of the IERMP:

TTyyppee ooff rreessoouurrccee BBeeffoorree ((11998800-8899)) AAfftteerr ((11999900-22000000))

Seismic researchers Less than 40 More than 265Seismic graduate students Less than 20 355Seismic stations 15 45Strong motion stations 270 Approx. 1000Research laboratories 2 7Books and technical reports Less than 100 More than 460Budget Over 10 years, less Over 10 years, a total

than 700 million Rials. of more than 128,000(US$402,000) million Rials.

(US$73.5 millions)

In 1989 alone, about 104 In 2000 alone, moremillion Rials. than 37,000 million Rials(US$59,727) (US$23.3 millions)

Investment for laboratories US$ 3.1 millions US$ 11,5 millions

Source: International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology, IIEES, Teheran, Iran

RReessoouurrccee aallllooccaattiioonn ttoo sseeiissmmiicc rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn,, IIrraann

convention for cooperation with the Wilaya ofAlgiers to work on urban planning to reducedisasters.

The UN office in Algiers also installed a com-mission to work on disaster reduction in Alge-ria and engaged an Italian specialist to discussthe matter with Algerian authorities.

UN- HABITAT proposed a cooperation proj-ect in disaster reduction with the Algerian gov-ernment. A World Bank delegation has simi-larly visited Algeria to discuss a long-termproject in disaster risk management. An expertin urban planning from USAID visitedAlgiers less than a month after the disaster todiscuss eventual cooperation in disaster reduc-tion in urban areas with many Algerian institu-tions. USAID has expressed an interest inpreparing a project proposal for that purpose.

Within the first six months after the disaster,several seminars or conferences related to disas-ter reduction were either held or being planned.An Algerian-French colloquium on sustainabledevelopment and disaster reduction took placein Algiers only weeks after the disaster. Similarcolloquia are planned for other regions of thecountry. All of these actions demonstrate thatAlgerian authorities at all levels are more awaretoday about the risks they face.

CCaassee:: KKaazzaakkhhssttaann

The Republic of Kazakhstan often experiencesearthquakes, floods, landslides, and coastalfloods. Only recently has the importance ofnatural disaster reduction been recognized. InMay 2000, Kazakhstan’s Emergency SituationAgency published the Plan of Preparedness ofKazakhstan for Natural Disasters with thecooperation of the National Red Cross andRed Crescent Society and UNDP. The intro-duction of the plan cites the considerable finan-cial losses incurred by the country because ofdisasters and urges all organizations to takeproper action to reduce their negative impacton the country’s development. The report pro-vides guidance on preparedness activities fordisaster reduction, response scenarios for dis-asters, legislation for efficient mobilization oforganizations concerned, and implementationof different measures that can be deployedagainst various risks.

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CCaassee:: AAllggeerriiaa

In November 2001, unusually heavy rain fellin the Algerian capital, Algiers. Flash floodsand mudslides swept through many parts ofthe city, killing more than 800 people. At thetime it was suggested that disaster manage-ment structures and the population were woe-fully unprepared for such an event. However,it turned out that several cases of human activ-ity and unsuited policies actually may havecontributed to the severity of the disaster. Dueto the scope of the disaster and its location inthe centre of the capital, all levels of the gov-ernment were seriously shaken. Senior officialsexperienced, first-hand, the lack of coordina-tion of the various parties concerned with theemergency response, as well as having to accepttheir own failure of foresight.

Since this disaster, there is a new way of think-ing about disaster management in Algeria, par-ticularly in urban areas. This has been demon-strated through several initiatives that startedonly months after the disaster. For the first timeever, the Head of State ordered all the min-istries to take serious account of the notion ofdisaster reduction and include it in their vari-ous programmes. The Prime Minister also dis-cussed the matter during the Council of theGovernment, and called for a permanent coor-dinating structure of all the actors involved indisaster management. The Ministry of Interi-or is developing a permanent structure whichwill coordinate all phases of disaster manage-ment including risk reduction measures,response and rehabilitation. The GeneralDirectorate of Civil Protection is shifting itsattention towards prevention activities. Thecurrent ruling political party in Algiers ispreparing to include disaster management inits program for a forthcoming legislative elec-tion campaign. Senior party officials are solicit-ing expert advice from scientific and technicaladvisors in preparing their programme.

Since the floods, international organizationshave joined forces to help in risk reduction proj-ects. The Mayor of Paris paid a visit to theaffected areas and signed a memorandum ofcooperation between the Wilaya (province) ofAlgiers and the Atelier Parisien d’Urbanisme for aprogramme to promote better urban planningin Algiers. In early 2002, another Frenchorganization, Architecture-Urgence, signed a

The last earthquake to devastate Kazakhstantook place in 1911, less than 30km south of theformer capital, Almaty. The memory of thisevent has faded from the country’s collectiveconsciousness. Recognizing that the Armenianearthquake of 1988 occurred along seismicfaults that had shown little movement for over3,000 years, the Emergency Situation Agencyhas worked to increase public awareness aboutearthquake risks.

This activity is deemed to be crucial as mostapartment blocks in Kazakhstan are similar tothose that collapsed in the Armenian earth-quake and in the Sakhalin earthquake of 1995.Even though the government’s Institute ofSeismology has been working since 1976 tomonitor seismic movement, the institute alsoundertakes risk assessments, evacuation sce-narios, and the analysis of ground conditions aspart of its research activities.

The country also experiencies other riks too.Due to the rising water levels of the CaspianSea over the past 20 years, the Kazakh shore-line has grown by 20-40 km and water hasencroached about 70 km inland. The nationalWater Resource Committee has reported thattotal costs for preventing losses from thisincreasing water level will exceed US$ 3-5 bil-lion, as researchers work intensively to reducethese future risks. The northern slope of thewest Tengshan range, where Almaty is located,is exposed to floods, mud and debris flows,avalanches and landslides. In particular, land-slides threaten areas where more than 150,000people are living. In May 2002, southern partsof Kazakhstan were affected by storms andheavy rainfall that caused serious flooding incities.

Although disaster awareness issues are beingraised in scientific and official circles, there isstill a lack of general public awareness,although that is slowly changing. The Emer-gency Situation Agency has prepared manybrochures, pamphlets and videos to expand thegeneral awareness of these hazards, and thepublic seems to be responsive. A recent news-paper advertisement for a new apartmentbuilding referred to the structure as being seis-mic-resistant, a comment that evoked notice-able interest. On the other hand, people havenot yet understood that investment in disasterreduction is a sound long-term investment.

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The designation of administrative arrangements or even thepassage of legislation provides only a basic framework for a dis-aster risk reduction strategy. Policies alone do not reduce thevulnerabilities of people exposed to the risk of natural hazards.Despite the implementation of policies, acts and regulations byofficial departments, challenges often remain to develop morebroadly based practices throughout countries that involve dif-ferent ministries and departments at national, provincial, districtor even municipal and village levels.

In some countries, disaster management information has beenclassified or restricted, as a matter of public security. Whencombined with a lack of coordination between various govern-ment agencies, competing departmental issues or a persistentemphasis given to emergency response, the ability to cite a par-ticular decree or policy initiative is not necessarily a guarantee ofreal commitment or demonstrated practical abilities on theground.

Even among national focal points, there are few standard crite-ria that would emphasize the recruitment of trained disaster riskmanagers. Authoritative positions are most frequently occupiedby career administrators who may or may not have any formalprofessional expertise or even familiarity with matters of riskmanagement. Frequent inter-agency transfers of civil serviceofficials further impede opportunities for national organizationsto develop institutional memories with the result of consequentand irrevocable loss of valuable experiences and lessons learned.

In terms of policies, many countries assuredly advise that theyhave prepared state, provincial or district level emergency con-tingency plans, while some do not have any national disaster riskmanagement system at all. In recent years, national buildingcodes have been drafted in countries that did not before havethem, although compliance and enforcement both remain veryproblematic in many of them. Thousands of buildings are con-structed annually in known seismic areas, without incorporatingany established seismic resistance techniques.

Population pressures or economic necessities, easily transformedinto local political issues can frustrate the consistent application offlood or landslide protection zoning. Incidence of corruption orthe lack of enforcement of existing policies and regulations areunfortunately much more evident than is generally acknowledgedeither officially or in diplomatic discourse, even though suchadministrative laxity has an important bearing on the effectivenessof any disaster risk reduction programme. It is only when legisla-tion is able to place legal responsibility on specific officials whosedecisions or lack of effective action perpetuate continuing condi-tions of vulnerability will risk reduction be able to be truly meas-ured.

extent of hazards, evaluate local prioritiesand determine the relative degree of riskinvolved. This in turn will determine therequirements for sound institutionalframeworks.

• The primary challenge is to begin with aself-assessment of national capacities –from government to local level – in riskawareness and management. While thiscan be done by using self-determined cri-teria, abundant expert guidance and spe-cialist knowledge is available throughoutthe world.

• Examples cited display the importance oftranscending the theoretical expression ofpolicy frameworks and legal instrumentsand realizing their actual effects, in prac-tice.

• National authorities and local leaders needto embrace policies that:- are realistic for the case at hand;- are linked to regulatory mechanisms

that are enforced or effect change; - have an obvious benefit understood by

local communities;- have obvious political advantages for

political power holders;- have economic advantages to the private

sector; - can be implemented with available

resources.

• The extent to which disaster risk reduc-tion is identified as integral to fundamen-tal political responsibility can encouragegreater sustained commitment in supportof long-term national development objec-tives. It is essential that policy directionand operational capabilities be developedin multiple areas of governance and civilsociety if a culture of prevention is to becultivated and extended to future genera-tions.

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ssFuture cchallenges aand ppriorities

Coherent and comprehensive approaches tobuilding institutional frameworks, at bothnational and local levels, are essential if one isto speak seriously of a sustained commitmentto disaster risk reduction. This includes theneed of policies and collaborative effortsamong sectors, departments and institutionswhich deal with the different layers of develop-ment.

While governments need to encourage, directand support these efforts, the vitality and effec-tiveness of the resulting organizational frame-works and operational capabilities remainbased on the understanding and motivation ofpublic interests. This includes, particularly, theengagement of people with a wide circle ofskills and attributes ranging from educationalpractices to various forms of technical expert-ise. Acceptance of the necessity of risk manage-ment, coupled with direction and coordination,all backed by resources, are the hallmarks ofinstitutionalized capabilities. The primarychallenges and priorities to accomplish thesegoals include:

• Government authorities understandingthe distinctiveness of disaster risk man-agement and the value of investing in riskreduction to protect the well-being andthe assets of society.

• The recognition and acceptance of allocat-ing resources, over time, based on collec-tive judgement about the needs of sus-tained disaster risk management is essen-tial. Calculating and understanding therelative costs and benefits of anticipatoryprotection needs to be emphasiyed in con-trast to sustaining much greater avoidablelosses.

• All communities and countries need toassess variations in the intensity and the

3.2. Regional cooperation, interaction and experience

Hazards, like social affinities, often reflect regional characteristics grounded in the predominantgeographic conditions. Historic and common political features also contribute to shared experi-ences within different regions or sub-regions around the world. Regional dialogue gives addeddepth and force to combined national interests, as much as regional institutions can tap andchannel broader international expressions of intent into coordinated and better-suited, practicalactivities.

While the impetus may vary in different regions, natural hazards and the risks they pose to peo-ple who share geographic attributes present opportunities for neighbours to multiply their effortsin risk reduction.

They do this by sharing skills and experiences, and by combining resources to develop resilienceto disasters. As disaster risk management encompasses a wider range of interests and abilities,there is a growing requirement for more political and professional interaction through multipleand innovative forms of regional cooperation. Regional cooperation embodies sensibility as muchas solidarity.

A review of some examples of regional cooperation will show the scope of organizational frame-works employed to galvanize cooperation in disaster risk reduction. The fact that only few ofthese examples display organizational developments created expressly for the purpose of disasterrisk management, highlight the extent to which risk issues pervade multiple dimensions of socie-ty and rely upon the work of many people.

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UNICEF have joined in providing technicalcooperation, training and more public aware-ness for vulnerability and risk reduction. Otherorganizations have encouraged the develop-ment of new capabilities over many years, fre-quently built around specific strategic programareas, and in some cases within national disas-ter management organizations. These haveincluded decades of efforts by OAS,, ten yearsof existence of the Network for Social Study ofDisaster Prevention in Latin America (LARED), and a number of individual academicinterests or initiatives.

The probability of loss and damages associatedwith the presence and complex interactionbetween hazards and vulnerability is now agrowing preoccupation throughout the region.Although it is not always explicit in govern-ment and societal discourse, most people nowrecognise the relationship between failed orinadequate development practices and the con-struction of social vulnerability and increasedrisk to disasters.

The AAmericas

A major shift is now taking placein many of the countries in theAmericas with more attentionbeing given to risk reduction.Triggered by several major dis-asters during the last decades

and further motivated by promotional and tech-nical cooperation efforts and networking carriedout during the nineties by regional and interna-tional organizations in support of the IDNDRobjectives, the region has been fortunate todevelop relatively advanced concepts andunderstanding of risk management. This is theresult of combined efforts of social research,practical experience widely shared, and frequentopportunities to engage an expanding range ofprofessional interests.

There have been additional and mutually rein-forcing efforts and long-standing involvementof such agencies as the PAHO, IFRC, andOFDA/USAID. More recently, UNDP and

2001 raised serious questions about the riskconsequences of land use and inadequate envi-ronmental management practices. The fact thathurricane Mitch damaged the interests of boththe poor population as well as the private com-mercial sector served to create a collective viewof the need for change.

In addressing these conditions, the govern-ments of the region, working together throughthe Coordinating Centre for the Prevention ofNatural Disasters in Central America (CEPRE-DENAC), have confirmed a political commit-ment to risk reduction and reconstructionprocesses through social transformation. Theirexperience is a valuable example for theworld.

However, challenges still remain in successful-ly moving from the expression of politicalintentions to fundamentally changed policiesand practices. Advances will require enormousefforts at all levels of activity, including greatersocial consciousness, legislative and institution-al changes, modified social practices, thereduction of corruption, and the mobilizationof private-sector and commercial interestgroups. The objetive is to instil a society-wideacceptance of sacrificing short-term gains inexchange for long-term sustained protectionfor social and environmental resources.

This advance in political will has beenachieved through expanding regional integra-tion. Governments and heads of state haveshown a readiness to proceed jointly, workingto achieve common purpose and throughshared resources. This is reflected by theendorsement of a Strategic Framework for theReduction of Vulnerability and Disasters in Cen-tral America, and the adoption of a Five YearPlan for the Reduction of Vulnerability and Disas-ter Impacts (1999-2004).

The strategic framework identified six majorwork areas:

• Strengthening national disaster organiza-tions.

• Developing early warning systems andstrategic plans.

• Increasing research on hazards and vul-nerability, including the promotion ofinformation exchange.

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Moreover, the relationship between environ-mental degradation and hazard incidence hasbeen increasingly brought to the forefront byinstitutions such as the Central American Com-mission for Environment and Development(CCAD), IUCN, IADB, CAF, the CaribbeanDevelopment Bank (CDB) and the WorldBank. Climatic variabilities as manifested byEl Niño/La Niña phenomenon has promptedthe World Meteorological Organization (WMO)together with regional organizations to gobeyond the scientific and technical researchconcerns and seek application of availableinformation for early warning and institutionalstrengthening for risk reduction.

This commitment to a shift towards integratedrisk management to reduce the impact of dis-asters has several times been re-affirmed at thelevel of heads of state.

CCeennttrraall AAmmeerriiccaa

The impacts of consecutive major catastrophesbetween 1997 and 2001 have profoundlychanged the way disasters are conceptualizedin Central America (Panama, Costa Rica,Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador,Guatemala). The effects of the El Niño/LaNiña episodes of 1997/98 were the most severethis century. Hurricanes Georges and Mitch in1998 devastated the economies of the entireregion, in addition to causing much damage topersonal property from floods throughout thecountryside. The El Salvador earthquakes of

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At the Third Summit of the Americas held in QuebecCity, Canada in 2001, the assembled heads of statedeclared:

“We commit to strengthening hemispheric coopera-tion and national capacities to develop a more inte-grated approach to the management of natural disas-ters. We will continue to implement policies thatenhance our ability to prevent, mitigate and respondto the consequences of natural disasters. We agree tostudy measures to facilitate timely access to financialresources to address emergency needs.”

A regional – hemispheric- conference focussing onrisk reduction practices was held in Costa Rica inDecember 2001, as a follow up to this Summit.

• Formulating distinctive risk reductionstrategies for specific sectors.

• Providing mutual assistance in case of dis-aster.

• Enhancing local level risk management.

There has been more collaboration with com-munity and municipal based organisationssuch as the Community Network for Risk Man-agement, the Federation of Community Organisa-tions and the Central American Municipal Feder-ation. There is a promising expansion of pro-grammes dedicated to reducing vulnerabilityto natural hazards at local levels, buildingnational capacities, and exchanging experienceand information regionally. Beginning in July 2001, UNDP launched atwo-year Regional Programme on Risk Manage-ment and Disaster Reduction. This concentrates

on improving local risk management practices,within the framework of CEPREDENAC’sLocal Level Risk Management Programme, andstrengthening the capacities of national riskreduction systems. A new phase of the UNDP-coordinated inter-agency Disaster ManagementTraining Programme (DMTP) is being designedto concentrate particularly on structuringnational risk scenarios, identifying key actorsand determining the priority research and train-ing requirements of the region.

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Coordinating Centre for the Prevention of Natural Disasters in Central America

CEPREDENAC has been key in realising these changes. Start-ing as an informal group of scientific and official responseorganizations in 1987, it has become the official Central Amer-ican Integration System’s (SICA) specialized organization forrisk and disaster reduction strategies.

Following the coordination and operational demands imposedby the devastating disasters in the final years of the 1990s, ithas proven crucial in tying together many professional abilitiesand regional political interests. Importantly, the regional strate-gy called for the updating and completion of CEPREDENAC’sRegional Plan for Disaster Reduction. Since 1999, this hasbeen the vehicle by which CEPREDENAC has promotedaction identified by the governments and many other projectsthroughout the region.

CEPREDENAC has gained status through its work plans withother specialized agencies. It has undertaken risk reductionactivities with PAHO in the health sector, the Housing andHuman Settlements Coordinating Committee in the housingand human settlements area, the Central American and Pana-manian Institute for Nutrition and the World Food Programmein food security matters, and the Central American TransportCommittee in communications and transport. It has pursuedadditional endeavours to further risk reduction with otherregional agencies in the fields of agriculture, water manage-ment, telecommunications, and electricity generation and dis-tribution.

CEPREDENAC has moved toward broader regional programmedevelopment, encouraging projects to be implemented bynational authorities or local groups. Recently, CEPREDENACand the Regional Unit for Technical Assistance (RUTA) pub-lished guidelines for the introduction of risk management prac-tices in rural development projects throughout the region. In asimilar vein, CEPREDENAC is now addressing risk issuesassociated with the important Puebla to Panama Logistical Cor-ridor, undertaking more work with the private sector, the region-al and international banking community, and promoting riskreduction issues in Central American development agencies.

With IADB, World Bank and Japanese funds CEPREDENAC isfinancing a Regional Prevention and Mitigation Programme tofinance projects favouring risk reduction proposed by nationalCEPREDENAC commissions. At the beginning of 2001 it creat-ed a Local Level Risk Management Programme with the supportof IADB and UNDP. Initial activities have involved the estab-lishment of a conceptual framework for risk management thatwill encourage programme activities, and the start of a systemat-ic process of recording experiences in local level management inthe region. A third initiative is the institution’s Regional ActionPlan for Central America, financed by UNESCO with Dutch,German and French support. This regional programme providestraining for specialists in the use of technologies for analysinghazards, particularly the use of GIS applications.

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Initial consideration given to community-baseddisaster reduction outlooks were boosted by aGTZ-inspired project for Strengthening of LocalStructures for Disaster Mitigation (FEMID). Toundertake a regional approach for introducingrisk reduction considerations within local devel-opment frameworks, it used pilot activities in allsix Central American countries. Experiencegained in the use of early warning in local com-munities was applied to floods in the projectpilot zones. In the Masica area of northernHonduras it became a regional and internationalexample of good practice. After early warningschemes had been consolidated in different areas,local committees – formed to promote this singleactivity – began to develop a broader interest inother primary risk reduction issues. This thenled to some of the groups establishing new rela-tionships with development agencies, as occurredin the Chepo area of Panama.

monwealth Secretariat. At the Conference ofHeads of Government of the Caribbean Communi-ty (COHG), the highest collective decision-making body in the region, the portfolio of dis-aster management and the environment hasbeen declared a matter of cabinet level respon-sibility.

Other agencies have also contributed to capac-ity development in the Caribbean throughfunding of disaster management programmesimplemented by government agencies andNGOs. In 1991, CARICOM committeditself to establishing a permanent agency with afocus on preparedness and response planning,supported by its member states. Since thenCDERA has worked to broaden the disastermanagement agenda in the region.

It contributed to the development of disastermanagement among member states, as well astraining and development of a core of profes-sionals who are a valuable source of expertisefor all countries. In partnership with a varietyof donors, the agency has executed a number ofprojects aimed at building the capacity ofmember countries in disaster management.

AAnnddeeaann ccoouunnttrriieess ooff SSoouutthh AAmmeerriiccaa

The five countries of the Andean sub-region ofSouth America – Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador,Peru and Venezuela – live with a high level ofrisk and must often cope with disasters. Theseinclude the Huaraz Earthquake in Peru in1970; El Niño/La Niña episodes in 1982-1983and 1997-1998, the volcanic eruption of Neva-do del Ruiz in Colombia in 1985; and themudslides in Venezuela in 1999.

The most common types of disasters in theregion are associated with earthquakes, vol-canic eruptions, floods and droughts. From asocio-economic point of view, the highestimpact is from hydrometeorological disasters.

Aside from the common historic and culturalroots shared by the countries, along with sometopographic similarities, their institutional co-operation is enhanced through the AndeanIntegration System. Growing interest in col-laboration was displayed when the AndeanDevelopment Corporation (CAF/ADC) estab-

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Another programme for regional collaborationand capacity building was launched by theSwiss Agency for Development and Cooperation fol-lowing hurricane Mitch. A Disaster PreventionProgramme (PREVAC) is conceived to runfrom 1999-2003 with a budget of US$ 5 mil-lion. Support is being offered to Honduras,Nicaragua and El Salvador responding to theproposals coming from the Strategic Frame-work for Vulnerability and Disaster Reduction.The programme concentrates on raising aware-ness of natural hazards, capacity building andinstitutional strengthening, and works with anarray of institutional actors including min-istries, national disaster organizations, scientificand technical institutions and universities.

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The past decade, has seen in increase of multi-disciplinary discussions regarding disaster andrisk management in the Caribbean. Since itsestablishment in 1991 by the Caribbean Com-munity (CARICOM), the Caribbean DisasterEmergency Response Agency (CDERA) hasworked to create an expanding infrastructurefor a methodical approach for developing dis-aster management programmes among mem-ber states, including multi-island projects.

Initiated to enable countries to cope moreeffectively in the aftermath of a disaster,increasingly, more emphasis has been given todisaster risk reduction as part of developmentand environmental concerns. The idea of dis-aster reduction has been introduced in mostregional initiatives at policy level, includingthrough the Programme of Action for SmallIsland Developing States, among the CARI-COM priority areas for action, and the pro-grammes of the Association of Caribbean States(ACS).

These interests are consistently re-enforced ona sub-regional basis by the biennial CaribbeanNatural Hazards Conferences organized by theprimary regional disaster management stake-holders. These typically have included the Uni-versity of the West Indies (UWI), CDERA,USAID and UNDP. Furthermore, the issueof vulnerability assessment has become one ofthe key foreign policy areas of CARICOM,and it has been raised in several forums includ-ing the World Bank, IDB, OAS and the Com-

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The overall objective of PREANDINO is toencourage and support the formulation of nation-al and sectoral policies for risk reduction and dis-aster prevention and the development of modelsand forms of institutional organization that intro-duce a preventive approach into developmentplanning (see specific country information in the pre-vious section on national institutional development).

Its objectives at the regional level are:• To promote, support and offer guidance on

the organization of schemes and pro-grammes for horizontal cooperation betweenequivalent institutions in the Andean coun-tries, so as to strengthen their technicalcapacity for studying and adopting preven-tive policies and programmes;

• To promote region-wide risk prevention pro-grammes, primarily those related to aware-ness of the threats to which there is thegreatest vulnerability;

• To ensure the feasibility of, and to support and coordinate, technical cooperation initiatives among theAndean countries;

• To encourage supra-regional bodies and international organizations to propose and implement coopera-tion projects at the national and regional levels;

• To promote the institutionalization of prevention in the Andean region.

SSttrraatteeggiicc aarreeaassTo reach its above objectives, PREANDINO has defined a strategy designed primarily to:• Incorporate risk prevention in State policy and in the institutional and civic culture in the Andean region;• Emphasize three areas for action: the dissemination of information on risk, improved institutional man-

agement of risk reduction, and the inclusion of prevention in national, sectoral and territorial planning inthe public and private sectors in each country;

• Attempt to ensure, from the very beginning, the strongest possible commitment to the objectives of theprogramme at the highest levels of decision-making in the public and private sectors;

• Create the best possible conditions for the exchange of information between the Andean countries on insti-tutional developments, planning experience, and methodological and technological progress in identifyingand evaluating threats, vulnerability and risk;

• Make ongoing efforts in the region and in each country to ensure that more is done to reduce the risksthat affect people’s quality of life;

• Create a favourable climate for international technical and financial cooperation in the countries of theAndean region, so that optimal, effective and coordinated use is made of the resources for risk reduction.

At the operational level, the key players in this initiative are the respective countries’ national committees for riskreduction. These include representatives from the ministries of planning, science and technology, and the environ-ment, as well as from national civil defence or disaster management agencies. All of these institutions are linkedthrough a network that allows participants to share information about their activities and by so doing, to shape indi-cators that can gauge the effectiveness of disaster management. This cooperation is augmented by conferences andworkshops, which facilitate the exchange of information and provide a common basis by which to conductnegotiations with financial bodies.

Information systems to support disaster riskmanagement are scarce in these countries.There is a lack of consolidated information orchannels for easy access to information aboutthe different hazards. The information which isavailable is often highly technical and is noteasily understood by a general audience.

To counter these types of problems, PRE-ANDINO is supporting the construction of anetwork that will foster the exchange of experi-ences and contacts. Committees of knowledgeare being established in each country to pro-mote the creation of permanent channels ofinformation exchange among research centres,producers of hazard-related information, andpotential users within individual professionalsectors.

Additionally, the civil defence organizations ofthe region have met several times since 2000 toconsolidate a regional basis to improve coordi-nation of response and preparedness activities.The southern command force of the USA hassupported these efforts, among others. Theseactivities have led to the formal establishmentof an Andean Committee for Disaster Preventionand Response (CAPRADE) within the AndeanIntegration Community in July 2002. Thisimportant initiative is a sub-regional mecha-nism for improved and integrated risk man-agement action. It was developed in accor-dance with the objectives of ISDR and sup-ported by several regional institutions andbilateral actors.

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lished the Regional Programme for Risk Preven-tion and Reduction (PREANDINO) in late2000, in accordance with the mandate entrust-ed to them by the Presidents of the five Andeancountries in 1999. Under this mandate,CAF/ADC is coordinating the cooperationactivities necessary to strengthen and developrisk prevention standards and institutions ineach country and the principal regional proj-ects that share those aims.

This mandate is rooted in an earlier one, underwhich CAF/ADC, on request of the Presidentsof the region, made a study of the economic andsocial impact of El Niño on the countries of theregion in 1997-1998 and an analysis of existinginstitutions dealing with disaster prevention. Aone-year participatory study exercise was car-ried out engaging several insitutions in eachcountry. A detailed technical and institutionalreview of each country outlined, in particular,institutional weaknesses and the need forregional coherence, thus PREANDINO.

In the Andean countries, the use of disasterrisk management as a public policy tool withindevelopment organizations is still in the earlystages of development. A previous lack offocussed institutional frameworks explains therelatively limited degree of civil awarenessabout risk in all of the Andean countries.However, an emerging trend now recognisesthe need for concrete and determined actionfor the incorporation of disaster risk reductioninto the broader context of development initia-tives.

Africa

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Extending south from theDemocratic Republic of theCongo and Tanzania, the South-ern African Development Commu-nity (SADC) comprises fourteenmember states. With a popula-tion of approximately 200 mil-

lion, SADC includes the following countries;Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of theCongo, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozam-bique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa,Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

In general, Southern Africa has not beenviewed as particularly prone to natural hazards,nor has it historically recorded massive lossesfrom sudden-onset disasters. Primarily, themajor risks that have affected the region havebeen slow-onset disasters related to drought,epidemic and food insecurity.

Until the early 1990s, perceptions of risk wereshaped predominantly by armed conflicts andtheir destabilising consequences. In such acontext, it is unsurprising that issues of naturaldisaster risk received little attention. To a sig-nificant extent, prevailing disaster managementcapabilities have typically been grounded inmore narrowly focused efforts to monitor agri-cultural conditions and food availability, or toplan emergency relief contingency measuresfocussed almost exclusively on droughts.

There are a number of regional initiatives thatare now contributing to the growth of disasterreduction in Southern Africa, but it is importantto understand their antecedents. These date fromthe formation of the Southern African DevelopmentCoordination Conference (SADCC) in 1980, whichhad, as one of its priorities, the diversification oftransportation and communications throughoutthe region. To reduce the dependence of land-locked countries on South African infrastructure,major investments to improve regional road andrail links was undertaken. These were consideredvital to the growth of struggling economies, butto an even more immediate extent, such infra-structure was crucial for the movement of foodand relief supplies across the region in times ofdrought, conflict or other emergencies.

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By recognizing the strategic importance offood security, SADCC also made the subject apriority sector for regional coordination. Tothis end, it established the Regional EarlyWarning Unit which was tasked with consoli-dating crop information provided by nationalearly warning units of the individual countries,and monitoring trends in regional food securi-ty. From their inception, these SADCC mech-anisms played key roles in assessing and man-aging risks by establishing systems for the earlydetection and response to conditions of poten-tial food shortages. Unlike institutional devel-opments in other regions of the world, thesefirst political engagements with disaster reduc-tion in Southern Africa countries were drivenby the protracted ravages of drought or otherslow-onset emergencies.

Meanwhile, other political, social, economicand environmental changes have continued toshape the risk landscape in Southern Africa.With rapidly growing populations, many ofwhich are without acceptable levels of socialservices or sufficient economic opportunities,and increasingly concentrated in urban areas,the countries of the region already know thatthey can expect to be exposed to more haz-ardous threats in the future. Since the floodsthat affected much of the region in 2000-2001,there is a growing recognition in official quar-ters of a much wider range of sudden threats.

be formulated to address and strengthen thelocal capacities of national meteorological andhydrological services for early warning anddisaster preparedness. A month later, theSADC Committee of Ministers for Water recom-mended that a strategic and coordinatedapproach be developed to manage floods anddroughts within the region. These decisionsunderlined the particular importance attrib-uted to coordination of the technical abilitiesrequired to contribute to the early warning ofnatural disasters and to ensure the effectiveimplementation of related preparedness andmitigation activities. By August 2000, theSADC Council of Ministers approved anoverarching SADC Disaster ManagementFramework for an integrated regional approachto disaster management and established a fullTechnical Steering Committee on Disaster Manage-ment. By the end of 2001, SADC had devel-oped and approved a multi-sectoral disastermanagement strategy for the region, and theSADC Water Sector Coordination Unit had draft-ed a Strategy for Floods and Drought Managementin the SADC Region.

The SADC’s secretariat is in Gaborone,Botswana. It is responsible for developing anintegrated disaster management strategy and forcoordinating the efforts of other SADC techni-cal sectors whose work directly relates to disas-ter reduction. Several of SADC’s key technicalunits play critical roles in disaster reduction.

The SADC Food, Agriculture and NaturalResources (FANR) sector gives specific atten-tion to the protection of regional food security.Its Regional Early Warning Unit (REWU) pro-vides member states and the international com-munity with advance information on foodsecurity prospects in the region. This includesproviding information about food crop per-formance, alerts of possible crop failure andother factors affecting food supplies.

The unit also conducts assessments coveringfood supply and demand, and makes projec-tions on related matters such as food importsand exports, the identification of areas oraffected populations threatened by food inse-curity, as well as threatening climate conditionsthat could trigger food insecurity. The FAOhas long supported FANR with, among otherinformation, data from its Global InformationEarly Warning System (GIEWS).

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There also continues to be the possibility of moreintense examples of slow emerging conditions ofdrought and disease, exacerbated by variations inclimate, increasingly fragile natural environ-ments, and persistent impediments to nationaldevelopment that affect human livelihoods.

These concerns have provoked recognition atthe highest political levels of the pressing needto focus on regional cooperation and to allocatemore resources to risk reduction. This contexthas driven SADCC’s successor organization,the Southern African Development Community(SADC), to devote considerable attention toissues of public vulnerability, irrespective ofwhether potential disaster threats result fromclimatic hazards or conditions of poverty, andeven more recently, disease. While SADC’stechnical engagement in disaster reduction hascontinued to evolve, it is important to note thatthe overall purpose of the reconfigured region-al political community is to foster the econom-ic integration and the promotion of peace andsecurity among its 14 member countries.

SADC has taken an initiative to develop disas-ter management as a regional priority, with theestablishment of an Ad Hoc Working Group onDisaster Management in 1999. An Extraordi-nary Summit for SADC Heads of State and Gov-ernment was convened in Maputo, Mozam-bique in March 2000 to review the impactscaused by the floods across the region. At thissummit, representatives of the SADC coun-tries expressed the need for improved institu-tional arrangements for disaster preparednessand management of similar risks in the future.

Efforts have now been initiated to developgreater cooperation within the region to reducerisk generally, and to focus more attentionspecifically on anticipating, mitigating andresponding to sudden-onset natural hazards,such as cyclone-triggered trans-boundaryfloods. Moreover, some of the national govern-ments in the region are in the process ofamending their own disaster legislation to placegreater emphasis on the anticipation andreduction of natural and other related risks.

In May 2000, the SADC Sub-Sectoral Commit-tee on Meteorology Meeting was convened. There,the Directors of National Meteorological andHydrological Services (NMHS) in the SADCcountries recommended that a regional project

The Regional Remote Sensing Unit (RRSU) ofFANR collaborates closely with the RegionalEarly Warning Unit by working to strengthennational and regional capabilities in the area ofremote sensing and GIS applications. It offersa range of specialized services for use in earlywarning for food security and natural resourcesmanagement, including training agro-meteo-rologists in the use of satellite imagery prod-ucts.

It processes and disseminates a variety of satel-lite information pertaining to meteorologicalconditions, vegetation distribution, crop out-looks and other development indicators. It isalso used to monitor and map land use pat-terns, land degradation and desertification con-ditions. The resulting information is distrib-uted to a wide-range of users throughoutSouthern Africa, including government min-istries, private trading and industrial sectors,banking and finance groups, farming organi-

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zations, NGOs, and international developmentassistance organizations.

While the RRSU has already provided impor-tant data related to seasonal flood and droughtrisk, it anticipates being able to strengthen itscapacities in disaster reduction by generatingan integrated flood and drought risk profile forSouthern Africa in cooperation with the USGeological Survey. In a more general sense,RRSU can assume even wider importance toregional cooperation in disaster reduction asthe combined effects of climate variation andthe needs for monitoring environmental condi-tions become more integrated into future riskmanagement practices.

Despite the specific nature of its name, theSADC Drought Monitoring Centre (DMC)located at the Zimbabwe Meteorological Ser-vice has a primary responsibility to monitor cli-mate extremes, especially as they relate to

OObbjjeeccttiivveess ooff tthhee SSAADDCC ssttrraatteeggyy ffoorr ffllooooddss aanndd ddrroouugghhtt mmaannaaggeemmeenntt iinn tthhee rreeggiioonn

Source: SADC Water Sector Coordination Unit, 2001

different technical and administrative networksacross Southern Africa. In May 2001, an inte-grated Strategy for Flood and Drought Manage-ment in the SADC Region was approved forimplementation over a four year period. Thestrategy focuses on preparedness and contin-gency planning, early warning and vulnerabili-ty information systems, mitigation measures,response activities and recovery strategies.

The process involves regular consultationsthrough which the heads of disaster manage-ment, early warning, meteorology and waterauthorities from individual countries in SouthernAfrica will meet with SADC technical counter-parts in order to monitor progress and addressimpediments to reduce drought and flood-relat-ed disasters. This process has been complement-ed by the US Geological Survey’s support forthe development of flood and drought maps forthe region.

Fifty real-time and coordinated data collectionstations are currently being installed in elevenSouthern African countries under the SADCHydrological Cycle Observing System (SADC-HYCOS). These stations and the informationthat they gather are expected to make majorimprovements in the timely availability of dataand to provide more real-time data transmis-sion and the dissemination of essential trans-boundary hydrological information for floodforecasting. This EU-funded project is beingimplemented by the SADC Water SectorResources in association with the nationalhydrological services of the participating coun-tries.

In addition, the Zambesi River Authority(ZRA) was established by Zambia and Zim-babwe in 1998 to coordinate their decisions onwater use, power generation, and upstream anddownstream risk consequences of their watermanagement policies. Following the 2000floods, the ZRA formed a Joint OperationsTechnical Committee with Hidroeléctrica deCabora Bassa in Mozambique to share dataand technical information about the operationsof their respective Kariba and Cabora Bassareservoirs. Their collaboration is an importantexample of shared institutional efforts byneighbouring countries to provide early warn-ing for floods and to monitor water levels forpower generation. This regional cooperation isfurthered by the weekly exchange of data and

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droughts and floods. By working closely withall of the national meteorological and hydro-logical services in the region, and with techni-cal support provided by the WMO, the centregenerates highly-regarded seasonal rainfallforecasts and provides additional climateanalysis and information. It also producesregional climate data, synoptic reviews andweather outlooks, semi-processed globalocean-atmospheric data, monthly and seasonalforecast updates, and a ten-day drought watchfor the SADC region. The centre providesopportunities to develop the technical and ana-lytical abilities of staff, drawn from nationalmeteorological and hydrological services in theregion, through a secondment programme. Italso manages meteorological and climate data-banks for the region.

Every year, the DMC coordinates the SouthernAfrica Region Climate Outlook Forum (SAR-COF). Beyond playing a crucial role in fore-casting seasonal rainfall, SARCOF has provento be a useful process that extends climateanalysis and training practices to an expandingrange of multi-sectoral users in SouthernAfrica. As the awareness of risk reductionbecomes a matter of pressing national andregional concerns, and the consequences ofchanging climatic conditions are more appar-ent on both environmental and water-relatedissues, the compilation and dissemination ofmulti-sectoral information by regional mecha-nisms such as SARCOF will assume evengreater future importance.

Both the SADC Water Resources Sector and theSADC Environment and Land Management Sector(ELMS) have crucial roles to play in developingpolicies and strategies for water resources andenvironment and land management issues in allSADC countries. The water sector has longgiven attention to the development of coopera-tive agreements on shared river basins, but thefloods of 2000 and 2001 underlined the need forgreater attention to regional flood risk, in addi-tion to recurrent drought. The need for inter-state cooperation associated with water-relatedhazards in Southern Africa is particularly acuteas there are more than ten shared watercourses inthe region, with the largest, the Zambesi Riverflowing through nine different countries.

The successful implementation of this disasterreduction strategy rests on interaction between

by the conduct of monthly meetings during thecritical rainy season.

The ELMS has undertaken a number of proj-ects related to land use practices as well as theconservation of environmental conditionswhich can reduce both flood and drought-prone conditions. ELMS has also been desig-nated as the coordinating authority withinSADC for all matters related to climate change,which places it in the forefront of inter-agencycooperation and collaboration to reduce the riskof future hydro-meteorological hazards.

The SADC’s Health Sector works closely withthe WHO’s Inter-Country Office for South-ern Africa, having long recognized the publichealth aspects of disasters. Programmes suchas the WHO-Southern Africa Malarial ControlProgramme address the causative factors of haz-ards in creating epidemics. The very close corre-lation that exists between temperature, precipita-tion and the incidence of malaria in specific loca-tions underlines the essential cooperationbetween all of these various sectors relating towater, climate, land, environment, health anddisaster risk management practices.

While not specifically a SADC institution, butsharing a common interest in furthering multi-

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disciplinary collaboration, through expandedinformation exchange, the Southern AfricaResearch and Documentation Centre in Harare,Zimbabwe has published many professionalpapers and books that demonstrate both thebreadth and depth of related interests in theregion.

One of the most pressing challenges in imple-menting progressive disaster risk manage-ment laws and policies is the region’s perva-sive socio-economic and environmental vul-nerabilities. When they are combined with theconsequences of increased climate variability,such as more intense drought events, as wellas cyclones and heavier rainfall, the urgencyto position disaster risk reduction becomes animportant development priority.

The disaster reduction challenge at the begin-ning of the 21st century is to link creative andcoordinated strategies such as those outlinedabove that can reduce the impact of futureuncertain risks, with ongoing developmentefforts that can minimize prevailing vulnera-bilities and hardships. If risks remainunchecked, they will accelerate an already spi-ralling trend toward greater disaster-relatedlosses, human inequities, and weakened soci-eties.

AA CCoommppaarriissoonn ooff RRaaiinnffaallll aanndd MMaallaarriiaa bbyy YYeeaarr iinn ZZiimmbbaabbwwee

Source: Southern Africa Malaria Central Programme. WHO Country and Inter-country office, Harare, Zimbabwe.

processes. Both meetings recommended thewider sharing of experiences to enable coun-tries developing new or modified legislation orinstitutional arrangements, to learn from theexperiences of others in the region, as well as todevelop disaster risk management plans atnational, provincial and local levels. Throughthese actions, the RCC has served to consoli-date and strengthen regional and sub-regionalcooperative initiatives, even though the variouspriorities and interests of the countries mayvary.

Specifically, the second of these meetings urgedall RCC member countries to adopt a TotalDisaster Risk Management Strategy that wouldrepresent “a comprehensive approach to multi-hazard disaster risk management and reduc-tion, which includes prevention, mitigation andpreparedness in addition to response andrecovery.” Several primary areas of action wereidentified to advance this approach in comingyears:

• Developing community level programmesfor preparedness and mitigation.

• Building capacity within national disastermanagement systems.

• Promoting cooperation and enhancing themutual effectiveness of programmes ofsub-regional mechanisms such as those ofASEAN, SAARC, SOPAC, ICIMODand MRC.

• Creating awareness and promoting politi-cal commitment through regional initia-tives.

The third RCC meeting, to be co-hosted bythe Government of India in New Delhi inNovember 2002, will review the progress madethroughout the region.

Information on these initiatives and the experi-ences of several countries in the Asian regionwere shared in a regional workshop on legaland institutional frameworks, and planning fordisaster risk management held in April 2002 inBangkok. The workshop, organized by ADPCwith funding provided by the ECHO,OFDA/USAID and ADB, provided a venueto share experiences and discuss issues aboutwhat is working, and what needs to beimproved in the institutionalisation of riskreduction efforts. This workshop providedanother opportunity to establish links and to

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Asia

There has been a discerniblegrowth in the attention to policyframeworks and structures forregional collaboration in disasterrisk reduction throughout Asia.In contrast to some other geo-

graphic regions, such as Latin Americaand theCaribbean, the regional collaboration in Asiaappears to stem less from the consequences ofa single devastating disaster. Rather it appearsto result more from shared outlooks emergingfrom different professional interests. In manyof the examples reviewed here, a growingawareness and involvement with broader riskissues is becoming evident in regional forumsthat previously adopted more narrow conceptsof crisis and emergency, or in some cases maynot have previously anticipated risk in explicitterms.

It may be difficult at the present time to iden-tify a clear and unambiguous approach to dis-aster risk reduction among the many cultural,social, and political distinctions in Asian soci-eties, but there is nonetheless a clear movementto identify, and begin to address disaster risks.While disaster management agencies are grap-pling with the changing world before them,people devoted to other features of nationalsocio-economic development are emerging aspotential allies in reducing disaster risk. Theseinclude policy-makers and practitionersinvolved in such areas as environmental man-agement, climate variation, natural resourceutilization, regional planning, the constructionor protection of infrastructure, education andpublic communications, and public adminis-tration.

Over the past two years, a Regional ConsultativeCommittee on Regional Cooperation in DisasterManagement (RCC) has been convened by theAsian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC)with AusAid’s support, comprising heads ofnational disaster management authorities oroffices from 24 countries in Asia. Membershave endorsed the importance of the RCC as aforum to exchange information and experienceregarding national disaster risk managementsystems. Annual meetings held in 2000 and2001 have addressed capacity building andreviewed experiences of new legislation, policyand institutional reform, and related planning

develop closer working relationships amongindividuals and institutions involved in disastermanagement policy and planning in the region.At the next phase, projects will be identifiedwhich can assist countries in documenting theprocesses involved, as well as highlighting bestpractices to disseminate for the benefit of awider audience.

In a similar fashion, the Asian Disaster Reduc-tion Center (ADRC) has worked to foster coop-eration among countries in Asia. A multi-later-al organization for disaster reduction based inKobe, Japan, ADRC is composed of 23 AsianMember Countries plus four additional Advi-sory Countries.

By networking with focal points in each gov-ernment and by facilitating the exchange of dis-aster risk management information amongthem, it strives to identify their acute needs andcontributes towards the further development ofhuman resources dedicated to the subject inAsia. Beyond its immediate Member Coun-tries, ADRC also works to strengthen network-ing among other relevant organizations work-ing with disaster risk management in Asia, suchas UN-OCHA, UNCRD, ADPC, CREDand OFDA/USAID. It conducts studies andencourages research that will contribute to put-ting disaster management technologies to prac-tical use. This includes coverage about the useof geographic information systems and satelliteinformation systems, as well as the introductionon its website of new products and techniquesthat are useful for disaster reduction such asanti-earthquake reinforcement, and methodsfor preventing landslides.

ADRC has launched cooperative projects todevelop the disaster management capacities ofMember Countries, based on their respectiverequests. It provides financial and technicalsupport for selected activities, and then dis-seminates the outcomes and lessons from theprojects among its Member Countries and toother nations around the world. These pro-grammes include the promotion of educationalprogrammes to develop disaster reductioncapacities, (community-based flood disastermitigation project in Indonesia, school educa-tional programme for disaster reduction in thePhilippines); activities that increase profession-al skills for emergency search and rescue

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(urban search and rescue training programmein Singapore); furthering the development anddissemination of technical knowledge by invit-ing visiting researchers from Member Coun-tries to ADRC, and by conducting short-termvisitor training programmes.

Regional cooperation is promoted by ADRC’smanagement of an information database onnatural disaster reduction in Asia. With a par-ticular focus on matters of legislation, disastermanagement, training and country reports,their website shares lessons for disaster reduc-tion among Asian countries. ADRC alsoorganizes international conferences and work-shops to discuss the status of disaster reductionactivities in Asia. In 2002, it held the FourthADRC International Meeting in New Delhi,co-organized by the governments of India andJapan, followed immediately by a second meet-ing of the same regional participants to discussISDR involvement in Asia. Later in the year,ADRC and OCHA jointly conducted theRegional Workshop on Networking and Col-laboration among NGOs of Asian Countries inDisaster Reduction and Response in Kobe,Japan.

With common objectives but different empha-sis, both ADPC and ADRC have cooperatedwith OCHA to organize consultative meetingsof regional institutions, UN agencies and mul-tilateral development assistance organizations.The first meeting was held in Kathmandu in2001 and more recently in June 2002 anotherwas conducted in Bangkok. This second con-sultative meeting focussed on the concepts ofTotal Disaster Risk Management and dis-cussed emerging international partnerships forreduction of risk and vulnerability to naturalhazards with additional partners in the region.These included the longstanding interactionwith UNDP programmes and IFRC activitiesin South East Asia, as well as further collabo-ration with the USAID Regional Office inManila and the European Commission’sregional DIPECHO programmes based inBangkok. Additional interests in regionalcooperation for total disaster risk managementstrategy were expressed by the Asian Develop-ment Bank, the International Institute of Dis-aster Risk Management (IDRM), EmergencyManagement Australia, ICIMOD, andASEAN.

systems and drafting guidelines for post-disas-ter responsibilities.

Among the seven countries which belong tothe South Asia Association for Regional Coopera-tion SAARC (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Mal-dives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka) issuesof disaster risk management have been period-ically touched upon by the SAARC TechnicalCommittee on Environment, Meteorology andForestry. A regional study was conducted onthe Consequences of Natural Disaster, and Protec-tion and Preservation of the Environment in 1992.Most recently at a meeting of the TechnicalCommittee in January 2002 reference wasmade to “the need for mechanisms to promotecapacity building and technology transfer tosupport natural disaster management”. It wasfurther stressed that together with concernsabout the negative impacts which climatechange exerts in the region, a common SouthAsian position should be developed on theseissues in international forums.

There have also been regular and continuedendorsements of inter-state cooperation in nat-ural disaster management and resulting decla-rations at SAARC Summit Meetings, even ifthey have seldom occupied primary attentionamong the many regional issues, typically onthe agendas. However, at the most recent 11thSummit Meeting of SAARC held in January2002 in Kathmandu, the view was more explic-itly expressed as, “the Heads of State or Gov-ernment felt a strong need to devise a mecha-nism for cooperation in the field of early warn-ing, as well as preparedness and managementof natural disasters, along with programmes topromote the conservation of land and waterresources”.

As all SAARC member countries are exposedto similar hazards, they have much operationalexperience in disaster risk management thatcould be exchanged to a considerably greaterextent than is currently the case. Importantareas that could benefit from cooperationinclude training, the exchange of both opera-tional and technical professional information,the exchange of government officials, and coor-dination in policy formulation and implementa-tion, especially in the case of disasters affectingneighbouring countries. The reduction of risksassociated with transboundary hazards is a par-ticularly urgent area in which to expand formal

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The 11th ASEAN meeting was held in ChiangRai, Thailand, in August 2000 and endorsed theurgent development of an ASEAN Regional Pro-gramme on Disaster Management (ARPDM).With technical assistance extended by ADPCand financial support provided by the Euro-pean Union, the ASEAN secretariat andmember countries have reached an advancedstage of planning. This new regional pro-gramme will guide cooperative action inASEAN member countries in the followingcore areas of activity:

• Planning and conducting joint projects.• Collaborating on research and encourag-

ing networks among member countries.• Building capacities and developing

human resources in areas of priority con-cern.

• Sharing information, best practices, anddisaster management resources.

• Promoting partnerships among variousstakeholders including governmentauthorities, NGOs, community and inter-national organizations.

• Promoting advocacy, public awarenessand education programmes related to dis-aster management.

The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) is anotherregional platform composed of the ASEANcountries and 13 additional dialogue partners(Australia, Canada, China, Eu, India, JapanKorea, Mongolia, New Zealand, Papua NewGuinea, Russian Federation and USA). It isconvened to develop mutual confidence-build-ing measures and to promote dialogue onregional security concerns. Under its umbrella,several groups have been established to pro-mote cooperation in specific areas includingdisaster relief and marine search and rescue.Four inter-sessional meetings on disaster reliefhave taken place in Wellington (1997),Bangkok (1998), Moscow (1999), and Hanoi(2000). These meetings have included delega-tions from ministries of foreign affairs, defence,and disaster management from all ARF mem-ber countries and have thus provided a uniqueplatform for discussions at high levels focussedon multiple aspects of disaster management. Inaddition to these meetings, some specificachievements of ARF include a series of train-ing activities, developing a matrix of past coop-eration in disaster relief among member coun-tries, conducting an inventory of early warning

mechanisms among SAARC countries forcooperation and improved coordination.

There are other technical frameworks in Asiathat focus increasing attention on the conse-quences of natural hazards. The application ofseasonal climate prediction and forecasting as anintegral part of comprehensive risk managementis one such example. The unprecedentedbreadth of impacts associated with the ElNiño/La Niña events during 1997-99 acrossmany sectors in South East Asian countriesunderlined the need for effective, and continu-ing, risk assessments. As climate became accept-ed as a major determinant in contributing torecurrent risks, the meteorological services ofthe region have worked in close partnership withan increasingly wide range of sectoral agencies.

Regional institutions such as ADPC have alsobecome more involved in working with nation-al agencies and technical institutions to studythe impacts of past extreme climate events inorder to anticipate and mitigate the impacts offuture occurrences. Innovative capacity-build-ing activities have brought together specialistsfrom a variety of resource management respon-sibilities to assess and manage the commonrisks posed by climate variability. In May2002, a two-week workshop on the applica-tions of climate information was organizedjointly by ADPC and the Thai MeteorologicalDepartment. It brought together, for the firsttime, meteorological forecasters, waterresource managers, agriculture sector man-agers and food logisticians. By working togeth-er and blending their respective professionaltalents, the participants assessed the risksposed by climate variability in the region andworked to develop strategies to minimize orreduce those risks. Such activities illustrate agradual movement towards the introduction ofrisk management concepts in other resourcemanagement sectors beyond traditional or sin-gular disaster management organizations.

International relationships at the regional levelare a key requirement in the development ofeffective flood early warning systems as riverspass from one country to another. The devel-opment of expanded institutional capacities ofthe Mekong River Commission over the yearsis a fine example of good regional cooperationamong countries in the Mekong River Basin inSoutheast Asia.

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The Asian Urban Disaster Mitigation Pro-gramme (AUDMP) is being implemented byADPC with core funding provided byOFDA/USAID. It is founded on the overar-ching belief that loss of life and property fromdisasters hinder sustainable development, andthat such losses can be reduced if appropriatemethodologies are introduced through differentaspects of city administration. With a concen-tration of both risks and resources, cities canrepresent a crucial focus to reduce vulnerability.

The programme’s goal is to reduce disastervulnerability of urban populations, infrastruc-ture, lifeline facilities and shelter in Asia byestablishing sustainable public and private sec-tor mechanisms for disaster mitigation. Asgood governance and decentralization of gov-erning responsibilities are high on most coun-tries’ political agenda, AUDMP promotescountry initiatives that can demonstrate theworthwhile value of strategic approaches tourban risk reduction as part of urban develop-ment planning processes.

Working to common standards in associationwith partner organizations in 10 Asian coun-tries, AUDMP works to build the capacities oflocal authorities, national governments,NGOs, businesses and others institutions thatcan contribute to urban disaster mitigation.Primary tools employed are facilitating organi-zational networks, sharing knowledge and suc-cessful experiences and promoting dialogueamong key stakeholders. By these means, it isanticipated that successful mitigationapproaches can be replicated in other cities andcountries worldwide.

EEaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg iinn CCaammbbooddiiaa

Although there is a system for tracking river levels, there isstill no proper early warning system that will provide infor-mation to disaster-prone populations, and there is no cen-tralized information centre. To address this and otherissues, the UN Disaster Management Team in Cambodiais currently supporting the develoment of a regional net-work for disaster management and mitigation in theMekong countries. This is to reduce the vulnerability ofthe poorest residents to the negative impacts of disastersand to protect broad based development gains.

Response to ISDR questionnaire from Cambodia, 2001.

region have been shared further in a Region-al Workshop on Legal and InstitutionalFrameworks, and Planning for DisasterManagement held in April 2002 inBangkok, Thailand. The workshop provideda venue for sharing experiences and dis-cussing crucial issues about the developmentof disaster risk management policies, legaland institutional frameworks, and the devel-opment of specific plans. The next phase ofthe projects initiated by ADPC will assist thecountries to document the process as well asbest practices, which can be disseminated for

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Risk reduction practices employed includephysical measures such as flood protectionembankments or safe building designs, butthey also include the promotion of otherpractical measures ranging from legislation,training, public awareness and advocacy thatfurther risk reduction. AUDMP supportactivities ranging from hazard mapping tocreating improved policy environments indisaster-prone countries.

Information on these initiatives and theexperiences of several countries in the Asian

Demonstration projects undertaken by AUDMP partner organizations in 10 Asian countries vary widely inaccordance with local priorities.

In Bangladesh, Cambodia, and Thailand the focus is on floods, while India, Indonesia and Nepal concentrateon earthquakes. The Philippines and Sri Lanka address multiple hazards. Laos is concerned with urban fire,and Viet Nam pursues housing requirements in flood-prone areas. Some of the specific project activities andlessons include the following:

• Hazard mapping and risk assessment: Projects in Sri Lanka and Philippines have demonstrated method-ology for development of urban land use plans through integration of risk reduction measures. Projects inBangladesh and Cambodia demonstrate community-based approaches.

• Mitigation planning and implementation: Lessons learned from AUDMP initiatives demonstrate that theplanning and implementation of disaster risk reduction practices should involve government officials, com-munity organizations, and NGOs working in partnership.

• Public awareness and education: Different approaches, tools and products have been used in public aware-ness campaigns for different audiences in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Nepal and Sri Lanka.

• Capacity building: AUDMP’s approach to training, resource materials and continuing education is todevelop generic curricula on urban disaster mitigation, which are then adapted and institutionaliyed at thenational and local levels through national partner training institutes.

• Safer building construction: Country projects have carried out detailed analysis of existing building con-struction practices and the condition of existing building codes, acts, bylaws and/or construction guidelinesto find ways to increase the effectiveness. Different initiatives have promoted safer construction in India,Indonesia, Nepal and Sri Lanka.

• Community based approaches to disaster mitigation: As the community is where physical, social and eco-nomic risks can be most adequately assessed and managed, community-based disaster risk reductioninvolves public participation in assessment, planning and implementation activities which take full accountof a community’s vulnerabilities and capacities. The country projects in Bangladesh and Cambodia specifi-cally focus on the importance of people’s perception of flood risks, the purpose and tools of communityflood risk assessment, and the strategies for community organizing, resource mobilization and capacitybuilding.

• Policy, legal and institutional arrangements: Sound policies and legislation for disaster mitigation, as wellas institutional arrangements that have clear lines of responsibilities need to be in place. AUDMP’s proj-ect partners in Indonesia and Sri Lanka have taken the initiative to review country policies related to disas-ter management.

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Level ofImpact

High

Medium

High

Medium

Low

Low

Medium

Medium

High

High

High

Description

• The programmes has directly or indirectly influenced nationallevel policies in more than ten countries of Asia.

• Policy modified or established to facilitate action: at least four

• At least eight municipal plans written or revised during the pro-gramme period

• Municipal bylaws modified • Municipality level Disaster Management Units established

• The Cambodian project under AUDMP (Flood hazard mitiga-tion programme) is basically a community-based programme. Italso influenced the community level. Several community-basedinitiatives were implemented (e.g., DMC ward No. 34 in Kath-mandu Metropolitan City)

• Background work done for incorporation in several countries• Municipalities in the process of incorporating disaster reduction

in their agenda

• Background works done for incorporation in several countries

• Active participation in AUDMP national project by national andmunicipal governments

• Indirect commitment expressed by government ministers, secre-taries

• National Committee for Earthquake Safety Day established inNepal

• Additional investment of 5% of AUDMP budget from non-AUDMP sources

• In-kind contribution additional

• This is found to be a slow and complex process. AUDMP,together with other programmes, has influenced the process insome of the partnering countries

• This is found to be a slow and complex process. AUDMP,together with other programmes, has influenced the process insome of the partnering countries

• Disaster Reduction Days established in Sri Lanka andBangladesh

• Several thousand people made aware• Assessment, scenario and action planning found as a great tool

for awareness raising

• Posters, pamphlets, handbooks, fliers prepared and distributed inproject cities

• Other materials in the process of being prepared

• Earthquake Safety Day observed in Nepal on an annual basissince 1999.

• Disaster reduction days observed annually in Sri Lanka andBangladesh

Basic Principles

Enactment and Modifi-cation of Disaster Reduc-tion Policies

Assistance in IntegratingDisaster Risk Reductionin Governance

Awareness-Raising

Factor Components

National Level

City Municipal Level

Community Level

Disaster Reduction incorporatedin national plan and policies

Poverty Alleviation and DisasterReduction

State Commitments for DisasterFree Environment

Enactment of Regulations forDisaster Reduction

Creation of ImplementationMechanisms

Awareness-raising programmes

Awareness-raising materials

Institutionalization of Awareness-raising programmes

Table: SSample ccriteria ffor aaccomplished ddisaster rreduction. AAUDMP

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Basic Principles

Training

Promotion of PublicCommitments

Community Participation

Enhancing Role of NGO

Internalizing disasterreduction as a way of lifeand culture

Factor Components

Training curricula and materials

Training institutionalization

Creation and updating of DisasterMitigation Acts and Regulations

Creation and Reforming of Disaster Management Councilsand Committees

Preparation of Disaster Risk

Reduction Plans and Programmes

Public Commitments in Action

National Commitment

Setting up of mechanisms of community participation

Improved legal status

Mechanism of Partnership

Responsibility enhancement

Level ofImpact

High

High

Medium

Low

Medium

Medium

Low

Medium

Low

High

Low-Medium

Medium

Description

• Improved access to hazard mitigation techniques and skills• More than 5% or public and private sector professionals trained in

disaster management • Number of trained professionals: 150+• Twelve institutions in the region conduct training programmes reg-

ularly, based on the training curricula developed under AUDMP

• A network of Asian disaster management training institutions(ADMIT) established

• 30% annual increase in AUDMP network• First year baseline: 25 institutions

• AUDMP process has greatly influenced the process of writingnew or revising existing legal process

• SOP for municipalities written in Bandung

• Background work done by respective partnering institutions inAUDMP countries and cities leading to realization of needs

• Disaster management committee(s) created at central, municipaland community levels in Nepal and Sri Lanka.

• Action Plans created and in the process of implementation in part-nering cities

• Number of operational plans developed: ten

• This is found to be a slow and complex process. AUDMP, togeth-er with other programmes, has influenced the process in some ofthe partnering countries

• Community participation in the development process has been arecognized method by countries of the region. AUDMP processhas developed it further by implementing community-based disas-ter risk reduction process in the partner cities

• All the demonstration projects in AUDMP have developed mech-anisms for community participation in disaster mitigation work asappropriate to the countries

• Need for improvements realized in countries where it was lacking,but there has not been significant progress in legal status of NGOsin those countries.

• Partnership mechanism established, but need to make sustainable

• Tremendous increase in the responsibilities. A successful NGOworking in Disaster Risk Reduction is overwhelmed by theincrease in its responsibilities as perceived by the government, thecommunity and even by the private sector. This is expected to cre-ate the demand for improved legal status in countries where it isyet lacking.

• Demands for improved safety started being expressed from thepopulation

• Fatalism greatly reduced in project influence areas and zones, butneed to sustain the efforts: Examples are:- People bought in, even in Bandung where there was no earth-quake during the past several hundred years.- Success in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal; Bandung, Indonesia; Rat-napura and Nawalpitiya in Sri Lanka

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• Different, overlapping concepts of sub-regions, or even definitions of the Asianregion.

The extent of cultural variation and politicaldiversity across Asia works against regionalcooperation. However, at least some of theselimitations could be overcome, or measurestaken to resolve them if the international donorcommunity and regional organizations alikecould work towards a more consistent andfocussed approach to accord disaster riskreduction a more distinctive and visible role indevelopment strategies.

Pacific ssmall iisland ddeveloping sstates

Pacific small island developing states and terri-toties quite diverse in their physical and eco-nomic characteristics and exemplify many dif-ferent cultures, languages and traditional prac-tices. Most of these island countries comprisetiny areas of land widely dispersed throughoutthe Pacific Ocean, so that even within singlecountries, the distance between islands can beenormous.

the benefit of a wider audience. The follow-ing table gives an indication of criteria beingconsidered as suitable measures to gaugeaccomplishment in selected areas of respon-sibility across the region.

From the AUDMP expereince, the followingconditions highlight current constraints whichremain to be addressed:

• Lack of interest and willingness of gov-ernments and organizations to takeresponsibility.

• Other political preoccupations or institu-tional impediments.

• Scarcity or non-allocation of funds andhuman resources.

• Lack of awareness of roles of other agen-cies.

• Lack of recognized mechanisms for infor-mation sharing and coordination.

• Lack of consistent donor policies or limit-ed donor collaboration.

• Cooperation not sufficiently institution-alised within countries, so that if a keyindividual leaves, cooperation and collab-oration may lapse.

CChhaalllleennggeess ffoorr rreeggiioonnaall iinntteerraaccttiioonn iinn AAssiiaa

The following issues have been cited by Asian practitioners as contributing to either sporadic or inconsis-tent attention being accorded to disaster risk reduction in international exchanges or regionally-basedendeavours:

� Tunnel vision that relegates risk awareness to marginal consideration in contrast to predominantpolitical visibility in responding to disasters that have occurred.

� Different constituencies and mandates pertaining to various sectors of disaster risk management.� Scarcity of resource allocations for risk reduction, in contrast to emergency response.� Weak or inconsistent reliance on dynamic risk assessments in national development strategies.� No single umbrella organization representative of regional interests and priorities related to disaster

risks.� Lack of awareness, policy or economic motivation to include disaster risk impact analysis in project

design.� Different, over-lapping or over-looked, geographical coverage of countries’ or donor’s interests and

project distribution.� Lack of programmatic mechanisms for matching regional providers with local needs – decisions

often influenced more by political affinities than potential disaster risks.� Nationalist motivations, or competing initiatives and duplication among donor interests.� Bilateral versus multilateral initiatives, donor, or supply-side influenced projects.� National policy objectives contrasting with broader regional collaboration.� Insufficient working-level cooperation and knowledge transfer, duplication of information collec-

tion and dissemination.� Limited opportunities for dialogue on a regional level. Lack of structured communication and

knowledge of other agencies’ programmes.

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shows that Pacific SIDS have taken a very pos-itive approach both in traditional and morecontemporary ways to enable Pacific islandersto maintain their way of life.

The management of disasters is widely recog-nized in the Pacific as a national concern,although it is equally understood that strength-ening regional linkages and fostering a sense ofcommon purpose improves overall disaster andrisk management capabilities. The similarity ofhazards that Pacific SIDS face, the shared prob-lems they experience, and a generally commonapproach adopted in their institutional arrange-ments all provide a fruitful basis for regionalcooperation.

However, as some types of disaster occur onlyrarely, governments and communities find it dif-ficult to maintain a high level of awareness andpreparedness. The resources available for disas-ter mitigation also have changed over time. Gov-ernments became involved in disaster assistanceearly in the colonial era, taking over responsibil-ities at independence, often by providing consid-erable assistance for immediate relief or to assistin rehabilitation after a disaster. Later, such aidcame to be understood by both donors and recip-

The scattered distribution of these island states,together with their small size and relative isola-tion, makes development activity distinctive fromother parts of the world and quite costly. Humansettlements range from traditional rural villageswhere most people live, to rapidly growing mod-ern, commercial cities. There are many forms ofland tenure throughout the region, but most arebased on communal land ownership throughwhich a large amount of joint community controlis retained over the use of land and the exploita-tion of natural resources.

Despite a popular portrayal of the South Pacif-ic as a region of islands with serene beaches,blue lagoons, and an idyllic lifestyle, SIDShave very fragile ecosystems. At the beginningof the 21st century there is now a greater con-cern growing about the longer term conse-quences of climate change and rising sea levels.

For this reason, Pacific SIDS have been com-mitted to the implementation of developmentprojects to reduce risks to people and property,and have worked continually to strengthentheir national and regional resilience to hazardimpacts. The historical record of specific disas-ter reduction initiatives, albeit quite short, also

PPrrooggrreessss iinn tthhee PPaacciiffiicc

There has been admirable progress of well-structured programmes for disaster risk management in the Pacific, allguided by regional consensus, and with each one championed by respected regional organizations:

• From 1990-1999, the IDNDR provided a common purpose and an international structure to address ashared need of disaster reduction across Pacific SIDS.

• In 1993-94, Pacific SIDS developed a common programme on Natural Disaster Reduction in Pacific IslandsCountries, presented at the World Conference on Disaster Reduction in Yokohama, Japan, 1994.

• From 1994-2000, the UNDP South Pacific Office supported the South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme(SPDRP), which proceeded in two phases: 1994-1997 and 1998-2000.

• A Tripartite Review conducted by UNDHA-SPPO-SPDRP in 1996, led to a Regional Disaster ManagementFramework being formulated in September, 1997.

• Widespread discussion ensued about the best way to institutionalise a collective regional strategy for disasterreduction, with direction being provided by the Alafua Declaration adopted by the Pacific Island Forum inSeptember, 1999.

• UN-ISDR in 2000, coincided with plans to conclude the SPDRP and to constitute its successor, the SouthPacific Applied Geoscience Commission – Disaster Management Unit (SOPAC-DMU), from July 2000.

• With the design and official endorsement of a Regional Programme Plan, SOPAC-DMU embarked on animplementation process for the next three years from 2001-2004.

• Future directions will be guided by the innovative Comprehensive Hazard and Risk Management Project(CHARM), an integrated risk management framework and practice to manage unacceptable risks in thePacific SIDS, in the context of national development planning, encompassing both regional and individualcountry initiatives.

ients as unencumbered assistance. As theamount of disaster assistance has increasedsharply over recent years, with the expandedinvolvement of bilateral and international assis-tance agencies as well as private voluntarygroups, so too has been the consequence of com-munity dependency.

During the 1980s, the UN Coordinator forDisaster Relief Operations supported disasterpreparedness and response activities in thePacific by providing technical and financialassistance for disaster management seminars,workshops, and planning exercises. In October1990, a South Pacific Programme Office (SPPO)was established in Suva, Fiji, to act as the coor-dination centre for these activities. During thepast decade in particular, this proactiveapproach to disaster management has becomemore prominent in the evolution of a regionalstrategy and in the development of individualnational plans.

Later, during much of the nineties, the overallobjectives of SPDRP proceeded in both itsfirst and second phases to:

• Strengthen human resources and institu-tional capacity to manage the effects ofnatural disasters effectively and rapidly.

• Provide appropriate technical supportmaterials for disaster management atnational, local and community levels.

• Establish a disaster management informa-tion system.

• Achieve an acceptable and sustainablelevel of regional cooperation and collabo-ration.

• Empower communities to reduce theirvulnerability to natural disasters.

• Establish training capacities at regionaland national levels.

• Increase national capabilities to reducenatural disaster risk through developmentand implementation of mitigation meas-ures.

• Strengthen sustainability through impro-ved regional and national coordination,including mutual support.

To achieve these objectives, activities were clus-tered under six key programme components:

• In-country training and technical assis-tance.

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• Regional training.• Disaster mitigation activities.• Regional support materials.• Information management.• Regional cooperation and coordination.

Although SPDRP was planned and coordinat-ed on a regional basis, a high level of supportand activity was demonstrated by individualPacific SIDS. The collective programme alsoprovided a mechanism for international donorsto target their assistance for the region as awhole, in a coordinated and focussed way thatsuccessfully avoided both duplication of effortand inter-agency competition on all sides.Financial, material and technical support fordisaster reduction activities was channelledthrough SPDRP by Australia, China, Ger-many, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, UK,and US.

An integral part of the SPDRP was the Pacif-ic Regional IDNDR programme, greatly facil-itated by the interest and support of the Aus-tralian National Coordination Committee forIDNDR, which encouraged this coordinatedregional approach by funding 31 country proj-ects. It also supported several other regionalprojects, conducted both regional and interna-tional meetings, and maintained an active pro-gramme disseminating information.

A study by a Fijian, A. Kaloumaira (SOPAC-DMU, 1999a) highlights the state of capacity-building for Pacific SIDS in 1999 in terms thatreflect the incorporation of mitigation strate-gies into national government and non-govern-mental systems. As the following excerpt pointsout, the relevance, and therefore the efficacy ofdisaster reduction is heavily dependent uponthe extent that it reflects prevailing social, cul-tural, and environmental interests of the peopleit is intended to serve.

In the South Pacific, a risk assessment project, known asthe Pacific City Project is being implemented by the SouthPacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) in thecapitals of Pacific SIDS. The project was originally basedon earthquake related hazards, but it will now be extendedto include other hazards. A micro-zoning map is now inplace for the seismic hazard maps.

Response to ISDR questionnaire from Tonga, 2001.

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engage the commitment of international agen-cies and to develop expanded partner relation-ships through formal memorandums of under-standing with foreign government agenciesand international institutions.

The current strategy for improving Pacificregional collaboration rests on two primaryobjectives: to establish a highly functionalcoordinating body (SOPAC-DMU), and tostrengthen the capacity of national risk officialsto accomplish effective disaster managementprogrammes domestically. As no formal insti-tutional mechanisms existed to promote thistype of regional collaboration in support ofcountry programmes, this has become a prior-ity. It is also expected that various CHARMstrategies will lead to a redefinition of NDMOroles and responsibilities in a number of coun-tries, as disaster risk management is integratedwithin mainstream government planning.Therefore, advocacy at senior levels of respon-sibility and appropriate professional develop-ment strategies will also receive priority atten-tion.

Comprehensive Hazard And Risk Management(CHARM) programmes are keys to optimisingthe efficacy of donor aid and achieving sustain-

The South Pacific Applied Geoscience CommissionDisaster Management Unit (SOPAC-DMU)was established in July 2000. It was created toprovide an expanded approach to disaster riskmanagement throughout the region whilemaintaining a positive relationship to the previ-ous decade’s UNDP-SPO SPDRP pro-gramme and its resulting partnerships.

The present goal of the SOPAC-DMU proj-ect is to strengthen national disaster manage-ment programming capacities and to integraterisk management practices within the econom-ic strategies of countries in order to achievelong-term community resilience. This will beimplemented through the CHARM pro-gramme, a comprehensive strategy based onsustainable hazard and risk management, butone that also seeks to achieve greater effective-ness in disaster response and recovery practicesfollowing disasters.

In addition to the annual Pacific Regional Dis-aster Management Meetings, other SPDRP-initiated activities are continuing in theSOPAC-DMU programme. Information isdisseminated regularly through the publicationof SOPAC-DMU quarterly reports and anewsletter. Other major efforts continue to

Pacific Islanders have inherited a resilient social system. The strength of this system is in its extended family val-ues and communal mechanisms that link to national systems. It requires only a little bit of restructuring and advo-cacy to integrate these into a practical organizational framework that will foster ownership, and promote joint par-ticipatory approaches to mitigation management between government and other stakeholders.

The challenges on island nations arise from the expanding progress of development on an essentially limited vol-ume of natural resources. This has forced development to encroach into adverse environments, rapidly increasingcommunity vulnerability to natural disasters. Increasing awareness of mitigation measures through science andtechnology alone cannot foster preparedness. Strengthening the complementarity between science and the techno-logical tools with the social and humanitarian aspects has to happen.

Mitigation for Pacific disaster managers is in effect being good facilitating managers. It calls for skills to buildoperational networks so as to enthuse effective use of local resources. It requires forging collaborative efforts andtechnical competence. It needs building partnerships to equip stakeholders for effective field operation.

In the past years, island nations have each established a strong national coordination unit. Importantly, each nationhas developed a national disaster management plan that establishes the management structures and allocatesresponsibilities to key organizations. The support plans and operational procedures are the critical forum thatorganizes the complexity of community involvement into a system that works in partnership with government.

Mitigation pilot projects through this facilitative management approach are providing the building blocks thatsuccessfully incorporate mitigation planning into national systems.”Source: A. Kaloumaira, SOPAC-DMU, 1999a

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• Fostering national development strategies:CHARM involves creating a participato-ry inter-agency approach among govern-ment and non-government agencies. Itsexecution requires the involvement of keyrepresentatives in both individual andgroup consultations. The key elements ofthe CHARM process are:

- Identifying known hazards.- Analysing each hazard against national

development priorities.- Identifying vulnerable sectors in relation

to hazards.- Identifying risks and determining the

most appropriate ways to manage those

able outcomes within individual Pacific SIDS.While previous work was undertaken toenhance the existing national disaster manage-ment capacities and to strengthen institutionalmechanisms, it was related primarily to achiev-ing more effective coordination of emergencyresponse activities. More recently, changingoutlooks renewed efforts directed toward morecomprehensive programming that placed dis-aster management responsibilities within abroader risk management framework. Aknowledge base and institutional arrangementsnow exist within the Pacific region to com-mence individual country programmes andregional collaboration.

There are many government line ministries anddepartments, together with regional organisa-tions, that are currently undertaking risk man-agement projects. Many of these are undertak-en in isolation, with very little information shar-ing or collaborating partnerships being estab-lished, which in turn leads to duplication ofeffort. In order for national officials to identifyprogramming gaps, they must first have a bigpicture of all the hazards and the risks that exist,together with an overview of what projects arebeing undertaken or proposed.

Usually it is only the national planning officesthat would have this information. However,research has found that there is not usually amatrix that shows all projects and their linkages.The development of the tool as well as its appli-cation, need to be supported with skills, trainingand advocacy programmes. Because of this, theCHARM approach integrates all disciplinesfrom all sectors and allows the product to beassimilated into the national planning processes.

In order to institutionalise the principles onwhich CHARM is based, strategic approacheshave been identified to translate the conceptsinto practical forms of activity. They are:

• Creating a regional CHARM develop-ment strategy: As a new concept,CHARM requires investment in the pro-fessional development of senior officesfrom stakeholders’ agencies. It alsorequires close collaboration with theregion’s traditional donors and otherregional organizations, as it is a tool envi-sioned to enhance sustainable develop-ment and its many subsequent benefits.

DDiissaasstteerr MMaannaaggmmeenntt PPrroojjeecctt iinn tthhee PPaacciiffiicc

"Disaster management is everyone's business. It is a funda-mental component of individual, community, business, NGOand government safety and well-being. It is an essential pre-requisite for the achievement of community resilience andsustainable development. [To] ensure an integrated and sus-tainable approach to comprehensive hazard and risk manage-ment is achieved, a major function of the Disaster Manage-ment Unit (DMU) will be to act as a coordinator to bringtogether major stakeholder groups representing regional,governmental, community, corporate and NGO interests. Inthis broker/facilitator role, the DMU will play a pivotal partin identifying, encouraging and assisting in disaster reduc-tion and risk management activities throughout the regionand within Pacific island countries."

The SSOOPPAACC-DDMMUU DDiissaasstteerr MMaannaaggeemmeenntt PPrroojjeecctt has fourkey components:• Establishment and effective management of the new

DMU within SOPAC.• Guidance of professional skill development among key

disaster management officials.• Technical support for the formulation and management

of country programmes.• Promotion of the benefits of risk management among

politicians and policy makers.

The CCHHAARRMM pprrooggrraammmmiinngg aapppprrooaacchh has been developedto:• Intrinsically link together development priorities and

programmes of individual countries.• Clearly identify gaps within existing or proposed coun-

try project activities.• Enable SOPAC to work closer with its regional partners

and to develop the SOPAC-DMU annual work planand activities schedule around clearly identified countryneeds and priorities.

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the collaborative effort of all major stake-holders for it to be fully implemented. In-country training capacities need to be devel-oped and strengthened to drive this process.

• Strengthening Information TechnologyCapabilities: A critical success factor willbe to ensure that national disaster manage-ment offices throughout the region areequipped with human and technicalcapacities to manage multi-disciplinaryinformation resources. This will requireappropriate technological tools and com-puter-based information and communica-tion systems.

risks within realistic time and resourceframeworks.

- Identifying what activities or projects arealready being implemented or proposed,both at the country level and by regionalorganizations.

- Identifying programming gaps.- Identifying possible options for altered

development priorities in light of impactscenarios.

- Determining lead responsibilities andagencies for managing the implementationof the risk reduction strategy.

• Training: As a new concept, the develop-ment of CHARM will require time and

CCoommpprreehheennssiivvee HHaazzaarrdd AAnndd RRiisskk MMaannaaggeemmeenntt ((CCHHAARRMM))

Six underlying strategic principles to underpin the implementation of CHARM:

• Ensure ownership by the national countries.• Ensure linkages with National Strategic Plans.• Ensure linkages and harmonizing with existing systems.• Ensure appropriate communication and consultation with communities, stakeholders, donors and devel-

opment partners.• Establish the principle that risk reduction is vital to national development and that CHARM is a power-

ful tool in the reduction of risk.• Ensure CHARM is promoted as a public safety tool, a risk reduction change driver, as cost-effective and

as part of an agreed regional programme with donor support.

Immediate challenges to CHARM include:

• Reaching agreement on the processes and means to guide a uniform approach among all participatingcountries.

• Establishing a regional implementation framework.• Identifying training strategies and other essential implementation supports.• Marketing CHARM effectively, with a view towards sustainability.• Advocating for and gaining high level support for its adoption as a national initiative.

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Europe

WWeesstteerrnn EEuurrooppee

Research is one of the necessaryand fundamental pillars of disas-ter reduction. The European Com-mission (EC) has promoted col-

laborative research between commercial inter-ests, universities and research centres in thefield of disaster reduction, with an increasingbudget allocation for this purpose:

• European Cooperation in the Field of Scientif-ic and Technical Research (COST), whichstarted in the 1960’s and has the aim ofsupporting joint European research.

• European Strategic Programme for Researchand Information Technology (ESPRIT),which started in 1983.

• Framework Programme, started in 1984 asmulti-annual research programmes, aresummarized below:

In particular, the launch of the multi-annualresearch Framework Programme marked themove towards a more targeted collaborationbetween universities, research centres and pri-vate companies. Such strategic partnershipswere created with the political intent to pro-

mote social unity in Europe’s research commu-nity. European research in the field of disasterreduction can be traced back to the EPOCHProgramme of 1987-89 and has continuedthrough strengthened political support to thecurrently envisaged European Research Area(ERA) by bringing science closer to the needsof society. Almost 15o research projects havecontributed to hazards studies and disaster riskreduction with the support of the EC over thepast 18 years.

Another important initiative promoted by theEC is the Global Monitoring for the Environ-ment and Security (GMES) that fills the needfor independent information on key issuesaffecting the world’s environment and thesecurity of citizens. It focuses primarily on theuse of earth observation techniques for main-taining an adequate long-term watch on keylandscape parameters, such as vegetation cover,land use, resource degradation or depletion. Itwill also call for techniques to support the

assessment of naturalrisks and the man-agement of cata-strophic events.

Under the frame-work of ERA, theEU aims to launch aconcerted effort toface problems affect-ing the economy,society and citizensfor which science

holds the key. Furthermore, as sustainabledevelopment is a major political objective inthe EU’s agenda, it demands specific researchrequiring interdisciplinary approaches. Disas-ter reduction is one of these areas. ERA can beschematically explained by the following fig-ure:

PPrrooggrraammmmee DDuurraattiioonn EEUU ccoonnttrriibbuuttiioonn ((EEuurrooss mmiilllliioonnss))

1st Framework Programme (FP1) 1984-8 73,7502nd Framework Programme (FP2) 1987-91 5,3963rd Framework Programme (FP3) 1990-94 6,6004th Framework Programme (FP4) 1994-98 13,2005th Framework Programme (FP5) 1998-02 14,9606th Framework Programme (FP6) 2002-06 17,500

Source: European Commission, Directorate General on Research

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ERA will work to foster closer collaboration andcoordination of research and innovation activitiesat both the national and European levels bymeans of networking of key organizations,involvement of main actors, and project integra-tion with EUREKA/“Innovation 2000 Initia-tive”. The initiative will strive to promote thecoherent development of research and innovationpolicies in Europe by pursuing common targets,benchmarking RTD policies, mapping designat-ed centres of excellence, employing scientific andtechnological foresight, statistics and indicators,and supporting the improvement of regulatoryand administrative environments. Finally, it willstrive to ensure the lasting effect of long-termprogrammes covering elements of variable scale.

Specific research priorities that are dedicated todisaster reduction include the following:

• Mechanisms of desertification and naturaldisasters where research will focus on largescale integrated assessment of land/soildegradation and desertification; long termforecasting of hydro-geological hazardsmonitoring; mapping and managementstrategies; improved disaster preparednessand mitigation.

• Impact of environmental issues on health,including methods for risk assessment andthe mitigation of risks of natural disasters topeople.

In addition, research will be geared to analysinglinks between climatic change and natural disas-ters by concentrating on the development ofinstruments that can identify and gauge hazardsbetter, or by working to reduce the consequences

of natural hazards such as floods, storms, fires,avalanches and landslides.

Within the sixth framework programme, theDirectorate General Joint Research Centre (DGJRC) has a key role of supporting policy devel-opment through applied research. The JRCwill concentrate on issues of natural and tech-nological hazards and will continue to supportefforts which develop a European frameworkfor forecasting, assessing, managing andreducing risks in the community. The JRCwill carry on with institutional projects in thearea of disaster risk reduction, including:

• Natural and Environmental Disaster Infor-mation Exchange System (NEDIES)http://nedies.jrc.it

• Natural Hazardshttp://natural-hazards.aris.sai.jrc.it

• European Laboratory for Structural Assess-ment - Earthquake Engineering (ELSA) http://structural-mechanics.jrc.it

The JRC will further develop a systemapproach to the management of these hazardsand efforts will be centred around its operationand improvement of harmonised Europeanmonitoring systems. A link to the GMES ini-tiative will be developed. The JRC will focusparticularly on the development of EU policyapplications which contribute to the GMESconcept in three areas of work: support tointernational environmental agreements,assessing risks and hazards, and evaluatingenvironmental stress.

In parallel to the JRC projects, other ECDirectorates General are supporting comple-mentary initiatives in disaster risk manage-ment. In the DG Environment there are proj-ects which supplement the research carried outin the EU. Some are linked to civil protectionareas of cooperation such as:

• Major Project on Preventionhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/civil/prote/cpactiv/cpmaj01.htm

• Flood projects:PREMO98' http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/civil/prote/cpactiv/cpact05g.htm Reduce the Risk of Floods in the River GeulCatchment.

EERRAA - bbaacckkggrroouunndd

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http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/civil/prote/cpactiv/cpact05c.htm Flood and Erosion Management in AlpineRiver Basins. http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/civil/prote/cpactiv/cpact05e.htm Development of rescue actions based on dam-break flood analysis (RESCDAM).http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/civil/prote/cpactiv/cpact05h.htm Analysis of the 1993/1995 Floods in WesternEurope.http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/civil/prote/cpactiv/cpact05a.htm

The European Environment Agency’s (EEA)core task is to provide decision-makers withthe information needed for creating soundpolicies to protect the environment and sup-port sustainable development. It carries outstudies on issues such as the impact of extremehydrological disasters in relation to Europe’swater resources. It also supports the EC in dif-fusing information on the results of environ-mental-linked research. http://org.eea.eu.int

The EUR-OPA Major Hazards Agreementconstitutes an open agreement on setting upcooperation in major natural and technologicaldisasters. It has been signed by 23 MemberStates of the Council of Europe. Its aim is tocarry out a multidisciplinary study of the coop-eration methods through political, scientificand technical activities. http://www.europarisks.coe.int

CCeennttrraall EEuurrooppee

The Central European Disaster PreventionForum (CEUDIP) was established in 1999through the joint efforts of the National Com-mittees for the IDNDR from the Czech

Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland andSlovakia, to continue activities of the ISDR.The specific motivation was to formulate aninstitutional mechanism that could increasethe collaboration in disaster reduction relatedto all types of hazards, and particularlyfloods, shared among these neighbouringcountries.

Following the shared experience of the destruc-tive Oder River floods early in 1999, the initialinterest that stimulated the participating coun-tries was a common desire to improve earlywarning capabilities both among and within theindividual countries. Other issues have emergedsubsequently, such as the role of the media indisaster reduction, national legislation aboutdeclared emergencies, the participation of civilsociety in disaster reduction activities, and thepreparation of training materials.

The forum has conducted annual meetingssince 1999 in Prague, Warsaw, Bratislava andBonn. The members of CEUDIP agreed attheir meeting in 2000 that closer cooperationwould be required with EU policies related tocivil protection and disaster reduction. As fourof the CEUDIP countries are candidates forfuture membership in the EU, they haveassigned particular relevance to assess theirpresent capabilities.

In particular, they have recognized the growingimportance of strong and active participation ofthe public, working through civic groups andother NGOs to supplement the efforts of gov-ernment institutions and agencies. Thisapproach to foster common and improvedregional standards was augmented atCEUDIP’s meeting in Bratislava in 2001 whenit was agreed to develop a project of cooperationwith the EU institutions involved with emer-gencies, risk and disaster reduction issues.

cchhaall

lleennggee

ss

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The function which these institutions serve asa dissemination vehicle, acting as clearinghouses for diverse material that merges politi-cal, professional and public interests, shouldnot be overlooked as a critical contributor tobuilding regional collaboration. There is littledoubt that the momentum and resulting suc-cess that has been realized in terms of regionalcooperation owe much to the efforts of bothregional and international organizations suchas PAHO, OCHA/UNDP, OAS, CEPRE-DENAC, PREANDINO in the Americas,ADPC and ADRC in Asia, and SOPAC inthe Pacific.

While SADC and IGAD currently displaysome initial policy impetus for disaster riskawareness in Southern and Eastern Africa, thefuller realization of practical forms of institu-tional commitment remain a challenge inAfrica. Throughout the Arabic-speaking worldand among all European countries, there is anabsence of consolidated recognition or materi-al support for a sustained regional focus.

An international framework of regionallyfocussed institutions could be created that arededicated to the various aspects of disaster riskmanagement practice.

Future cchallenges aand ppriorities

In reviewing the accomplishments of regionalcooperation, interaction and experience for dis-aster risk reduction in different parts of theworld, two success factors stand out: the sus-tained commitment of permanent facilities orinstitutions having the primary objective ofpromoting the multi-disciplinary aspects ofdisaster risk management, and an incontrovert-ible belief in the shared values of countries ofthe region concerned in their various forumsand agendas.

It is clear that both policy interests and materi-al resources must transcend strictly nationaloutlooks. Mobilising regional or sub-regionalefforts must support national institutional andcapacity strengthening. The examples citeddemonstrate that in some instances such aware-ness is thrust upon a region abruptly as throughHurricane Mitch in Central America, or it mayevolve more methodically through shared ori-entations as is the case for Pacific SIDS.

In all cases there needs to be an established andconsistently supported institutional hub that canboth promote and respond to multi-disciplinaryand inter-state issues related to disaster risk reduc-tion.

3.3. Community action

Risk reduction measures are most successful when they involvethe direct participation of the people most likely to be exposed tohazards, in the planning, decision-making, and operational activi-ties at all levels of responsibility. Local leaders, drawn from politi-cal, social and economic sectors of society need to assume a pri-mary responsibility for the protection of their own community.

Community processes and actions to accomplish disaster riskreduction is much talked about, in theory, but it is much moredifficult to realize in practice. There is however experience to sug-gest that the involvement of local residents in protecting their ownresources is possible and can work – if sufficient attention andinvestment is devoted to the subject. The salient issues and exam-ples which illustrate successful practice are presented under thefollowing headings:

• The essential role of community action• Community leadership and relationships• Increasing community capabilities• NGO and volunteer activities• Building local self-reliance: sharing resources, building part-

nerships• Dynamics of local collaboration• Traditional community coping mechanisms at stake

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The Asian Urban Disaster Mitigation Pro-gramme (AUDMP) has validated these prin-ciples through its activities with local institu-tions working in local Asian environments.Community-based disaster mitigation is a cros-cutting theme where assessment, planning andimplementation are participatory in design andaddress the community’s vulnerabilities andcapacities.

Projects in Bangladesh and Cambodia havebeen built around the concept of specificallyfocusing people’s perception of flood risk; thepurpose and tools of community flood riskassessment; the strategies for communityorganizing, and resource mobilization andcapacity building. All of these elements and

The eessential rrole oof ccommunity aaction

Disaster reduction is most effective at the com-munity level where specific local needs can bemet. When used alone, government and insti-tutional interventions often prove to be insuffi-cient and frequently are seen to be sporadic andonly responding to crises. They are inclined toignore local perceptions and needs and thepotential value of local resources and capacitiesin the process. As a result, it is not surprisingthat emergency relief assistance far exceedsresources invested to develop local disaster riskreduction capabilities.

First, communities must be aware of theimportance of disaster reduction for their ownwell-being. It then becomes necessary to iden-tify and impart essential skills that can translaterisk awareness into concrete practices of sus-tained risk management. Such an approachneeds to develop activities that can strengthencommunities’ capacities to identify and copewith hazards, and more broadly to improveresidents’ livelihoods.

“Much has been learntfrom the creative disasterprevention efforts of poor

communities in developingcountries. Prevention policyis too important to be left to

governments and interna-tional agencies alone. To

succeed, it must also engagecivil society, the private sec-

tor and the media.”

Kofi Annan, IDNDR Programme Forum, Geneva, July 1999

CommunityThe definition of community in this context refers to asocial group, which has a number of things in common,such as shared experience, locality, culture, heritage orsocial interests.

elected officials to take action. Key decisionsinclude:

• Objectives to be achieved by involvingcitizens.

• Areas in the planning process where, andwhen, citizens participate.

• Which citizens to include.• Techniques to use in order to obtain citi-

zen input.• Information that is to be provided to citi-

zens.

Disasters are opportunities for change andcommunity development. Women are partici-pating actively in rehabilitation and recon-struction around the world. Their organiza-tions have a special role to play, and are doingso in several places. “Networks of networks” isan increasing phenomena among community-based organizations and NGOs to share theirown experiences among community leadersand groups. One such network linkingwomen’s organizations is the Grass Root Orga-nization Operating in Sisterhood (GROOTS).The following are examples from Gujarat,India, and Turkey, of shared experiences with-in this network.

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strategies contribute to mainstreaming com-munity-based disaster management in poorand vulnerable communities as a cost effectiveoption.

Community lleadership aand rrelationships

Any system of local planning and protectionmust be integrated into larger administrativeand resource capabilities such as provincial,state and national disaster plans and riskreduction strategies. It is equally important torealize that communities cannot implementcommunity-based disaster mitigation alone.

Viable forms of community-based disasterreduction depend on a favourable politicalenvironment that understands, promotes andsupports this participation process.

A recent Australian study found that the extentof commitment by local governments to takeaction depends on emergency managers mak-ing the right choices about citizen involvementin planning risk reduction processes. This canbuild an informed constituency for disasterreduction and drive a real commitment among

PPeeooppllee - eessppeecciiaallllyy wwoommeenn - rreebbuuiillddiinngg tthheeiirr oowwnn ccoommmmuunniittiieess iinn GGuujjaarraatt

Immediately after the Gujarat, India, earthquake in January 2001, Swayam Shiksam Prayong (SSP), (self-educationfor empowerment), an Indian NGO, joined many community-based organizations in the recovery effort. Drawingon their prior experience following the Latur earthquake in the Maharashtra State of India in 1993, they proposeda policy, which would not only rebuild the devastated Gujarat communities but reform and strengthen their socialand political structures. The central concept was that people – especially women – need to rebuild their own com-munities. Key elements of the strategy included:

• Using reconstruction as an opportunity to build local capacities and skills.• Forming village development committees made up of women’s groups and other community institutions to

manage rehabilitation.• Engaging village committees to monitor earthquake-safe construction.• Redressing grievances at the village level.• Striving to locate financial and technical assistance within easy reach of affected communities, and not be

dependent on its being mediated by others.• Arriving at a clear definition of the role of local governments in planning and monitoring, information flow,

problem-solving, and infrastructure use and development.• Distributing information about earthquake safety and entitlement to all homeowners.• Encouraging the use of local skills and labour, and retraining local artisans in earthquake-resistant technology.• Including women in all aspects of the reconstruction.• Assigning titles of houses in names of men and women.• Encouraging coordination among government officials, district authorities and NGOs.• Seeking to facilitate public-private partnerships for economic and infrastructure development.

www.sspindia.org

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WWoommeenn ccoommmmuunniittyy ggrroouuppss aaccttiivvee iinn rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn aanndd rreeccoonnssttrruuccttiioonn

Turkish women displaced by the major earthquake that struck Turkey’s Marmara region inAugust 1999, began organizing themselves immediately after the disaster. Assisted by theFoundation for the Support of Women (FSWW) and obtaining funds from NOVIB and theAmerican Jewish World Services they worked together with government agencies, localmunicipalities, other NGOs and technical professionals.

FSWW built eight women and childcare centres to provide a safe environment for childrenand a public living room for local women, providing day care services as well as incomeearning opportunities for women. Additionally, these facilities have become centres forwomen to consider housing and resettlement problems and priorities, such as:

• The future utility and limitation of temporary prefabricated settlements.• How to resolve problems of isolation, transportation, local governance, minimal infra-

structure and wide-spread unemployment.• Housing requirements of renters and others who are not legal owners.• Earthquake safety standards for future housing.

Groups of women go door to door in their community to gather basic information abouttheir settlements, to publicize meetings and to increase participation. The women discussproblems, consider solutions and their own role in motivating changes. They invite expertsto their centres, visit construction sites, prioritise a list of officials to contact, and devisestrategies to hold authorities accountable for the information they provide and the promisesthey make. They visit local authorities to get information about reconstruction activities andthen post their findings at the centres, the settlement administration office, shops andschools.

In all eight centres a women’s group meets regularly with local officials. They also exchangestrategies across centres. In Izmit, they signed a protocol with the City Council and anotherwith an organization responsible for the local implementation of Agenda 21 to develop poli-cy proposals on the future of prefabricated settlements and housing safety in the region.Local authorities have started to understand that the women serve an effective communica-tion function within the community.

The most important lesson women feel they have learned is that resettlement is a longprocess that requires ongoing monitoring. The following lists the women’s response to workthey are doing:

• Are more confident and feel stronger.• Have begun to see that they can influence the decision-making process if they act

together.• Believe that only a common and widespread sense of responsibility in the community

can promote public safety and mitigate the effects of a new earthquake.• Are comfortable with the technical language related to construction and can question

safety and quality standards.• Can understand infrastructure issues.• Can do repairs and become plumbers, electricians and carpenters for the benefit of the

community.

Source: Huairou Commission Newsletter, volume 3, No. 1, April 2001

In every community, knowledge, professionalabilities, and experience fashioned from adver-sity can be found, but seldom are theseresources called upon or fully utilised. A spe-cial effort is required to recall locally valuedtraditional coping mechanisms and strategies.Modern concepts can provide innovativeapproaches. The advantages of modern tech-nology, such as those provided by GIS oraccess to satellite weather forecasts need notdiminish the values of traditional wisdom.Vietnamese villagers maintained irrigationchannels and protective dykes for a reason, justas Pacific islanders were guided in their choiceof materials and construction techniques inbuilding their earlier disaster-resistant houses.

NGO aand vvolunteer aactivities

Experience demonstrates that NGOs involvedin disaster risk reduction are focussed primari-ly on public awareness activities and advocacyprogrammes. They particularly seek to encour-age the desired shift in emphasis from emer-gency assistance and disaster response to themore engaged roles of local community parti-cipation in planning, vulnerability assessment,and risk management practices.

Some Asian countries, such as the Philippines,Bangladesh and India have elaborate policies,strategies, legal and operational mechanisms toaccommodate the participation of NGOs andcommunity based organizations in all aspectsof national development. But the extent towhich they have embraced risk reduction activ-ities is still modest. In the Americas, there hasbeen a recent spurt of interest in the subject.The results of that remains to be seen. InAfrica, a handful of small initiatives seem to beas much a consequence of recent or continuingthreats than representing a fundamental shiftin policy awareness or local community com-mitments.

CCaassee:: PPhhiilliippppiinneess

In the Philippines, the Citizen’s Disaster ResponseNetwork (CDRN) is a national network of 14NGOs that promotes community-based disas-ter preparedness work. Since its inception in theearly 1980s, it has conducted campaigns andadvocacy work to mitigate the impacts of disas-

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Increasing ccommunity ccapabilities

Inhabitants of local communities are potentialvictims of natural disaster. They also representthe greatest potential source of local knowledgeregarding hazardous conditions, and are therepositories of any traditional coping mecha-nisms suited to their individual environment.Furthermore it is their personal assets, physicalproperty, and way of life that are likely to bethreatened by hazard.

It is little wonder that it is the local populationwhich responds first at times of crisis. They arealso the last remaining participants as strickencommunities strive to rebuild after a disaster.Given these conditions, it is striking that theparticipation of local communities often provesto be problematic in so many disaster risk man-agement strategies. There are several con-straints or reasons why this may be so, and eachpoints to a lesson for effective engagement ofcommunity participation.

A bottom-up approach is needed to promotechange. Local communities are those mostaware of historical risk scenarios and the onesclosest to their own reality. It is not only aquestion of public awareness, it is a question oflocal community groups having the chance ofinfluencing decisions and managing resourcesto help reduce vulnerability and to cope withrisks.

Neither the widespread dissemination of priorexperience nor the abundance of scientific andtechnical knowledge reaches local populationsautomatically. An informed and sustained pro-gramme of public awareness is essential to con-vey the benefits of experience to vulnerablecommunities in terms that relate to local per-ceptions of need.

The effective use of knowledge not onlyrequires wide dissemination, it must also bepresented in a way that relates to local condi-tions and customs own conditions and risks.While this has long been accepted as a cardinalprinciple for development accomplishments, ithas remained a difficult principle in many dis-aster risk reduction strategies.

The realization of virtually all disaster riskreduction is essentially local in nature – andthat requires community action.

ter. By working together with communities,CDRN has developed strategies to enhancepeople’s capacities through community organiz-ing, forming village-level disaster response com-mittees, developing local early warning systems,organizing rescue teams and diversifying localsources of livelihoods. Receiving little externalsupport from donor agencies, it has reachedhundreds of villages and initiated community-based disaster mitigation initiatives.

CCaassee:: BBaannggllaaddeesshh

To reduce the vulnerability of flood-prone com-munities in the Tongi and Gaibandha munici-palities of Bangladesh, CARE Bangladesh hasadopted a community-based approach workingin collaboration with partner NGOs in themunicipalities and with the Disaster Manage-ment Bureau of the Government of Bangladesh.

This urban disaster mitigation project, fundedby OFDA/USAID and managed by ADPC’sAsian Urban Disaster Mitigation Programme,began by motivating community volunteers toconduct baseline surveys and vulnerabilityassessments. Through this initial activity, differ-ent community groups recognized the impor-tance of their joint community participation andhow each could contribute to practical riskreduction activities. This project emphasized theimportance of promoting hazard and riskawareness among community groups andsought to involve collaborators in other subjectareas by placing community-based disaster riskmanagement issues on the political agenda.

Since 1998, in order to promote communityawareness about the value of disaster risk reduc-tion, the government of Bangladesh has desig-nated the last working day of March as Nation-al Disaster Preparedness Day. In 2001, thisnational day was organized jointly by the Tongiand Gaibandha Municipality Disaster Manage-ment Committees, CARE Bangladesh andother partner NGOs.

CCaassee:: ZZiimmbbaabbwwee

The Community Drought Mitigation Partners’Network is an NGO network chaired by thelocal NGO SAFIRE and aims to promote and

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strengthen drought mitigation in Zimbabwe.The current members, ENDA, ORAP,ZFFHC, World Vision and Zimbabwe Pro-jects strive to implement joint community-based risk reduction projects, conduct publicdebates on drought mitigation, and produceand distribute the Living with Drought newslet-ter. These efforts seek to share lessons that havebeen learned and recent scientific researchresults related to disaster reduction. Meetingsare also convened between rural farmers, scien-tists and innovative farmers.

A similar regional network is the anticipatedSouthern African Drought Technology Network. Itwill work to facilitate the sharing of informationamong small-scale farmers, NGOs and com-munity-based organizations working with ruralfood security, agricultural research institutions,agricultural extension work, and agribusinesson drought-coping strategies that are respon-sive to the needs of the rural poor. Community-based disaster risk reduction initiatives are welldeveloped in Zimbabwe, but documentation ofsuccessful practices must still be improved. Itwill be important to complement this with fur-ther research to feed into the national disastermanagement plans and strategies.

CCaassee:: GGeerrmmaannyy

The Community Action Group for Floodwater inthe Old Community of Rodenkirchen (Bürgerini-tiative Hochwasser, Altgemeinde Rodenkirchen) isa non-profit association in a district ofCologne, founded after the severe flooding ofthe Rhine River in 1993 and 1995. This self-

“We are convinced that protection against flooding canonly be successful in the long-term if all inhabitantsalong the river perceive themselves as a communityworking in solidarity with each other. As we ourselveshave experienced with our own considerable efforts andthe many setbacks we have suffered, acting togetherdoes not come naturally but, rather, it is a product ofknowledge, experience and conviction, mediatedthrough communication – and this is best achievedthrough personal contacts.”

Speaker for Community Action Group for Floodwater in theOld Community of Rodenkirchen, Cologne, Germany

dom have ready access to warning informationor emergency equipment that would enablethem to evacuate or otherwise protect theirpossessions. Efforts to reduce the risk of annu-al floods through strategic plans on reducingdamage created by disasters are necessary.These plans should include knowledge on pro-tecting lives and assets, encouragement to thecommunity for minimizing risk of disasters,and continuing to improve the quality of life.

In 2000-2001, the government of Indonesiaasked the Bandung Institute of Technology (BIT)to implement a community empowermentproject in cooperation with ADRC. ADRC,located in Japan, learned lessons from theGreat Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in 1995,about how community participation is indis-pensable to enhance disaster managementcapability at local level. Thus the project wasaimed to enable local residents in the commu-nities to cope properly with flood disasters.Two flood-prone districts were taken as modelcases. This project included town-watching, inwhich local residents walked around their com-munities with experts such as researchers fromBIT and related institutions, to discuss the riskof disaster occurrence and points to beimproved for disaster reduction. As a result,local residents themselves proposed specificmeasures, such as making roadway improve-ments, constructing protective banks and bet-ter defining the watercourse in order to reducefuture flood risks.

CCaassee:: sseelleecctteedd AAssiiaann ccoouunnttrriieess ((IInnddiiaa,, IInnddoonneessiiaa,, NNeeppaall,, aanndd UUzzbbeekkiissttaann))

The United Nations Centre for RegionalDevelopment/Disaster Management PlanningHyogo Office (UNCRD Hyogo Office) wasestablished in Kobe, Japan in April 1999 topromote disaster mitigation activities by exam-ining the reconstruction process in Hyogo anddisseminating the experiences there to disaster-damaged areas in developing countries. It pro-vides advisory services to vulnerable commu-nities, especially in ways that can improve thesafety of primary community facilities such asschools and hospitals vulnerable to disasters,and by identifying and then disseminating bestpractices in disaster management at the com-munity level. UNCRD Hyogo Office helps todevelop disaster resistant communities by link-

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help group advocates the interests of more than4,000 residents in matters of local flood protec-tion. It strives to achieve a balance between thelegitimate protection of the population and theaims of a sustainable floodwater policy whichalso must include the rights of downstreaminhabitants and the river as a whole. Thismeans, for instance, that while the group sup-ports the construction of polders on the upperreaches of the Rhine and its tributaries, it alsoexpects the city of Cologne to undertake itsown considerable efforts to ensure that anyretention areas which are sacrificed as a resultof structural mitigation practices are compen-sated by other natural means of water retentionin the municipal area.

Building llocal sself-rreliance: ssharingresources, bbuilding ppartnerships

Disaster reduction depends on the consciouscommitment of individuals and communities– understanding and accepting the values ofchanged behaviour, having access to the tech-nical and material resources necessary fordoing so, and accepting the personal respon-sibility to carry through the efforts involved.

Communities are generally unaware of thehazards they face, underestimate those theyknow of, and overestimate their ability tocope with a crisis. They also tend not to putmuch trust in disaster reduction strategies,and rely heavily upon emergency assistancewhen the need arises.

Taking such a viewpoint into account high-lights the need for tools that can create a cul-ture of prevention against all forms of hazardswithin local communities. This requires theknowledge of practical and low-cost methodswhich address likely hazards that can be con-veyed to a wide-variety of participants includ-ing, community groups, trades people, com-mercial and financial interests and local gov-ernment employees.

CCaassee:: IInnddoonneessiiaa

In recent years, Bandung, Indonesia has suf-fered repeated floods. The communities mostaffected are low-income populations. They sel-

ing socio-economic considerations with physi-cal hazards in urban development work at thelocal levels.

Under the framework of human security, thegoal of the initiatives is to attain safer and moresustainable livelihoods. To achieve this goal,the initiatives focus on community develop-ment and empowerment activities. In specificprogrammes such as the School EarthquakeSafety Initiative, new approaches are formulat-ed to integrate disaster mitigation componentsinto urban development work at different lev-els of urban growth processes through variousactivities for schools. The programme is beingconducted in India, Indonesia, Nepal, andUzbekistan with the overall goals to:

• Empower the community with know-howand technology for safer earthquake con-struction.

• Build a disaster-resilient and self-reliantcommunity.

To achieve this, a specific focus has been givento the school systems, where the vulnerabilityof the school buildings are evaluated and tech-nically tested, and affordable retrofitting tech-niques are then provided. There are five directobjectives of the project:

• Evaluate the vulnerability of school build-ings in each of the selected cities.

• Recommend designs and affordablemeans of strengthening vulnerable schools.

• Retrofit one or two demonstration schoolsusing appropriate or improved traditionaltechnology.

• Provide training to workers from the localconstruction industry who build schoolsand residential dwellings.

• Prepare disaster education materials forschool children, teachers and communitiesand use them for training and educationpurposes.

CCaassee:: IInnddiiaa

More than one year after the earthquake inGujarat, most of the affected families were stillstruggling to put their lives together. While insome places aid agencies had built and handedover houses to villagers, the experience of a

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local community in Patanka shows how com-munity-led rehabilitation can yield results.Patanka, a village of about 250 families, suf-fered extensive damage during the earthquake,with about 170 houses collapsing an the restbeing badly damaged. Since it lies in and areabeyond the focus of most relief teams, it

received less attention from aid agencies. Evendistribution of government compensation, aseverywhere, was taking time.

Kheemabhai, a village leader from Patanka,found out about a Delhi-based disaster man-agement NGO called SEEDS. He expressedto SEEDS his community’s desire to recon-struct the village, themselves. AlthoughSEEDS had been working in the area, this wasthe first time it confronted a community keento reconstruct for itself. The village onlyrequested logistical support from the NGO.

First, a meeting was organized with the districtgovernment to ensure speedy distribution ofcompensation so that the villagers could startrebuilding their homes. After a visit to the vil-lage, the enthusiasm he witnessed convincedthe official to extend full support to the vil-lagers. Patanka became a scene of hectic activ-ity. Everyone was busy building their houses,getting material from a special material depotand collaborating with engineers about techni-cal details of earthquake-resistant construction.Entire families became involved, with womenand children seen curing the masonry workwith water, or ferrying material to their sites.

In the partnership approach everyone con-tributes. The initiative was truly led by thecommunity. The SEEDS team helped the vil-lagers obtain building materials, including lim-ited amounts of cement and steel. The villagessupplied their own stone, bricks, wood, roof-tiles and labour. Architects and engineers fromSEEDS trained the masons, labourers and thevillagers themselves on earthquake-resistanttechnology through on-the-job training, andthrough periodic training workshops.

In Japan, local community organizations withresponsibility for disaster preparedness cover halfthe population of the country.

Japan response to ISDR questionnaire, 2001

tive coping capacities within individual com-munities that a viable foundation for disasterrisk reduction can be created. The project isfundamentally community-based, with theintention of identifying crucial linkagesbetween livelihoods and the related optionswhich have the potential to reduce disasterrisks. Supported by the Conflict and Humani-tarian Affairs Department of DFID, the proj-ect has the following components:

• Research that can identify the implicationsof disaster risk on livelihoods.

• Formulation of strategies that strengthenlivelihoods and can reduce disaster risks.

• Developing the capacities of stakeholdersthrough community-based approaches todisaster management.

• Undertaking pilot demonstrations of riskreduction strategies.

• Advocating and promoting policies toinfluence a paradigm shift that recognizesthat disasters are part of the developmentprocess, and empowering people and theirlocal communities to take an active role inbuilding resilience to hazards and to min-imize future exposure to disasters.

The project has attracted cooperation fromgovernment institutions, NGOs, research anddevelopment planning organizations andmedia, in a process of localizing adaptations tosuit the specific nature of hazards, vulnerabili-ties and the needs of individual South Asiancommunities.

CCaassee:: MMaallddiivveess

In the Maldives, community efforts to reducevulnerability is common, where the entire land-mass comprising low-lying coral atolls is par-ticularly threatened by rising sea levels. From1998-2000 there were five damaging stormsthat affected 43 islands and 5 atolls. In June2000, severe waves lashed the resort island ofBolifushi causing US$ 1.3 million in damage.To prevent these types of hazards from becom-ing future disasters, local communities andNGOs have worked together in planting treeson the beaches and in constructing sea walls toprevent beach erosion, thereby minimizing theimpact of tidal waves on the islands.

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Patanka is on its way to becoming an interna-tional example of good practice in communi-ty- led rehabilitation. Two expert masons fromNepal’s National Society of Earthquake Tech-nology came to teach their Gujarati partnershow to build safe houses. They developed avery good rapport with all the villagers, andexpressed considerable respect for the abilitiesof the local masons. Language barriersnotwithstanding, they could all be seen work-ing, guiding and advising at the constructionsites well into the evening.

While there were many supporters, the deci-sion-making was done by the community itself.Each family determined its own house design,the material to be used, and initiated the con-struction. Upon completion of construction inthe village, there was a pool of trained masonsable to continue playing an important role inthe rebuilding of the rest of Gujarat. Recog-nizing the strength of this community-ledrehabilitation model, organizations includingthe UN Centre for Regional Development,Gap Inc., the Earthquake Disaster MitigationResearch Centre in Japan and a consortium ofNGOs from Japan, all pitched in to supportand promote it.

A wider dissemination campaign is beingplanned to promote such work and create moreawareness about the success of do-it-yourself,low-cost earthquake-resistant construction. InPatanka, there was not only excitement aboutbuilding a new village, but a great sense ofownership and pride among the villagers onhaving done it themselves, paid for it them-selves, and also having done it in a technicalway that will protect their homes in the future.

CCaassee:: SSoouutthh AAssiiaann ccoouunnttrriieess ((BBaannggllaaddeesshh,, IInnddiiaa,, NNeeppaall,, PPaakkiissttaann,, SSrrii LLaannkkaa))

Duryog Nivaran – the South Asian Network forDisaster Mitigation, sponsors a project calledLivelihood Options for Disaster Risk Reductionthat proceeds from the recognition that formany thousands of people in South Asia, if notmillions, living with disaster risk is a fact ofeveryday life. It is therefore only by strength-ening livelihoods and by building more effec-

CCaassee:: CCeennttrraall AAmmeerriiccaann ccoouunnttrriieess,, ccoommmmuunniittyy bbaasseedd oorrggaanniizzaattiioonnThe Central American Community Risk Manage-ment Network was inspired by the impact ofHurricane Mitch. The perceived exclusion ofcommunity-based organizations from thereconstruction process became a stimulus toincrease the participation of community organ-izations and to foster the development of grass-roots approaches to risk management and dis-aster reduction.

The Network was formed in Nicaragua inMay 1999 with the support of CEPRE-DENAC, GTZ, HABITAT and theIDNDR. The network works through existingcommunity organizations in many areas ofCentral America by providing training andtechnical advice. It has focused its attentionparticularly on the popular understanding ofthe relationships between disasters and devel-opment, and the need to strengthen existingcommunity-based development organizationsrather than creating new, local disaster organi-zations. Member communities of the networkhave participated in early warning projects andtraining activities supported by organizationssuch as GTZ.

Dynamics oof llocal ccollaboration

With the proper motivation, local communitiesare receptive to new ideas. However, the fullparticipation of community members is onlypossible to the extent that efforts are based onmutual trust, a clear definition of the decision-making process, and transparency of manage-ment practice and economic expenditure. Poli-tics and financial disparities exist in villagesand neighbourhoods, so it becomes importantto identify shared values and concerns.

Scientists and engineers are challenged totranslate their research findings into conceptsand language understandable by communi-ties, as much as administrators must strive tomotivate risk management practices that pro-tect residents’ own interests and assets. Moreoften than not, successful community actionin disaster reduction hinges on appropriateand low-technological approaches that are

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easily and economically adopted by inhabitants.These conditions underline the importance ofrecognizing that community action must beassociated with a larger national strategy inwhich local efforts play a crucial part.

There must be a sense of local ownership and acooperative working relationship among differentorganizations if local capacity is to flourish. Suc-cessful outcomes depend on community involve-ment from planning to the implementation andmonitoring of activities so that local people feel thatthe work of reducing risks has relevance to theirlives. Risk and resource analysis should includerapid appraisal tools and techniques. This meansthat local people have to be involved in both riskmapping and resource assessment, as too often theneeds and resources that already exist within acommunity are overlooked or discounted. If theseassets are harnessed and developed from the begin-ning, they form a valuable part of the process.

The IFRC Disaster Preparedness AppealsAnalysis Mapping for 2002-03 indicates that asignificant percentage of the sample group of 32National Societies reviewed were including com-munity-based disaster management activities intheir 2002-03 programmes.

The IFRC learned that successful integratedand participatory planning needs to lay out adistinctive methodology with clear aims andobjectives, and one that includes the involve-ment of different actors drawn from govern-

It has proven important to identify what elementsand criteria are relevant for community-based dis-aster preparedness and to consider the develop-ment of a unified conceptual framework whichdefines its role within the larger context of othernational programmes. Equally, there is a need forbetter indicators of performance to indicate impacteven when disaster does not strike. Careful think-ing is necessary to consider a reliable fundingstrategy to ensure sustainable commitments. The

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ment, technical agencies, NGOs, com-munities, UN and other internationalagencies. The strategy requires a seriouscommitment to identify genuinestrengths and weaknesses, opportunitiesand threats of National Societies as inte-grated approaches of participationshould mirror the basic processes associ-ated with vulnerability and capacityassessments.

TThhee BBeenneeffiittss ooff EExxppeerriieennccee // NNaattiioonnaall RReedd CCrroossss aanndd RReedd CCrreesscceenntt SSoocciieettiieessWWhhaatt wwoorrkkeedd wweellll iinn ccoommmmuunniittyy ppaarrttiicciippaattiioonn??

• Participatory rapid appraisals provide relevance, increase ownership, and motivate self-initiated proj-ects (Nepal: increased indigenous knowledge and confidence, unity of communities’ beliefs).

• Bridges the gap between relief and rehabilitation (Mozambique).• Increases the number of volunteers – the formation of Red Cross community groups increase capaci-

ty at the local level.• As mitigation components increase, so does resilience at community level, encouraging partnership

processes.• Action planning and identification of vulnerability become more problem oriented (India).• The development of community disaster plans creates a more organized response, and become a uni-

fying force (Peru). • Integrating community-based disaster preparedness with health programmes promotes development

and income generation, increasing resilience to disasters.• Establishing networks with local government mobilizes leaders. (Community Based Self Reliance Pro-

gramme in Papua New Guinea, which is completely owned by the National Society.) • Community originated empowerment supported by National Societies through moral support rather

than hardware, for example by encouraging the identification of risks by communities.• Integrating disaster preparedness into health workshops merges similar programme interests and aids

cooperation within volunteer training of civil protection, ministry of health, and National Society(Syria).

• Creating regional awareness for community action and promoting HIV/AIDS as global disaster andhealth issue (North African Integrated Disaster Preparedness and Health Initiative).

WWhhaatt ddiidd nnoott wwoorrkk wweellll??

• Sometimes there was misunderstanding with local authorities, who saw the programme as a threat tomaintaining a culture of dependence by the local population.

• Inadequate capacities in the National Societies to support activities at the community level. However,community-based disaster preparedness approaches progressively are resulting in increasing NationalSociety capacities at national, branch and community levels of activity.

• Poor planning processes in some areas.• Insufficient efforts to ensure sustainability after initial funding period.• Roles can sometimes clash with those of local authorities, especially in the absence of an inclusive plan-

ning process.• Lack of community-based disaster preparedness and management was a serious detriment in gaining

public response at local level (Turkey earthquake).

experience of National Societies of Red Crossand Red Crescent in Bangladesh and Philip-pines demonstrate a positive correlationbetween integrated participatory planning andenhanced levels of local self-reliance.

Traditional ccommunity ccoping mechanisms aat sstake

Collective and environmentally sound land useand tenure at community level is in manyplaces still based on traditional and commonlyaccepted practices, which help to cope withphenomena such as drought and floods. Thisconventional practice is respected more thanmodern laws in many communities in Africaand elsewhere. However, traditional ways aremore and more being replaced by western or"modern" economic and social interests andvalues, increasing vulnerability and exposure tohazards and weakening coping capacities.Examples can be found in the Brazilian rain-forest, where indigenous groups interests arebeing replaced by economic ones that turnforests into pastoral land, thereby imposingland degradation, increasing drought or floodpatterns and forcing social exclusion.

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Long before there were national governmentsor development planners, Pacific islanders hadto live with natural hazards and extensive loss-es. While a considerable sense of traditionalvalues and social conditions remain, the inter-nal migration from villages to urban areas arethrusting significant numbers of people intochanging lifestyles in the Pacific island statesand elsewhere. Urban immigrants frequentlylack knowledge about local hazards and urbanrisks, and are seldom familiar with appropriatebehaviour to minimise potential losses. Theyare often marginalized politically, and fre-quently lack the social network of kin, whichprovides vital support and can be relied uponfor information and communal responsibilitiesin most villages. As far as hazards are con-cerned, the process of urban adaptationinvolves a shift away from community self-reliance and shared knowledge towards anexpectation that formal government organiza-tions will provide protection, warnings, sup-port and relief.

These are considerations yet to be seriouslyaccommodated in national strategies of disasterreduction and risk management.

cchhaall

lleennggee

ss should be encouraged and financed,as they considerably reduce vulnera-bility and strengthen local capacities.

- Existing grass-roots and community-based organizations at communitylevel, including women organizations,should be reinforced, for them to takeaction and participate on disaster riskreduction activities.

- Mechanisms for community partici-pation in information, decision-mak-ing and resource management toreduce risk should be strengthened.

- The involvement and participation of"ordinary" people in all technical,developmental and policy-relatedprojects, needs to be encouraged, bycreating inclusive discussion forums.There, people would be able to evalu-ate, explain and discuss their ownneeds, as well as debate with scien-tists, politicians and other skilled per-sons about what could be done toreduce risks.

- A re-evaluation of externally deter-mined policies by local people shouldbe done to make them compatiblewith their needs and more people-ori-ented.

Ultimately, effective risk reduction has totake place within the much broader contextof initiatives that build an informed, capableand resilient community by drawing on itstraditional strengths and the benefits of col-lective experience and skills. This must bepursued conscientiously over a period oftime, and supported with necessaryresources – long before there is any immedi-ate threat of crisis.

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Community participation is something that isunderstood differently in each cultural or polit-ical context. Some universal and specific chal-lenges and priorities are outlined below.

A satisfactory link needs to be enhancedbetween the development of national policyguidance and direction and the widespread useof viable mechanisms that can actually translatethose principles into sustained, but flexible,locally-based activities. People also have tounderstand and accept that they, too, have aresponsibility towards their own survival – it isnot simply a matter for governments to findand provide solutions.

The following priorities can be identified:

• Enhancing local technical skills:

- Transfer of expertise at a local levelshould be enhanced and developed,e.g. early warning systems and proce-dures suited to small-scale require-ments.

- Transfer of local experiences, andtheir tematic application within vari-ous communities have to be devel-oped.

- Better communication is requiredamong authorities and managers, andamong community leaders for thispurpose.

• Increasing social cohesion and communi-ty empowerment at all levels:

- Local communities, civic groups, tra-ditional structures, public services,collective achievements and values

4Chapter

153

Building understanding: development ofknowledge and information sharing

44..11 IInnffoorrmmaattiioonn mmaannaaggeemmeenntt aanndd ccoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn ooff eexxppeerriieennccee

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Current iissues oof iinformation mmanagement

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As disaster risk reduction issues pervade bothpopular interest and official policy outlooks,related information to the subject is expandingrapidly. The sources, previously associatedmainly with the catastrophic events, or consid-ered as the exclusive domain of specialists, cannow reach a wider range of users. The numberof interested people, educational institutions,organizations and local community users isgrowing, as are relevant websites, networks,and multidisciplinary and professionalexchanges.

In addition to these many sources for exchangingtechnical or specialized data, other means of com-munication have emerged to disseminate researchabout disaster risks, to convey information aboutnew activities and programmes, and to seek newways through which people can work together inreducing risks. Within the ISDR framework, theuse of Internet-based and electronic conferences

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4Building understanding: development of knowledge and information sharing

and discussion forums have been successful on sever-al occasions.

Innovations in GIS technology are increasinglybecoming an accepted tool for the presentation ofhazard vulnerabilities and risks. Other forms ofinformation dissemination provide new insightsabout knowledge engineering, management tech-niques and cognitive sciences. Some of the most sig-nificant and useful developments in the evolution ofinformation systems relate to innovative machine-user interfaces that rely on natural language process-ing for searching and analysing data. Others rely onthe expanded use of “fuzzy logic” and expert learn-ing systems such as those based on neural networks.

Many of these advanced techniques hold particularpromise in communicating data, information orexperience in quicker or automated early warningsystems, distinctive public awareness programmes,and for a wide variety of educational or community-based applications. They can assist in the develop-ment of learning materials, but rather guided by thespecific needs and interests of communities or indi-vidual users.

4.1. Information management and communication of experience

Effective disaster risk management depends upon a series of related actions and the means toengage the informed participation of all stakeholders. Exchange of information and communica-tion practices play key roles in the realization of these activities. Data availability is crucial forongoing research, to monitor hazards and for assessing risks. Informationdescribes working conditions, provides reference material and allows access toresources. It shapes many productive relationships. Rapid and widespread devel-opments in modern communications record and disseminate the value of expe-rience, convey professional knowledge, and contribute to decision-makingprocesses. Integrating new developments in information management withestablished and more traditional methods can help to create a much betterunderstanding about hazards and risk at all levels of responsibility through pub-lic awareness programmes. They inform are instrumental in achieving morecomprehensive early warning systems and effective mitigation efforts.

Effective information management and communication about disaster riskreduction is conveyed through:

• An awareness of current issues of information management• An appreciation of initiatives around the world• Selected national information programmes• Technical information, experience about different hazards• Using cyberspace to discuss disaster risk reduction

"Prevention begins with information"

IDNDR theme for publicawareness campaign, 1998

users that live in impoverished areas. Whilesome institutions have been hesitant to adapt tonew forms of communication and technologies,many others now rely on electronic communi-cations or web site access for information thatis often beyond the reach of the people mostvulnerable to disasters.

Several factors have hindered the developmentof efficient information systems for general use,while other constraints might be more institu-tional in nature. Several commentators in Africahave conveyed to the ISDR secretariat theirview that the provision of timely, definitiveinformation remains problematic throughoutall aspects of disaster management responsibili-ties. A response from Bangladesh to an ISDRsurvey on the status of disaster reduction shareda common concern voiced by other countries aswell. Their concern results from the fact thatvarious government agencies, internationalorganizations, technical organizations or aca-demic institutions, as well as NGOs, all pro-duce data and information relevant to disasterrisk management processes. The need of indi-vidual organizations or external donor agenciesto have adequate information for their own pro-gramme interests has motivated most agenciesto develop information systems that cannot eas-ily be applied to other settings.

While many of them are involved in variousprojects concerned with hazard and risk issuesor land-use planning, no commonly acknowl-edged focal point exists to provide easy or con-sistent access to such information. As a conse-quence, important data or information relatedto risk maps, or associated public awarenessand education programmes about hazards,might either be scattered or confined amonglibraries, individual government offices, acade-mia or individual technical programmes withno common point of access.

An aappreciation oof iinitiatives around tthe wworld

There are numerous examples that illustratehow information management, innovativecommunication practices about hazards andvarious professional initiatives associated withdisaster issues, have helped to advance publicunderstanding and professional involvement indisaster risk reduction in recent years.


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The exponential growth in the volume ofsources and data also poses continuing challenges for the processing and dissemination ofmeaningful information. Users find it everharder to assess the accuracy, veracity, and insome cases, the validity of the content. Whilesystematic gathering and timely provision ofinformation are keys to ensuring the effectiveuse of information, processes of sorting,analysing and targeting information for pri-mary interest groups are at least as important toavoid information overload and confusionamong users.

Moreover, there is a growing tendency formany information providers to rely on increas-ingly sophisticated means of electronic com-munication, thereby excluding many potential

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As conveyed in the regional ISDR report which tookaccount of conditions in Southern Africa, but which nodoubt apply elsewhere, there are many countries inwhich a wealth of disaster risk information exists inarchived form: hydrometeorological data, early land-userecords, historical natural resource conditions, waterrecords and related issues. Such information might berecorded in an unsuitable form, or more seriously, mightnot be readily accessible because of restricted institution-al or technical reasons. These might include conditionsin which,

• Data is retained or restricted under presumed secu-rity considerations, or as an institutional powerbase;

• Inadequate cross-sectoral reference or communica-tion about the existence of data so that other poten-tial users are not aware of the information;

• Compilation and dissemination of information arenot considered a priority by organizations;

• Information is maintained in specialist, non-stan-dard, incompatible or even archaic formats;

• Information that exists in spatial or other formatscan be costly to convert into more readily accessibleformats;

• Data compilers might not have consulted potentialusers about their respective data requirements soavailable data are not structured to easily addressthe needs of either current or subsequent users.

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There are two primary global informationsources that are widely used for access to accu-mulated hazard and disaster reduction infor-mation, both located in Europe. One, the Cen-tre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters(CRED) is a World Health Organization(WHO) collaborating centre at the School ofPublic Health of the Catholic University ofLouvain in Brussels, Belgium. It maintains anEmergency Events Database (EM-DAT). Thiscomprehensive record of natural disasters thathas documented more than 12,500 events bytypes and country of occurrence during thetwentieth century, was created with the initialsupport of WHO and the Belgian Govern-ment. The CRED database is widely recog-nized professionally for its efforts to provide aconsistent rendering of the often casual, vague


or conflicting information about disasters thatis frequently conveyed in different formats. Itcan be accessed on the following web site:www.cred.be.

A second highly regarded source of cumulativeinformation about natural disasters that haveoccurred around the world since 1965 is theNatCat Service database maintained by theResearch and Development Department ofMunich Reinsurance (Munich Re), in Munich,Germany. Information derived from this hazarddocumentation service is published in five majorlanguages by MunichRe and circulated widelyin Topics, an annual review of natural catastro-phes. Munich Re also provides more specificinformation to commercial clients and otherinterested parties about the extent and intensityof specific disaster events or amalgamated infor-mation regarding regional or global exposure

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Accessing disaster information can be a time consuming and laborious task. Not only is datascattered but frequently identification of the disaster can be confusing in countries with manydisaster events. To address both of these issues cred is working with a technical advisorygroup of partners on a globally common Unique Identification code for disasters, proposedby the Asian Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC).

The partners include ReliefWeb-OCHA, OFDA-USAID, FAO, US/NOAA Office forGlobal Programs (OGP) and the World Bank. A GLobal IDEntifier number (GLIDE) isissued every week by EM-DAT at CRED for all new disaster events that meet the EM-DAT criteria (www.cred.be). The components of a GLIDE number consist of two letters toidentify the disaster type (e.g. ST - storms); the year of the disaster; a four-digit, sequentialdisaster number; and the three-letter ISO code for country of occurrence. So, for example,the GLIDE number for hurricane Mitch in Honduras is: ST-1998-0345-HND.

This number is posted by CRED, ReliefWeb, NOAA-GOP and ADRC on all their docu-ments relating to that particular disaster and gradually other partners will include it in what-ever information they generate. As information suppliers join in this initiative, documentsand data pertaining to specific events may be easily retrieved from various sources, or linkedtogether using the unique GLIDE numbers. The success of GLIDE depends on its wide-spread use and its level of utility for practitioners.

ADRC has prepared a specific website http://glidenumber.net/ to promote GLIDE. Beingin its experimental phase, the group encourages visiting this website and welcomes commentsor suggestions.

For more information contact CRED or ADRC ([email protected]) :

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analyses and trend studies. The Munich ReWorld Map of Natural Hazards has been valuedby disaster and risk management professionalssince its first publication in 1978. Its subsequentGlobe of Natural Hazards most recently updat-ed in 1998, has also proved to be an effectiveinformation tool. Munich Re regularly producesadditional publications and has recently issued aCD-ROM, World of Natural Disasters, toadvance the public knowledge of hazards andexposure to risk. By employing digital technolo-gy and the benefits of GIS representation ofinformation, this CD-ROM is easily able to pro-vide the risk identification and evaluation expert-ise of the reinsurance industry to engineers, gov-ernment officials and other interested people. Itis able to make a quick assessment of the basicnatural hazard potential at any terrestrial positionin the world at the click of a button. Additionalinformation can be found at www.municre.com

Another widely used source of public informa-tion and database is the ReliefWeb, operated byOCHA. Located at www.reliefweb.int, itfocuses primarily on current internationalemergencies and disasters with humanitarianimplications, although it also provides currentresponse-oriented information about naturaldisasters. ReliefWeb provides an excellent andwide-ranging selection of information, pressaccounts, related contacts and operationalinformation, as well as archived informationdrawn from public, governmental, NGO andauthoritative sources about various types ofemergencies and their consequences. However,as its name indicates, it largely relates to emer-gency preparedness and response interests.

In November 2001, IFRC launched its Disas-ter Management Information Systems (DMIS).This provides a single entry point for relevantdisaster-related information and multiple dis-aster management information sources that isbrowser-accessible for members of the RedCross and Red Crescent Movement. Support-ed by four National Societies, the UnitedKingdom bilateral development agency,Department for International Development(DFID) and the commercially sponsoredEricsson Response Program, the project aimsto provide information about disasters in a sys-tematic way and to monitor a number of factorsthat might signal an impending disaster. It pro-vides a toolbox of working documents, tem-

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World Disasters Report

One of the most respected sources of informa-tion about disasters is the World DisastersReport, an annual publication of the Interna-tional Federation of Red Cross and Red CrescentSocieties (IFRC). Published since 1993, theWorld Disasters Report provides the latesttrends, facts and analysis of the world'shumanitarian crises. Described by the WorldBank as "a very valuable resource for the inter-national community", the report is an indis-pensable reference work for those searchingcurrent information about strategies and tac-tics in the face of disaster. The report is backedby the resources and expertise of IFRC.

The 2002 edition of the World DisastersReport is focusing on risk reduction issues.The report analyses the challenges and oppor-tunities facing risk reduction, and examinespreparedness and mitigation initiatives fromdisaster-prone countries around the globe. Inaddition, the report studies the issue ofhumanitarian accountability, presents amethodology to assess vulnerabilities andcapacities, and concludes with disaster datatables that are updated annually. It addressessuch current issues as whether disaster pre-paredness and mitigation can convincingly beshown to pay off in terms of lives, livelihoodsand assets saved. (www.ifrc.org)

Global Environment Outlook

In line with its role in environmental monitor-ing and assessment and early warning,UNEP has launched the Global EnvironmentOutlook (GEO) series, which contains baselineinformation on emerging environmental issuesand threats, as well policies being implement-ed at the global and regional levels. The find-ings and recommendations of the GEOreport series constitute the basis of UNEPactivities in early warning and vulnerabilityand risk assessments.

The GEO-3 report of May 2002 specificallyaddresses the issue of human vulnerability to

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plates, operational guidelines and links toonline data sources and more than 400 websites all sorted by categories. It is expected tospeed up emergency awareness and action byproviding decision makers with timely infor-mation, as well as with feedback from the RedCross and Red Crescent network throughoutthe world. Specific operational links to datasources during a disaster are grouped, high-lighted and then archived for future reference.The Preparedness Section of the site allowsdelegates and National Societies to directlyinput information on disaster trends from any-where in the world and potential response tounfolding disaster situations. During large-scale emergencies, ongoing operational infor-mation can be exchanged, as logistics mobiliza-tion actions and contact details are also postedto improve communication and cooperationbetween the different actors involved. Thisdynamic and interactive working tool contin-ues to evolve and adds new features on a regu-lar basis in response to the needs of its users.After a first year of activity, the password-pro-tected site has over 600 users from 178 Nation-al Societies, delegations, IFRC and Interna-tional Committee of Red Cross staff.

Other institutionalized efforts also are underway to facilitate the global use of shared disas-ter management information. Workingthrough both negotiated international agree-ments as well as efforts to standardize commu-nication protocols and technical compatibility,some governments and disaster managementprofessionals are working to realize a compre-hensive initiative to increase the availability andimproved utility of advanced communicationand information technologies for more effec-tive disaster management. While the objectivesof the Global Disaster Information System(GDIN) are yet to be fully realized, this inter-national collaborative association of specialistsfrom governments, international and donororganizations, NGOs, commercial and aca-demic institutions is working to enhance itscapacities to receive and use disaster informa-tion. In a general sense, GDIN seeks to offer avariety of services that can link users withappropriate information providers and toencourage the use of greater technical compat-ibility or integration of information systemsacross geographical regions so that informationcan be shared more effectively. While much of

environmental changes, including elaborationon the specific relationship between theimpact of natural hazards and emerging dis-asters. It also includes a section on disasters,in which the ISDR secretariat collaboratedwith information. UNEP also produces otherassociated reports of regional and/or thematicscope, such as on small island developingstates. More information about GEO-3 canbe found on the UNEP web site(www.unep.org).

World Vulnerability Report

Since 1989, the annual UNDP HumanDevelopment Report has increased a widerpublic understanding of the social or humandimensions of development. The humandevelopment index and the subsidiaryhuman poverty index are both based on asmall number of carefully selected parame-ters for which data are available and providealternative indicators to conventional grossdomestic product (GDP) measurements.Awareness of the linkages between naturaldisasters and development has also increasedconsiderably in recent years. Vulnerability tocalamities is now recognized by many insti-tutions as an important issue for sustainabledevelopment. However, while HumanDevelopment Report has been far more suc-cessful than was originally envisaged, thelinkages between increasing disaster risk and"human" development have yet to be fullyexplored and addressed.

In this regard, UNDP is in the process ofproducing a first issue of the World Vulnerabil-ity Report (WVR). The goal of WVR is toincrease the attention of governments and theinternational community to viable approachesto managing and reducing disaster risks.

As part of this report, UNDP will present aGlobal Vulnerability Index, which will com-pare countries according to their relative risklevels over time. The index will highlight thelevel of national efforts and progress made onmitigating disaster risk annually, and will pro-mote the further production of related nation-al reports. The first issue will be made avail-able in the second half of 2002.

ceived value of such exchanges is the ease ofbeing in touch with other people around theworld who share a professional interest andpersonal commitment to these issues. It is anexcellent form of networking, that is stimulat-ing too. It is easy, and does not require a largeinvestment - beyond ones' own time and wishto contribute.

A similar discussion was and cyber conferencewas organized in Novermber 2001 with theDivision for the Advancement of Women(UN/DESA), on disaster reduction and natu-ral resource management with a geneder per-spective, see: www.un.org/womenwatch/daw

One such initiative is the natural-hazards-disas-ters network that is a managed informationservice and discussion group that covers socio-economic, psychological, organizational, scien-tific and technical aspects of disaster triggeredby all kinds of natural and technological haz-ards. Its members are drawn from operationalagencies and academic institutions throughoutthe world and anyone with an interest in thesubject can join through the list's web site atwww.jiscmail.ac.uk/lists/natural-hazards-dis-asters.

Another similar and lively source of informa-tion, discussion and professional debateregarding the social dimensions of hazards,vulnerability and risk particularly following amajor disaster, is the Radical Interpretation ofDisaster Experience (RADIX) web site, locat-ed at www.apu.ac.uk/geography/radix, which wasinitiated by the scholar Ben Wisner . IRADIXseeks to provide a venue for discussion, work-ing papers, opinion pieces, resources, or linksthat can help in understanding the root causesof disasters. This includes issues such ashuman rights, respect for diversity, translationof available knowledge into action, linksbetween disasters, economic development andpolitics, with particular relevance to local com-munity interests and people-centred activitiesfor risk reduction. RADIX seeks to bringtogether groups related to disaster risk reduc-tion that have not always shared informationeasily with one another, including scientists,human rights activists, development workers,government officials, business executives, envi-ronmentalists, media representatives, etc.


its interest revolves around remotely senseddata, GIS applications, mapping and displayinformation, GDIN also tries to assist disasterspecialists in obtaining information that mayotherwise be difficult for them to locate or toaccess through individual efforts. It particular-ly strives to benefit disaster managers in areaswhere there are limited resources or limitedaccess to technology. Further elaboration aboutGDIN activities and intentions can beobtained at www.gdin.org.

Using ccyberspace tto ddiscuss disaster rrisk rreduction

At a more individual level of informationexchange, there is an increasing number ofpublicly accessible and free multidisciplinary e-mail discussion groups, listserves and relatedelectronic networks that can be accessed.

An NGO network, The Stakeholder Forumfor Our Common Future, and the ISDR Sec-retariat organized an online discussion duringMay 2002, on the subject, "Links between nat-ural hazards, environment and sustainabledevelopment: Taking action to reduce the riskof disasters". An effort was made to broadenthe discussion of these related topics to a muchlarger group of interested people than thosewho may otherwise be involved with matters ofsustainable development. More than 350 par-ticipants from 80 countries registered andmany engaged in an active exchange of views,experience and concerns. These were all postedon a dedicated website which can be viewed atwww.earthsummit2002.org/debate. Numeroustopics emerged, including: the impact of natu-ral hazards on development and how to reversevulnerability; risk assessment and early warn-ing systems; fostering community involvementand developing coping capabilities within com-munities; and the promotion of education andcapacity building. A wealth of experienceunfolded during the month, as case examplesillustrated a variety of specialist knowledge.There were also carefully considered com-ments about current limitations, and the imag-ined roles and responsibilities that may lead topotential solutions. Some of these outlooks areincluded in this global review. Regardless ofthe individual views expressed, a readily per-

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Regional information or documentation cen-tres relating to hazard awareness or risk reduc-tion activities have been established in severallocations. A review of some of these centres willillustrate the different approaches and thediversity of interests that are served in differentparts of the world, while the value of their var-ious products and services all contribute to thebody of international experience in disaster riskmanagement.

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There is no region-wide disasterinformation centre covering thewide variety of hazard or riskconditions on the African conti-nent, but there are several spe-cialized documentation centresthat are expanding their activities

into related fields of risk. The SouthernAfrican Research and Documentation Centre(SARDC) is one such highly regarded centre.Based in Harare, Zimbabwe, SARDC is an

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independent regional information and docu-mentation centre that seeks to enhance theeffectiveness of key development processes inthe region. It pursues this aim through the col-lection, analysis, production and disseminationof information and by working to enable localcapacities to generate and use information.

It has operated as a non-profit foundation since1987 and its objective is to improve the base ofknowledge about economic, political, culturaland social developments and their implica-tions, by making information accessible to gov-ernments and policy makers, NGOs, the pri-vate sector, the media and regional and inter-national organizations. The documentationcentre contains more than 9,000 subject fileson regional issues, a library of books and peri-odicals, computerized databases of selectedmaterials that are retrievable through the use ofkeywords and maintains specific bibliographicand contact databases on primary areas ofinterest.

Particular areas of interest related to riskreduction include the state of the environmentin Southern Africa, disaster management infor-

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Mention should also be made of several other specialized or technical organizations in different regions of Africa thatproduce and disseminate numerous information products related to the specific hazards or risk reduction activitieswith which they are involved. As these have not been constituted for fulfilling comprehensive functions related to dis-aster risk management and as they do not exist primarily as information or documentation centres, they are discussedin further detail elsewhere in other sections of this review. Nonetheless, the IGAD Drought Monitoring Centre, locat-ed in Nairobi, Kenya, and the SADC Drought Monitoring Centre in Harare, Zimbabwe, have expanded their profes-sional interests in recent years to become important regional centres for information about a wide range of climate con-ditions and hazards. Periodic and semi-annual climate forecasts are produced by each of these centres and circulatedwidely among both technical and policy officials in most countries of Southern, Eastern and Central Africa.

Similarly, the Regional Early Warning Unit (REWU) and the Regional Remote Sensing Unit (RRSU) of the SADCFood and Natural Resources Development Unit (FANR) produce both routine and specialized information on droughtand related potential risks affecting food security in the 14 SADC countries. The SADC Environment and Land Man-agement Sector (ELMS) Coordination Unit and the SADC Water Sector Coordination Unit are also both involved sig-nificantly in project activities, policy development and information dissemination pertinent to the natural hazards and risksassociated with their respective areas of interest. In the Sahel region of West Africa, AGRHYMET (www.agrhymet.ne)is a specialized hydrometeorological institution of the Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel(CILSS) with the primary function of producing and disseminating information and related products. These institutionswork together to improve the extent and quality of technical information about environmental hazards, drought and otherrelated disaster risks that is available for policy makers in the region. However, in the broader context of information man-agement and communication of experience on disaster risk reduction, the example of such specialized centres of knowl-edge, working within specific professional environments, highlights the problem of incorporating their information capa-bilities more systematically into conventional practices of risk reduction communication.

ties that followed Hurricane Mitch are consid-ered the first in which computer-mediatedcommunications played a major role in deci-sion-making. Risk management institutionsand professionals are now routinely accus-tomed to seeking information from a largenumber of World Wide Web sites, such aswww.disaster.info.desastres.net, sponsored byPAHO.

Regional Disaster Information Centre (CRID)

One of the most comprehensive sources ofinformation on disaster and risk managementin Latin America and the Caribbean is theRegional Disaster Information Centre(CRID), located in San José, Costa Rica. ThisCentre was established from a pilot schemeoriginally developed by the Pan AmericanHealth Organization (PAHO)/WHO in1990, with a mission to reduce disaster vulner-ability by promoting a culture of risk reductionand cooperative efforts in risk managementactivities.

In 1997 it was conceived as a multi-organiza-tional project supported by PAHO, IDNDR,CEPREDENAC, IFRC, CNE, MSF.

CRID has proceeded to offer information anddocumentation online and for direct consulta-tion at its offices on a wide range of subjects, inboth Spanish and English. CRID providesgovernments, professionals and civil societyorganizations with abundant, unrestricted andfreely available disaster information. A web siteat www.crid.or.cr or www.crid.desastres.netprovides online access to CRID resources aswell as convenient links to other disaster infor-mation resources. It now responds to some120,000 information requests yearly as meas-ured by use of the information products avail-able on the web site, requests for technicaladvice and information searches by electronicforms and mail.

Additional products available from CRIDinclude a Virtual Disaster Library CD-ROMin English and Spanish, produced by the Unit-ed Nations system, and the LILACS Biblio-graphic Database on CD-ROM, updated peri-

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mation devoted especially to drought and otherregional socio-economic and political issuesrelevant to the development process and gover-nance that have a direct bearing on matters ofrisk awareness and management practices. Inthis latter respect, SARDC maintains theMusokotwane Environment Resource Centrefor Southern Africa (IMERCSA) which pro-vides users with current information on envi-ronment and disaster management in SouthernAfrica. It is also the leading regional centre forglobal reporting on the state of the environ-ment, producing fact sheets on environmentalissues and a newsletter about the ZambeziRiver basin. It published the comprehensivebook, State of the Environment in SouthernAfrica, with the thematic updates, Water inSouthern Africa and the forthcoming "Biodi-versity of indigenous forests and woodlands".

With offices in Dar es Salaam, Harare andMaputo, and by working with partner organi-zations in all SADC countries, SARDC is wellplaced to facilitate seminars, to conduct brief-ings and undertake consultancies for informa-tion exchange on environmental issues, humandevelopment, gender, electoral processes andrelated aspects of information networking.Additionally, SARDC staff and correspon-dents produce a variety of articles and reportson these same subjects for the SouthernAfrican News Features media service. As partof its commitment to develop professionalinformation and reporting capabilities in theregion, SARDC also conducts regional train-ing programmes involving attachments andexchanges for Southern African journalists,editors and documentalists.

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As elsewhere, the worldwide revo-lution in digital communicationshas swept through Latin Americaand the Caribbean. As an examplein a crucial area of disaster man-agement responsibility, by 2000practically all Ministry of Health

disaster programmes in the region had beenconnected to the Internet. This global "net-work of networks" served as one of the keytools for response to the many emergenciesspawned by the El Niño phenomenon of 1997-1998. The response and reconstruction activi-

odically. Furthermore, CRID produces specializedbibliographies on specific disaster related issues. Sofar 30 issues of this Bibliodes series have been pub-lished and distributed to several thousand users inboth print and electronic versions. Other informa-tion products developed by CRID include a varietyof training modules on information managementand the digitization of documents, made availableonline or on CD-ROM. The Centre also providesinformation management project administrationservices and provides technical advice to sisterorganizations on the development of web sites andother information products. Currently with fund-ing from ISDR, PAHO/WHO and the UnitedStates National Library of Medicine, CRID isimplementing a project aimed at creating betterinformation management capacities in El Salvador,Honduras and Nicaragua.

CCEEPPRREEDDEENNAACC

More specific to the disaster reduction activities ofindividual countries in Central America, the


CEPREDENAC web site (www.cepre-denac.org) contains continuously updatedinformation on plans, programmes andprojects in the region. The web site con-tains disaster statistics and analysis for theregion, as well as links to the web sites ofeach of the national disaster organizationsin Central America and many other riskand disaster management organizationsactive in the region. As the regional coordi-nation centre for disaster prevention,CEPREDENAC has an importantresponsibility in encouraging economic andsocial planners working at national, region-al and international levels to incorporate allinformation available in project design.This necessarily includes information abouthazards and risks and how they may affectcost-benefit analyses of development andinfrastructure projects, leading to possibledesign modifications that can bolsterdurable investments.

In 1999, CEPREDENAC produced adetailed inventory of available hazard, riskand vulnerability maps and related infor-mation as a first step in making them avail-able to decision makers regionally and

The Centre has become a regarded regional institu-tion through its gathering, processing and dissemi-nation of high-quality information, as well as a focalpoint for training and knowledge engineering relat-ed to bibliographic information technologies. A pri-mary aspect of all its activities is the building ofadditional institutional capacities for the bettermanagement and wider dissemination of disasterinformation, or the management of national or localdisaster information centres. While its efforts con-tribute to the institutionalization of a regional disas-ter information system, CRID also promotes the concept of decentralization and disaster informationexchange so that institutions and users can access materials more easily. In order to fulfil these functionsCRID provides the following information services:• Assists a wide variety of institutional and individual users to search and find disaster and health-relat-

ed information available through physical or electronic media;• Electronic access to an extensive collection of documents and other source materials;• Publication and distribution of information products such as bulletins, bibliographies, and other

materials for both public and technical use;• Development and delivery of training for disaster management information centres, in such areas as

the use of databases, controlled vocabulary for disaster-related information, use of the Internet, etc.;• Design, production and distribution of training materials;• Collaboration with other institutions interested in disaster information management;• Management of information management projects;• Organization of information stands, participation in specific events, etc.

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vulnerability and risk reduction throughout theLatin American and Caribbean region.

The Caribbean Disaster Information Network

The Caribbean Disaster Information Network(CARDIN) ([email protected])was established in 1999 at the library of theUniversity of the West Indies at Mona,Jamaica. By drawing on the previous experi-ence of, and working closely with, CEPRE-DENAC and CRID, CARDIN has pursuedsimilar information objectives: to serve as asubregional Disaster Information Centre andto become the central focal point for theexchange of disaster information in theCaribbean. CARDIN provides importantinformation and communication linkagesbetween the various national disaster manage-ment organizations in Caribbean countries.

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investors worldwide. This inventory of 314different cartographic references presentssources of information related to hazard, vul-nerability or risk issues in Central America in aconventional database format. The inventoryincludes institutions located outside the regionthat have produced additional cartographicmaterials about Central America. The relation-al format of the database allows searches bycountry, institution and type of hazard.

Disaster Inventory - LA RED

Wider public dissemination of disaster infor-mation is similarly served by the DESINVEN-TAR disaster inventory programme that wascreated and is maintained by the Latin Ameri-can Network for the Social Study of DisasterPrevention (LA RED). This innovative soft-ware permits the storage and recovery of statis-tical analysis and graphic presentation of infor-mation about all types of damaging events reg-istered in a database at the smallest territorialscale. Its utility has been demonstrated throughits having become the official software used byall of the national disaster organizations in theregion through an agreement fostered byCEPREDENAC. It will soon be introducedinto the Caribbean under the joint auspices ofthe Association of Caribbean States andCEPREDENAC. In addition to this specificdisaster inventory, the LA RED web site(www.desenredando.org) contains publications,reports about ongoing projects and additionalinformation about social science initiatives in

The CARDIN focus is to provide wideraccess and coverage of disaster information inthe region and to facilitate the dissemination ofdisaster-related information to the generalCaribbean public. It will strive to do that byworking through electronic means on theWorld Wide Web, by publishing a newsletterand by document delivery services. It alsointends to create a database of disaster relatedinformation that is available on the Internet,CDs and in print formats that will provideessential resources for policy makers, practi-tioners, researchers and the general public.CARDIN offers the following services:

• Document delivery services ;• Documentation centre ;• Online search for disaster information; • Reference services; • Electronic journals; • Links to selected full-text databases; • Dissemination of disaster information to

the public through a web site, newslet-ters and document delivery services;

• Creation of full-text documents andscanned images pertaining to disaster-related issues in the Caribbean for widerelectronic circulation;

• Expanded working relationships withother agencies for more effective coordi-nation of disaster information activitieswithin the region.

A simplified version is available on the CEPRE-DENAC web site and an interactive format isbeing prepared to allow users to conduct searchesand queries while online. Every source is describedby the

• Type of map support, digital format, originalsoftware, etc.;

• Thematic nature of map (hazard, vulnerabil-ity, risk/type of hazard);

• Scale on which map is displayed, geographi-cal coverage, year of last update;

• Institution in charge of compiling map infor-mation;

• Means of accessibility, reciprocity conditions.

NNoorrtthh AAmmeerriiccaa

The Natural Hazards Researchand Applications InformationCenter at the University of Col-orado in the United States wasfounded 30 years ago to"strengthen communicationamong researchers and the

individuals and organizations concerned withmitigating natural disasters". Its Natural Haz-ards Observer is a free publication publishedten times a year that provides current hazardsand risk reduction information, resource andinstitutional contacts, new publications,announcements, research initiatives and find-ings across the entire range of professional dis-ciplines and jurisdictional responsibilities

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involved with risk issues, predominantly inNorth America.

Copies of the Center's Disaster Research, an e-mail newsletter, the Natural Hazards Informer,a peer-reviewed series that summarizes currentknowledge in specific areas of natural hazardinterests, and many selected disaster-relatedInternet sites are all available on the Center'sweb site at www.colorado.edu/hazards. TheCenter also has an extensive specialized librarywhich is catalogued on the web site as well as awealth of material related to hazards researchand the mitigation of natural disasters. All titlesand the procedures to obtain the Center's manypublications are also available on the Center'sweb site.

There are many other noteworthy disaster risk management or hazard research centres in the UnitedStates covering different subject areas or specializations. As the subject reflects rapidly growing publicinterest and professional relevance throughout United States society, several new centres dedicated to vari-ous aspects of risk management are being established. While many exist as part of a university or aca-demic institution, others have been established as "charitable institutions", foundations, professional or sci-entific organizations, NGOs or commercial enterprises. Practically all of them are engaged in theexchange and dissemination of information related to risk reduction and virtually all such centres haveweb sites and additional information materials. An extensive list of these many sources of hazard and dis-aster information, institutes for study in related fields and all of their contact information are available onthe Natural Hazards Center web site.

An example of regional collaboration to publicize hazard and risk assessments to a wider public audiencecan be cited from North America. In 1999, the National Office of Critical Infrastructure Protection andEmergency Preparedness (OCIPEP) in Canada coordinated research with the National Centre for Dis-aster Prevention (CENAPRED) in Mexico and the United States Geological Survey (USGS) to pro-duce the North American Map of Natural Hazards and Disasters. This comprehensive and informativeseries of maps drew on information from a number of existing sources and was published with very widecirculation by the American National Geographic Society*. The distribution of different natural hazardswas combined with population characteristics to provide a simplified picture of risk and vulnerabilitythroughout North America. Beyond the public education values served by the map, the joint exercise inproducing it was instrumental in initiating cross-border dialogue and the sharing of knowledge betweenhazard experts and national, state/provincial and local organizations with interests in supporting hazardawareness and risk reduction in the three countries.

* The National Geographic Society, Natural Hazards of North America Map (Washington, D.C., July 1998).

Asian Disaster Reduction Centerwww.adrc.or.jp

Similarly, by collaborating with partners inAsian countries the Asian Disaster ReductionCenter (ADRC) located in Kobe, Japan,accumulates and provides disaster reductioninformation throughout the region. The bodyof information available at ADRC provides abasis to carry out research into multinationaldisaster reduction particularly as it relates tomultidisciplinary and multinational coopera-tion. The Center works through severalmechanisms to convey information and to linkdifferent institutional activities related to dis-aster risk reduction in Asia. ADRC has devel-oped a unique geographical information sys-tem for disaster management called VEN-TEN with the objectives of providing both acommon structure for referring to disastersand also the data that it contains. It has alsodeveloped a comprehensive database on disas-ter management in collaboration with existinginstitutions such as CRED andOCHA/ReliefWeb and by drawing on theinformation resources of ADRC member andadvisory countries. A network of NGOs inAsia called the Asian Disaster Reduction andResponse Network (ADRRN) is also beingformed to recognize the importance of NGOsin disaster reduction by exchanging informa-tion and promoting more collaborative rela-tionships. These and other activities are acces-sible through the informative ADRC website, and are addressed through a bi-weeklyADRC newsletter. Additionally, by includingan extensive list of related institutional link-ages in its web site, ADRC seeks to expandaccess to current information and to motivatebroader opportunities of cooperation amongalready existing institutions.

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AAssiiaa

In Asia, barely a start has beenmade to adequately compile thevast range of institutional abilitiesand breadth of information avail-able on disaster risk reduction.There are important institutionalfocal points for the subject such as

the ones that follow, but there are many moreacademic and technical facilities that addressrisk matters in their own areas of professionalexpertise or within the context of individualcountry needs.

Asian Disaster Preparedness Centerwww.adpc.ait.ac.th.

The Asian Disaster Preparedness Center(ADPC) is a regional resource centre dedicat-ed to disaster reduction for safer communitiesand sustainable development in Asia and thePacific. Located in Bangkok, Thailand,ADPC is recognized as an important focalpoint for promoting disaster awareness anddeveloping capabilities that foster institutional-ized disaster management and mitigation poli-cies. ADPC maintains a specialized library ofdisaster-related material and publishes thequarterly Asian Disaster Management Newsnewsletter for the disaster management com-munity in Asia and the Pacific. It also supportsregional information exchange, networkingand capacity- building through a EuropeanCommunity Humanitarian Office DisasterPreparedness (DIPECHO) programme inSouth-East Asia and by working through itspartner organization in its Asian Urban Disas-ter Management Programme supported by theUS/AID. Additional information about itswide-ranging information services and projectsis available on the web site.

EEuurrooppee

A different type of informationis provided by the BenfieldGreig Hazard Research Centre(BGHRC) located at Univer-sity College, London, in theUnited Kingdom. This centrehas been recognized as a model

of productive public-private collaboration inextending the availability and wider exposureof information about disaster risk reduction. Ithas the primary objective of providing a meansto transfer advanced natural hazard and riskresearch, practice and innovation from the aca-demic environment to the business world, gov-ernment and international agencies. The intel-lectual products of BGHRC and CranfieldUniversity of the UK fall into the two cate-gories of strategic research about natural haz-ards and the processes that drive them, andmore specific applied studies targeted at reduc-ing the impact of natural hazards on society.There are also plans to publish a series of topi-cal papers, "Issues in risk science", summariz-ing and promoting new research about naturalhazards and associated risks, disaster manage-ment and related issues. Current informationsupplied by the Centre for disaster manage-ment professionals and the public includes thequarterly newsletter Alert and a series of work-ing papers on disaster management that waslaunched in 2001. Individual projects have

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yielded their own materials for wider circula-tion, such as the operational manuals Commu-nication During Volcanic Emergencies andCorporate Social Responsibility and DisasterReduction.

Additionally, by being able to draw on an envi-able range of hazards expertise from UniversityCollege, London and through its own extensiveresearch network, BGHRC provides publicinformation resources and media access to aca-demics, research organizations and governmentinstitutions in the United Kingdom, through-out Europe and internationally. This includesthe dissemination of professional analysis andobservations through an information serviceand the publication of event and post?lossreports that are all used widely by the media,including all the major United Kingdom radioand television news services and others inEurope, the United States and elsewhere.

In France, PRIM.NET (www.prim.net) is aFrench educational multidisciplinary internetportal from the Ministry of land-use planningand environment (MATE) which promotesthe culture of natural and technological disas-ter prevention. It underlines the close relation-ship between the human being and its naturalenvironment in the framework of sustainabledevelopment. It is a forum for teachers, stu-dents and citizens where they can find usefulinformation in French.

disaster information management system forthe Monitoring, Mapping and Analysis ofDisaster Incidents in South Africa (MAN-DISA). The objective of the project, co-financed by OFDA/USAID and DFID/UK,is to create a system that can document haz-ards, vulnerabilities and trends related to local-ized small to medium-scale disaster incidentsand to organize that information for betterdecision-making. Despite an earlier fragment-ed to non-existent information base causinglocalized events to be frequently overlooked,these smaller events are now considered to havedisproportionate impacts on already marginal-ized communities. Moreover, as informationabout these disaster events is stored in differentgovernment services, it has been nearly impos-sible to create a consolidated profile on munic-ipal disaster occurrence and losses-either bytype, location, consequences or over time.

During 1999/2000 a team of researchers iden-tified more than a dozen sources concerningdisaster losses in Cape Town alone, containingmore than 10,000 records of disasters. Thiswas in glaring contrast to only 20-30 disastersthat had been officially declared during thesame period. One of the telling observations ofthe research was that, with the exception of twoelectronic sources, all other information wasconfined to paperbound materials. Such wide-ly distributed and often-incompatible sourcesof information highlight the challenges of cre-ating effective, synthesized disaster informa-tion systems. This has made integrated disasterreduction planning virtually impossible.

The information organized by the project is nowmaintained in a database and linked to a GISsystem, visible on a publicly accessible web site.Since the end of 2001 www.MANDISA.org.zahas been consolidating data on disaster eventsthat occurred in Cape Town between 1990 and1999 and has been displaying them with relatedinformation in tables, maps, graphs and photos.Users can interrogate the database online andgenerate additional information about trendsand patterns of disaster risk. It is anticipated thatthis will enable municipal planners and residentsalike to consider disaster risks more strategical-ly, just as crime, public health, traffic incidentsand other forms of risk are considered to beimportant developmental priorities underlyingbroader aspects of basic human security.Improved access to additional information has

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Selected nnational iinformation pprogrammes

To varying degrees and with different inten-tions, individual countries have establishedtheir own distinctive approaches to institution-alizing information functions for disasterreduction. While recognizing that the informa-tion needs of countries vary and there are rea-sons for different emphases, there is nonethe-less a growing recognition of the need to com-bine different types of information that couldbe collected or maintained historically withinvarious departments or agencies. The examplesthat follow demonstrate some of the challengesthat countries have faced in gaining a clearunderstanding of their respective risk issuesand how four different countries are proceed-ing to update and consolidate the body of theirinformation for improved disaster risk reduc-tion. In all of the cases cited, improved hazardand disaster risk information was an essentialprecursor to the further development of strate-gic national disaster risk management pro-grammes.

SSoouutthh AAffrriiccaa

In South Africa, the University of Cape Town'sDisaster Mitigation for Sustainable Liveli-hoods Programme (DiMP) has developed a

Recognizing the similarities between these factors and thoserevealed by the LA RED DESINVENTAR database in LatinAmerica, the MANDISA disaster event database was conceivedwith the following considerations in mind:

• Disaster incidents can occur at different scales, ranging fromhousehold to provincial and national levels;

• Disaster risk is driven by the interaction between triggeringhazard factors and underlying conditions of social, econom-ic, environmental and infrastructural vulnerability;

• Disaster impacts can occur in different socio-economic sec-tors or subject contexts, and therefore may be recorded in awide range of formats or institutional locations;

• Disaster risk can be reduced by minimizing vulnerability-ideally through ongoing, practical initiatives that achievemultiple development objectives; and most fundamentally,

• Public access to information about local patterns of disasterrisk is empowering and facilitates community participationin decision-making, thus strengthening opportunities forresponsive governance.

created a more readily understood concept ofhazards and risks now that they are not margin-alized as rare or unique occurrences "caused"simply by either natural or divine intervention.

CChhiinnaa

In another context related to national policiesfor improved disaster risk reduction, theNational Disaster Reduction Plan of the Peo-ple's Republic of China (NDRP) adopted anobjective to establish a comprehensive infor-mation system for the entire country. It seeks tostrengthen the institutional abilities of sharinginformation, communication technology andoperational experience among the many gov-ernment departments and agencies alreadydoing so, but only within their own respectivefields. The central Government authoritiesapproved a project in 1997 to create the ChinaNational Center for Natural Disaster Reduction(CNCNDR) and for it to act as the compre-hensive national disaster information systemserving the State Council, all ministries andgovernment commissions, and linking centralGovernment authorities with provinces andmunicipalities. It is expected that the systemwill be able to incorporate inputs from satelliteremote sensing systems, provide comprehen-sive management system displays of disasterinformation, and form the basis of assessmentand decision support systems by drawing onthe widest possible range of professional andtechnical expertise throughout the country.

This wealth of material will then be providedfor analysis and synthesis by the many techni-cal and multidisciplinary abilities located in theNational Academy of Sciences. By this unifiedprocess, the National Center will be able tomake full use of the disaster reduction infor-mation and operational experience of all therelevant ministries, commissions, researchinstitutions and social groups. It can then pro-vide senior level officials with comprehensiveinformation, professional services and techni-cal guidance for more effective decision-mak-ing in matters of disaster risk management.Moreover, the Center is also expected to playan important role in professional training andpublic education in those specific fields con-cerned with national risk reduction. A newpurpose-designed facility for the NationalCenter for Natural Disaster Management is

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being established. The Center is expected toopen officially in 2002.

IInnddiiaa

India has also embarked on a strategic plan toimprove the extent and availability of improvedinformation for risk management activities.The Government of India's High PoweredCommittee on Disaster Management Plans(HPC-DMP) has decided to establish aNational Natural Disaster Knowledge Network.The programme aims to facilitate an interac-tive, simultaneous dialogue between all officialauthorities, many professional disciplines andinterested communities throughout the coun-try involved with hazards and natural disasters.The Nanadisk-Net is planned as a powerful"network of networks" to store, manage anddisseminate information and to connect gov-ernment departments, research institutions,universities, community-based organizationsand individuals working with the variousaspects of hazard and disaster management.The system is intended to serve as a commonrepository for accumulated disaster manage-ment experience, with the advantage that theNetwork may then serve as a basis for expand-ed opportunities of distanced, electronic train-ing. By including access to libraries and otherresource institutions, these digital services willbe able to provide much wider access to globaldatabases, training materials and early warningsystems. It is also anticipated that more techni-cal, academic and professional institutions willbecome motivated to link into an integratedprofessional network that spans multiple pro-fessional sectors of interest.

AAuussttrraalliiaa

The Australian Geological Survey Organiza-tion has been working with Emergency Man-agement Australia (EMA) to establish the Aus-tralian Disaster Information Network (AusDIN).AusDIN is a consortium of national agencies,state emergency authorities, universities andprivate enterprise representatives working todevelop an information network that providesinformation for all types of crisis managementincluding risk assessment, mitigation, plan-ning, response and recovery activities. It is

science Australia, the national agency for geo-science research and information. The Aus-tralian Disaster Management Information Net-work (ADMIN) undertakes holistic and com-prehensive assessments and numerical model-ling of risk from natural and man-made haz-ards in priority urban areas and addressesissues of concern to urban communities thatrequire geoscientific information. The geo-physical network carries out synoptic observa-tions of earthquakes, tsunamis, geomagneticfields as well as nuclear explosions. It seeks toincrease national capacities for the distributionof comprehensive technical data and informa-tion for better disaster risk reduction andresponse.

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designed to be an Internet-based service thatprovides accessibility to data and informationservices for a wide variety of people involved indisaster and risk management. AusDIN isbeing developed within the internationalframework provided by GDIN and is plannedto be linked with GDIN information systems.It is, however, just one part of a more compre-hensive Australian undertaking to improve themanagement of information for disaster andrisk management purposes. Additional non-technical approaches are being developed tofoster networks and forums for people involvedin the provision of information relevant toanticipating and managing crisis.

One such related initiative has been undertak-en by the Urban Geoscience Division of Geo-

Technical iinformation sservice cconveyingexperience aabout ddifferent hhazards

Aside from the specific requirements of earlywarning which are reviewed in section 5.6,there are other examples of information centresdevoted to specific hazards. Typically they con-vey frequently updated technical data as well asmore general information about the changingevents and circumstances pertaining to theirindividual hazard interests. They all fulfil apublic information function and many areengaged in providing specialist reference mate-rial or advice to policy makers. A selection ofthese hazard information centres is provided.While most of them focus on a single type ofhazard, the range of their professional contactsis typically quite extensive, reaching from sci-entific disciplines through environmental con-ditions to the social and economic dimensionsof local communities where disaster reductionmust eventually take place. Each of the exam-ples below relates to the broad contexts inwhich disaster risk management informationfunctions need to occur.

IInntteeggrraatteedd HHaazzaarrdd IInnffoorrmmaattiioonn

The United States Geological Survey's Center forIntegration of Natural Disaster Information(CINDI) is a good example in which informa-tion about multiple hazards is collected, inte-grated and communicated to a wider public. Itswebsite at cindi.usgs.gov provides informationabout drought, earthquakes, floods, hurricanes,landslides, volcanoes, wildfire, geomagnetismand other special topical areas of risk viewed inthe context of the earth sciences or naturalresources involved. With Outreach, Researchand Response dimensions this information cen-ter is able to provide near-real time monitoringof hazards by integrating a variety of technicalinformation drawn from many sources, andthen to communicate to either technical teamsor decision-makers. After a disaster, the Centercan combine remotely sensed data witharchived information to assess the nature andextent of impact from a particular event. Thecompiled information which has internationalapplication is also available for use in inter-dis-ciplinary research that contributes to theimproved use of data for hazard and risk assess-ment, or in the development of risk manage-ment strategies by local or national officials.

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HHyyddrroommeetteeoorroollooggiiccaall HHaazzaarrddss

Information about hydrometeorological haz-ards is widely available through many institu-tional sources around the world, with specificcurrent information as well as archived datarelated to individual countries accessiblethrough every national meteorological andhydrological service. A wide variety of globalproducts including forecasts valid for a periodof 10 to 30 days are available at the three WorldMeteorological Centers located in:

• Melbourne (www.bom.gov.au), • Moscow (www.mecom.ru/roshydro), and • Washington, D.C. (www.nws.noaa.gov).

Specialized geographical products, and infor-mation related to specific types of hazards arecompiled and widely disseminated by morethan 20 World Meteorological Organization Spe-cialized Regional Meteorological Centers,(RSMCs). There are 24 RSMCs with relatedgeographical specialization located in Algiers,Beijing, Bracknell, Brasilia, Buenos Aires,Cairo, Dakar, Darwin, Jeddah, Khabarovsk,Melbourne, Miami, Montreal, Moscow,Nairobi, New Delhi, Novosibirsk, Offenbach,Pretoria, Rome, Tashkent, Tokyo, Tunis/Casablanca, and Wellington.

There are also eight designated RSMCs forthe provision of computer-generated modelsfor analyzing environmental crises and for pro-viding hydrological or meteorological guidancein emergency actions. These centers can pro-vide specialized transport, dispersion, and dep-osition models in accordance with internation-ally recognized arrangements and standards.These centers are located in Bracknell UK. forEurope; Toulouse, France for Africa; Montre-al and Washington D.C., for the Americas;Beijing, Obninsk (Russia) and Tokyo for Asia;and Melbourne for the Pacific Region.

Hydrological information is also available frommany regional centers throughout the world.Hydrology and water-related issues are thefocus of many international agencies. One suchcenter with a global focus is the Centre for Ecol-ogy and Hydrology (CEH) www.nerc-walling-ford.ac.uk. By contrast, extensive informationand widespread institutional linkages related todrought and associated environmental condi-tions can be found at the International Drought

ment technical communities and to facilitatethe widespread availability of climatic informa-tion pertaining to longer term forecasting.With the recognized need for more consistenttechnical criteria for data generation andexchange, and broader forms of inter-sectoralinformation analysis and dissemination partic-ularly regarding the availability of seasonal tointer-annual forecasts, work is continuing todefine both the potential organizational andfunctional responsibilities of Regional ClimateCenters.

While this endeavor will necessarily drawheavily on the already established NationalMeteorological and Hydrological Services ofindividual countries, as well as the RSMCsengaged in providing a variety of hazard infor-mation and forecast products, the initiative is atimely indication of institutional moves toaddress emerging global needs for both techni-cal and public information about changingperceptions of risk. In recent years the Region-al Climate Outlook Forums have played a key

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Information Center at the University of Nebraskain Lincoln, U.S.A. (www.ngdc.noaa.gov andenso.unl.edu/agmet/ centers.htm), which alsooffers a series of regional training seminars ondrought management and planning techniquesaimed at training scientists and policymakersworldwide in the science of drought manage-ment and preparedness. Another source is theOxford Drought Research Institute in the U.K.

CClliimmaattee CChhaannggee

An important international initiative has beenproceeding since mid-2001 by an Inter-Com-mission Task Team convened under the aus-pices of the World Meteorological Organization(WMO), its technical commissions and Mem-ber States to create a series of associatedRegional Climate Centers (RCCs) Althoughindividual centers are not yet established, theyare being planned in order to increase the col-laboration among climatological, meteorologi-cal and hydrological /water resources manage-

Other RSMCs specialize in tropical cyclone forecasting and the dissemination of related information servic-es. These include:

• Nadi, Fiji Tropical Cyclone Centre covering the South-west Pacific Region, (www.met.gov.fj/advi-sories);

• Honolulu Hurricane Center for the Central North Pacific Ocean,(www.nws.noaa.gov/pr/hnl/cphc/pages/cphc.shtml);

• New Delhi Tropical Cyclone Centre, for the eastern Indian Ocean,(www.imd.ernet.in/services/cyclone/

cyclone-warning-services); • Miami Hurricane Center for the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, (www.nhc.noaa.gov/products),; • Tokyo Typhoon Centre for the western Pacific and Asian Region

(ddb.kishou.go.jp/typhoon/cyclone/cyclone); • La Réunion Tropical Cyclone Centre for the western part of the Indian Ocean, (www.meteo.fr/temps/

domtom/La_Reunion/trajGP/data/home_trajGP).

In addition there are Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers that have more specific localized regional responsi-bilities, such as those exemplified by the following:

• the Perth Bureau of Meteorology coverage for Western Australia, (www.bom.gov.au/weather/wa), • the Darwin Bureau of Meteorology for the waters north of Australia,

(www.bom.gov.au/weather/nt/inside/cyclone/cyclone.shtml), • the Brisbane Bureau of Meteorology for coverage of the Coral Sea,

(www.bom.gov.au/weather/qld/cyclone),• the Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea National Weather Service for the Solomon Sea and Gulf of

Papua, (website under preparation) and • the Wellington Meteorological Service of New Zealand, Ltd. for the Southern Seas etc. (www.metser-

vice.co.nz/forecasts/high_seas.asp)

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Institute for Chemistry in Freiburg, Germanyfrom October 1998.

The GFMC serves an active role in the docu-mentation, information and monitoring servicefunctions among the fire science community,the technical community of engineering, tech-nology development, the primary user commu-nity of fire managers, as well as policy makers.It aims to provide widespread and timely infor-mation in the field of long-term strategic plan-ning for the prevention of disastrous wildlandfires as well as enabling preparedness measuresand appropriate responses for fire emergencies.A worldwide network of many institutions andindividuals generates GFMC products of bothnational and global scale. All of that informa-tion and data are systematically collected, inter-preted and displayed on the Internet by theGFMC at www.uni-freiburg.de/fireglobe.The information remains current, being updat-ed frequently, and as may be required, daily. Itis then archived for future reference orresearch purposes.

SSeeiissmmiicc HHaazzaarrddss

While there are many seismological and seis-mic engineering institutes around the world,widely known among the practitioners mostimmediately involved for their technical orinformational services. Two representativeexamples of information centers are cited herethat are particularly engaged in the dissemina-tion of information about the seismic hazards.

The Earthquake Hazards Program of theUnited States Geological Survey (EHP/USGS) is part of the National EarthquakeHazards Reduction Program lead by the Fed-eral Emergency Management Agency. Thisprogram has the primary objective to providerelevant earthquake science information andknowledge for reducing deaths, injuries, andproperty damage from earthquakes throughunderstanding of their characteristics andeffects and by providing the information andknowledge needed to mitigate those losses.The EHP/USGS' role is to provide earth sci-ences information and related products forearthquake loss reduction. Information is avail-able on its website at (www.earthquake.usgs.gov/ ) to serve its specific goals.

role in defining these future requirements forRCC functions in the Regions through theircross-program analysis and wide circulation ofmulti-disciplinary information. At the sametime the predominant, and distinctive, rolesand requirements of different geographicalregions around the world are recognized asbeing crucial to the most effective accomplish-ment of the intended objectives. As a broadconceptual framework of RCCs continues toemerge, attention will proceed with individualRegions considering their specific require-ments and assessing current operational andtechnical abilities to meet them.

WWiillddffiirree aanndd rreellaatteedd hhaazzaarrddss

The current state of fire science that includesfundamental fire research and fire ecology andthe results of bio-geochemical and atmospher-ic sciences research of the last decade providesufficient knowledge to support decision-mak-ing in fire policy at most management levels ofresponsibility. However, in many countries thiswealth of knowledge and expertise is either notknown or is not readily accessible and availablefor developing adequate fire policies and relat-ed measures of operational management. Theprolonged and severe fire and smoke episodethat occurred in Southeast Asia in 1997-98demonstrated that the available knowledgeabout fire and the related management expert-ise was utilized only to a limited extent. Thesecircumstances led to confusion and uncertaintyat national, regional and international levels ofresponsibility, resulting in delayed decisionsand the late application of appropriately target-ed international response to the fire and smokeemergencies. Retrospectively this could beexplained by the lack of a regional SoutheastAsian fire information system.

Considering the wider extent of fire issuesaround the world, as well as the extent of glob-al experience in the field. The establishment ofan institution preliminarily designated as a"Global Fire Management Facility" was pro-posed by a number of international conferencessince 1996. On the basis of these recommen-dations the Government of Germany respond-ed through the Office for the Coordination ofHumanitarian Assistance in the Ministry ofForeign Affairs to establish a Global Fire Mon-itoring Center (GFMC) at the Max Planck

lished in the monthly Newsletter. Largerreports on major earthquakes are published assupplements to Earthquake Spectra, EERI'squarterly professional journal. EERI alsosponsors post-earthquake technical briefings,an effort to reach professional communitiesthroughout the United States.

In addition to its publications, EERI has pro-duced more than 50 slide sets covering specif-ic earthquakes and their impacts, earthquakeresistant design, seismicity, unreinforcedmasonry buildings, loss reduction measures,mitigation of earthquake hazards, and a newseries on earthquake basics. Videotapes pro-duced by EERI include technical briefings onthe Armenia, Loma Prieta, and Hokkaido-nansei-oki earthquakes. Further informationabout EERI and the availability of its informa-tion materials can be found on the organiza-tion's website at www.EERI.org.

VVoollccaanniicc HHaazzaarrddss

Within the volcanological community, theWorld Organization of Volcano Observatories(WOVO), a commission of IAVCEI, is startingto build a major database involving informa-tion about the former "Decade" volcanoes.(www.volcano.undp.nodak.edu/vwdocs/wovo)

By providing both researchers and citizensalike more access to the details that scientistsare monitoring, it will help everyone proceedfrom overly simplistic considerations of"whether a volcano will erupt tomorrow ornot", to a more realistic availability of data withinterpretations provided along with theiraccompanying uncertainties. The system willalso convey information about what is beingmonitored to reduce those uncertainties, andclarify what else can and cannot be forecast.Initially, the database, WOVOdat will be an his-torical database so that observatories can con-duct their own research for two years beforeproviding data to WOVOdat, but eventually, itis anticipated that observatories may realize thebroader benefits to be gained by sharing data inreal-time.

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The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute(EERI), in the United States is a nationalnonprofit, technical society of engineers, geo-scientists, architects, planners, public officials,and social scientists, with the objective toreduce earthquake risk by advancing the sci-ence and practice of earthquake engineering.The organization seeks to accomplish thisobjective by improving the understanding ofthe impact of earthquakes on the physical,social, economic, political and cultural environ-ments, and by advocating comprehensive andrealistic measures for reducing the harmfuleffects of earthquakes. EERI is recognized asthe authoritative source for earthquake riskreduction information in the USA, and in part-nership with other nations, and is involved indeveloping earthquake risk reduction informa-tion worldwide.

The Institute is best known for its field inves-tigations and reconnaissance reports detailingthe effects of destructive earthquakes. OftenEERI serves as coordinator for the investiga-tive efforts of several organizations. EERImembership includes leading earthquakeinvestigators in all relevant fields from manycountries, and has been engaged for manyyears in a project, with National Science Foun-dation support, to maximize the learning fromdestructive earthquakes. Preliminary informa-tion on the effects of destructive events is pub-

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• early warning of fire danger• near-real time monitoring of fire events• interpretation and synthesis of fire information• archive of global fire information• facilitation of links between national and internation-

al institutions involved in fire research, developmentand policy development

• support of local, national and international bodies todevelop long-term strategies or policies for wildlandfire management

• emergency hotline and (restricted) liaison capabilitiesfor providing assistance in rapid assessment anddecision-support for responding to wildland fireemergencies.

A second initiative to disseminate more vol-canological information more widely alsoinvolves public electronic access. It is widelyknown that volcanic eruptions affect peopleand things in often predictable ways, but infor-mation about these effects has been spotty andnot relayed systematically from the site of oneeruption to the next. Many lessons are unnec-essarily relearned, and further research else-where is impeded by others rediscovering basicknowledge derived from previous global expe-rience. Efforts are currently underway toupdate a global compendium that will compile

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current information about the effects of vol-canic eruptions - including practical tips fortheir mitigation. This will be placed on theInternet for easy access from nearly any coun-try and allow, for example, a water supply engi-neer and rice agronomist in one country tolearn from the prior experience of a water sup-ply engineer and rice agronomist in anothercountry, within minutes. Pictures will illustratethe problems, while text will provide detailsand suggest possible mitigation measures.

A priority initiative of considerable benefitwould be the joint conduct of a national auditabout risk-related information needs, availabil-ity and limitations. International organizationscould help by providing guidance about exist-ing sources or means for obtaining well-suitedinformation.

The engagement of existing regionally-focussed information centres such as CRED,CARDIN, ADPC, ADRC, and the Universi-ty of Colorado’s Natural Hazard Center, andthe use of their experience in linking suppliersof information with practitioners would be par-ticularly valuable.

CClleeaarriinngg hhoouussee rreessppoonnssiibbiilliittiieess

There is a glaring need for an internationalcapacity to fulfil clearing house functionsspecifically related to the identification, order-ing and dissemination of hazards and disasterrisk-management information. The intendedrole is one that could foster the exchange of rel-evant information through the use of lists oflists, directories, and catalogue/search/retrieve/deliver procedures that would serve todirect and connect a very wide range of usersand practitioners for all policy-making levels.Such facilities exist but concentrate on interna-tional disaster response or disaster prepared-ness, such as ReliefWeb and GDIN.

The ISDR secretariat is working in associationwith partners, and is in the process of strength-ening its web site and resource centre to builda comprehensive and easily accessible series ofdirectories and linkages that can form the basisof an approach to such a global clearing housefunction for disaster reduction.

By pursuing the issue globally, the existence ofprimary information gaps, the inadequacy ofrelevant data, or geographical shortfalls ininformation availability or dissemination maybe more easily identified and addressed. Such acoordinated approach can also, with adequate

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cchhaall

lleennggee


The wide range of selected information servic-es and program initiatives described above pro-vide a basis to identify primary areas for futureimprovements in information management andthe communication of experience in disasterrisk reduction. Five key areas are identified:

• Availability of information • Necessary capacities to utilize data • Clearing house responsibilities • Expanded access to information• Future technology

AAvvaaiillaabbiilliittyy ooff iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn

There is currently abundant information,available globally, on disaster risk reductionbut that does not necessarily translate into itswidespread availability, nor is it particularlywell targeted for all potential users. In manyplaces and cultures there is little relevant infor-mation conveyed that is suited to local lan-guages or the actual living conditions of peopleexposed to natural hazards.

The very abundance of information also cre-ates a problem for non-specialized or publicusers to ascertain the relative value or quality ofspecific information, if they are unaware of theoriginating source or broader professional con-text of the various sources.

Useful information demands that databases bekept current, bibliographic resources be con-tinually expanded, and that access and searchcriteria should remain consistent and be wide-ly understood by an expanding user group.

NNeecceessssaarryy ccaappaacciittiieess ttoo uuttiilliizzee ddaattaa

Frequent observations are made by individualcountry authorities about the inadequacy ofmany institutions that frustrate their desire toknow exactly what relevant information exists,where to find it, and how to access it in themost efficient manner.

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support, contribute to the establishment ofcommonly accepted protocols or proceduresfor recording or exchanging disaster riskreduction information, similar in function tothe new XML protocol being used in the glob-al software industry.

Other commonly acknowledged practicescould greatly expand the availability of risk-related information by establishing nomencla-ture and facilitating search procedures relatedto key words, such as yellow pages type directo-ries, contact details of widely recognized spe-cialist institutions and international experts inkey areas of risk reduction.

Experience gained over the years from the evo-lution of ReliefWeb as an acknowledged infor-mation-rich resource could be beneficial to thedevelopment of a similar comprehensive infor-mation platform dedicated to risk issues anddisaster reduction information. Such a compre-hensive PreventionWeb does not yet exist butcould be a powerful instrument within ISDRto motivate and serve the different constituen-cies associated with disaster risk assessmentand reduction activities worldwide.

EExxppaannddeedd aacccceessss ttoo iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn

Beyond the technical limitations of informationsystems, more attention needs to be devoted tothe human dimension of communication, withboth policies and facilities that encourage amuch wider opportunity for popular and com-munity-based involvement in information pro-cessing and dissemination. This can beachieved through local risk maps based oncommunity needs and values, public accessinformation portals, or facilities that enable theshared exchange of locally-derived risk infor-mation among communities or countries.

In all such efforts to bring information prac-tice closer to people most at risk, much moreattention must be given to ensure that the costsassociated with the availability or exchange ofdisaster information are affordable at localscales, particularly when applied to low and

medium income countries, or among more iso-lated and distant communities. There is a needto support and expand local, national andregional documentation centres and libraryservices related to the topics.

The rapid and widespread use of mobile tele-phones and the often innovative economiesassociated with their use, offers a promisingopportunity to marry technology with localcapacities. The more effective use of radiomedia, in association with the availability ofwind-up radios, represents another example ofexpanding traditional means of communicationfor a more informed and engaged populationin matters of risk management. (See section onpublic awareness.)

FFuuttuurree tteecchhnnoollooggyy

The wider public use of learning systems andartificial intelligence can lead to an increasedaccess to risk management information, whichwould be better adapted to the needs of specif-ic users. The applications offered by the latestinformation technology provide a powerfulinteractive working tool for the extended disas-ter risk community. Through applications suchas electronic conferencing and distance learn-ing via Internet, immediate sharing of docu-ments and drafts, efficiency and timeliness willincrease.

Other applications could be developed furtherto enhance information on disasters and riskreduction. GIS, remote sensing imagery andsatellite observations can help considerably toshow vulnerable areas, enhance mapping, andameliorate the understanding of hazards.Agencies like the United Nations Office forOuter Space Affairs (UN/OOSA), the Com-mittee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space(COPUOS), the Committee on Earth Obser-vation Satellites (CEOS), the Council ofEurope Major Hazards Agreement (EUR-OPA), and the European Commission JointResearch Centre (EC/JRC) already contributeto these tasks.

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Basic rrole oof eeducation aand ttraining

As disaster risk reduction has evolved over thepast two decades years from interests focussedon the study of specific hazards, the responsi-bilities of civil defence authorities and the large-ly structural nature of physical protection, boththe needs and the institutional resources relatedto education and training have also changed.

Academic research has become much more

focused on the transfer of knowledge and expe-rience, which in turn has established the needfor much closer association between the sourcesof specialist knowledge and the population it isintended to serve. With more attention beinggiven to the social and economic conditions ofvulnerability, conventional thinking about dis-aster management has become much moreclosely linked to basic developmental issues. Bylooking beyond the physical attributes of haz-ards, a greater emphasis has been placed onmatters associated with disaster risk issues andpreparedness.

Education and training about disaster manage-ment can no longer be considered as an area ofspecialist scientific study. The very concept of adisaster manager, fostered in the 1980s andearly 1990s, no longer sufficiently conveys theexpanded roles and responsibilities involved incontemporary strategies of disaster risk reduc-tion.This historical context is important to demon-strate the evolution of education and trainingas the concept of disaster management hasgrown and diversified. As increasing attentionmust now be given to the changing nature ofhazards and the more complex conditions ofrisk, institutional facilities and relationshipsrequired for educating future populations willlikewise have to become more diverse. A needremains to accommodate the combined influ-ences of environmental and land management

4.2 Education and Training

The highest priority has to be given to present the various dimensions of disaster risk within acommunity through structured educational programs and professional training. As people'sunderstanding and the exercise of their professional skills are essential components of any riskreduction strategy, an investment in human resources and capacity building across generationswill have more lasting value than any specific investment made in technological systems toreduce risks.

Education and training for disaster risk reduction takes many different forms:

• Basic role of education and training• Disaster risk management training centers• Academic and educational programs• Primary and secondary schooling• Professional trades and skills training• Capacity building• Future challenges and priorities

"One of the most significant trends affecting disaster preparednessand response is the transformation that has occurred in disastermanagement….. Once focused equally on war readiness and plan-ning for disasters and viewed as the exclusive purview of individu-als with military backgrounds, 'civil defense' has evolved into theprofession of emergency management - a profession that requiresdiverse skills, ranging from the ability to develop formal disasterplans, to skills in community outreach and organizational develop-ment, the ability to mobilize political constituencies, and knowl-edge of new and emerging technologies. The professionalizationof the field has been accompanied by the development of neworganizations, specialty fields, and credentialing processes, as wellas the growth of college and university curricula focusing on prin-ciples of emergency management. With this ongoing evolution indisaster management, disaster research must continue to docu-ment how and why disasters occur as well as their immediate andlong-term impacts.

Source: K. Tierney, 2001.

issues, climatic uncertainty, changing demo-graphics, and the pressing demands for sus-tainable livelihoods.

Education and training for disaster risk reduc-tion must proceed along several fronts. Wheredisaster management training programs arealready established, there is evidence that theframes of reference and the intended audienceis expanding. More attention is being given tointegrating disaster risk reduction into nation-al development planning processes and in cre-ating more resilient local communities.

There is now a recognition that disaster riskscan only be successfully managed on a broadand multidisciplinary basis that narrows theexisting gaps between researchers, teachers,and practitioners. While there is a muchgreater need for wider dissemination of profes-sional and technical knowledge, there is at leastas much need for study and understandingabout the underlying social and economicdimensions of risk too.

Professional training for risk reduction willplay a growing role as both the public andpolitical authorities recognise that effective riskmanagement strategies require many differentskills. But such an investment in the develop-ment of human resources can only be sustainedto the extent that the value of risk managementis institutionalised. The examples that followgive some indication of the extent and varietyof activities furthering the education and train-ing of disaster risk management.

Disaster rrisk mmanagement ttraining ccenters

There are a number of highly regarded disas-ter management training institutions that haveevolved from an earlier emphasis on operation.Earlier attention devoted to such subjects ascontingency planning and community pre-paredness activities has been reorientedtowards motivating more local participationand multidisciplinary outlooks that can createdisaster-resistant communities. As these cen-ters have been organizing a variety of trainingprograms over the past 15-20 years, alumnifrom one or the other of these centers fre-quently constitute the core of disaster profes-sionals in many developing countries, particu-larly in Africa and Asian Regions.

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EEssttaabblliisshheedd ttrraaiinniinngg cceenntteerrss iinncclluuddee::

• Disaster Management Center (DMC) at theUniversity of Wisconsin in Madison, UnitedStates

• Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC)in Bangkok, Thailand,

• Cranfield Disaster Preparedness Center(CDPC) at Cranfield University in Cranfield,United Kingdom

• Emergency Management Australia Institute(EMAI) in Mt. Macedon, Australia.

• Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC) inKobe, Japan.

NNaattiioonnaall TTrraaiinniinngg CCeenntteerrss

Asia• International Institute for Disaster Risk Man-

agement in Manila, Philippines • National Center for Disaster Management at

the Indian Institute of Public Administration inNew Delhi, India

• Uttar Aranchal Disaster Mitigation and Man-agement Center in Dehra Doon, India

• National Institute of Rural Development inHyderabad, India

• Center on Integrated Rural Development forAsia and the Pacific in Dhaka, Bangladesh

• International Center of Integrated MountainDevelopment (ICIMOD) in Kathmandu,Nepal

Africa

• Disaster Mitigation for Sustainable LivelihoodsProgramme of the University of the WesternCape in Cape Town, South Africa. This pro-gramme conducts a course that aims to achievean integrated understanding of disaster risk andits implications for sustainable development insouthern Africa, with a specific focus on SouthAfrica. It assumes an interdisciplinary perspec-tive in disasters and conceptualizes disaster riskas an outcome of the interplay between humanand natural factors. The programme also workwith community outreach.

• Africa University in Mutare, Zimbabwe • Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit of

the National College for Management andDevelopment Studies in Kabwe, Zambia

•· Disaster Management Institute of SouthernAfrica (DMISA) in South Africa

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Earlier training has in turn given impetus to thecreation of national training programs or centerswithin individual disaster-prone developingcountries which impart instruction for furtherextension of risk reduction practices throughcommunity-level practices. These initiatives alsofoster the growth of smaller informal trainingadapted to local situations and needs.

Academic aand eeducational pprograms

Natural hazards have always been studiedwithin the physical sciences, or expressed interms of physical forces considered by othertechnical disciplines such as engineering.There was little academic interest in relatingthe study of hazards or their social and eco-nomic effects to societies.

Noteworthy exceptions in the United Statesincluded the early exploration of sociologicalaspects of disasters in the mid 1960s at the OhioState University Disaster Research Center whichled to the creation of the Natural HazardsResearch and Applications Information Center atthe University of Colorado in 1974.

Parallel developments occurred in Europeduring the 1970s as a variety of technical spe-cialists contributed to ideas that coalesced inthe creation of the Center for the Research andEpidemiology of Disasters (CRED) at the Schoolof Public Health, Catholic University of Lou-vain in Brussels in 1972. The ideas of a multi-disciplinary group of technical researcherscalled the London Technical Group led to thecreation of the International Disaster Institute,a specialist research centre, in London in 1978.

Academic programs related to hazard studiesand the different but related fields of emer-gency management have expanded widely overthe past 10 years but only in some parts of theworld. More than 60 centres that study haz-ards and disasters are listed by the Universityof Colorado Natural Hazards Center web site(www.Colorado.edu/hazards/). In addition, an

equal number of academic institutions are list-ed that offer either graduate or undergraduateprograms in emergency management coursesat colleges, universities, and other educationalinstitutions located principally in the UnitedStates.

A similar record, but with a wider internation-al scope, is maintained by the Asian DisasterReduction Center in Kobe, Japan. Its web site(www.adrc.or.jp) lists more than 70 traininginstitutions and program contacts for an exten-sive range of technical specialist, national andprofessional organizations including some aca-demic institutions that offer short-term profes-sional courses in various aspects of disastermanagement.

One academic program that reflects the devel-opment of programs in disaster risk manage-ment is the Masters of Science Course in Dis-aster Management offered by Cranfield Uni-versity in the UK Now in its third year, it aimsto attract experienced mid-career personneldrawn from all organizational sectors amonggovernments, UN agencies, uniformed servic-es and NGOs, while at the same time cateringfor newly graduating students from a variety ofacademic backgrounds such as geography,development and environmental studies, polit-ical science and various technical courses ofstudy. The focus is on the development oftools, techniques and approaches for effectivedisaster management rather than giving prior-ity strictly to academic study and reflection.The aim of the course is to build effective dis-aster management capacity as well as reducingrisks from natural disasters, complex emergen-cies and human induced disasters. Furtherinformation can be obtained fromwww.rmcs.cranfield.ac.uk/dmc

Regional variations also exist, although com-prehensive listings of formal programs are notso readily available. However, in Latin Ameri-can and the Caribbean there are several univer-sities that offer postgraduate programs in dis-aster risk management.

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IInn LLaattiinn AAmmeerriiccaa aanndd tthhee CCaarriibbbbeeaann

• The University of Antioquia in Colombia hosts the PAHO/WHO collaboratingCentre for Education in areas of public health. In addition, the same University offersa Masters Degree in Contemporary Social Sciences and Risk Management within thefaculty of social sciences.

• The University of the Andes in Bogota, Colombia offers a Risk Assessment and Dis-aster Prevention Postgraduate Program of Disasters.

• The University del Valle in Bogota, Colombia offers a post graduate program in Inte-grated Risk Management.

• The Cuyo National University in Mendoza, Argentina offers a postgraduate degree inPrevention, Planning and Integrated Management of Risk-Prone Areas.

• The Venezuela's Institution of Technology of Ejido (Instituto de Tecnología de Ejido)offers a technical degree in Emergency Management and Disaster Response.

• The Faculty of Medicine at the Central University of Venezuela has included subjectsrelated to emergency and disaster preparedness in the undergraduate curriculum formany years.

• In Chile, the first postgraduate course on journalism and disaster management hasbegun.

• In Costa Rica: UNICEF, the Latin American Social Science Faculty (FLACSO) andLA RED promoted in 1998 a project to introduce reforms in the curriculum of riskand disaster education. The project undertook theoretical development, which arepublished in Education and Disasters (Educación y Desastres), and are also containedin a website www.desenredando.org.

• In the Caribbean region, the University of West Indies (UWI), has several disastermanagement related programmes out of the Jamaica and Trinidad & Tobago campus-es. These include earthquake and volcano monitoring systems, disaster research units,crop production and management of tropical hazards, natural resource managementprogrammes, as well as coverage of disaster management as part of Bachelors degreeprogrammes. In addition at the Masters level, at the Mona and Cave Hill Campus,disaster management components are included in the Environmental programmes.

Four universities in Central America are presently conducting or developing Mastersdegrees in disaster-related fields. • The National University (UNA) of Costa Rica offers a Masters degree in Natural

Disaster Mitigation for Central America, established through cooperation with theSwedish Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing Countries. It involvesmany other Central American state universities.

• The University of Costa Rica (UCR) offers a series of courses related to hazards.•· The National Autonomous University of Nicaragua is currently designing a Masters

degree in Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Disasters in conjunction with possiblesupporting interest from the Swiss Government.

• The Del Valle University in Guatemala is designing a Masters degree related to disas-ters oriented towards emergency preparedness and response.

Other courses: • In Bolivia, an administrative resolution has encouraged the designation of risk man-

agement as an elective course or a technical discipline at college level. • In Colombia, a higher education policy on risk prevention is being designed through a

"National Commission on Disaster Prevention Education" • In Venezuela, an existing program is being restructured to include disaster reduction

subjects while a parallel initiative seeks to improve the disaster resilience in the designand construction of school facilities.

ed under the auspices of ADPC in 10 Asiancountries. This program's approach to train-ing, learning materials and continuing educa-tion is to develop generic curricula on urbandisaster mitigation, which can be adapted andinstitutionalised at national and local levelsthrough training institutes.

An array of training programs, methods andtools have been produced over the past sevenyears including courses on floods, earthquakesand technological hazards. Other courses haveemphasised community-based approaches todisaster reduction, while courses for safer con-struction techniques for masons have also beendeveloped. In Asian countries, there is muchmore likely to be specialised institutions relatedto disaster management created by stateauthorities. The on-line discussion in the lead up to the2002 World Summit on Sustainable Develop-ment considered how best to promote educa-tion and capacity-building for the managementof risk reduction. It considered means to incor-porate disaster risk reduction issues in sustain-able development practices and reflected acommon understanding that education islinked to safety in many immediate and longerterm ways. It noted that education involves anumber of relevant aspects including publicawareness of hazards, advocacy for publicadherence to creating a culture of prevention,development of school curricula and profes-sional training. However, it was also observedthat the issue is not simply one of recommend-ing more education. There is equally a need toaddress the ways in which these various formsof education and training can link and comple-ment one another (see more: www.earthsum-mit2002.org/debate).

Such a gap becomes apparent when one con-siders that a disproportionate exposure to riskis concentrated in countries of the developingworld where a dramatic potential for loss canbe attributed to unsafe buildings. Most ofthese buildings are constructed informally. Theinvolvement of certified technicians, or theapplication of formal engineering practices inthese constructions is limited, due to economicrealities.

The problem of safer construction becomesone of conveying sound, risk reduction build-ing practices to the building owner. One mech-

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Professional ttrades aand sskill ttraining

One notes a different orientation for educationand training in disaster or risk managementpractices in Asian countries. The past thirtyyears have seen a remarkable growth in thenumber of professionals trained in differentscience and engineering branches related togeological, hydrometeorological and climatichazards so that there are now many more peo-ple to assess and interpret the physical phe-nomena of natural hazards, even within small-er developing countries.

However, the teaching of science and engi-neering only infrequently proceeds into mattersof hazard and risk assessment. When the sub-ject is addressed, typical courses of study willrely on teaching structural mitigation and tendto feature physical means of seeking to controlthe effects of natural hazards, such as by theconstruction of check dams, flood embank-ments, or retaining walls.

While modern social science and publicadministration widely acknowledge the preva-lence of increasingly complex societies, there iscorrespondingly little attention paid in formaleducational programs to the human social fac-tors, economic rationale, or political responsi-bilities associated with risk management.Accordingly, there is a visible lack of social sci-entists, community-based leaders or broadlyinformed public administrators practising inthe field of risk reduction.

One exception is the Asian Urban DisasterMitigation Program (AUDMP), implement-

A variation of this approach is the Kathmandu Valley Earth-quake Risk Management Project implemented by the Nation-al Society for Earthquake Technology (NSET) in Nepal.Engineering students participated in a building inventory andvulnerability analysis program during their summer vacation.More than 100 students were involved in the program andlearned different aspects of safer construction in earthquake-prone areas, which had not otherwise figured in their engi-neering curriculum.

Even such an informal exposure of students to risk issues andtheir own recognition of the relevance to their studies, demon-strates a potential for future courses for the younger genera-tion.

anism that has been exploited to only a limitedextent is by working with a more concentratedeffort to involve the artisanal carpenters,masons and other locally skilled tradesmenwho provide the great majority of technicalexpertise in construction. As they are local res-idents themselves, they can work as motivatorsfor both current and future improvements. Toaccomplish this form of risk reduction training,it is necessary to recognise the role of these arti-sans more fully and to engage them in betterunderstanding about the issues involved andby encouraging them to use technical knowl-edge in their work. Where the time has beentaken to do this, such as in the Core Shelter Con-struction Programme in the Philippines and theNSET activities in Nepal, considerable inter-est was shown by the participating communi-ties with rapid replication of the principles inneighbouring locations.

A significant advance in disaster education hasbeen observed in Latin America and theCaribbean in recent years. There has been agrowth in educating and employing profes-sionals with skills necessary for risk reductionfrom within the region in contrast to an earlierreliance on external technical advice and abili-ties. This practice of developing local capabili-ties has been encouraged by international agen-cies. A few years ago, most courses andinstructors had to be imported but that is nolonger the case.

Capacity bbuilding

The concept of capacity building is to providea target group with skills, resources and tech-nical abilities to enable it to better help itself. Inrecent years, increased emphasis has also beenplaced on developing overall policy frame-works in which individuals and organizationsinteract with the external environment in theirrespective areas of endeavour.

Capacity building can be achieved throughmeans such as training and education, publicinformation, the transfer, provision or access totechnology or other forms of technical assis-tance intended to improve institutional effi-ciency. In the field of disaster risk reduction,the concept can also relate to the formulation ofan appropriate policy framework such as in the

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training of disaster managers, the transfer oftechnical abilities or expertise, the dissemina-tion of traditional knowledge and know-how,strengthening infrastructure or organizationalabilities at local community, national andregional levels.

Most of the Programmes and agencies of theUN system are geared to provide and supportcapacity building in their respective areas ofcompetence. For example, in 2001, UNDPthrough its country offices, Regional Bureauxand specialised programmes, strengthened dis-aster reduction capacities in over sixty coun-tries. These programmes included buildinglocal capacities for disaster reduction in Cen-tral America and Jamaica, developing a newnational risk and disaster management systemin Haiti, strengthening national disaster officesin the English Caribbean countries, develop-ing regional strategies for disaster managementin the SADC countries and in the StabilityPact area (South-Eastern Europe countries),addressing flood risk reduction in the TiszaRiver Basin (Hungary, Romania andUkraine), and addressing drought risks inIran, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. UNDP alsosupported several capacity-building pro-grammes including in Albania, East Timor,Romania, Madagascar, and Malawi (see moreinformation on UN agencies in chapter 6.2).


Institutional initiatives to develop capabilities inhazard and risk reduction have been particularlyevident in Latin America and the Caribbean formany years. The Organization of American Statesand the Pan American Health Organization(PAHO) have sought to relate their particulartechnical abilities and practical experience throughexpanded opportunities for education. PAHO'spublication, Catalogue of Disaster Publicationsand Information Resources, contains a detaileddescription of all PAHO disaster training materi-als (books, CD-ROMs, slides and videos) andother sources of information, including the Virtu-al Health Library for Disasters and principal websites that contain PAHO content. The catalogueis available on the Internet at www.paho.org/disas-ters/publications, and print copies are available onrequest to [email protected]/[email protected]

reduction of risk. All ministries of health inLatin America and the Caribbean now employat least one official who is in charge of disas-ters. In many countries there is an entiredepartment or agency devoted to the subject.In Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile, new waterand sewage concessions demand that partici-pating private sector companies meet disasterreduction criteria in the construction, opera-tion, and maintenance of water and sanitationsystems. Vulnerability studies have been car-ried out in Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador,Peru, and Venezuela to examine water supplyand sewage systems. This has led to anincreased availability of current technical infor-mation and a growing demand for training indisaster reduction in this field.

LA RED has developed a methodology fortraining of local authorities in risk manage-ment. It has elaborated training modules andsupport material, with important conceptualcontributions in the area of vulnerability reduc-tion and risk management. This methodologyis currently being applied in many countries inthe region and adapted to local conditions.

AAffrriiccaa

As current risk reduction efforts in SouthAfrica require a considerable amount of inter-sectoral collaboration, a Training and CapacityBuilding Working Group has been establishedwithin the national Inter-departmental Disas-ter Management Committee to form one bodythat can monitor disaster management trainingand research throughout the country. Theworking group is compiling a comprehensiveframework for all types of formal and non-for-mal disaster management training and othercapacity building programs. It is also in theprocess of establishing a body to set standardsfor disaster management training consistentwith the accreditation requirements of theNational Qualifications Framework and theSouth African Qualifications Authority.

Schools for community outreach play a vitalrole in the community. A proper educationthrough the schools not only teaches the chil-dren but also reaches deep into the communitythrough the parents and teachers. It isobserved from past experience that the basicproblems related to disaster mitigation and

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A comprehensive Inter-American Strategy waslaunched in 1999 to reduce the education sec-tor's vulnerability to hazards by initiative of theUnit for Sustainable Development and Envi-ronment of the Organization of AmericanStates (USDE/OAS), working with PAHOand ISDR. Known as EDUPLANhemisferi-co, the program seeks to engage public andprivate institutions, national and internationalagencies, NGOs and private individuals toencourage member states to adopt the ActionPlan for Reducing the Vulnerability of theEducation Sector to Disasters through a vari-ety of international forums. With a TechnicalSecretariat for General Coordination located atPeru's National University at Trujillo, EDU-PLAN works through eight technical focalpoints located in Argentina, Costa Rica,Trinidad and Tobago, the United States, andVenezuela to conduct activities at a number oflocal, national and regional locations. Work isdivided into three areas: academic improve-ment, citizen participation, and physical infra-structure protection. There is a commitment toimprove the curriculum with the addition ofmore elements pertaining to risk reduction inprimary, secondary and higher education sothat individuals and groups of various profes-sional interests are prepared to work togetherfor disaster reduction.

In another sector in Latin America, progress inrisk management in the public health serviceswould not have been possible without buildingadditional professional capacities. Independentconsultants and local professionals have agreedthat a low-cost, culturally sensitive strategy isthe most effective way to contribute to the

LÍDERES is a vulnerability reduction course in Spanishorganized by PAHO/WHO taught almost exclusively bynational specialists with international reputations with the aimof strengthening the managerial skills required by disaster riskreduction practitioners. The content of the LÍDERES courseis constantly evolving and is revised in response to the needsof its target audience, the Latin American disaster reductioncommunity.

A multi-sectoral course programme sponsored byOFDA/USAID in partnership with national governmentsand NGOs has a key advantage that Latin American andCaribbean agencies can hire professionals from neighbouringcountries and benefit from their knowledge about local con-texts and cultures, in addition to their local language abilities.

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particularly at furthering disaster management inschools, such as by demonstrating a model earthquakeevacuation drill. Following this training, it is expectedthat disaster preparedness will be reflected in moreschool curricula across Asia.

The United Nations Disaster Management TrainingProgram (DMTP) has been a major international ini-tiative to develop training in disaster management.Originally launched by UNDP and UNDRO (nowOCHA) in cooperation with a core group of UNagencies in 1990. DMTP, currently administrated byUNDP, supports ongoing capacity-building efforts ofthe UN system, international organizations and indi-vidual disaster-prone countries. Workshops have pro-moted the establishment of national or regional centresand strengthened their capacities to study technologi-cal and environmental hazards, seismic protection, cri-sis prevention and preparedness.

DMPT has conducted more than 70 workshopsinvolving 6,000 participants in Africa, Latin Americaand the Caribbean, Asia and the Pacific, the MiddleEast and the Commonwealth of Independent States.Training materials include 22 training modules, 27country case studies, simulation exercises, trainers'guidelines, and videos that have been created to imple-ment DMTP's goals. They encompass a wide rangeof topics including learning about emergencies anddisasters, techniques of disaster assessment or riskreduction, links between crisis and development. Thetraining modules have been written in English, Frenchand Spanish, with selected modules translated also intoArabic, Bahasa Indonesian, Chinese, Portuguese,Russian, and Vietnamese. To improve informationexchange and access to all learning resources DMTPestablished a web site at www.undmtp.org.

preparedness are frequently attributed to lack of train-ing, awareness, education, and self-reliance within thecommunities. An appropriately educated and trainedcommunity is much more capable to cope successfullywith natural hazards and to reduce their impacts.

AAssiiaa aanndd tthhee PPaacciiffiicc

The School Earthquake Safety Initiative is beingimplemented by the UN Center for Regional Devel-opment/Disaster Management Planning HyogoOffice (UNCRD, Hyogo Office) in Kobe, Japan, inassociation with the Earthquake Disaster MitigationResearch Center (EDM) in Miki, Japan. It focuseson five cities in four countries in Asia: Bandung andBengkulu, Indonesia; Chamoli, India; Kathmandu,Nepal; and Tashkent, Uzbekistan.

The objective of the initiative is to develop disaster-resilient communities through self-help, cooperationand education. The initiative also aims to promote dis-aster education among children, teachers and parents.This approach to public education also encourageswidespread involvement in the realization of safer con-struction practices through retrofitting of schoolbuildings with the involvement of the local communi-ties, local governments and NGOs. As a visible andhighly considered community asset, a safer school canserve as a valuable example of practices that can savethe lives of children and serve for relief activities aswell. It can be used as a temporary shelter after anearthquake, and can also promote the culture of pre-vention and mitigation through ongoing communityactivities.

Thus, the importance of schools in every aspect of thedisaster cycle from pre-disaster mitigation to post-dis-aster rehabilitation can be recognised. Significant suc-cess has been achieved and many important lessonshave been learned, which can and should be applied todifferent hazard-prone cities and countries.

In December 2001, the Philippine Institute for Vol-canology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) and theAsia/Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO jointlyheld a training course in collaboration with the Philip-pine Commission on Higher Education (CHED),United Nations University (UNU) and the AsianDisaster Reduction Center (ADRC). ADRC encour-aged participation from its member country networkand personnel responsible for education about disastermanagement from 11 Asian countries. The programfor these school commissioners, government educationofficials, and NGO officials included training aimed

In recognition of the importance of education in disaster reduc-tion, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Cres-cent Societies has devoted significant energy to this area, withactivities including:training geography and social studies teachersas was done in the Caribbean through the Community BasedDisaster Preparedness Programme, so that they may include thetopics in their own classroom plans; • working with tertiary institutions in Pacific island states to

incorporate disaster management topics in their curricula;• developing games and drama exercises as a means of

imparting disaster preparedness information to children inthe Pacific;

• preparing disaster preparedness manuals for school chil-dren, as was done in Vietnam; and

• using television cartoons to convey messages to adults andchildren in Central Asian countries.

capabilities remains a disincentive for develop-ing effective education and training programsin disaster-prone countries.

IInnccoorrppoorraattiioonn ooff rriisskk eedduuccaattiioonn iinn ssuussttaaiinn-aabbllee nnaattiioonnaall ddeevveellooppmmeenntt

Risk is seldom taught in a systematic way on abroad, multidisciplinary basis. A critical chal-lenge for more effective education and trainingabout risk reduction is the need to broaden thebase of association with the subject and themore commonly adopted topics of educationalprograms. The subject of risk needs to becomemore integrated elements of national economicgrowth and development. This implies a closeridentification with both the causes of risk aswell as planning the means by which it may bereduced.

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Current views about the relevance of subjectssuch as the socio-economic conditions of vul-nerability, matters of social equity related torisk, and the promotion of means to motivatemore popular participation within local com-munities all describe topics yet to be accommo-dated systematically in education programs.An emerging trend of advanced academicstudies that are able to attract both studentsand working professionals from a variety offields, including technical, social and adminis-trative disciplines should continue to beencouraged and supported.

There is considerable scope also to address riskmanagement within educational programs ofpublic administration. By doing so, the conti-nuity and managed integration of responsibili-ties inherent in civil service functions couldprovide a more sustained basis for making riskmanagement an essential element of expectedgovernment practice at all levels. Much morecan be accomplished by introducing riskawareness into secondary and even primaryeducational programs through innovative pro-grams of teaching science, geography, ecology,and civic responsibility.

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ss Future cchallenges aand ppriorities

In formal education programs and profession-al training activities, the shift from hazard-focussed to a broader integration of risk aware-ness, analysis and management has only justbegun. Major disaster events in recent yearssuch as hurricane Mitch in Central America,the Gujarat earthquake in India, or the wide-spread floods of Southern Africa have eachdramatically increased both the public and offi-cial recognition that risk education is lacking.More sustained focus on informal training andcommunit based capacity building is encour-aged.The following priorities must be integrat-ed if disaster risk reduction is to become morefully incorporated in routine education andtraining programs:

• Proceeding beyond emergency response • Incorporation of risk in sustainable

national development• Educating about the social dimensions of

risk• Institutional basis to transmit experience• A sustained commitment to risk reduc-

tion in the future

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There has been a progressive acceptance of thedistinction between emergency servicesrequired to respond to disaster and the longer-term and much more diverse responsibilitiesrelated to risk reduction. Both national andinternational commitments are necessary toinvest in human resource development dedi-cated to risk reduction, first and foremost tosupport initiatives in the most disaster-pronecountries.

A continued expectation, or reliance of externalemergency assistance in response to singulardisastrous events will impede any efforts toeducate and involve future generations morefully in disaster risk management. The signifi-cant imbalance in financial allocations andinternational emergency assistance during dis-asters compared to the meagre amounts com-mitted to building locally-based risk reduction

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The managerial and organizational responsi-bilities in identifying, monitoring and manag-ing risk remain insufficiently represented ineducational and professional contexts. Whilespecific aspects of financial risk managementare routinely included within economics, finan-cial investment and insurance curricula, paral-lel approaches of risk management within thetechnical, environmental or social contexts of asociety are much less in evidence.

Future challenges in education revolve arounddeveloping individual capabilities and the cre-ation of collective institutional capacities. Localcommunities must be aware of the risks towhich they are exposed. They then need toinstitutionalise the technical and managerialabilities to assess and monitor them, and thepolitical and popular structures to managethem.

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SSuussttaaiinneedd ccoommmmiittmmeenntt ttoo rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn eedduuccaattiioonn aanndd ttrraaiinniinngg

A longer term vision is needed to build educa-tion and training processes that will contributeto culture of prevention. Investment in thedevelopment of human resources can be sus-tained only to the extent that the values of riskmanagement are embedded within the educa-tion and training capabilities of disaster-pronecommunities. There is a pressing need forinnovative means to convey shifting organiza-tional relationships and the mosaic of interestsinvolved in shaping people's understandingand developing professional abilities for thefuture, with an increasing expectation of sub-stantive private sector involvement in theirrealization.

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Public aawareness aas aa pprimary element oof rrisk rreduction

The promotion of public awareness about haz-ards and the creation of widespread under-standing about disaster reduction have alwaysbeen recognised as a crucial function of disas-ter risk management strategies. The YokohamaStrategy and Plan of Action noted in the mid1990s that future strategies needed to developa global culture of prevention as an essentialcomponent of an integrated approach to disas-ter reduction. It specifically cited the improve-ment of awareness within vulnerable commu-nities themselves as a primary future require-ment.

For this reason, increasing public awarenessabout natural and related technological hazardsand the risks they pose to societies andeconomies has become one of the four keyobjectives of the International Strategy for Dis-aster Reduction (ISDR). Even more relevantin practical terms, public awareness serves toconvey knowledge about existing solutions thatcan reduce the vulnerability to hazards in orderto build a global community dedicated to mak-ing risk and disaster reduction an acceptedpublic value.

To ensure political commitment in the plan-ning and implementation of risk reductionmeasures, it is essential for all stakeholders firstto be aware of the hazards they are likely to faceand the importance that risk reduction holdsfor their daily lives. Public awareness, in addi-tion to education, is a process through whichpeople living in hazard-prone areas can realiseand understand that they live in areas of risk,know the specific dangers that they are exposedto, learn the meaning of warnings that areissued and participate in the policy and deci-sion making processes to take appropriateaction to reduce risk. It is even more importantfor them to be motivated to take appropriateprior actions to plan their development andprotect their lives and minimise property dam-age.

There is a basic responsibility of governmentauthorities to inform the public about thenature of prevalent hazards and the changingconditions of risk. However, the routine dis-semination of information and the conduct ofactivities to sustain a current sense of aware-ness also must be undertaken by other sectorsof the society. The inclusion of risk informationin all forms of education and professional train-ing is crucial and a successful program of pub-

4.3. Public awareness

The development of increased public awareness about hazards and the understanding of disasterrisks are vital elements in any comprehensive strategy for disaster reduction. Public awarenessshould be conducted through all possible means, including in schools, in particular through themedia and other official, public, professional and commercial means, at all levels of society.There is a responsibility for government direction and civic commitment to lead and encouragethe public awareness of natural hazards and risk on a continuous basis, but the ultimate accom-plishment of creating a culture of prevention rests with the popular understanding and publicparticipation in furthering those values.

The importance of public awareness to effective disaster risk reduction cannot be overstated andassumes many different forms. Some of these are presented in the following sections:

• Public awareness as a primary element of risk reduction • National public awareness initiatives• Special international events and major activities• The important role of the media• Local community experience promotes public awareness• Local relevance, community experience and traditional knowledge

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management. The unprecedented floods expe-rienced in several Southern African countriesin 2000 resulted in public demands and politi-cal expectations for a wider regional discussionof the risks associated with recurrent naturalhazards. Each of these occasions has resultedin the circulation of more public informationwith a resulting widespread public expectationof improved early warning procedures both toinform the population and to guide moreappropriate disaster management policies.

The challenge that remains after an immediatecrisis is to maintain public interest and increaseinvolvement in public awareness programs. Itis during these periods of less immediate threatthat the important work in public awarenessneeds to be accomplished if greater future loss-es are to be minimised or avoided. The aim ofpublic awareness programs should not be lim-ited to conveying an understanding about haz-ards and risks to the public but rather it should

lic information must necessarily include pro-fessional and civic groups and both nationaland local authorities. The media too fulfils therole of informing the public in increasinglyinformation-driven societies. There is a wide-spread recognition that practical tools andguidelines to carry out such programs remaininadequate in part because of the limitedexchange of information about what is beingaccomplished globally in the field.

Individual commemorative occasions or oneoff public displays that are not associated withdaily livelihoods and social responsibilities ofthe public are unlikely to have much enduringeffect. They only go so far in arousing publicinterest or motivating widespread popular par-ticipation, so more strategic approaches need tobe conceived and supported. By contrast, evenif extreme events may be considered extraordi-nary in themselves, they have a great potentialfor dramatically illustrating hazardous condi-tions elsewhere. In this respect, the prevalenceof risks that display severe consequences near-by or in similar social settings can provide apowerful impetus for sustained public interest.The timely and widespread circulation of les-sons learned from disasters and the followthrough necessary to apply the practical proce-dures that can reduce risks, can contribute toothers prior to similar losses being sufferedelsewhere.

Having witnessed the damage to public infra-structure in California during the Loma Prietaearthquake in 1989, the authorities in Seattle,Washington used the occasion to create a widerpublic understanding and support for fixingtheir own roads, bridges and other publicworks early in the 1990s. Work continuedthroughout the decade at a cost of more than$150 million. When a magnitude 6.0 earth-quake shook Seattle in 2001, the Mayor ofSeattle observed that the sustained publicawareness and support for their program to re-enforce public infrastructure was money wellspent. There was only one fatality and the pri-mary city infrastructure largely survived withonly moderate damage.

Public discussion and official assessment of theconsequences of major earthquakes in India inrecent years have resulted in political demandsthat have totally revised outdated state-wideprograms of hazard awareness and disaster risk

DDiissaasstteerrss iinnccrreeaassee ppuubblliicc aawwaarreenneessssExperiences demonstrate opportunities tomount programs of public awareness and edu-cation with practical results following major dis-asters.

The impact of the El Niño event in 1997-98,hurricanes Georges and Mitch (1998), followedby the losses from the earthquakes in El Sal-vador (2001), had such an enormous impact onpublic understanding that they far exceededwhat any planned publicity program could haveever accomplished in Central America.

Before, routine public information disseminatedby disaster management authorities typicallyfocused on emergency preparedness and crisisresponse issues. Since these events, the complexissues of risk have become associated with prob-lems of poverty, social exclusion, lack of accessto resources and untenable use of land.

There is now the recognition that values associ-ated with risk reduction must be conveyedthrough wider public exposure and achieved bymaking permanent changes in educational cur-ricula. The successful efforts to teach environ-mental consciousness throughout the formalbasic education system in Costa Rica showswhat can be accomplished with a coherent andsustained strategy.

motivate and enable people to become involvedin activities that can reduce risks to which theyare exposed. Public awareness programsshould have the long-term objective of creatingnew attitudes and changing behaviour. There-fore, information needs to be consistent, withprinciple components repeated over a period oftime.

Extended involvement with public awarenesscan take many forms. A long-term commit-ment to risk reduction is best achieved byincorporating the subject throughout society,where people live and work, and by includingit as a part of their daily livelihood experienceor professional interest.

The enhancement of the appropriate valuesrequire recognition and direction from officialauthorities best realised by encouragement andsupport for public information activities imple-mented at local levels. Rather than focussingon specific hazards alone, some communitiesare turning their attention to the broader con-cepts of risk, by identifying, assessing and eval-uating the various risks that threaten them.

Formal education and professional trainingdiscussed in another section is the most feasiblemechanism to increase additional understand-ing about risks and to change public attitudesamong different generations. By reaching intothe past and drawing on earlier examples oflocal experience and traditional knowledge,

communities can identify additional measuresto promote a wider public appreciation of haz-ards or local capabilities to manage risks.Knowledge of the immediate local environ-ment, and particularly traditional practicesassociated with the management and sustaineduse of natural resources provide additionaltypes of information that can be employed toreduce risks.

National ppublic aawareness iinitiatives

Most countries that have an active and well-supported national disaster risk managementauthority express a commitment to increasedpublic awareness about hazards, risk and disas-ter reduction practices. They usually proceedbeyond occasional commemorative events orthe provision of posters, public announcementsor handbooks, and have national platforms orcommittees bringing together representativesfrom various stakeholder sectors.

The Government of Australia conceived andsustained an excellent public awareness pro-gram throughout the 1990s that encompassedall aspects of the country's efforts to increasethe awareness of hazards and reduce the risk ofdisasters. Examples of many of the informativemanuals, posters, pamphlets, community haz-ard maps, and descriptions of related activitiesare included in a comprehensive review, theFinal Report of Australia's Co-ordinationCommittee for IDNDR - 1990-2000 (EMA,1999).

The Government of South Africa made use ofits Green Paper and community meetings todevelop a greater familiarity about local haz-ards and community risk issues prior to thepublication of a White Paper on national poli-cy and the drafting of a new national disastermanagement bill.

The National Disaster Management Office ofBotswana conducted a survey and policyreview late in 2001 to help in the developmentof a national public awareness strategy intend-ed to relate hazard and risk reduction andnational development objectives.

In recent years, the United States FederalEmergency Management Agency (FEMA)(www.fema.gov) has provided extensive public

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� They should be designed and implemented with aclear understanding of local perspectives andrequirements with all materials reflecting local condi-tions.

� They should target all sections of society, includingdecision-makers, educators, professionals, membersof the public and individuals living in threatenedcommunities.

� Different types of messages, locations and deliverysystems are necessary to reach the various targetaudiences.

� Sustained efforts are crucial to success, although sin-gle activities such as commemorative disaster reduc-tion events and special issue campaigns can be usefulif they are part of a larger, consistent programme.

information including links to many organiza-tions engaged in disaster reduction activities.

In Mozambique, the National Disaster Man-agement Authority (INGC) uses disaster sim-ulations as well as a variety of public forums toconduct awareness-raising programs under thetheme Towards a Culture of Prevention. A dif-ferent location is chosen each year, usually apotentially vulnerable area near a provincialcapital, and national leaders are invited to par-ticipate. Televised panel discussions, publicexhibitions, university seminars and presenta-tions in schools are also conducted. At a morepractical level and with a longer-term perspec-tive, projects such as tree planting or the distri-bution of drought-resistant crops, have beeninitiated during the event. The timing of theseactivities also serve to highlight meteorologicalforecasts for the imminent rainy season andannouncements are made about emergencycontingency plans.

These outreach campaigns have put the issueof disaster management on the public agendabut the message has been directed largely tourban populations. While a principal objectivein most of these activities has been to influencepolicy-makers and other significant stakehold-ers at the national level, a challenge remains toinstil a culture of prevention among pooreerrural communities, those most likely to sufferduring a disaster.

China has made widespread use of publications,media and other forms of publicity to raise thepublic consciousness about the importance ofdisaster reduction. In the past decade, morethan 300 books have been published about thesubject, and more than 20 different newspapersand periodicals have been created to spreadknowledge about disaster reduction throughoutthe many different sectors of Chinese society. Inaddition, numerous international publicationsand documents dealing with disaster risk issueshave been translated into Chinese or adapted toChinese conditions, and distributed widely.Future plans of the China National Committeefor Natural Disaster Reduction (CNCIDR) toimprove their public awareness program includegreater use of television, broadcasting, video,and electronic means.

There are additional plans for CNCIDR to co-ordinate with educational departments to add

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new content on hazards and disaster risk tocurricula in schools, enabling youth to under-stand their own roles in reducing disasters.Similarly, professional organizations run disas-ter reduction training courses according totheir own specific circumstances. The ChinaAssociation for Science and Technology hasmobilised scientific and technical personnel tocontribute to the decision-making processesand has organized consulting services in disas-ter reduction for specific problems.

Special eevents aand mmajor aactivities

Every year since the early 1990s the UN hasorganized a World Disaster Reduction Cam-paign with the objective of raising awarenessabout disaster reduction through thematicallyrelated activities. This public awareness strate-gy calls on Governments and local communi-ties to mobilise, for example, by developingrisk maps and early warning systems. It urgesGovernments to develop and enforce buildingcodes and to exploit scientific and technicalknowledge for minimising the exposure to therisk of natural disasters. Other UN agenciesand their program partners are also committedto carrying out this strategy by bringing peopleand expertise together in the search for solu-tions. The campaigns are based on a differenttheme every year. In 2001, the theme wasCountering Disasters, Targeting Vulnerability.The 2002 campaign is mentioned below.

The theme of the 2002 World Disaster Reduc-tion Campaign, is Disaster Reduction for Sus-tainable Mountain Development, chosen toparallel the world-wide celebration of theInternational Year of Mountains. Through aseries of activities and special programs inmany countries, the campaign will highlightincreasing global awareness of mountain haz-ards and successful disaster reduction effortsundertaken in mountain areas. The primarymessage is that disaster reduction as an essen-tial part of sustainable development planningcan benefit mountain communities world-wideby avoiding the devastating set backs that nat-ural disasters can cause. The annual campaignculminates on the International Day for Natur-al Disaster Reduction on the second Wednes-day of October with activities to showcaseexamples of successful accomplishments in dis-aster reduction.

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The lasting effects of these mechanisms can beillustrated by the experience of Bolivia. Since1998, disaster reduction has been promoted inBolivia through two programs. One programhas focussed on supporting the national systemfor civil defence the other has emphasisedmeasures that could prevent avoidable risksand increase the public awareness about disas-ters.

While several projects had been undertaken toinvolve more people in managing risks andusing the information materials that had beendeveloped, a new campaign, Risk Manage-ment: A new vision on disasters, was launchedin 2001, to further the objectives of the ISDR.A workshop was organized in July 2001 by theUniversidad Nacional Siglo XX de Llallaguato promote the campaign with financing pro-vided by ACRA, an Italian NGO, with thetechnical support of a national specialist fromUNDP.

Another workshop was held in August in thecity of Santa Cruz on community-based disas-ter management, conducted within the frame-work of a pilot project of the Association of theMunicipality of Santa Cruz and the GermanAgency for Technical Co-operation (GTZ).

Later in the year, one of the most importantachievements was the approval of a new lawdirected towards improving risk reduction anddisaster awareness. The law encourages theidentification of key measures relating to disas-ter reduction that can be employed in thecourse of implementing projects that furthersustainable development principles. To supportthis process, manuals have been prepared toguide people in local communities to assessrisks, formulate practical policies, and then toapply risk management measures that can beincorporated in local development programs.These manuals will be tested in selectedmunicipalities and then will be evaluated after-wards.

Case: Jamaica

A variety of local activities were conducted inJamaica in June 2001, the country's official dis-aster preparedness month. A national church

service was held to launch the month, broad-cast live on television and radio. The followingday, a press conference was held to introducethe public to the themes of disaster prepared-ness month, which were then emphasised inpublic information campaigns the rest of theyear. Specific issues were also presented con-cerning local planning.

• An evacuation sign was introduced, spon-sored by Medigrace Jamaica, which couldbe used to guide people out of the Port-more area in the event of an emergencyevacuation.

• The use and application of the Office ofDisaster Preparedness and EmergencyManagement's (ODPEM) GeographicInformation System was explained andhighlighted. The use of computer tech-nology in the National Emergency Oper-ations Center was also highlighted.

• ODPEM highlighted their initiative toinclude elements of popular culture inconveying disaster preparedness messageseffectively to the public. This included theparticipation of several popular musicdisc-jockeys and the promotion of com-mercial sponsorship to broadcast thesemessages.

• Two new brochures were launched forpublic information: ODPEM, who weare and what we do, and, EarthquakeAwareness for Businesses.

One day during the month was disaster pre-paredness day in schools. The ministry of edu-cation called for an island-wide observance ofthe subject. Many schools participated in dis-aster related activities. A hurricane prepared-ness day for businesses was also held duringthe month with widespread support from thebusiness community. Several companies organ-ized exhibitions, conducted drills and invitedspeakers from safety-related organizations.

A major exhibition was held in the PortmoreShopping Mall in which about twenty organi-zations presented exhibits that displayed theirproducts and services. ODPEM also dis-played emergency supplies that people shoulduse in the event of a hurricane. Finally, a semi-nar on contingency planning directed to busi-ness organizations was held at the conclusionof the month. With the objective to raiseawareness about disaster planning and pre-

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SSaassaakkaawwaa AAwwaarrdd WWiinnnneerrss - 22000011

To promote additional public awareness about disaster risk reduction, every year the UNSasakawa Award for Disaster Reduction is awarded during the International Day for DisasterReduction. This international honour is given to an individual or organization for their out-standing contributions to the prevention of disasters and the reduction of vulnerability, consis-tent with the aims and objectives of the ISDR. The laureates and finalists of the award for thepast two years are listed below. Further information about their activities and procedures forfuture nominations can be found on the ISDR website at www.unisdr.org

Laureate: GGlobal FFire MMonitoring CCentre, MMax PPlanck IInstitute ffor CChemistry aat FFreiburg UUniversity, Freiburg, Germany For its long-term commitment to disaster reduction and continued research activities for the reduction of wildlandfires world-wide, as well as for its multiple co-operation projects in developing countries, involving local commu-nities.

CCeerrttiiffiiccaatteess ooff DDiissttiinnccttiioonn::

Philippines IInstitute oof VVolcanology, Manila Philippines For its long-term commitment to disaster reduction and its leading role in disaster reduction activities in CentralAsia, in particular with regard to earthquakes and volcanoes, with the involvement of local communities, and itsimpressive amount and high-quality supporting documentation on their many activities and projects.

Mr. BBrian WWard, AAsian DDisaster PPreparedness CCenter, Bangkok, Thailand For being the initiator and founding father of the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, now recognised as the lead-ing institution for disaster reduction projects, training activities and educational projects in Southeast Asia.

Professor IIsaac NNyambok, DDepartment oof GGeology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya For his personal commitment to disaster reduction, and for establishing a postgraduate disaster management course indisaster reduction in Africa at the University of Nairobi that is accessible to all professional interests, including those ofhigh-level government officials.

Certificates oof MMerit:

National SSociety oof EEarthquake TTechnology, Katmandu, NepalFor its noteworthy awareness-raising and educational programs in disaster reduction, particularly in the field ofseismic risk reduction, for the benefit and with the involvement of the local communities and decision-makers inNepal, with a strong potential for implementation and for replicability for other kinds of natural hazards.

Oficina NNacional dde EEmergencia, MMinisterio dde IInterno, Santiago de Chile, ChileFor its significant educational activities and awareness-raising programs about disaster reduction, in particular bythe inclusion of communication strategies related to school security within its mandate in civil protection, as wellas its strong presence and impact among national decision-makers throughout the Latin American and Caribbeanareas.

Comisión PPermanente dde CContingencias, Tegucigalpa, HondurasFor its significant initiatives in the field of promotion and awareness-raising about disaster reduction, especiallyrelated to forest fires, as well as by working in close co-operation with the population to implement initiatives thatrealise local communities' vulnerability and specific requirements, and by placing emphasis on the development ofcommunication strategies accessible to all segments of the population.

Nyos-MMonoun DDegassing PProgram AAdvisory CCommittee, Yaoundé, CameroonFor the innovative design and implementation of the lake degassing initiative, applied in a developing country andwith the involvement of local communities, and by serving as an example to refining the project further and extend-ing its replication to reduce similar risks elsewhere in the region.

and then causing mudslides affecting fourcommunities near the old Costa Rican capitalof Cartago.

A massive public awareness campaign aboutearthquakes was also launched with media sup-port, supplemented by a poster designed byCNE to inform people about the importance ofpreventive measures that would reduce theimpact of an earthquake. The Inter-institutionalEmergency Commission of the University ofCosta Rica organized a forum on the role of themedia in disseminating information on disasters. In Uruguay, the Ministry of Education'sEmergency and Disaster Commission organ-

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paredness, participants came from many differ-ent business sectors to learn about topics suchas establishing a planning team for risk reduc-tion and conducting vulnerability analysis.

CCaassee:: CCoossttaa RRiiccaa

On International Day for Disaster Reduction,Costa Rica's National Risk Prevention andEmergency Response Commission (CNE), thecountry's focal point for disaster reduction,organized a community exercise in disasterpreparedness. It involved an evacuation drillbased on the likelihood of a local river flooding

SSaassaakkaawwaa AAwwaarrdd WWiinnnneerrss - 22000000

Laureate: TThe FFondo ppara lla RReconstruccion yy eel DDesarrollo SSocial ddel EEje CCafetero, Manizales, Colombia In recognition of its major achievements in disaster preventionin the Coffee region following the severe earthquake of 1999,by integrating basic elements of prevention such as land-useplanning, hazard mapping, respect for seismic-resistant build-ing codes into long-term reconstruction and rehabilitation pro-grams. FOREC has contributed significantly to the sustain-able development of the coffee region by restoring communi-cations links and economic infrastructure, by promoting civilsociety and the involvement of local communities in the deci-sion-making process and implementing decision-making at thelocal level.

Certificates oof DDistinction:

Dr. RRoberto AAguiar FFalconi, CCenter oof SScientific RResearch, AArmy PPolytechnic SSchool, Quito, Ecuador For his high-level experience and expertise in the prevention of seismic hazards disaster prevention and his contribution toscientific research in this domain.

National DDisaster PPrevention aand PPreparedness CCommission, Addis Ababa, EthiopiaFor efforts in addressing the root causes of disasters and communities' vulnerability to disasters, and the Commission's inclu-sion of disaster prevention activities in the development process.

The CCentral CCommittee ffor FFlood aand SStorm CControl, Hanoi, Vietnam For its significant efforts in the field of disaster prevention, despite scarce national resources and limited capacities, in par-ticular for its implementation of flood control programs and flood early-warning systems, awareness-raising initiatives andtraining activities carried out at the national level.

Certificates oof MMerit:

General DDirectorate oof CCivil PProtection, GGovernorate oof GGrand AAlger, Algiers, AlgeriaFor efforts in introducing elements of prevention in rescue programs, in particular the sustained efforts in carrying out train-ing activities for disaster prevention including participation and organization of international forums on the subject.

National DDirectorate GGeneral ffor DDisaster MManagement, Budapest, Hungary For its significant experience in the field of disaster preparedness, in particular in information sharing, initiatives in the fieldof flood control and the prevention of water contamination as preventative measures contributing to sustainable develop-ment.

ized a workshop with the support of theOFDA/USAID, the National Emer-gency System, and the local government.The National Red Cross Society ofUruguay attended the International Dayfor Disaster Reduction, as well as localrepresentatives of civilian, political, andmilitary organizations, school children,and the media. The objective was tostrengthen local communities by creatingawareness of social responsibility, identifi-cation of hazards, prevention and risk,especially directed at children. One focusof the workshop was for the participants tocompose risk and vulnerability maps rele-vant to their surroundings. Another meet-ing was held three weeks later for the par-ticipants to share their information andexperiences about the presentation andcomposition of their various risk maps.

Many countries use the occurranc of amajor national disaster in the past to com-memorate this day (or week) from year toyear in a public awareness day for disasterpreparedness and risk reduction. This isthe case in Colombia, where the devastat-ing volcanic eruption of Nevado de Ruizon November 13, 1985, swept awaywhole villages and left more than 25.000people dead. National exercises, schooland media activities take place each year tomaintain the awareness of such impacts.The same happens in Peru, where theearthquake and avalanche in Cajon deHuaylas on May 5, 1970, killed morethan 67.000 persons.

The iimportant rrole oof tthe mmedia

In terms of media involvement, there ismuch that needs to be done. The prevail-ing media coverage about hazards and riskremains overwhelmingly related to disas-ter events and the immediate dramaticaftermath of surveying damage or the pro-vision of emergency assistance to sur-vivors. With a few noteworthy examples,widespread coverage about potential orrecurrent hazards which affect a specificarea or reporting about existing disasterrisk management practices are much lessin evidence.

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AA pprrooffeessssiioonnaall''ss vviieewwppooiinntt:: WWhhaatt tthhee mmeeddiiaa ssaayyss,,aanndd wwhhyy..

The media tends to reflect the mood of the commu-nity it serves. If there is already debate about theexposure to natural hazards or concern about disas-ter awareness, then journalists are likely to amplifyand focus this concern. If there is no local interest inthe subject, then a local newspaper, television orradio program is unlikely to launch and sustain thediscussion. There is, however, a moment to triggersuch attention and to inspire media professionals totake an intelligent interest in wider disaster subjects.This moment is in the immediate aftermath of anearthquake, flood, forest fire, landslide, hurricaneor tsunami.

Paradoxically, such moments also underscore hugecultural gaps that exist between journalists and theengineers, scientists, health teams and administra-tors who want to promote wider public understand-ing about risk. The issue is a simple one. News peo-ple want the story. In the first bewildering hoursafter a catastrophe, there is often no direct news atall. There is instead silence. Roads are cut, commu-nications are severed, water and power supplies areinterrupted and the civic authorities and hospitalsthat should be the source of information are them-selves part of the disaster. At such moments,reporters phone frantically to find university or gov-ernment-based specialists who might be prepared tospeculate on what might have happened, or the pos-sible reasons for the disaster. When approachedurgently, by often previously unknown questioners,these experts tend to worry about reputations forscholarly accuracy, mature judgement and politicalsoundness. They often shrink from comment,apologetically promising to offer thoughtful analysiswhen firm information becomes available.

This is a mistake. News people have no choice.They must report on a disaster that has just hap-pened even if they have only the sketchiest details. Ifan informed and thoughtful expert is hesitant tocomment based on limited information, mediareporters will go in search of a less-informed andless-thoughtful commentator who will.

It is at such moments that disaster risk managementprofessionals have a golden chance to describe thepattern of loss and destruction. They can drivehome the lessons of risk awareness and known pro-cedures that can reduce those risks. They shouldseize on the chance to do this, in vivid, clear and

In a more far-sighted outlook, some nationalofficials seek to relate distant events to theirown more immediate conditions. The responseto the ISDR questionnaire of Western Samoanoted that one of the most important issues tobe addressed in Western Samoa was for themedia to be committed to providing coverageof major world disasters and catastrophes.Journalists were encouraged to describe reliefresponses in both the short and long term, sothat the full coverage and not just dramatichighlights would influence their audiences toact with greater attention to disaster prepared-ness. The National Red Cross Society in West-ern Samoa also made radio broadcasts on dis-aster preparedness with disaster-related discus-sions about such topics as public health, hous-ing, warnings, food, community participation,and first aid.

Mozambique is a country where an importantobjective of public awareness campaigns hasbeen to develop the media as a better source ofpublic information about hazards. TheNational Disaster Management Authority(INGC) has made media relations a priorityfor improving public awareness as the need formore accurate reporting was a recurrent themeexpressed by journalists, district administra-tors, and other local authorities. Now, disastermanagement officials are working togetherwith technical specialists in the national weath-er service and professional journalists toinvolve the media more effectively as a meansto issue early warning and hazard alerts.

The media has played an increasingly valuablerole in disaster management from the time of theexceptional floods in 2000 when it served as animportant catalyst for emergency action by theinternational community. Subsequently in Octo-ber 2001, the National Meteorological Serviceprovided an incentive by inaugurating their ownnew television studio supplied with professionalmedia equipment provided through Finnishdevelopment assistance. In this way, the countrywas able to increase its own capacity to providebetter public information and education aboutthe routine weather as well as potential hazardsthat may threaten the country.

Despite the expanded coverage in the country,the most important medium for social commu-

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even chilling language, at every moment forthe next 24 hours. They should do this because- since the media reflects the community itserves - if the media is listening, then the peo-ple are listening.

Once television cameras get to the disasterzone, as images of crushed children and weep-ing relatives and toiling rescuers begin to floodthe public, the imagery and the grim statisticsof suffering will dominate the news. And thenwho will want to hear somebody talking in aca-demic terms, about monitoring hazards or mit-igating future risks ?

There are, however, some signs of change.Public reporting of disasters has begun toinclude references to human actions that havecontributed to the severity of an event, particu-larly as they may relate to the loss of life andproperty. Increasingly, questions are beingraised about the responsibility of public offi-cials in either contributing to, or tolerating haz-ardous conditions. Media reporting was out-spoken about the inadequate quality of con-struction and placement of many houses thatwere destroyed by the Turkish earthquake inIzmit, in 1999.

Reporting about the extensive losses sufferedin the Venezuelan mudslides in 1999 queriedwhy the informal settlements had been con-structed in such potentially hazardous condi-tions and questioned whether extensive defor-estation had contributed the disaster.

The extraordinary floods that raged throughAlgiers in 2001 were reported as having beencaused, in part, by unserviceable drainage sys-tems. So far, such inquiry happens after theconsequence of an unmitigated hazardbecomes a political or newsworthy event.

"Professional newspapermen love disaster - it is their business - butdon't rely on them to be very different from the rest of the community.The independent commercial media survives and thrives by reflectingthe community it serves. If a community is complacent, then there is afair chance that its journalists too will take the placid line… If peo-ple don't die in thousands, it is not a disaster, and therefore not news.

The preparedness message gets only a limited airing." T. Radford, The Guardian, 1999

nication remains the local language radio net-work of Radio Mozambique. This servicebroadcasts information regularly about preven-tion and disaster risk reduction measures, aswell as communicating warning alerts at thetime of imminent hazards. INGC has alsoworked with the World Food Program to con-duct training seminars for journalists in orderto improve the quality of reporting, and anannual prize has been proposed for the bestdisaster reporting.

Local ccommunity eexperience promotes ppublic aawareness

Some of the most effective means of publicawareness can take place at the local communi-ty level with the added advantage of involvingthe participation of a cross-section of the localpopulation.

The Community Action Group for Floodwaterin the Old Community of Rodenkirchen(Bürgerinitiative Hochwasser, AltgemeindeRodenkirchen) is a non-profit associationfounded in a district of Cologne, Germany,after the severe flooding of the Rhine River in1993 and 1995. This group advocates theinterests of more than 4,000 residents in mat-ters of local flood protection. In 2001, the com-munity action group sailed the boat Pegellatte("Water Depth Gauge") up the Rhine fromCologne to Basle, Switzerland staging eventsand conducting discussions in 18 towns andcities together with other community actiongroups and representatives of local authorities.In 2002 the group will take their floodwatercampaign boat downstream from Cologne tothe Rhine delta. The overall promotionalefforts of the campaign for greater awarenessabout flood issues is not limited to Germanyalone, as the Group's trips also go throughparts of France, Switzerland and the Nether-lands. As a Burgerinitiative Hochwasserspokesman says emphatically, "The aim is towin over the solidarity of ALL Rhine Riverresidents, because we can only combat floodingtogether". In fulfilling their own vow, the com-munity action group cooperates closely withthe German Committee for Disaster Reduc-tion (Deutsches Komitee für Katastrophenvor-sorge) and the Rhine Emergency FloodwaterOrganisation (HochwassernotgemeinschaftRhein).

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A number of public awareness projects are cur-rently underway in South Africa covering avariety of communities at risk. Ukuvuka:Operation Firestop aims to reduce the riskfrom wildfires in the Cape Peninsula. Thecampaign was launched in the Western CapeProvince in February 2000 after fires thatburned land along Table Mountain behindCape Town. The Ukuvuka Campaign has afour-year mandate to achieve its goals of trans-ferring lessons learned about effective conser-vation measures and biodiversity linked tosocial engagement, and how those methods canbe passed on to other communities.

In Operation Firestop, the primary objective isto protect the land and vegetation by control-ling alien plant species and by rehabilitatingthe fire-damaged areas they often inhabit. Arelated aim is to help people and their commu-nities create employment through training andpoverty relief for disadvantaged people by pro-tecting the most vulnerable communities fromfire and promoting co-operation and socialcohesion among them. A third goal is to assistin the implementation of integrated fire man-agement plans, particularly in areas close tourban centres.

Elsewhere in South Africa, other public aware-ness campaigns about disasters are also under-way. The Tshwane Metropolitan Councilembarked on a campaign within urban com-munities on a variety of local risks includinginformal settlement fires, the spread of dis-eases, floods, extreme weather conditions, pol-lution and HIV/AIDS.

The Western and Eastern Cape Provincesjointly implemented an innovative I-SPYawareness campaign. This program involvedthe distribution of information boxes, whichwere small cubes with circular magnifyinglenses placed in two of the sides. Informationabout community hazards and means to reducerisks could be seen by peering through theglass that enlarged the information printed onthe inside of the box. As the information wasdepicted in pictures, the messages were able tocross language barriers.

The disastrous events of recent years haveshown that a large part of the Latin Americanand the Caribbean population, particularlypeople living in rural areas, remain largely

unfamiliar with basic aspects of disaster pre-paredness and risk reduction practices. Asreducing the impact of disasters requires thatpeople improve their knowledge and replacepassive and sometimes destructive behaviour

with active and constructive approaches, someorganizations have sought an imaginative wayto reach this widely dispersed audience.

Nepal is one of the most disaster prone coun-tries of the world with floods, landslides, fires,earthquakes, windstorm, hailstorm, lightening,glacial lake outburst floods or avalanches hap-pening every year. As both access and commu-nications are difficult in much of the countrybecause of its extreme geographical features,information from the central governmentabout hazards and disaster risks is often diffi-cult to convey. People in remote areas are noteasily provided with sufficient knowledge toreduce their immediate risks.

Under such conditions, the Government ofNepal has sought to disseminate disaster man-agement information by training local leaders.


TToo kknnooww wwhhaatt ttoo ddoo- TTssuunnaammii iinn PPaappuuaa NNeeww GGuuiinneeaa

Papua New Guinea (PNG) is highly susceptible to tsunamisbecause of its topographical conditions and the frequency ofearthquakes and volcanic activity in the surrounding seas. In1998, an earthquake measuring seven on the Richter Scaleoccurred with the epicentre only 30 kilometres from the coast ofnorth-western PNG. The resulting massive tsunami struckcoastal villages of the Aitape region almost immediately, claim-ing more than 2,200 lives. While the country had experiencedmany tsunamis, previous experience was not passed on to newgenerations, so people knew little about the imminent threat oftsunami hazards.

Many residents who felt the earthquake did not seek refuge fromtsunamis immediately and this contributed to the many casualties.At the request of PNG authorities, the Asian Disaster ReductionCenter (ADRC) in Kobe, Japan decided to transfer the benefits of Japanese experience to local communities inPNG. ADRC produced posters and pamphlets in both English and local languages, also including many pic-tures and illustrations, and distributed them to residents and school children living in coastal areas. The infor-mation was also used and distributed further by the PNG National Red Cross Society. So the lesson to bewareof tsunamis when an earthquakes occurs and to seek refuge on higher ground has spread to more people in thecountry.

A short time later, a submarine earthquake measuring eight on the Richter Scale affected a wide area north-east of PNG in November 2000. However, while it created a tsunami that destroyed thousands of houses,there were no deaths. The fact that this time nobody stood on the beach to watch the sea after the earthquake,as happened in the Aitape tsunami in 1998, can be attributed to the joint efforts of the PNG Governmentand ADRC in creating better tsunami disaster awareness. ADRC continues to work in this area following itscommitment to provide guidance to neighbouring countries with similar problems.

Source: ADRC, 2001

"Before the 1993 tsunami occurred in the Sea of Japan, residents ofthe fishing village at Aonae had taken three steps. They had

produced a tsunami hazard map to identify areas susceptible totsunami flooding; implemented and maintained an awareness/

education program on tsunami dangers; developed an early warning system to alert coastal residents that danger is imminent.

About 1,400 people were at risk of dying from the one-hour tsunami on 12 July 1993, that flooded the village within 15

minutes of the earthquake. Upon feeling the earthquake shaking,most villagers immediately evacuated to higher ground. This action

saved the lives of 85 per cent of the 'at-risk' population." Eddie Bernard, 1999

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In 2001, government officials, ADRC andlocal NGOs conducted training courses forlocal village chiefs, teachers, scouts and womenleaders from 30 villages in 10 of the most dis-aster-prone districts of the country. The cours-es dealt with the national disaster managementsystem, knowledge about hazard-prone areasand possible countermeasures to reduce the

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potential risks. The participants had an oppor-tunity to learn about the causes, consequencesand possible countermeasures of natural disas-ters, such as the relationships betweenincreased deforestation and floods. A radiobroadcast service was utilised for the first timeto disseminate disaster preparedness informa-tion.

SSooaapp ooppeerraass ffoorr ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn - rraaddiioo aanndd TTVV

PAHO, the International Organization for Migration(IOM), UK/DFID, the NGO Voces Nuestras,CEPREDENAC and the ISDR secretariat haveteamed up to produce and broadcast a radio soapopera, called "Tiempos de Huracanes" (HurricaneSeason), about disaster management and risk reduc-tion in Latin American and Caribbean countries. Thestory takes place in a rural farming community inwhich experiences of the characters are used toinstruct listeners about measures that can reduce theimpact of floods, earthquakes, hurricanes and otherhazards that can affect their own livelihoods. The dia-logue focuses on everyday issues close to listeners' ownexperiences.

The program consists of 20 episodes that are broadcast annually, before and during the heavy rain-fall and hurricane season. The pilot program is also available on a CD-ROM from the sponsoringorganizations and a Memorandum of Understanding is planned with Radio Netherlands for repro-duction and widespread distribution of the soap opera.

Riskland- a fun way to learn how to prevent disasters is an educational board-game, developed by UNICEF and the ISDRSecretariat in Spanish and English. The game conveys messages that help children understand how some actions canreduce the impact of natural or human-induced disasters, while others can increase their vulnerability.See: www.eird.org

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public awareness need to be continuous, andpart of the public discourse into the varioussectors of Government policies. Public aware-ness and understanding cannot happen bychance, nor result from exposure to a singlecampaign, although devastating catastropheshave frequently provided opportunities forlaunching public awareness campaigns.

PPrrooffeessssiioonnaall ttrraaiinniinngg aanndd ffoorrmmaall eedduuccaattiioonn aasspprriimmaarryy ttoooollss

As there are few specialised courses currentlydevoted to disaster risk alone, there is a chal-lenge for educational authorities as well as pro-fessional training institutions to develop theseprograms. As has become more evident in someareas, there are already efforts being made tointroduce more risk issues into the training ofprofessionals such as engineers, meteorologists,urban planners, and many types of physical sci-entists. There are many additional areas ofinstruction such as environmental management,public administration, geography, and most ofthe social sciences which have not typicallyregarded risk awareness as part of the syllabus. Creating familiarity about natural hazardsneeds to start in primary and secondary school.As important institutions in most local com-munities, schools and educators can serve animportant role in motivating students tobecome involved in exercises, public discus-sions, and other activities that promote disasterreduction among family and community mem-bers outside the classroom. Schools canbecome the centres for development of com-munity knowledge and skills for disaster riskreduction (see chapter 4.2 on education).

DDeevveellooppiinngg aann eexxppaannddeedd rroollee ffoorr tthhee mmeeddiiaa

There is a need for more frequent and better-informed media coverage about risk reductionbefore a disaster occurs. However, if the com-munity itself was more interested in this sub-ject, the chances are that the media wouldreflect this interest. Risk reduction programscan all be improved by including media repre-sentatives that are well informed about theissues, themselves.

cchhaall

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Effective public awareness to increase theunderstanding about hazards and risks, andmost importantly to motivate a collective com-mitment to establish a culture of prevention,requires sustained activities in several compli-mentary areas, even though the time immedi-ately after a major disaster is ideal to strength-en these awareness activities. These include thefollowing priorities for future attention:

• Official policies that promote the value ofdisaster risk reduction

• Public education and professional train-ing as primary tools

• Developing an expanded role for themedia

• Increasing the value of public events• Using multiple interests to publicise risk

issues

OOffffiicciiaall ppoolliicciieess tthhaatt pprroommoottee tthhee vvaalluuee ooff ddiiss-aasstteerr rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn

Under all forms of government, officialauthorities and local leaders have a responsibil-ity to provide information and the means toensure public security. In this respect, there isconsiderable scope to inform and advise thepublic about natural and related hazards, andthe risks they pose. The direction, encourage-ment and material support to establish thevalue of disaster risk reduction is most produc-tive when they originate from the leadershipwithin the community. The creation of broadand non-partisan political support is equallyimportant if sustained financial and budgetaryallocations are to be ensured for increased pub-lic awareness leading to the creation of a cul-ture of prevention.

While the variety of activities which motivatepublic safety are essentially educational innature, they are dependent upon the consistentuse of information across different segments ofa society. To become more effective, theyshould continue to take account of the specificneeds and localised concerns of differentgroups of people. Conscientious programs of

UUssiinngg mmuullttiippllee iinntteerreessttss ttoo ppuubblliicciissee rriisskk iissssuueess

One of the biggest challenges for governmentofficials and interested professionals in promot-ing risk awareness is to remove the subject fromthe sense of crisis or trauma that ordinarilyaccompanies it. Disaster risk reduction is not anemergency service awaiting the time of need.Rather, the subject can be placed in the midst ofdaily concerns of people where they live andwork, among the people and property whichthey value. Hazards need not become disasterswith the widespread suffering and loss whichthey suggest, if people are sufficiently conver-sant with the nature of the risks involved, andwhat they can do to reduce their own exposurebeforehand. This involves the full participationof the people most exposed to risks. Publicawareness strategies can motivate people to col-laborate in different enterprises, supported bytheir various talents and multiple resources.

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IInnccrreeaassiinngg tthhee vvaalluuee ooff ppuubblliicc eevveennttss

Special or periodic commemorative eventshave demonstrated that they serve a useful rolein raising the public visibility of natural haz-ards or by reflecting on the consequences ofearlier unmitigated disasters. But they are nosubstitute for longer term and more substan-tive commitments to foster continuous publicexposure to the subject. Public or special eventscan be useful to illustrate that while there is nopossibility to be safe from all risks, there aregraduated steps that can be taken within acommunity to minimise existing hazards or todevelop an improved state of resilience to man-age future risks better. It is important thatadditional activities be conceived on an ongo-ing basis, so that public interest does not fadeafter the special event.

5Chapter

203

A selection of disaster reduction applications

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TThhee sseelleeccttiioonn ooff ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn aapppplliiccaattiioonnss ddiissccuusssseedd iinn tthhiiss cchhaapptteerr iiss nnoott eexxhhaauuss-ttiivvee,, iitt sseerrvveess ttoo iilllluussttrraattee tthhee ssccooppee ooff aaccttiivviittiieess aanndd aapppplliiccaattiioonnss iinn tthhee ffiieelldd aanndd iinn cceerr-ttaaiinn ccaasseess,, aasssseessss tthheeiirr ssttrreennggtthhss aanndd wweeaakknneesssseess.. TThhee cchhaapptteerr bbeeggiinnss wwiitthh eennvviirroonnmmeenn-ttaall mmaannaaggeemmeenntt - aann aarreeaa oofftteenn nneegglleecctteedd bbyy ttrraaddiittiioonnaall ddiissaasstteerr mmaannaaggeerrss - aanndd ccoonn-cclluuddeess wwiitthh eeaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg ssyysstteemmss - aa ccrruucciiaall lliinnkk ttoo eeffffeeccttiivvee pprreeppaarreeddnneessss aannddrreessppoonnssee aaccttiivviittiieess..

55..11 EEnnvviirroonnmmeennttaall mmaannaaggeemmeenntt 55..22 LLaanndd uussee ppllaannnniinngg 55..33 PPrrootteeccttiioonn ooff ccrriittiiccaall ffaacciilliittiieess55..44 NNeettwwoorrkkiinngg aanndd ppaarrttnneerrsshhiippss55..55 FFiinnaanncciiaall aanndd eeccoonnoommiicc ttoooollss55..66 EEaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg ssyysstteemmss

5.1 Environmental management

A healthy environment enhances the capacity of societies to reduce the impact of natural andhuman induced disasters, a fact largely underestimated. As disasters undermine both socio-eco-nomic development and environmental management efforts, there is a compelling need toexplore how environmental mismanagement changes hazard and vulnerability patterns.

The use of environmental management and knowledge tools as a strategy for reducing vulnera-bility to risk should be promoted. Environmental actions that reduce vulnerability need to beidentified and applied by disaster reduction practitioners. Quantitative measurement of theseactions will determine their acceptance and application in political and economics arenas. Plat-forms for integrating environmental management within existing policy frameworks and interna-tional strategies on disaster reduction, sustainable development and poverty reduction will builda safer world. National and regional governing institutions can best increase societies’ resilienceto disasters as part of a global environmental management effort. Instilling disaster thinking intoenvironmental performance is a win-win proposition.

This chapter begins with a description of some of the lliinnkkss bbeettwweeeenn ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn aanndd eennvvii-rroonnmmeennttaall mmaannaaggeemmeenntt. The following eennvviirroonnmmeennttaall mmaannaaggeemmeenntt ttoooollss are then described andquestions about their rreelleevvaannccee aanndd aapppplliiccaattiioonn in disaster risk reduction strategies considered.

• Environmental legislation• Environmental policies and planning • Institutional arrangements • Environmental impact assessments • Reporting on the state of the environment• Ecological/environmental economics• Environmental codes and standards.

Applications of these tools will be illustrated through examples pertaining to wetlands, forests,fisheries and agricultural systems, barrier reefs and islands, mangroves, coastal areas, watershedsand river basins, freshwater, mountains, as well as to environmental issues such as biodiversity,climate change, desertification/land degradation.

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5A selection of disaster reduction applications

resources provide solutions to reduce vulnera-bility from which both the environmental anddisaster communities will benefit. Althoughthe inherent links between disaster reductionand environmental management are recog-nised, little research and policy work has beenundertaken on the subject. The intriguing con-cept of using environmental tools for disasterreduction has not yet been widely applied bymany practitioners. Hurricane Mitch high-lighted in dramatic fashion the indispensablerole of sound environmental management insustainable development and natural disastermitigation. Therefore, environmental manage-ment tools that have the potential to make asubstantial and cost-effective contribution toreducing the vulnerability to natural hazards

Environmental mmanagement aas aa ttool ttoreduce ddisaster rrisk

Environment and disasters are inherentlylinked. Environmental degradation exacer-bates the impact of natural disasters. It affectsnatural processes, alters humanity’s resourcebase and increases vulnerability. The degree towhich environment can absorb impacts,increase overall resilience and provide effectiveand economical solutions to reduce disasterrisks is therefore jeopardized. Furthermore,societies’ traditional coping strategies are chal-lenged.

Practices that protect the integrity and diversi-ty of nature and ensure a wise use of natural

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should be identified, adapted and adopted. Inthis regard, a crucial element to enhance theconservation of nature to reduce vulnerabilityto disasters will be a true valuation of the eco-logical balance.

Environmental actions that reduce the vulner-ability to disasters are seldom promoted in dis-aster reduction strategies and usually appearonly as a beneficial but unplanned side effect.But these activities will add to the options fordisaster reduction. Widely disseminatingexamples of their application to relevant actorswill encourage their use. Links between thedisaster and environment communities willbenefit from efforts made to use similar lan-guage and approaches. Once tools and policiesare developed, capacities will need to be builtlocally in vulnerable regions to assess andrespond to environmental sources of vulnera-bility and use environmental tools to reducedisaster impacts. The World Conservation Union(IUCN) and the International Institute for Sus-tainable Development (IISD) have launched aninitiative to promote the use of environmentalmanagement to reduce the vulnerability ofcommunities to the growing threat of climatechange and climate-related disasters. TheStockholm Environmental Institute (SEI) wasalso involved. It serves as an important step totranslate the intuitive recognition of the protec-tive function of natural systems into usefulproducts for practitioners.

At present, environmental management toolsdo not systematically integrate trends in haz-ards occurrence and vulnerability. Similarly,disaster reduction practitioners do not system-atically explore the advantages of using envi-ronmental management tools and approaches.Some benefit might be drawn from the fact thatenvironmental tools were essentially developed

LLeessssoonnss lleeaarrnntt ffrroomm HHuurrrriiccaannee MMiittcchh

“So far, relatively little is being chan-nelled to attack the root causes of vul-nerability, or to contribute to the non-structural mitigation of disastersthrough sound environmental manage-ment, integrating regional and integrat-ed territorial planning at a scale thatgoes beyond individual plots or localcommunities...

For these issues to be addressed, there isa need to integrate risk managementinto environmental policy. How dohealthy ecosystem contribute to abatingrisk? What has been the environmentalimpact of land concentration, misuse ofwetlands and massive deforestation? …Finally, the long term environmentalsecurity of Central American societieswill depend to a significant degree tothe capacity for adaptive and cross-scaleIn Situ management of key bufferingecosystem functions. More appliedresearch is needed on the linkagesbetween local forest management prac-tices and their effect on hazard mitiga-tion.

There are encouraging initiatives whichseek to contribute to more securehuman livelihoods through empoweringlocal communities to manage risk local-ly. There is a growing interest in therestoration of key forest ecosystems,geared to providing local communitieswith more adapted livelihoods and asecure environment. Mitigation is bestapplied locally, but require adequatelinkages into the policy sphere to guar-antee the long term governance of theregion.

The new quadrennial programme pro-posed by the IUCN, provides a keyframework in which to apply these ideasto the Central American context. Thepost disaster context is ripe for propos-ing innovative approaches to disasterprevention and mitigation.”

Source: P.Girot,IUCN/CEESP Mesoamerica, 2001

Ecosystems are interdependent networks of organisms of a naturally defined eco-zone that function as a unit. Examples include

natural forests, wetlands, deserts, lakes and mountain regions. Theecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of

land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sus-tainable use in an viable way. Thus, the application of the ecosystem

approach will help to reach a balance of the three main objectives of sustainable

development: conservation, sustainable use and the fair and equitablesharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of resources.

from a risk management approach, environ-mental/social impact assessment processesbeing traditionally geared towards identifyingrisks as early as possible and then addressingthem in the design phase of plans or projects.

Furthermore, synergies might exist betweenresearch work on disaster reduction and on theintegration of environmental concerns intodecision-making and development planning.The IDNDR conclusion that “environmentalprotection, as a component of sustainabledevelopment and consistent with poverty alle-viation, is imperative in the prevention andmitigation of natural disasters” needs to be putinto practice.

Environmental management can become a cost-effective tool for disaster reduction while servingmany other objectives including conservation ofbiodiversity, mitigation of adverse global envi-ronmental changes and poverty alleviation.

The protective role of some ecosystems aremore recognised than others and are begin-

207


ning to be better documented. For example,important wetland functions include waterstorage, storm protection, flood mitigation,shoreline stabilization and erosion control.These functions are also essential for sustain-able development. The value of these func-tions are considerable as technical alterna-tives are often more expensive. However,benefits from wetlands are under threat fromnatural disasters including storms, droughtand floods which will be further exacerbatedby climate change.

Wetlands also suffer from increased demandon agricultural land associated with popula-tion growth, infrastructure development andriver flow regulations, invasion of alienspecies and pollution. The relationshipsbetween climate change and wetlandsdeserves more attention by policy makers.

Adaptive capacities of ecosystems to absorbsudden shifts in climatic, geological or bio-logical components is a key feature increasingdisaster resilience. In this regard, traditional

The World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD)have joined forces to promote the use of environmental management and policy tools to reduce vulnera-bility of communities, especially the poor and marginalized, to the growing threat of climate change andclimate-related disasters. The project seeks to:

• identify environmental actions that reduce the vulnerability of social and economic systems;• enhance the role of these activities by offering a tool kit of options with detailed examples of their

application to relevant actors in research, advocacy, policy-making and industry;• build the capacity of local institutions in regions and countries vulnerable to climate-related disasters

to assess and respond to the environmental sources of vulnerability;• create a platform for integrating environmental management measures that reduce community vul-

nerability into existing policy frameworks and international strategies on disasters mitigation, climatechange adaptation, biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation.

The initiative is guided by a task force on climate change, vulnerable communities and adaptation com-posed of a multidisciplinary group of experts from the fields of climate change, disaster reduction, sus-tainable livelihoods and environmental management and policy. Working from different points of depar-ture, members will explore how natural resource mismanagement contributes to the vulnerability ofhuman systems, and how enhanced management can provide tools for vulnerability reduction.

It will produce the following:

• case studies that improve the understanding of environmental factors which shape vulnerability toclimate-related disasters, and the options for adaptation within policy frameworks;

• guidelines for reducing vulnerability to climate change and climate-related disasters using environ-mental management tools;

• a network of institutions at the regional and national level with the capacity to assess and addressvulnerability to climate-related disasters.

increased reforestation efforts, and prohibitedadditional land reclamation projects. Chinacarries out flood prevention and waterresources protection as a means to lessen theimpact of landslides and floods. Barrier reefs,barrier islands and mangroves contribute sig-nificantly to the mitigation of hurricane risk,storms and tidal surges.

Sound watershed management that combinesparks protection, reforestation, sustainableforestry and agricultural practices is critical toprotect downstream communities, livelihoods,agricultural lands and economic infrastructuresuch as roads, ports, hydroelectric dams, andirrigation systems. The crucial environmentalservices provided by integrated watershedmanagement must be recognised when makingpolicy and investment decisions. This becomeseven more important in light of the interna-tional or inter-provincial nature of river basins.

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societies have great adaptation capacities tocycles of environmental change. It is knownthat living with floods strategies are cost-effective, relatively easy to implement andmore compatible with the environment, andcan more easily be incorporated in long-termdevelopment planning at little extra cost.

Forests play an important role in protectingagainst landslides, erosion, floods and avalanch-es. They also safeguard against drought. Asshown in Switzerland, continuous care broughtto forests including rejuvenation, careful diversi-fication of species and structural stability ensurean optimal protective role and save money fromdisruptions caused by natural hazards.

The Yangtze river floods in 1998 showed theconsequences of the loss of healthy ecosystems.As a consequence, the Chinese governmentbanned logging in the upper watershed and

Global eenvironmental iissues aand ddisaster rreduction

Climate changeConsequences: extreme weather events, changes in boundaries, structure and functioning of ecological systems(forests), food security, water availability, sea level riseSolutions: reforestation, adaptation programmes, including early warning, disaster preparedness

Loss of biological diversityConsequences: loss of natural resources and diversity interfering with essential biological functions such as regu-lation of water runoff, control of soil erosion, loss of resilience to disturbances and environmental change Solutions: conservation/restoration (forestry, agriculture, coastal zone management)

Freshwater degradation Consequences: water quality and scarcity, droughts, health risks, economic impact of land degradation on waterresources, increase in floods due to poor land use that pollutes water Solutions: water resources management, land use management

Desertification and land degradationConsequences: improper resource use, food security, loss of ecosystem productivitySolutions: alternative livelihood programmes, sustainable land and natural resources use programmes, naturalenvironment and development planning

Environmental ssystems ccontribute tto ddisaster rreduction aand ssecurity

Maintaining and rehabilitating resilient environmental and social systems form key building blocks for disasterreduction and security. The fire and smoke episode of 1997-98 in Southeast Asia, Russia, the Americas and theMediterranean helped focus attention on an increasing problem. The application of fire in land-use systems andforest conversion was associated with the extreme drought caused by the El Niño southern oscillation event whichcreated conditions for the escape and spread of uncontrollable wildfires. While some fires were deliberately set tocover up illegal logging, most of them were intended to convert forest to other land uses. Small farmers, planta-tion and timber companies, government settlement schemes and subsidy policies were responsible for damages.Better knowledge and monitoring is necessary to distinguish well-balanced natural fires beneficial in maintainingland-use systems from those fires which destruct societies and environment. Basic structural improvements,accompanied with improved legislative, economic and technical basis are needed to make physical infrastructure,natural and human systems and water management more resilient.

Environmental llegislation

Agenda 21 (see chapter 6.1) notes that “lawsand regulations suited to country-specificconditions are among the most importantinstruments for transforming environmentand development into action.” Legislativeresponses to environmental problems testifyof countries’ appreciation of the adverseimpacts of environmental degradation onsocio-economic systems. Many developingcountries have by now adopted legislationdealing with a broad range of issues includ-ing protection of water resources or biodiver-sity conservation.

Framework environmental legislation mostlydeals with cross-sectoral issues includingestablishment of environmental standardsand norms, the use of economic instrumentsfor environmental management, environmen-tal impact assessment procedures, institution-al settings and coordination at the nationaland local levels, dispute settlement, informa-tion, education and public participation.

Framework environmental statutes and basicenvironmental laws helped overcome theorganizationally fragmented and uncoordi-nated approach to environmental manage-ment. More than 65 developing countrieshave adopted such legislation since the1970’s. A continuing process of legal andinstitutional innovation shows a commitmenttowards sustainable development. It also pro-vides a vehicle for disaster reduction strate-gies.It also provides a vehicle for disasterreduction strategies.

National environmental laws provide somebasis and direction for the implementation ofenvironmentally sound disaster reductionplanning. Ways to ensure that environmentallaws and disaster reduction strategies aremutually supportive, consistent and in com-pliance with each other should be explored.

Disaster reduction specialists should be encour-aged to anticipate environmental requirementsunder applicable laws and design projects toaddress these requirements, avoid problemareas, gather necessary information and coordi-nate closely with environmental institutions.Also, the objective of environmental laws couldexplicitly address the requirements of disasterreduction by reinforcing the protection of those


natural ecosystems that have a protective func-tion. In this spirit, BBoolliivviiaa is harmonizing itsEnvironmental Act with its Risk Reduction andDisaster Response Act.

The existing body of multilateral environ-mental agreements also provides a good basisto enhance options for disaster reduction.Among these are the Ramsar Convention onWetland Preservation, the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC), the United Nations Conven-tion to Combat Desertification (UNCCD),and the United Nations Convention on Bio-logical Diversity (CBD). These legal instru-ments are negotiated at the international level

MMoosstt ccoommmmoonn eennvviirroonnmmeennttaall llaawwss aanndd iinnssttiittuuttiioonnaall aarrrraannggeemmeennttss

• Constitutions (environmental component)• Institutions (national and sectoral)• Environment Action Plans: national (NEAP),

local (Local Agenda 21), sectoral (biodiversity,desertification, climate, etc.), specific national goalsand targets (where available)

• Legislation - including environmental acts/laws onenvironmental impact assessment (EIA)

• Command and control measures (standards,bans/limits, permits)

• Mechanism for monitoring and enforcing legisla-tion

• Non-binding guidelines, voluntary codes of con-duct (ISO 9000 and 14000)

• Greening operations at governmental level• Environment litigation and judicial interventions

(court cases)• Mechanisms for tracking impact and progress

(environment performance)• Bilateral and multilateral agreements (e.g.

Mekong River Commission, SADC Protocolshared waters, CBD, UNFCCC, UNCCD)

• Ratification/implementation of international agree-ments

• Regional environment/sustainable developmentbodies and organisations (e.g. South PacificRegional Environmental Programme (SPREP),Caribbean Conservation Authority (CCA)

• Financial mechanisms• Transboundary environment laws (e.g. concerning

international waterways, UN Law of the Sea) • Trade policies (e.g. trade agreements, WTO poli-

cies and regulations on the sustainability ofresource use

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2002, as mountains are the theme of the 2002ISDR campaign.

Disaster reduction goals can also be integratedinto non-binding instruments such as regionalstrategies for biodiversity or the implementa-tion of Agenda 21. In this regard, the NewPartnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD),an initiative to promote the socio-economic

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but are implemented through national poli-cies, strategies, action plans and laws. Moredetails on some of these instruments can befound in chapter six.

Existing legal instruments and ongoing workon sustainable mountain development are alsopertinent to disaster reduction. For example,the Alpine Convention of 1989 places someemphasis on natural hazards and addressesland use planning, soil and landscape conser-vation, water management, forests and farm-ing. Specific obligations to reduce the impactsof natural and manmade disasters, includingland use planning, watershed management,

and early warning, are foreseen in futureregional mountain ecosystem agreements.These issues will be dealt with throughout

The themes of concern to many multilateral United Nations environmental conventions are of greatimportance in CCeennttrraall AAmmeerriiccaa. These issues are the increasing occurrence of drought and desertifi-cation, protecting biodiversity, preservation or re-establishment of wetlands and the anticipation of thesocio-economic consequences of global climate change. Basically, as all of these concerns have crucialrelationships with risk and disaster reduction concepts, the synergy between them is of growing impor-tance in the region. Potential changes in rainfall patterns, increased hurricane incidence and strength,the loss of ecological resilience and natural ecosystem protection, rising sea levels, coastal degradationand the loss of mangrove swamps, presage new risk conditions in the future, and the need for newadaptive, mitigation and prevention schemes, implemented on an incremental basis.

IUCN has worked throughout Central America to broaden its role in risk reduction and to coordinatewith risk specialists in promoting project activities. The promotion of synergies between multilateral envi-ronmental conventions has led to more appreciation of the close relationships that exist between efforts topromote community adaptation and resilience to the natural environment and to reduce the risks of dis-asters. A forum organized by the Ministry of the Environment in El Salvador in October 2001 was builtaround these concepts and it sought to achieve more common understanding and to explore opportuni-ties by which adaptation practices could be applied in different zones of the country.

Klang RRiver ((Malaysia) FFlood MMitigationand EEnvironmental MManagement PProject

Funded by the Asian Development Bank and undertaken underCBD, the project objectives are to improve environmental condi-tions, including those that worsen flooding, through an integratedriver basin approach that addresses environmental and economic

development needs, and reduce the adverse socio-economic andenvironmental impacts of flooding in the Klang river basin. Some

of the considerations affecting environmental management andflood mitigation are integrated river basin management, solid

waste management, sediment trapping, tributary corridorimprovement and flood forecasting and warning systems.

LLeeggiissllaattiioonn ddeeaalliinngg wwiitthh wweettllaanndd pprrootteeccttiioonn

The purpose of wetland protection legislation isusually to minimize the degradation of wetlandsand to preserve the beneficial values of wetlands.This means that for development activities, alter-natives to wetland sites or limiting wetland dam-age must be considered. Such provisions usuallyapply to acquisition, management, and disposi-tion of land and facilities, construction andimprovement projects, activities and programsaffecting land use, including water and relatedland resources planning, regulation, and licens-ing activities. Valuable information producedincludes detailed wetland maps, studies andreports on wetland characteristics, documenta-tion of compliance and consistency with flood-plain management programs.

TThhee CChhiinnaa National Wetlands ConservationAction Plan finalized in 2000 is an example of aspecific environmental legislation supporting dis-aster reduction.

development of Africa, deserves attention. Itsdraft programme of action includes six priorityareas: land degradation, desertification anddrought, wetlands, climate change and cross-border conservation and management of natu-ral resources.

Environmental ppolicies aand pplanning

As in the case of environmental legislation,environmental and disaster reduction policiesneed to be mutually supportive as part of thesustainable development agenda. The criticalgap between macro economic policy-makingand environmental hazard considerationsneeds to be addressed. Sustainability and long-term benefits will result from integrating haz-ard thinking into decision-making relating toenvironmental practices.

Designing a nnaattiioonnaall eennvviirroonnmmeennttaall aaccttiioonnppllaann ((NNEEAAPP)) is a formal standardised processthat is widely used. Characteristics of disasterreduction and environmental policies are simi-lar. Both are meant to meet local need and sus-tainable development requirements, producemultiple benefits, rest on extensive participa-tion of the public and all relevant sectoral anddisciplinary stakeholders. Socio-economicgoals, including poverty reduction, expansionof food security, improvement of human settle-ments conditions, maintenance of resourcebase for future generations will be met if envi-ronmental problems and risk are reduced.

Some of the features of integrated environmen-tal/disaster reduction policies include:• Assessment of environmental forces of

hazards occurrence and vulnerability• Assessment of environmental actions that

reduce vulnerability• Assessment of environmental conse-

quences of disaster reduction actions• Consideration of environmental services

in decision making processes • Broad-based and interdisciplinary

approach that will ensure the integrateduse of natural and social sciences in disas-ter reduction planning and decision mak-ing

• Partnerships and regional approaches toland use and nature conservation

• Reasonable alternatives to conflicts con-cerning alternative uses of resources

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• Advice and information to involved actorsin enhancing the quality of the environ-ment

Water policies (water pricing and hydropowerregulation) offer an example of environmentalpolicies with a beneficial impact on disasterreduction. They can be designed to promotesustainable use of water and allow adjustmentsdepending on seasonal forecasts to avoidfloods. Water policies guarantee that work onwetlands, floodplains and open spaces to storeand cleanup runoff is undertaken. Further-more, flood and drought risk management areincreasingly looked at in the context of waterresources and therefore depend on effectiveinternational water management.

Similarly, policies promoting sustainable man-agement of fuel wood and development ofalternative sources of energy will reduce defor-estation and contribute to flood, avalanche andlandslide control. Programmes undertaken as aresult of commitments under the biodiversity,climate change and desertification conventionswill also reduce vulnerability throughenhanced natural resource management. Therelationships between market prices, trade poli-cies and environment are complex and sensi-tive. Trade policies based on sound environ-

WWoorrlldd BBaannkk iinntteeggrraattiinngg eennvviirroonnmmeennttaall mmaannaaggeemmeenntt aanndd hhaazzaarrdd rreedduuccttiioonn

The Dominican Republic - National Environmental PolicyReform. While not explicitly addressing natural hazard vul-nerability, the project perfectly matches hazard mitigationconcerns as its objectives include curbing deforestation anddegradation of watersheds and coastal zones. Its develop-ment objective is to establish the basis for improved envi-ronmental management by defining environmental policyreforms and elaborating a national environmental manage-ment programme.

SStt.. LLuucciiaa - Integrated Watershed Management Project.The project was initiated in 1994 in response to damagesresulting from floods and landslides related to tropicalstorm Debbie. Apart from structural rehabilitation, it alsosupported the formulation of a Watershed ManagementPlan, which would serve as the basis for more integratedand sustainable development of key watersheds andstrengthen the Government’s capacity in environmentalmanagement and flood preparedness.

Jamaica gives very high priority to climatechange/sea level rise and natural and environ-mental disasters in the implementation of theSmall Islands Developing States (SIDS) Pro-gramme of action.

The Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to GlobalClimate Change (CPACC), funded by the Glob-al Environment Facility (GEF) and executed bythe Organisation of American States (OAS), isone of the most important initiatives in copingwith global climate change in the Caribbean. Itsupports the development of a policy frame-work for integrated planning and managementfor cost-effective response and adaptation tothe impacts of global climate change. It incor-porates specific tools such as disaster contin-gency planning.

In 1999, the UN Food and Agriculture Organi-zation (FAO) developed a Draft Plan of Actionaimed at helping SIDS countries meet thechallenges of economic change, environmentaldegradation and natural disasters. The pro-grams focus on agricultural trade, intensifica-tion and diversification of agriculture, fish-eries, sustainable management of land, waterand forestry resources, and environmental pro-tection and strengthening national institutions.The Plan would improve disaster preparednessby promoting measures to reduce the impact ofhurricanes and cyclones on agriculture andcoastal fisheries. The Plan would assist thecountries to assess their national meteorologi-cal and hydrological services and support earlywarning systems at national and regional levels.

The South Pacific Regional Environment Pro-gramme (SPREP) has, for many years, incor-porated many disaster-related activities intoits program as part of its mandate to managethe shared environment of the Pacific region.While these activities are spread throughoutSPREP’s programs, most have been part ofthe Regional Climate Change Work Programwhich emphasises the impact of extremeweather in the Pacific region and the rela-tionships between climate change and naturaldisasters. SPREP is also implementing PIC-CAP which will focus on vulnerability assess-ment and adaptation options.

Another pertinent SPREP activity is a projecton Integrated Coastal Zone Management in the

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mental consideration also contribute to reduc-ing disaster impacts.

While most regions try to strengthen regula-tions, there is also a shift towards deregulation,increased use of economic instruments andsubsidy reform, reliance on voluntary action bythe private sector and more NGO participa-tion. National environmental policies thatencourage voluntary agreements as a tool toconserve natural engineering solutions will

increase disaster resilience. Even though notbinding and in many cases restricting long-term planning, they have some interestingpotential. Donations compensated by tax bene-fits, leases, covenants controlling land use,charitable deductions are examples of suchtools.

Several countries and regions in the worldinclude natural disaster reduction in nationalenvironmental action plans.

One of the ten programmes of the NationalEnvironmental Action Plan of HHaaiittii deals withnatural disaster management; it is based on adecentralized and participatory planningapproach including NGOs, the private sectorand bilateral and multilateral donors.

BBaannggllaaddeesshh CCooaassttaall GGrreeeennbbeelltt PPrroojjeecctt:: aa pprroojjeecctt sseerrvviinnggeennvviirroonnmmeenntt aanndd ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn

Undertaken by the Department of Forest, under the Min-istry of Environment and Forest, the project’s main objec-tives are to:

• Prevent loss of life and damage to property by cyclone,storms and associated tidal surges

• Protect and improve the coastal environment throughincreased vegetation

• Help alleviate poverty by generating income throughincreased tree cover and derived products

• Increase forest resources• Increase coastal embankment stability• Establish industries based on forest plantation• Increase multiple use for land • Create popular awareness on sustainable forest manage-

ment.

From Bangladesh State of the Environment Report, 2001

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CCaassee ssttuuddyy:: WWaatteerrsshheedd mmaannaaggeemmeenntt ffoorr nnaattuurraall ddiissaasstteerr vvuullnneerraabbiilliittyy rreedduuccttiioonn

Watersheds are necessary for agricultural, environmental, and socio-economic develop-ment. Watershed physical and biological resources provide goods and services to humanpopulations, including water protection, attenuation of natural disasters by regulatingrunoff, protection of coastal resources and fisheries, protection of the environment, andprotection of productive lowlands. The economic benefit of upper watershed protection isnot easily estimated nor is it required to appreciate the key contribution of well-managedupper watersheds to downstream beneficiaries. Watershed management programs need tobuild on existing environmental initiatives. The following elements are required for suc-cessful watershed management:

• No permanent structures in floodplains• All watercourses having buffer strips• Intensive agricultural activity not permitted on slopes greater than a set percentage

reflecting land capacity• Clear cutting of forests limited, with forest conservation and sustainable forest man-

agement stressed• Institutional body formally established to link and address conflicts• Public participation of both men and women in management decisions• Effective management plans and enforcement of environmental and zoning regula-

tion• Regional environmental impact assessments to ensure that cumulative impacts of

economic activities are sustainable

Impediments to comprehensive watershed management include:

• Inadequate economic valuation of environmental services• Inadequate institutional structure and appropriate land use practices• Inattention to socio-economic issues contributing to poverty, a degraded environ-

ment and natural disaster vulnerability • Actions to implement watershed management activities:• Strengthen municipal authorities and their capacity to address land use and water-

shed management issues• Establish a macro national management strategy • Support sound land use planning, ensuring public participation in watershed plan-

ning and ecosystems protection , including gender concerns• Support policies and market-based incentives that favour reforestation and sustain-

able forestry on steep upper watersheds, promote participation of private sectorthrough the climate change Clean Development Mechanism

• Require downstream beneficiaries to pay for watershed services • Support critical watershed protection and restoration of key ecological systems to

mitigate disaster impacts• Support local NGOs to clarify land tenure issues and facilitate access by rural farm-

ers to formal land markets • Establish international watershed management frameworks• Pursue a research agenda incorporating economic valuation of environmental servic-

es, innovative financing, analysis of the relationship between land use/environmentalmanagement and the magnitude of losses from natural disasters.

From Watershed management for hurricane reconstruction and natural disaster vulnerabilityreduction, USAID, 1999

Environmental functions can sometimes beperformed by parastatal agencies integrated inother ministries such as housing, planning,construction, land use, agriculture and forestry.Co-ordinated organizational arrangementsrationalise environmental protection and min-imise fragmented sectoral approaches diffusedthroughout numerous government depart-ments and local authorities that do not corre-spond to interactions inherent to ecosystems.Disaster reduction concerns have a place inspecific environmental legislative and institu-tional means that promote coherent implemen-tation of sustainable development policies. Forexample, almost all Caribbean countries havestrengthened their environmental administra-tive capacities to integrate environmental con-siderations into physical planning.

Environmental management requires co-oper-ative solutions, cutting across many disciplinesand sectors, involving community groups,NGOs, the private sector, governmental insti-tutions, the scientific community, and interna-tional organizations. So does disaster manage-

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Pacific Islands. Coastal hazard management is amajor component of the project as it includeshazard mapping and the development of disas-ter reduction strategies for coastal areas. Inorder to realise the full potential of theresources in the region, SPREP collaborateswith other organisations to expand its role inassisting Pacific small island developing statesto integrate disaster management, sustainabledevelopment and sound environmental prac-tices into national planning strategies.

Institutional aarrangements

Environmental legislation and policies requireco-ordinated organizational structures to sup-port their implementation. The creation of newministries responsible for the environment andof high level inter-ministerial and interdiscipli-nary policy advisory councils is still recentstarted after the Stockholm conference in1972. Environmental ministries exist nowa-days in some 23 African countries and 11Asian countries.

IInnvvoollvveemmeenntt ooff tthhee EEll SSaallvvaaddoorr MMiinniissttrryy ooff tthhee EEnnvviirroonnmmeenntt iinn rriisskk aanndd ddiissaasstteerr mmaatttteerrss

The impact of Hurricane Mitch in 1998, and the earthquakes in El Salvador in 2001, led to an increased aware-ness at the Ministry of the Environment in El Salvador about the relationship between development, the envi-ronment and disasters. Recent favourable experience collaborating with local community associations and NGOsin the Lower Lempa Valley Risk Reduction Project provided organizational precedents for more direct involve-ment by the ministry in risk and disaster matters. Following the 2001 earthquakes, the Minister of the Envi-ronment convened a committee of national and international experts to consider the creation of a new technicalagency to deal with risk management issues. An executive paper created the National Service for TerritorialStudies (SNET), in the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources in October 2001. SNET is anautonomous government agency with annual budget of about US$ 2 million.

SNET has four divisions, three of which relate to monitoring the country’s geology, hydrology and meteorolo-gy. This is the first time that these disciplines have been housed in the same institution in El Salvador. The fourthdivision deals with integrated risk management issues and develops vulnerability and risk scenarios.

Consideration also is being given to the formulation of a national risk reduction plan that would prioritize, guideand orient future risk management activities in the country and establish a basis for coordinating the many pro-fessional interests and different actors in the field.

SNET breaks with the tradition of adding risk reduction issues onto already established emergency disasterresponse or civil defence plans. By expanding on the prior experience of TThhee NNaattiioonnaall IInnssttiittuuttee ffoorr TTeerrrriittoorriiaall SSttuudd-iieess iinn NNiiccaarraagguuaa SNET may be a first step towards establishing a comprehensive risk management system in thecountry. It may well serve as a model for other countries, as GGuuaatteemmaallaa has recently requested a feasibility studyto be conducted for a similar approach. Another project financed by the IADB in the DDoommiinniiccaann RReeppuubblliicc iscurrently evaluating a far greater role for the Ministry of the Environment, which already has legal authority toact in the area of land use and disaster reduction.

ment. Therefore organizational frameworks inplace for environmental issues can be expand-ed to serve the needs of disaster risk reductionas part of sustainable development planning.

Many public agencies are experiencing cut-backs. Therefore, asking environmental agen-cies to integrate environmental considerationsin other policy domains would save resources.This will require linking work in science, poli-cy, environment and vulnerability reduction.Implementation of sustainable hazard reduc-tion measures will need an appropriate macroplanning organizational framework organiza-tional framework establishing the critical linkbetween policy objectives and field perform-ance.

Multi-stakeholder processes (MSP) are one of therecent innovations to promote dialogue toachieve sustainable development. This dia-logue model was initiated in 1998 by the UNCommission on Sustainable Development (CSD)and has since been adopted by other interna-tional forums. MSPs aim at bringing togetherall major stakeholders (non-state and govern-ment actors) in a new form of communication,decision finding (and possibly decision-mak-ing) on a particular issue.

MSP are based on equity and accountability incommunication and representation betweenstakeholders. They are also based on principlesof transparency and participation, and aim todevelop partnerships and strengthen networksbetween stakeholders. MSP cover a wide spec-trum of structures and levels of engagement.They are suitable for those situations wheredialogue is possible, where listening, reconcil-ing interests, and integrating views into jointsolution strategies seems appropriate and with-in reach. Each situation, issue or problemprompts the need for participants to design aprocess specifically suited to their abilities, cir-cumstances, and needs. MSPs have emergedbecause there is a perceived need for a moreinclusive, effective manner for addressingurgent sustainability issues.

During the preparations of the World Summitfor Sustainable Development (WSSD), stake-holders have come together to work out how todo their part to implement the sustainabledevelopment agenda. Major inputs to the dis-cussion on disaster reduction and sustainable

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development that fed into one of the ISDRbackground papers was drafted through multi-stakeholder electronic forums. The addedvalue of a multi-stakeholder approach, namelyincreased quality, credibility and outreach,ensures an increased sense of ownership andcommitment for collaborative actions plans.Search conferences are also participativeprocesses that raise commitment for action andare applicable to collectively design disasterreduction plans.

Environmental iimpact aassessments

Legislative and regulatory frameworks forEnvironmental Impact Assessments (EIA) alreadyexist and require strong institutional support,the commitment of governments, aid agenciesand civil society, as well as a monitoringprocesses. Risk reduction considerations could be further

assimilated into the requirements for EIA. Amore comprehensive EIA could evolvetowards a periodic vulnerability assessment totake into account the dynamic nature of vul-nerability. An expanded EIA process couldprovide a basis to ensure that proposed initia-tives would include considerations of both dis-aster reduction along with lessening environ-mental impact. Further it would allow for anassessment of potential problems as well asbenefits of disaster risk reduction activities.

Additionally, disaster reduction specialistscould use the EIA model as an example toincrease comprehension of disaster impactassessments and to reorient it to become a plan-

TThhee EEnnvviirroonnmmeennttaall IImmppaacctt AAsssseessssmmeenntt ((EEIIAA)) is a policy makingtool that serves to provide evidence and analysis of environ-mental impacts of activities from conception to decision-mak-ing. An EIA must include a detailed risk assessment and pro-vide alternatives solutions. It must be thorough and well doc-umented and must provide the public an opportunity to par-ticipate in accordance with the law. The EIA report usuallyprovides a detailed and rigorous analysis on which the author-ity can decide whether to approve a proposal and under whichterms and conditions. Once a particular project is selected, itis monitored to ensure that conditions for approval areadhered to and that the benefits from the EIA are achieved.Monitoring, implementing and auditing within the EIAprocess provides feedback to further improve it.

mental considerations into natural disaster mit-igation plans. The relationship between naturaldisasters and environmental degradation willbe studied and guidelines for the environmen-tal implications of disaster mitigation projectsproduced.

Reporting oon tthe sstate oof tthe eenvironment

Given the importance of natural resources asenduring ways to reduce disaster risk, it is vital tohave a regularly updated picture of their healthand ability to fulfil their buffering task. Some ofthe most relevant reporting agencies include:

• UNEP State of the Environment (SoE)reporting undertaken in the context ofperiodic Global Environmental Outlooks(GEO)

• IUCN environment profiles • SoE reports for projects financed by the

World Bank and GEF, as well as otherfunding agencies

• OECD environmental performance reviews • UN CSD national reporting on imple-

mentation of Agenda 21, national assess-ment reports and country profiles

• National communications required by theConference of the Parties of the climatechange, biodiversity and desertificationconventions.

The objective of these reporting systems is toassess the present and future situation of natu-ral resources and the environment, includingemerging issues on environmental manage-ment and legislation and development issues.

The objective of these reporting systems is toassess the present and future situation of natu-ral resources and the environment, includingemerging issues and recommendations onenvironmental management and legislationand development issues. They also inform onimplementations means.

Reporting is a qualitative assessment tool and aframework for policy analysis and decision-making. Finally, reporting facilitates the meas-urement of progress towards sustainable devel-opment. Efforts of countries to meet their envi-ronmental and sustainable development goalsare scrutinized in order to improve their per-formance in environmental management and

216


ning tool. Fundamentally, a post event impactassessment is a reactive assessment of damagealready occurred and not part of the planningprocess, although results can feed into futureplanning.

Further cross-fertilization between disasterreduction practitioners and environmentalmanagers will generate better EIA techniquesand practices for use in disaster reduction.

Investment in mitigation measures does notnecessarily reduce vulnerability and the socio-economic and environmental consequences ofsuch measures need to be assessed. A welldesigned EIA process incorporating disasterrisk will be key in encouraging the private sec-tor and individuals to consider how their ownactions impact vulnerability factors. To end ona cautious note indicating that there is still along way to go until EIA’s potential is realized,a study carried out in MERCOSUR on theuse of EIA showed that even though all coun-tries had adopted EIA as a preventive environ-mental management tool, only Brazil had sig-nificant experience in this area. It is intriguingto note that emergency actions and actions thatrestore facilities to pre-disaster conditions areusually exempted from environmental impactassessment and documentation.

Examples of the integration of disaster reduc-tion concerns into EIA are scarce. Through itsEIA, the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB)is asking its borrowing member countries toinclude disaster mitigation measures that canserve to reduce the risk associated with invest-ments in their development projects proposals.

In India, the regulation on environmentalclearances for port projects requests an EIAreport, an environment management plan, arisk analysis study an disaster managementplan. The regulation specifies that the disastermanagement plan should be prepared on thebasis of the risk analysis considering worst casescenarios with respect to specific cases such asoil/chemical spillage, fire, explosions, sabotageand floods. It encourages green buffer zoneswhenever possible.

In Viet Nam, an environmental sustainabilityprogram in the framework of Partnerships toMitigate Natural Disasters (NDM), providestechnical assistance for integrating environ-

RReessppoonnsseess

CDMP (ComprehensiveDisaster ManagementPlan)FAP (Flood Action Plan)National Water PolicyFlood forecast and inunda-tion modellingDredging of river bedConstruction of embank-ments with sluice gates

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The BBaannggllaaddeesshh 22000011 SSooEE report prepared under the aegis of UNEP for GEO 2002 has a welldeveloped and detailed section on natural disasters, which includes:

• General introduction on the types of disasters affecting the country • Pressures on the environment that exacerbate natural disasters including geographical settings,

physiography, hydrology and environmental pressures • State of natural disasters: floods, cyclones, droughts, abnormal rainfall, hailstorms, lightening,

tornadoes, earthquakes and erosion • Impact of natural disasters: climate change, agriculture, salinity intrusion, fisheries, ecosystems

and biodiversity • Structural and non-structural responses • Suggested options as future measures • Conclusion

The report describes in detail the disaster management bodies and their main functions and respon-sibilities.

IIssssuuee

Flood

PPrreessssuurree//CCaauussee

Excess flow in monsoonImproper infrastructure develop-ment 92% of total catchmentarea across borderDrainage congestion due to riverbed siltationDeforestation in upper catch-ment area

IImmppaaccttss

Disruption of communi-cations and livelihoodssystemsLoss of agricultural pro-ductionDisruption of essentialservices National economic lossLoss of human lives andbiodiversity

EExxcceerrppttss ffrroomm aa ttaabbllee iinn tthhee BBaannggllaaddeesshh SSooEE rreeppoorrtt

e.g., access to resources by specific groups orhousehold wealth. Community involvement inmap building provides an occasion to discussresource management issues.

Ecological aand eenvironmental eeconomics

It is essential to obtain an accurate picture oftrue health and wealth of the socio-economicand socio-ecological situation of a nation inassessing progress towards sustainable devel-opment. Of the three interactive spheres ofsustainable development – social, economicand environmental/ecological – economic con-siderations, in many ways remains dominant,both in influence and in its measurement.Proving that disaster reduction integratingsound environmental management makes eco-nomic sense is a major challenge when con-fronting decision-makers.

Environmental economics, also referred to asecological economics, provides a visible way tolink environmental management and disasterrisk reduction in sustainable development. Itutilizes the tools and mechanisms of economicsto measure in currency terms, the value andcosts regarding various aspects of the environ-ment such as well-functioning ecosystems,prisitne environments, biodiversity and thecosts associated with resource and ecosystemdepletion.

In conventional economic frameworks, naturalresources, in terms of their worth for humanuse, have been considered. Beginning in the1970s, economic mechanisms began to beadapted in order to measure more accurate rep-resentation of the socio-ecological aspects ofthe community.

Until quite recently, the study of environmen-tal economics has been predominantly in aca-demia, related research institutions, in multi-lateral and bilateral organization and in thelarge international environmentally-orientedNGOs. As environmental issues becomeincreasingly everyday news, decision makersworld-wide have started to examine ways inwhich socio-ecological values and costs can bemeasured and incorporated into economic andpolitical discourse. There are numerousnational models, including the older forms ofNational Resource Accounts (NRA), NationalSystems for Environmental Accounting

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develop principles, guidelines and effectivestrategies to better set their priorities.

Natural disaster concerns are more or lessidentifiable in the above mentioned reportingsystems, links between environmental manage-ment and flood damage (e.g. lack of integra-tion between water management, transport pol-icy and nature conservation objectives) beingmost frequently described. However, they canproduce essential baseline and vulnerabilityinformation on which to develop disasterreduction policies (see boxexample fromBangladesh).

Existing reporting guidelines could easily beupdated to include a requirement to systemati-cally report on the environmental features andresource necessary to prevent environmentaldegradation that will lead to an increase in dis-aster risks. The process of environmentalreporting could also be designed to contributeto the record of ways in which societies miti-gate risk by cultural adaptation and theirappraisal of natural resources.

Environmental mapping, in which communitymembers are asked to locate relevant environ-mental features and resources on a self-createdmap of their territory, could be used for riskmapping. Maps representing physical features,such as roads, houses, soil types and vegeta-tion, could include social and risk phenomena,

EEccoonnoommiicc iinncceennttiivveess//ddiissiinncceennttiivveess ffoorr ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonninclude:

• Tax incentives, subsidies and loans to compensatelandowners or discourage certain land uses

• User charges: fees for downstream beneficiaries(domestic water use, agriculture, hydropower, fishery,recreation)

• Transfer of development rights to avoid undesirabledevelopment

• Easements: legal agreement to restrict type and amountof development taking place on a property

• Land purchase/property rights: usually restricted forexceptional lands (restricted land leases)

• Fines/liability system for damages caused to human set-tlements or environmental services

• Pricing structures to discourage unsound use ofresources

(NSA) and the System for EnvironmentalEconomic Accounting (SEEA). These toolswork to reduce fragmentation and overlap ofactivities that have often resulted in confusedpolicies towards agriculture, tourism and envi-ronmental management. Additionally, theypose a unique opportunity to develop morerobust indicators of sustainable development. Quantifying aspects of socio-ecological consid-erations are a huge challenge for risk reductionand environmental management practitionersalike, as is advancing these concerns from theback burners of economically oriented politicalagendas.

From a practical point of view, grants, funds,loan guarantees, investment partnerships, andenvironmental incentives are some of the toolscountries can use to promote water manage-ment, hazard mitigation, environmental con-servation, coastal zone management etc., thatserve both environmental and disaster reduc-tion goals. Money generated by trust funds forecoservices envisaged under multilateral agree-ments can be injected in disaster reductionactivities. The potential to use creative environ-mental debt reduction strategies can also beexplored. Debt-for-nature swaps are used toprotect crucial natural services and implicitlycontribute to disaster reduction. Innovativethinking to combine debt-for-disaster reduc-tion swaps and debt-for-nature swaps could beinitiated. This would help the poorest countriesimplement disaster reduction activities as partof their poverty alleviation strategy.

To maximize the protection of environmentalservices for disaster reduction, the current sit-uation of remedial payment, where environ-mental services are compensated for, should bechanged to a system where such services arepaid for. In CCoossttaa RRiiccaa,, CCoolloommbbiiaa,, EEccuuaaddoorr,,GGuuaatteemmaallaa aanndd EEll SSaallvvaaddoorr, projects financedby the World Bank introduce the concept ofpayments to obtain a variety of environmentalservices, including sustainable natural resourcemanagement, watershed and forests protection,conservation of biodiversity, reduced vulnera-bility to floods, improved water quality andreduced sedimentation.

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Enviromental ccodes aand sstandards

Coping with environmental and natural hazardrisks will require better environmental and dis-aster risk management. Avoiding economiclosses through improved proactive environ-mental management and performance is possi-ble with the implementation of EnvironmentalManagement Systems (EMS) following proce-dures such as the ISO 14000 family of stan-dards. The International Organization for Stan-dardization (ISO) develops voluntary technicalstandards which add value to all types of busi-ness, administrations and public utilities oper-ations. ISO 14000 is a set of generic tools fordeveloping, implementing, maintaining andevaluating environmental policies and objec-tives They contribute to making the develop-ment, manufacturing and supply of productsand services more efficient, safer and cleaner.Organizations establish their policies, objec-tives and levels of ambition. These quality stan-dards constitute a responsible care approach,which combines safety and prevention of tech-nological disasters.

If upgraded to include disaster resistance, stan-dards for EMS, including environmentalauditing, life cycle assessment, environmentallabelling and environmental performance eval-uation could reinforce business imperatives,proving the case for applying ISO 14000 todisaster reduction.

ISO certification also provides an importantbasis for communication with businesses, gov-ernment, financial organizations and environ-mental groups. We should add people at riskand the disaster community to this list. If thecertificate provides information about the capa-bility of the organization to achieve its statedenvironmental objectives, it has the potential toprovide information on its capability to reducevulnerability to disaster risk and achieve itsstated disaster reduction objectives. Anotherbenefit of certification is the scope for market-ing. In the same way that we see green or envi-ronmental labelling, we could see disasterresilience labelling. Relevant work in this areahas started in Australia, for example.

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regular improvement of these tools would alsobe developed. To achieve this objective, devel-opment of a common language and exchangeof practices and experience among experts indisaster risk management, environmental man-agement, sustainable development and eco-nomics should be encouraged. In this regard,innovative forms of communication should beexplored.

Some adjustments in policy frameworks toreflect this new approach to disaster reduc-tion might be necessary. As would be closecollaboration with institutions working onclimate change adaptation, biodiversity con-servation, land degradation, wetlands man-agement, sustainable development andpoverty alleviation. Finally, integrating riskmanagement into environmental policy andvice-versa will require full community partic-ipation.

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From the issues described in this chapter, themain areas for action that stand out are:

• Exploration of the links between environ-mental degradation and changing hazardoccurrence and vulnerability patterns.

• Identification and description of environ-mental knowledge and tools that can beapplied to reduce vulnerability to risk.

• Economic valuation of environmentalactions.

The identified knowledge and tools could thenundergo modification and testing to be welladapted to case specific situations. Disaster andenvironment practitioners could apply the toolswhich would result in a greater sense of owner-ship and commitment. Capacities for use and

The iimportance aand ddifficulty of lland uuse pplanning

Land use planning that is carefully designed andrigorously implemented is the most usefulapproach to managing urban or populationgrowth and minimising associated risks. It is alsoone of the most challenging to implementbecause of the often conflicting values about landheld by different segments of the population.

In many societies, cultural, social or economicattributes associated with land can form thebasis of some of the most contentious issuesamong people, particularly at local levels. Ref-erence has already been made in the preface tothe economic attractions which flood plains orvolcanic slopes hold for inhabitants. In othercountries wetlands are drained to becomeindustrial parks or housing estates.

The determination and wide acceptance of themost suited use of land, whether it is privatelyor publicly held, is demanding enough. Itbecomes even more daunting if there are vari-ously held views about the role that land can, orshould play in terms of reducing collectiveexposure to risk. Questions invariably revolvearound whose land, whose risk and who is tobenefit. Too often, the desire for short-termgains are prone to override anticipated benefitsthat stretch further into the future.

For these reasons, land use management andthe related aspects of regional or territorial

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5Selected application of disaster reduction measures

planning, have to be considered as naturalextensions of conducting hazard assessmentsand risk mapping. They essentially must takeaccount of the spatial parameters of physicalvulnerability considered in accordance with thebroader social and economic requirements of asociety. Such forms of planning used to be con-sidered as a largely technical exercise, but plan-ners and local political authorities are increas-ingly realising that members of affected com-munities have to be consulted and involvedthroughout the process.

Account also needs to be taken of neighbour-ing or adjacent communities which are notalways of the same country, kinship or socio-economic standing. Actions taken in their owninterest by one group of people living along ariver can easily have a significant bearing ondiminishing the fortunes or increasing the risksof others who live downstream or on the oppo-site shore.

Government authorities need to play an essen-tial role in the judicious assessment of such rel-ative merits, but there is equally a requirementfor popular involvement in determining thebasic parameters of what should constituteacceptable levels of risk. The informed partici-pation of the public is also essential in thedevelopment of municipal or territorial stan-dards and the acceptance of regulatory prac-tices if otherwise seemingly intractable social,environmental and economic challenges are tobe addressed successfully.

5.2. Land use planning

There is a fundamental need in disaster risk management to recognise the relationships betweenpopulation growth, the physical demands of human settlement, short and longer term economictrade-offs and the most appropriate use of available land. While the application of informed andconsistent planning practices are crucial to minimise the potential loss of physical assets or envi-ronmental capital, a greater principle lies in treating the landscape itself as a valued resource tomanage risk. Failure to act on this basis is to invite disaster.

Both the opportunities and the difficulties of employing land use and planning practicesfor disaster risk reduction are reviewed in the following section:

• The importance and difficulty of land use planning• A delicate balance and measured benefits• Principles regarding land use management and urban planning• Case examples

Risk arising from volcanic eruptions can also besubstantially reduced by means of limiting thedevelopment in hazardous areas. In that sense,volcanic hazard mapping provides the basis forland use regulations, as well as critical informa-tion for developing effective evacuation plans.

Some countries have well established zoningmethodologies for mass movement related haz-ards, such as landslides and avalanches. That isthe case for Switzerland, where a three colour-coded zoning system guides the developmentof both public and private buildings.

The Swiss code has been applied in many partsof the world. The map on next page showing alandslide-prone area in the zone of Paccha, insouthern Ecuador, illustrates the use of hazardmaps with the aforementioned three colors code.This map is one of the results of a large researchproject on natural hazards in this region ofEcuador, PRECUPA, sponsored by the SwissHumanitarian Aid and Disaster Relief Unit(SDR) between 1994 and 1998. Based on thefindings of this project, a new ordinance for theuse and occupation of the urban land has beenpromulgated, allowing a safer expansion of thisarea.

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A failure on the part of government to imple-ment effective land use and planning practicesis to invite disaster. As one commentator hasobserved, while long a function of local gov-ernments, land use planning regrettably hasoften been done with little reference to expo-sure to risk. Consequently, inadequate, ill-informed or non-existent land use planning cancontribute to increasing the vulnerability ofcommunities exposed to hazards. Landslidesthat destroyed a housing development in thecity of Santa Tecla, El Salvador following theJanuary 2001 earthquake represent one suchexample. Most likely, there are hundreds moreexamples in all countries.

A ddelicate bbalance aand mmeasured bbenefits

The conscious recognition of the role of landuse management and planning practices asviable means to reduce disaster risks are part oflarger risk scenarios, best considered in localcommunity contexts.

Regulatory approaches which emphasise landuse planning to reduce future flood disastershave proved effective in some countries withadvanced economies, but evaluations revealthat they too are being weakened in numerousways. This in turn is leading to calls for refine-ments in regulatory strategies. Unfortunately,regulatory approaches are much less applicableto developing countries with the burgeoning ofmegacities, inadequate housing and basic serv-ices for large percentages of the population, arising tide of migrants and unmanaged, infor-mal economies. Unfortunately, it is in suchplaces where the need for planning is greatest.

Some hazard specific examples with regards toland use planning are briefly presented.

EEaarrtthhqquuaakkeess,, vvoollccaanniicc eerruuppttiioonnss aanndd aavvaallaanncchheess

Seismic microzonation allows for identificationof earthquake prone areas at a local scale. Thiscan be used to maintain low levels of buildingdensity or directly avoid the development insuch areas. Microzoning has proved to be par-ticularly effective for the establishment of set-back distances from active fault-lines, withinwhich building is not permitted (see Box).

LLaanndd uussee iinn CCaalliiffoorrnniiaa,, UU..SS..

In many counties and cities of California,setback ordinances are a major device that isapplied to enforce seismic safety. Thus,building and stability slope setbacks can berecommended where proposed developmentcrosses known or inferred faults, as well aswhere unrepaired active landslides - or oldlandslide deposits- have been identified. Set-backs can also be used to impose the appro-priate separation of buildings from eachother to reduce pounding effects. This phe-nomenon is most common in urban areaswhere structures of different heights, result-ing from different constructions methods,are combined in close proximity. Anothertype of setback regulates the distance frombuildings to sidewalks or other areas that areheavily used by pedestrians. The main pur-pose of such setbacks is to reduce the loss oflife and injury arising from collapsing build-ings during an earthquake.

Source: adapted from K.Smith, 1997

FFllooooddss

Flood management strategies are constantlybeing rethought. One approach draws uponobservations of flood adaptation in traditionalsocieties in which communities learned toreduced their exposure and vulnerability tofloods through a variety of techniques. Theseinclude building modifications such as the stilt


houses of Malaysia, or effective social meas-ures like the mutual aid that is often evident instrong and supportive kinship relationshipswithin local communities.

Therefore, modern strategies need to adopt asustainability perspective and emphasise thewiser use of flood plains and coastal floodzones. Such an outlook is grounded in antici-

LLaanndd uussee iinn SSwwiittzzeerrllaanndd

Based on hazard maps, charts of degrees of danger are developed in order to guarantee a homogenousand uniform means of assessment of the different kinds of natural hazards affecting Switzerland (floods,snow, avalanches, landslides, etc.). Two major parameters are used to classify the danger: the intensityand the probability (frequency or return period). Three degrees of danger are defined and are represent-ed by the colors red, blue and yellow. The estimated degrees of danger have implications for land use.They indicate the level of danger to people and to animals, as well as to property. A description of themagnitude of damage which could be caused by an event is based on the identification of threshold val-ues for degrees of danger, according to possible damage to property. The danger zones can be delineatedon the local plan, together with areas suitable for construction or zones where additional protection isrequired. The degrees of danger are initially assigned according to their consequences for constructionactivity: areas where buildings are not allowed (red: high hazard); areas where building must follow safe-ty requirements (blue: potential hazard); and areas without building restrictions (yellow/white).

According to Art. 6 of the Federal Law for Land-use-Planning, the cantons must identify in their Mas-ter Plan all areas that are threatened by natural hazards. The Master Plan is a basic document for land-use planning, infrastructure coordination and accident prevention, that allows for early detection of con-flicts between land-use, development and natural hazards.

Source: Olivier Lateltin and H. Raetzo, 2001

CCeennttrraall CCoommmmiitttteeee ffoorr FFllooooddss aanndd SSttoorrmm CCoonnttrrooll((CCCCFFSSCC)),, HHaannooii,, VViieettnnaamm,, 22000000..

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PPrriinncciipplleess rreeggaarrddiinngg llaanndd uussee mmaannaaggeemmeenntt aanndd uurrbbaann ppllaannnniinngg ffoorr rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn

The following principles apply not only to land use management plans, but in particular in the context of risk reductionstrategies.

1. Land uuse mmanagement pplans fform aa sshared bbasis ffor ssustainable ddevelopment aand rrisk rreduction sstrategies.• As the physical and spatial projection of the social, economic, environmental and cultural policies of a country, land

use management includes various planning tools and management mechanisms. They are necessary for a pro-ductive but sustainable use of the national territory and provide for the successful regulation of the economiclife of a country.

2. Land uuse mmanagement ooperates aat ddifferent ggeographical sscales which require different ranges of management toolsand operational mechanisms.• At the national level, sectoral economic policies are tied into the administrative framework of provincial or terri-

torial jurisdictions.• At the metropolitan level, strategic plans are formulated for sustainable urban development.• At the municipal level, municipal ordinances and regulatory plans define local land use management practices. • At the local or community level, management plans encourage participatory management for community works

and urban projects.

3. Land uuse mmanagement iinvolves llegal, ttechnical, aand ssocial ddimensions.• The legal and regulatory dimension includes laws, decrees, ordinances and other regulations adopted by national

and local governments. • The technical and instrumental dimension includes planning tools and instruments that regulate uses of land and

strive for the best balance between private interests and the public good.• The social and institutional dimension includes those mechanisms which include citizen participation in land use

management practices, such as consultations, public hearings, open municipal sessions and plebiscites.

4. LLand uuse mmanagement eencompasses iintegral sservices aand iindividual ssectoral iinterests.• Integral or dominant issues revolve around the provision of essential services or related infrastructure, such as

water, energy, transportation, communications – and as now recognised, risk management.• Individual sectoral issues include housing, health, education, agriculture, natural resources, the economy and

trade.

5. TThe ppractice oof lland uuse mmanagement pproceeds tthrough tthree sstages.• Strategic planning• Administration and fiscal control• Follow-up and monitoring

6. SSuccessful lland uuse mmanagement pplans wwill cconfront cchallenges.• Tensions or vested interests, that can occur between government and private interests, national and local interests,

or instruments of the state and the population.• Dynamic factors, such as population growth, migration, conflicts over the use, demand for, or supply of

services.• Factors specific to risk management, including the changing extent or nature of vulnerability, major fluctuations in

land values, urban services and environmental services.

7. SSuccessful sstrategic lland uuse mmanagement rrequires eessential rresources. • A clear legal and regulatory framework defines the competencies of the various stakeholders and the “rules of the

game”, including the role of each actor in the various stages of planning.• Access to information on regulatory plans, land and property markets, public and private investment projects is

crucial for ensuring effective citizen participation in decision-making.• A decentralised fiscal policy strengthens the capacity of local governments to raise revenue and to consolidate their

finances in the interest of effective local administration.

Adapted from CERCA, UN-HABITAT, Central America, 2000

patory approaches: empowering local commu-nities to make choices, promoting disasterresilience, improving local and socio-economicadaptive capacities, and ensuring intra- andinter-generation equity. These strategiesembrace retreat from flood zones, by means ofboth accommodation and protective approach-es as illustrated below. Previously heraldedengineering remedies or hard defences, areincreasingly being replaced by environmentalconsiderations such as mangrove swamps orwetlands which can act as soft defences.

Successful communities or nations seek tostrike a balance in which flood disaster poten-tial is weighed against other socio-economicgoals and benefits. They recognise that landuse change in any part of a river catchmentmay adversely affect flood flows and are pre-pared to address source controls. They makeincreasingly informed decisions based uponsound, high quality information and stakehold-er participation, and they frequently reassessflood risks. They seek to foster flood-resistantdesigns in physical, economic and social struc-tures, partly through encouraging self-helpand self-reliance. They equally value tradition-al or new and emerging technologies that mayhelp increase resilience.

CCaassee:: CCuubbaa

In Cuba, national land use planning and man-agement are truly integrated into risk reductionconsiderations. For over forty years, the Institutefor Physical and Spatial Planning, has been theresponsible body for the implementation ofphysical planning in the country. Their planningsystem integrates all scales of political andadministrative jurisdictions, from municipal toprovincial and national levels, in addressing awide range of land use-related issues. Theseinclude the management of natural resources,decisions about human settlements and the envi-ronment, hazards, vulnerability and risk.

The institute defines regulations and providesmethodologies pertaining to risk reduction thatinclude building codes and risk zoning toreduce the physical vulnerability of householdsand critical infrastructure, especially in flood-prone areas. These and related tools for imple-menting land use controls across the country

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are supported by well-integrated conceptual,methodological and legal frameworks tied intothe sustainable development processes of thecountry. In addition to the institute, the nation-al civil defence authority and the hydro-mete-orological service, are other key organizationsin these strategies.

Primarily, two main mechanisms are used toimplement land use policies. The first is plan-ning tools that include land-use schemesapplied at the national, provincial and supra-municipal levels, Plans for territorial andurban planning are implemented by provincialand municipal authorities. Once approved,these tools become legal instruments that regu-late land use for public and private land hold-ers. They are supplemented by feasibility orlocation studies, or other forms of detailedstudies conducted to meet specific require-ments.

The second type of mechanism employed con-sists of regulations and management practices.These include directives for the spatial alloca-tion of investments that provide guidance forlocating building projects according to landuse criteria by the spatial location of buildingprojects prior to their financial approval. Theconsideration of physical vulnerability includedin the land use criteria of these directives, aswell as environmental impact assessments, aretherefore incorporated at this stage in land useplanning.

As in other island states, coastal areas consti-tute the most fragile and complex ecosystemsfound in Cuba. Their increasing vulnerabilityto the impact of natural disasters has motivatedthe government to support studies on land usemanagement. Schemes define guidelines forthe use of coastal areas at the national level,identifying priority scenarios, where higherresolution studies need to be conducted. Ahazard map for storm surges considered at thenational scale, plus additional vulnerabilitymaps, have been produced. The combined useof these maps allows relative levels of risk to beidentified for settlements located in coastalareas. Several land use regulations have result-ed from this study, including specific recom-mendations for retrofitting, resettlement andurban growth regulations for 107 coastal settle-ments.

cedures, engage more effective means of con-struction, and promote sound rehabilitation inthe area. Basements have been rebuilt, theheights of buildings regulated, and new land-scape designs for public areas adopted.

In conclusion, land use management andurban planning in Cuba constitute economical-ly and technically feasible tools for disasterreduction. Initiatives in land use managementand urban planning have involved communi-ties in the identification of local problems, inthe planning process and in implementing thedecisions taken about land use management.Revised legislation on disaster reduction basedupon new methodologies has been applied,contributing to more effective implementationof disaster reduction activities. Moreover, themultidisciplinary and inter-institutional natureof the work undertaken in land use planningand management has helped to established aconceptual and more methodological basis foreffective disaster risk reduction. As the respon-sible body for disaster mitigation and reliefactivities in Cuba, the Civil Defence Service,has benefited greatly by a broader understand-ing of land use tools and their role in disasterrisk reduction.

CCaassee:: NNiiccaarraagguuaa

In Nicaragua in 2001-2002, more than 20municipalities have been provided with toolsfor risk management, with a special emphasison land use planning. These include the prepa-ration of hazard maps, land use zoning propos-als and municipal disaster reduction plans.They also include specific measures to reducethe risk of communities, considered by bothlocal and national authorities. National profes-

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A comprehensive study has been conducted inHavana Province, following analysis conduct-ed in 1998 which revealed deficiencies in landuse management. By working with the govern-ment, UNESCO contributed to develop thisstudy. The reduction of vulnerability to disas-ters has been included as one of the main goalsof this initiative. The implementation of meas-ures will be undertaken over time, with finan-cial commitments from both the governmentand the local population. The communitieshave participated in different stages of the proj-ect, becoming more familiar with the issues ofvulnerability and principles of disaster reduc-tion. In order to reduce disaster risk for coastalsettlements in this area, the following recom-mendations have been issued:

Direct measures:• Prohibit the construction of vacation

houses in existing settlements. • Relocate the population vulnerable to dis-

asters.• Regulate and supervise the construction

of new homes in the settlements.• Retrofit and build homes adapted to flood

conditions.• Improve the drainage systems in and

around the settlements.• Improve the adequacy of potable water

supplies and sanitation systems.• Improve health and transportation services.• Create employment opportunities.

Indirect measures:• Improve the natural resilience of beaches. • Improve the water irrigation systems near

the coast.• Rehabilitate the wetlands.

The city of Havana provides an example ofurban planning in a coastal zone. The city hasa conspicuous breaker wall or malecon, stretch-ing 7 km along the sea, to reduce the impact ofstorm surges that periodically strike the city’scoast. Inappropriate urban growth is reflectedby the private houses and installations thathave been located in the vicinity which is athigh risk. A plan approved by the Administra-tion Council of Havana in 1995, is nowapplied to all urban planning projects in theseseaside areas. Thanks to the vulnerability zon-ing implemented through this plan, codes andstandards for construction have been renewedwith the aim to improve the organizational pro-

Workshops with the participation of local actors in their own communities.

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General mmethodology uused ffor mmunicipality sstudies

analysis for land use planning. Presently, 2,350communities are covered by a PPR. It is antic-ipated that by 2005, 5,000 communities will becovered.

An additional Plan for the Soil Occupancy (POS)also takes due consideration of natural hazardsas outlined in the French Urban Code. ThePPR is then annexed to the POS of the com-munity. It complements other instrumentswhich highlight the potential risks in varioustypes of land use, natural resource protection,construction activities, and the administrativemanagement of territories.

The French Ministry of Land Use Planning andof the Environment (MATE) has established anational list of communities at risk, which isupdated twice a year from information sup-plied by prefectures. MATE has publishedthese risk maps on the Internet for easy accessby the inhabitants of communities, but also tounderline their ready availability for use bydecision-makers, notaries and insurance inter-ests. Known as Corinte for Communes à risquesnaturels et technologiques, it is a database provid-ing information on major risks by department,types of risk, individual risk analysis, land useplanning (PPR), departmental consolidatedfiles (DCS) and listings of prevention meas-ures undertaken. This public service of theprefectures is available at www.environ-nement.gouv.fr and www.prim.net and it isregularly updated by MATE.

CCaassee:: IInnddiiaa

In keeping with the objectives with the Yoko-hama Strategy, a Vulnrability Atlas of India wasdeveloped and ready in 1997. It has proved tobe an innovative tool for assessing district-widevulnerability and risk levels of existing build-ing stock. The atlas has helped state govern-ments and local authorities to strengthen regu-latory frameworks by amending the buildingby-laws, regulations, masterplans and land-useplanning regulations for promoting disasterresistant design and planning processes. Thedocuments and methodologies for vulnerabili-ty and risk assessment, along with technicalguidelines for disaster resistant constructions,have shown high potential for transfer, adapta-tion and replication. After the Gujarat earth-quake in 2001 the relevance of the Atlas have

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sionals, who received special training devel-oped these tools by working in a participatorymanner. Illustrations below show the processbeing used and examples of the resultsobtained in the project developed in the coun-try with the support of the Swiss Agency forDevelopment and Corporation (SDC).

The diagram on the previous page below illus-trates the methodology used to produce amunicipal study by the national professionals.The basis is a thorough, scientific, multiple-hazard and multiple-risk analysis of the wholestudy area, taking account of local knowledgeand specialised information (steps 1 to 3). Thecore of the study is the elaboration of themunicipal disaster reduction plan, whichinvolves the production of the different riskmanagement tools illustrated in the next fig-ures.

CCaassee:: FFrraannccee

The Plan for the Prevention against natural Risks(PPR) is the main tool in the overall Frenchstrategy of natural disaster risk reduction. Itaims at controlling the use of natural and ruralspaces and expresses the responsibility toinform citizens about the risks they may beexposed to, as required under Article 21, of1987. Citizens are able to familiarise them-selves with the importance of risks, take meas-ures to protect their housing and join authori-ties in establishing relief and evacuation plans.

The primary objective of the PPR process is toanalyse the risks of a particular territory inorder to establish hazardous areas. The plansare then able to introduce appropriate meas-ures of urban planning and construction thattake account of effective risk managementpractices. Zoning is one of the most commonmeans undertaken following the evaluation ofthe degree of predictable hazards. Resultingrisk maps form the basis of considerationwhich leads to the implementation of PPR andrelated legislation. The PPR is elaborated bystate agencies and is implemented under theauthority of the prefect of each departmentwho approves it with regard to the needs ofindividual communities. The PPR is formulat-ed for application to all citizens, enterprisesand instruments of the government. It is aunique procedure which takes account of risk

been highlighted and addi-tional assessments in a moredetailed scale is now beingdeveloped. Indian pro-grammes have met with suc-cess in modifying land use byseeking to address communityrequirements so as to gaintheir commitment in usheringland use changes. A nationalpolicy backed by local effort iscrucial to the success of theseprogrammes.

Indian state governments areresponsible for developmentplans, in particular those thatcontribute to natural hazardsmanagement, agriculture andland management. The firstmajor initiative for preventingflood hazards in the Gangeticplains was in 1960-61 in theform of a soil conservationscheme in the catchment areasof the River Valley Projects asrecommended by the Nation-al Flood Commission. TheNational Watershed Develop-ment Project for RainfedAreas also aimed at promotingappropriate land use and thedevelopment of farming sys-tems on watershed basis. ANational Land Use PolicyOutline adopted by the government of Indiapresents a cohesive and coordinated strategy ofschemes by various government agencies andothers to ensure the optimal use of land. In thisconnection, a National Land Use and Conser-vation Board and State Land Use Boards havebeen established.

Indian experience has shown that measures toprevent disasters like drought and floods suc-

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ceed to the extent that they focus on resourceregeneration of the community living on thelands concerned. The approach has to be holis-tic and needs to address both spatial and tem-poral dimensions of land use. Sustainabilityand effectiveness of interventions depend onengendering appropriate land usage, for whichpeoples’ participation in the planning and deci-sion-making is an obvious requirement.

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Land use management and planning are prac-tised in many countries. However, as wasmentioned at the beginning of this section,well-considered land use planning carriedthrough to the successful accomplishment ofreducing risks remains extremely challengingfor a number of reasons. Competing interestsor values associated with the various possibleuses of land almost always become an overrid-ing issue that can only be resolved from somecommon understanding being reached, eitherunder law, official instruction, or through acommon appreciation of relative risks.

There are an additional number of practicallimitations to address to enhance land useplanning as a tool for risk reduction, whichinclude the following:

• The lack of current information aboutpotential hazards affecting a specific loca-tion, and the nature and relative magni-tudes of their possible impacts within aspecific area.

• The high costs and protracted nature ofmultidisciplinary involvement associatedwith the technical aspects of hazard map-ping or vulnerability and risk assessmentactivities.

• An inability to predict hazard events or forthe community concerned to fully appre-ciate the possibility of risk.

• Hesitancy to commit funds for seeminglyintangible benefits at a possible unspeci-fied time in the future, overshadowed byclear and immediate opportunities forshort-term gains.

• Local political or community resistance toaccept the rationale for land controls, oftencompounded by weak or marginal interestin their enforcement. Licensing proceduresare noticeably corrupt in many countries.

There are many links to the challenges describedin chapter two related to risk assessments.

The rrole oof eengineering aand ttechnical aabil-ities iin pprotecting ccritical ffacilities

Buildings, critical facilities and infrastructureare necessary for the effective functioning andwell being of any society. It is therefore neces-sary to consider what has to be done to promotethe development and application of appropriatestandards of design and construction withinwhat is often called the built environment.

In technical terms, the expertise and method-ologies are available within the scientific andtechnical communities to generate appropriatestandards of design and construction for dam-age resistant structures and critical facilities.The fact that they are spread across countriesand individual fields of experience limits theiruse.

In many developing countries, people with theright training, skills and motivation are in shortsupply. At the same time, professional struc-tures may be weak so that nationally recognisedstandards of professional qualification and con-duct are lacking.

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Many countries have adopted building codesrequiring disaster-resistant design and con-struction. Their provisions and adequacy vary,but where they are rigorously applied theresultant buildings are more disaster-resistantthan they might otherwise be. The problem isnot so much that codes are inadequate but thatthey are not enforced effectively. Equallyimportant but much more difficult and expen-sive to do, there is a need in particularly threat-ened areas or badly exposed critical facilities tostrengthen, or retrofit, older buildings wherepractical.

The pressures of growing population andpoverty, finance, corruption, inadequate skillsand weak administration often combine to pro-duce woefully inadequate standards of build-ing control. There are other problematic areas,as well, in translating current knowledge intopractice. Buildings erected by incoming ormigrant segments of the population are usuallyconstructed without specific permission andare not regulated by any building control pro-cedures. Public authorities are hard pressedenough to provide basic water and drainage

5.3. Protection of critical facilities

All societies need to be highly selective in the identification and protection of theirkey resources and service facilities. These lifeline elements need enhanced protec-tion from hazard impact so they can remain functional at the time of crisis or fol-lowing a major disaster. Typical critical facilities and infrastructure include:

• Key infrastructure and utilities, such as communications, water, electricity and fuelsupplies.

• Primary transportation links, such as main roads, rail links, harbours and airports.• Public administration facilities, government offices, police, fire and emergency

service facilities.• Medical facilities performing critical public health and life saving functions.• Schools and buildings with social value, important for public assembly or local

identity.• Key economic assets related to finance, commerce and manufacturing.• Cultural monuments, museums and historic structures.

The discussion and examples shown in this section will focus on:• The role of engineering and technical abilities in protecting critical facilities• Protection of urban infrastructure• Structural means, disaster-resistant construction• Codes, policies and procedures• Government examples, public demonstration of best practices• Development of appropriate methodologies

“The reality thatsomewhere between75 and 90 percent

of all earthquakefatalities result

from building fail-ures, highlights the

importance ofimplementing miti-

gation measuresspecifically associat-

ed with buildingdesign and con-

struction.”Professor Ian

Davis

neering studies of disaster damage are regular-ly undertaken and constitute a vital element inthe design process. Codes and standards arereviewed in the light of such studies and havegained much from them, particularly whenthey have been undertaken in the early stagesof post-disaster activity.

Aside from the common disregard for prevail-ing conditions of risk, improper design, poorconstruction and inadequate maintenance fig-ure again and again as major causes of buildingfailure and loss of life. Poor engineering, inef-fective building control by officials and badbuilding practices within construction con-cerns produce a grim harvest, long after thosepeople responsible have moved on to otherprojects. Much of the older building stock mayhave been constructed before the adoption ofmodern construction standards, but thereshould be no excuse for the failure of modernbuildings.

Where they exist, national engineering institu-tions are committed to maintaining appropriatestandards of professional ethics and compe-tence among their members and to disciplinethose who deliberately break professional codesof conduct. By virtue of their national standing,they have contacts at senior levels of govern-ment and international engineering organiza-tions. They are thus in a strong position to pro-mote the importance of technical integrity,learning the lessons of disasters, identifying andassessing risks and employing disaster-resistantdesign and construction practices. They arealso in a position to work for a better trainedand more risk-conscious construction industry.

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services to serve the new population, much lessto attend to how they house themselves.

The construction industry world-wide also hasspecial characteristics, many of which militateagainst the achievement of high quality in thebuilt environment. Contributing factorsinclude the high proportion of small localfirms, the one-off or unsupervised nature ofmuch of the work, the risks in relation to therewards, the ability to cut corners by coveringup bad work and the lack of adequate training.Where the prevailing culture is lax or corrupt,local contractors will usually reflect it.

Local people can do something to protectthemselves from the possible effects of disas-ters if simple advice is given and heeded. Theextent to which this advice is provided is oftenlimited and too often the professional commu-nities themselves are not directly involved. Thelessons based on experience, are clear. Engi-

VVuullnneerraabbllee bbuuiillddiinngg ssttoocckkss

Following the earthquakes in Turkey in 1999, earthquake specialists from Istanbul’s Bogazici Universi-ty in Istanbul, summarized the reasons why the building stock of Turkey proved to be so vulnerable:• Rampant code violations that led to disastrous results.• The system was conducive to poor construction.• High inflation meant very limited mortgage and insurance, an impediment to large-scale develop-

ment, limited industrialization of residential construction.• High rate of industrialization and urbanization lead to a need for inexpensive housing.• No professional qualification of engineers.• Ineffective control/supervision of design and construction.• Corruption.• Regulations with limited enforcement and no accountability.• Ignorance and indifference.• Government was a free insurer of earthquake risk.

LLaacckk ooff rreewwaarrddss ffoorr mmiittiiggaattiioonn mmeeaassuurreess

A glaring omission in the newly crafted system inTurkey is, of course, the fact that no rewards have beenworked out for mitigation measures. If homeownersdecide to upgrade their buildings, this is currently notrecognised in reduced [insurance] premiums, orincreased benefits. … too much emphasis has beenplaced on the purely technical measures of earthquakeprotection, but this has occurred at the expense ofimproved settlement and spatial planning policies.

Source: Gulkan, P., 2000

Many national institutions maintain high stan-dards of professional competence, but theextent to which those standards are reflected inpressure on government to improve theenforcement of building regulations, or in theprofessional supervision of engineers on the

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ground is not necessarily so evident. Theysometimes use the situation to their advantageand do little to encourage better standards.However, national engineering institutions areimportant agents for a safer built environmentand high professional integrity, and this posi-tion must be maintained over the long term.Again, encouragement for the development ofmore effective national professional institutionsand their increased influence in civic expres-sions of disaster risk management couldbecome a more common area of interest amonginternational agencies concerned with develop-ment.

Protection oof uurban iinfrastructure

Most cities experience natural hazards such asearthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods,cyclones, and tidal waves, on a relatively infre-quent basis. Yet, mounting losses to life andproperty, point to the fact that determining therisk to natural disasters is a dynamic process. It

WWhhaatt aabboouutt nnoonn-eennggiinneeeerreedd bbuuiillddiinnggss??

“It remains something of a paradox that the failures of non-engineered buildings that kill mmoosstt people inearthquakes attract the lleeaasstt attention from the engineering profession. At least two explanations for theneglect have been offered. One leading earthquake engineer explained that while the failure of non-engi-neered building construction was certainly a major problem, it should not be regarded as a problem forengineers. He believed that by definition, ‘non-engineered building is outside the engineer’s scope or mandate’.The obvious follow-up question: “therefore, in such a situation, wwhhoossee responsibility is it to devise ways to createsafer vernacular buildings to protect their occupants from earthquakes?” remained unanswered, other than avague suggestion that this problem was probably - ‘the province of local builders’.

Comments from another experienced earthquake engineer, this time in Japan, indicated a similar with-drawal from the subject. The engineer deeply regretted the serious problem associated with the poor per-formance of non-engineered buildings in earthquakes in Japan, and at a global level that certainly neededthe attention of his profession. However, he believed that there was regrettably no money in Japan tofund the necessary research or implementation of improved structural measures for such low-cost struc-tures. A rather sad case of ‘no money on the table, - no action on the ground’”

“Fortunately there are notable, yet isolated exceptions to such negative attitudes or approaches includingimportant work in Peru (Giesecke, 1999), Colombia, China and Bangladesh (Hodgson, Seraj, andChoudhury, 1999). One key center for research and development is the Central Building Research Institute,and the Department for Earthquake Engineering at the University of Roorkee in the State of Uttar Pradesh,India led by the pioneering work of Professor A.S. Arya on the strengthening of non-engineered con-struction. The groundbreaking World Bank-supported programme to retrofit village housing in Maha-rashtra, India following the Latur earthquake is an example of a programme that secured the technicalsupport of Roorkee. (Government of Maharashtra, 1998).”

Source: I.Davis, 2002

Ways to achieve a safer built environmentneed to be:

• Ambitious, grasping unique post-disas-ter possibilities to improve building.

• Stimulated by a range of incentives.

• Inclusive, with the attention of engineersbeing devoted to the creation of bothsafe engineered as well as safe non-engi-neered buildings.

• Focused on lifeline buildings and infra-structure, rather than on unrealistic pro-jections addressed to all structures with-in all settlements.

the challenge of making cities safer can nolonger be regarded as merely a local or altruis-tic concern.

Disasters are only one of the many risks thaturban dwellers face. Naturally occurring haz-ards are commingled with other equally press-ing urban issues, such as decaying infrastruc-ture, poor housing, homelessness, hazardousindustries, inadequate services, unaffordableand poor transport links, pollution, crime,insecurity, and conflict. The built environmentis deteriorating at a rate that most cities cannotafford to address. Vulnerability of the buildingstock to earthquake damage in one large centrehas been estimated at 170,000 older poorlymaintained buildings, 320,000 non-engineeredbuildings and 400,000 newer buildings withinadequate lateral resistance.

There are examples that illustrate both a grow-ing awareness to these issues in cities and com-munities alike and what is necessary to protecttheir essential services and related infrastruc-

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will not be long before 50 per cent of theworld’s population is located in urban areas,with many people living in vast cities at risk ofnatural hazards. This is an inevitable develop-ment and the implications are profound. Thelevel of risk depends not only on the nature ofthe hazard and the vulnerability of the elementsit affects, but also upon the economic value ofthose elements. As communities grow larger,are more established and become more com-plex, the level of risk they face also increases.

Rapid urbanization in developing countriesparticularly, has led to the exponential growthof non-regulated housing. Population growthalong coastal areas is exposing a greater num-ber of people to the effects of severe weather.While these risks may be considered moderatein and of themselves, the rapid growth in pop-ulation, investment and increasingly complexinfrastructure associated with cities is thrustingan ever-greater number of urban citizens intohigher categories of risk. With per capita cityproduct exceeding 10 to 30 per cent of GNP,

BBuuiillddiinngg MMeeaassuurreess

There is a need to recognize the three distinctive contexts for the introduction of physical risk reduction measuresinto buildings or infrastructure, (each possessing different levels of opportunities for application):• Reconstructing new buildings or through the repair of buildings• Constructing new buildings, in normal circumstances• Retrofitting existing building stock through strengthening programmes.

The order of opportunities to address each context is as follows:

GGoooodd OOppppoorrttuunniittyy:: RReeccoonnssttrruuccttiioonn,, with the introduction of mitigation measures, is always likely to be possible, even in countries withresource limitations. This is on account of high levels of political will and public demand for enhanced safety inimmediate post-disaster contexts. Therefore, officials need to be sensitive to the excellent opportunities posed byreconstruction to introduce mitigation measures.

MMooddeerraattee OOppppoorrttuunniittyy::Introducing mitigation into nneeww ccoonnssttrruuccttiioonn is certainly attainable, if there are the additional funds available topay for the improvements and if codes are in place with adequate enforcement. However, the introduction of mit-igation measures into non-engineered buildings is surrounded by social, economic and cultural obstacles andthus remains an unsolved global challenge of major proportions.

LLiimmiitteedd OOppppoorrttuunniittyy::The introduction of retrofitting for eexxiissttiinngg bbuuiillddiinnggss will always be the most difficult context given the scale ofbuilding stock in any urban areas. For example, in the USA, the average turnover in the Nation’s building stockis only 1 to 2 percent a year. Thus there is a vast potential cost associated with implementation in terms of secur-ing the necessary finance as well as the cost of social and economic disruption.

Source: I. Davis, 2002

ture. The following cases demonstrate thatwhile each involves technical and specialistinputs, a major key to the success has to be agreater degree of official interest and widerpublic participation if the commitment is toproceed beyond the stages of initial conception.An additional point that should not be over-looked is that there are often vital roles thatneed to be played by international organiza-tions or development agencies in stimulating orsupporting such initiatives.

CCaassee:: DDiissaasstteerr rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn iinn hheeaalltthh ffaacciilliittiieess,,wwaatteerr aanndd ssaanniittaattiioonn ssyysstteemmss iinn LLaattiinn AAmmeerriiccaa aannddtthhee CCaarriibbbbeeaann..

PAHO started to work with vulnerability anddisaster reduction for health facilities in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean, with an emphasison hospitals after the earthquake in MexicoCity in 1985. This experience made it clear thatit was not sufficient for medical and supportstaff alone to be prepared to attend to emer-gency situations, as had been the primaryemphasis for preparedness planning prior tothe earthquake, but that it was equally impor-tant for the political establishment and the pub-lic to undertake mitigation measures to reducethe vulnerability of the infrastructure.

During the past 15 years of work on this sub-ject, a growing number of professionals and

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academics have participated in the compilationof technical manuals about disaster reductionmeasures that should be applied in the con-struction, maintenance and retrofitting ofhealth facilities. Additional work has beenundertaken to conduct vulnerability studiesand to elaborate the retrofitting of several hos-pitals to withstand earthquakes.

While a particular emphasis had already beenplaced on the development of disaster preven-tion initiatives for large health centres from theeffect of earthquakes and hurricanes, subse-quent events of the El Niño phenomenon in1997-1998, as well as the floods in Venezuelashowed an increased necessity to analyse water-related disasters and their impact on the healthsector facilities.

The impact of disasters on infrastructure hasconsiderable environmental and health conse-quences, in particular given the very specificvulnerability of domestic water supplies andthe physical infrastructure necessary for sanita-tion. Health risks related to the disruption ofwater distribution and sewage systems in theaftermath of disasters, and particularly duringfloods, contribute greatly to related mortality.There is also now growing appreciation of theimportance of ensuring proper maintenanceand protection of systems for industrial waterand wastes, so that they do not result in toxic orchemical pollution of water bodies.

Retrofitted hospitalPhoto: Osorio, PAHO

Advances have been made in the developmentof technical manuals for disaster preventionand in the capacity to reduce the vulnerabilityof water treatment facilities against natural dis-asters, based on the experiences of individualcountries. On the other hand, technical publi-cations that fully list criteria for building orprotecting critical facilities from damage bynatural disasters have not yet been developed.A list of such criteria is vital for the construc-tion, as most of those considerations are onlyavailable in the literature for building methodsbut they are not more widely elaborated forgeneral awareness or utilization.

The result of these initiatives has been to famil-iarize certain organizations such as the Pan-American Engineering Association for the PublicHealth and Environment – la Asociación Inter-americana de Ingeniería sanitaria y Ambiental(AIDIS) with prevention issues. In the sameway, improvements have been made in the pro-motion of the topic in different sectors such asin the management of water facilities. This hasallowed the topic of disaster risk reduction tobe included in the legislative measures relatedto disaster management issues.

Some countries like Peru have established legalguidelines for the health sector to encouragethe inclusion of disaster reduction activities inits action plans. However, there has been verylittle elaboration on the technical knowledge to

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PAHO has promoted this topic since thebeginning of the 1990’s in Latin America andthe Caribbean. Nevertheless, vulnerabilityreduction in the services for water and sanita-tion systems yet has a long way to go. They sofar have concentrated mainly on the immediateneeds of the population without encouraging awider analysis and application of disaster pre-vention initiatives. This is due to several rea-sons, with some related to the considerablenumber of institutions involved with water andsanitation and the absence of leadership atnational or local level. It is also partially a resultof the great geographical extent of these servic-es and the complexity of the technical solutionsinvolved.

GGuuiiddiinngg vvuullnneerraabbiillttyy ssttuuddiieess aanndd mmiittiiggaattiioonn mmeeaassuurreess iinn tthhee tthhee hheeaalltthh sseeccttoorr

In order to ensure that technical knowledge is passed to other countries, PAHO will continue to promotean exchange of ideas between professionals and governments in order to advance the idea of preventingavoidable losses in the health sector from natural disasters. Despite technical advances that have beenavailable to support health sector initiatives against natural disasters, many have not been implemented innew or existing health facilities. This has been due to either the lack of planning, insufficient resources orsimply the lack of apparent interest on the part of government authorities or potential financial support-ers. Unfortunately, many of these projects have failed, more from a lack of interest to do things responsi-bly than from a lack of resources.

This topic has provoked considerable interest in Latin America and the Caribbean. Although nothinghas changed drastically from these efforts, an attempt has been made to move the agenda of disasterreduction forward by the publication and distribution of relevant information by PAHO and other insti-tutions. Moreover, many hospitals have decided to reinforce their facilities in light of the risks of disas-ters. In order to further develop this successful approach of disaster risk reduction, there is a need to con-tinue the promotion and organization of studies about vulnerability of the built environment and facilitiesessential to public health with the joint participation of the academic, private and health sectors.

Source: PAHO, 2002

Photo: Osorio, PAHO

carry out these guidelines. For the future, it isvital that the universities, academic institutionsand professionals assume the responsibility topromote the spread of this technical knowledgein order for these obstacles to be overcome.

With the exception of Costa Rica and Ecuador,there are presently very few countries that canshow the execution of special projects to reducethe vulnerability of facilities against naturaldisasters. For instance, water purification facil-ities and related systems generally remainexposed to different types of hazards, eventhough many of these facilities supposedly havebeen upgraded to withstand their damagingeffects. Only water treatment facilities havebeen improved to some extent, as the publicavailability of clean drinking water has been atop priority for disaster management emphasisin the wake of disasters.

CCaassee:: CCaannaaddaa

Canada’s new Office of Critical InfrastructureProtection and Emergency Preparedness(OCIPEP) was established to enhance the pro-tection of critical infrastructure from disrup-tion or destruction, and to act as the govern-ment’s primary agency for ensuring nationalcivil emergency preparedness. This underlinedthe importance of critical infrastructure such asenergy and utilities, communications, services,cybernetic systems, transportation, safety andgovernment comprise as the backbone of thenation’s economy.

Structural mmeans, ddisaster-rresistantconstruction

The design and construction of hazard-resist-ant structures constitute some of the mostcost-effective means of reducing risks. Thetechnical design and authoritative enforce-ment of building codes and related standardsof construction are essential to protect the builtenvironment from unnecessary loss or damagefrom natural hazards. Urban planners, archi-tects, engineers, construction contractors andbuilding inspectors all have important respon-sibilities to ensure that the physical aspects ofplanning and construction are technicallysound and are suited to the circumstances ofpotential hazards in a specific location.

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The engineering standards of buildings, life-lines, and housing are determined by thedegree to which technical decisions are made,and followed through in practice, by construc-tion professionals. It is they who must deter-mine how effective a particular engineeringsolution will be in respect to an expecteddegree of stress or hazard.

However, much less attention is given to theequally important roles of investors, localpolitical authorities and community leaders tofulfil their own professional and civic respon-sibilities. Together they have important rolesto play in assuring expected compliance ofstandards implied by their investment,enforcement of legislation, or adherence tolocal procedures, regulations and standards.Even when assuming that codes have beenbased on current knowledge and developedexperience, they ultimately are only as good asthe extent to which they are employed andenforced. The state of Florida was regarded ashaving one of the most rigorous buildingcodes in the US until Hurricane Andrewstripped away all pretences of compliance.Similar disclosures have arisen with unerringfrequency after disasters have occurred,whether they happened in Japan, Turkey, Tai-wan or India.

In an effort to address some of these issues, theEarthquake Engineering Research Institute(EERI), a non-profit professional associationheadquartered in Oakland, US, is conductinga joint project with the International Associationof Earthquake Engineering (IAEE) located inTokyo, Japan. Together they are building aninteractive, dynamic, Internet-based ency-clopaedia of housing construction used in all seis-mically-active areas of the world. The endeav-our links more than 160 volunteer engineersand architects from over 45 countries,enabling them to consolidate and share data,as well as to access tools that can reduce thevulnerability of housing in earthquakes. Thegoal is to create a professional resource that is

“In Turkey, the building construction supervision scheme isdirected mostly to checking designs, when in fact violationsoccur at the construction site.” Gulkan, P.

able to generate graphs, tables and presenta-tions, view photos and drawings, and printeither short or long descriptions from any ofthis information.

Another institution addresses some of thesame issues but with an emphasis devoted toinfrastructure and their related components.The overall goal of the Multi-disciplinary Cen-ter for Earthquake Engineering Research(MCEER), State University of New York atBuffalo, USA, is to enhance the seismicresilience of communities, through improvedengineering and management tools for criticalinfrastructure systems, such as those related towater supply, electrical utilities, hospitals, andtransportation systems.

MCEER works toward its goal by conductingintegrated research, outreach, and educationactivities in partnership with the users of thecentre’s products. MCEER unites a group ofleading researchers from numerous disciplinesand institutions throughout the USA to inte-grate knowledge, expertise, and interdiscipli-nary perspective with state-of-the-art facilitiesin the field of earthquake engineering andsocio-economic studies. The result is a sys-tematic programme of basic and appliedresearch that produces solutions and strategiesto reduce the structural and socio-economicimpacts of earthquakes.

Codes, ppolicies && pprocedures

The development and enforcement of stan-dards and codes to protect public safety is anexpected responsibility of government. Codesshould exist and apply to new construction aswell as for retrofitting existing structures. Sur-prisingly, given the large number of towns andcities within reach of volcanic eruptions, fewefforts have been made to develop buildingcodes which increase the resilience of buildingsto ash fall, the most widespread of all volcanichazards.

Development of standards is easy but imple-mentation is difficult because it requires pru-dent decisions and the accepted confidence in

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useful not only for design and constructionprofessionals but also for housing authorities,community planners, or other agencies con-cerned with hazard reduction and sustainabledevelopment.

Initial efforts of the project are devoted tocompiling relevant information about allaspects of housing construction in seismicareas. These include architectural features,structural details, strengths and deficienciesunder seismic loads, performance of materialsin previous earthquakes, local constructionpractices, and common building materialsused. Data is also compiled about the avail-ability and use of insurance or other associatedfactors. An important feature of the database isthat it accommodates information about con-struction features ranging from the basicaspects of non-engineered rural housingthrough all other ranges of intermediate tech-nical consideration up to the sophisticatedengineering practices employed in urban high-rise construction.

As the information is placed on the Internet,users can search the database by various crite-ria. In addition to basic country profiles, infor-mation can be retrieved on the basis of specif-ic types of urban or rural construction prac-tices, seismic hazards, building functions, typeof building materials or structural systemsemployed. The information also relates to rat-ings of seismic vulnerability and evendescribes economic levels of inhabitants. Itwill be possible to compare the strengths andweaknesses of various construction techniquesand strengthening technologies that have beentried in different countries. Likewise, compar-isons can be displayed with the various typesof building materials used, as well as indicat-ing each country’s perception about the per-formance of different types of construction.

The encyclopaedia will also include country-specific information, including backgroundinformation about seismic hazards, codes andbuilding standards, the size and rate of changein urban and rural housing, relative densitiesof urban and rural housing, general weatherpatterns and specific information about hous-ing losses in past earthquakes. Users will be

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Different pperspectives oof hhazard-rresistant bbuilding ccodes(only slightly exaggerated)

AA sseeiissmmoollooggiisstt usually criticizes the stipulations of existing building codes that were preparedseveral years before because there is later evidence, which suggests redefinition of the earth-quake hazard.

EEnnggiinneeeerrss want to incorporate their recent research findings and press for stricter buildingcodes. They are less concerned with stronger buildings themselves than with the adoption oftheir professional endeavours.

AAnn iinnvveessttoorr oorr oowwnneerr ooff aa bbuuiillddiinngg does not want to spend the additional 2-5 per cent of thebuilding cost to provide additional hazard risk protection for an extreme event that “proba-bly will not happen, anyway”.

CCoonnttrraaccttoorrss cannot be bothered with extraneous regulations and troublesome buildinginspectors, especially if their demands are going to reduce the profit margin of the construc-tion.

TThhee ggoovveerrnnmmeenntt has not been able to implement even the existing building code because ofthe lack of suitable implementation mechanisms, including building inspectors.

DDeecciissiioonn-mmaakkeerrss are afraid that the implementation of building codes may result in costincreases. They do not press implementation of building codes even for public construction.Public administrators are preoccupied with other pressing or important matters.

PPoolliittiicciiaannss do not risk diminishing their popularity, as the enforcement of codes is consideredto be an unpopular and restrictive process of control. Besides, there are other importantaspects of the construction industry to attend to, like contracts.

TThhee ccoommmmuunniittyy does not understand the process and is confused, especially after a disaster.

TThhee mmeeddiiaa recognizes a controversial topic when it sees one, particularly if people have beenkilled as a result.

NNoonnee ooff tthhee pprriimmaarryy ssttaakkeehhoollddeerrss seems to be discussing the problem in any common forum.

So, more vulnerable buildings continue to be built… WWhhaatt iiss rreeqquuiirreedd ttoo bbrreeaakk tthhiiss ccyyccllee ??

Courtesy of the Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre, Bangkok, Thailand.

“In Turkey, it is the national authorities that enact legal frameworks for disaster reduction. Inthe area of land-use planning and building code enforcement, responsibility lies with the localgovernments. Many deficiencies exist in both because local governments lack the necessarytechnical manpower for effective enforcement, and short-term populist tendencies are strongat that level. Unfortunately, the university curricula in these disciplines does not make explic-it reference to disaster reducing concepts and measures.”

Turkey response to ISDR questionnaire, 2001

important factors which will contribute to har-nessing the full development potential of SouthAfrica and addressing the needs of its growingpopulation.Experience demonstrates that there is a need toestablish a system of planning controls andbuilding by-laws that are:

� Realistic, given economic, environmentalor technological constraints.

� Relevant to current building practice andtechnology.

� Regularly updated in the light of develop-ments in current knowledge.

� Fully understood and accepted by the pro-fessional interests that relate to the legisla-tion.

� Enforced, to avoid the legislative systembeing ignored or falling into disrepute.

� Adhered to, with laws and controls basedmore on a system of incentives rather thanon punishment.

� Fully integrated in a legal system thatoperates without conflict between the dif-ferent levels of administration and govern-ment.

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their applicability and affordability. Land use,planning and construction standards are mostoften decided upon and enforced at the locallevel. Promoting a culture of prevention withinlocal authorities and communities must there-fore be the central focus of any national disas-ter risk management strategy. The applicationof mechanisms and tools for enforcing existingbuilding codes and zoning by-laws must becentral to this effort.

For some years, South Africa has enforced leg-islation pertaining to building codes and con-struction within vulnerable areas, such as thosebased on a 50-year flood line. Recently theCouncil for Scientific and Industrial Research(CSIR) published the Red Book, which stipu-lates guidelines for the planning and design ofhuman settlements. The planning and man-agement of informal settlements are receivingincreased attention from all levels of govern-ment as well as a greater focus in the offeringsof tertiary educational qualifications. Theestablishment of economically, physically, envi-ronmentally and socially integrated and sus-tainable built environments is one of the most

“Yes, wwe hhave bbuilding ccodes aand rrelated rregulations, bbut ……”

“The Federated States of Micronesia have passed building code laws and regulations but have not fullyimplemented the codes due to difficulties in meeting the financial requirements called for in the building codelaws.” Micronesia response to ISDR questionnaire, 2001

“One of the most important issues to be addressed in Zimbabwe is the enforcement of laws and regulationsthat relate to building by-laws and the conservation of natural resources, such as stream bank cultivation,deforestation etc., causing the siltation of rivers and dams.” Zimbabwe response to ISDR questionnaire, 2001

“One of the most important issues to be addressed in India is the strict implementation of laws includingbuilding codes.” India response to ISDR questionnaire, 2001

“Building codes and other regulations are in existence, however the issue is enforcement. The matter is underdiscussion at various forums within Bangladesh, and the government is actively considering this issue.” Bangladesh response to ISDR questionnaire, 2001

“The Cook Islands Building Control Unit has been stepped up to improve compliance with building codesand enforcement procedures by the introduction of experienced personnel drawn from commercial buildingconstruction.” Cook Islands response to ISDR questionnaire, 2001

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Hong KongPhoto: Munich Re

• Incorporate experience and apply researchfindings in standards and codes.

• Advance engineering research by concen-trating on problem-focused needs.

• Motivate governments and financial insti-tutions to establish policies that anticipateand prepare for probable future earth-quakes.

During its initial activities in Asia and the Pacif-ic, WSSI emphasized better public awarenessand government attention for earthquake safety,and sought to develop information networksthat could serve as catalysts for action in earth-quake awareness, education and risk manage-ment. An element of WSSI’s success has been tofocus on well-defined and modest regionally-based projects,, including Nepal’s National Soci-ety of Earthquake Technology (NSET), Uganda’sSeismic Safety Association (USSA), and the GlobalDisaster Information Network (GLO-DISNET).

By means of its extended technical membership,WSSI was also instrumental in the establish-ment of the Earthquake and Megacities Initiative(EMI) and worked together with the Interna-tional Association of Seismology and Physics of theEarth’s Interior (IASPEI) to prepare a globalhazard map. Additionally, WSSI supportedregional and national initiatives in the transferand sharing of technology, extending the appli-cation of professional engineering practicesrelated to risk reduction and increasing publicknowledge for the improvement of structuralresponse to earthquakes. By focussing on thedemands of the 21st century, this programmeincreasingly seeks to pursue the aim of evaluat-ing the effectiveness of mitigation practices in itsarea of concentration.

EMI was created as an outcome of the FirstEarthquakes and Megacities Workshop con-ducted in Seeheim, Germany in 1997. EMI’sscientific agenda promotes multidisciplinaryresearch to evaluate the effects of earthquakes onlarge urban areas and to develop technologiesand methods for the mitigation of those effects.Within its programme, EMI promotes theestablishment of comprehensive city-wide disas-ter management systems, and the developmentof tools for disaster assessment and disastermanagement such as information technologythat enable megacities to understand their riskand take actions to reduce their exposure to dis-asters. The knowledge of hazards and risks is

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Government eexamples, ppublic demonstration oof bbest ppractices

Governments can set examples by insisting onthe adherence to codes and by-laws in all publicbuildings. Similarly, government authorities canbe required to build earthquake-resistant officesin seismic zones and locate other facilities inaccordance with the best land use practices to seta public example of investing in risk reductionpractices. The importance of such official lead-ership was emphasized in an international semi-nar on Disaster Management and the Protection ofEducational Facilities, organized by the OECDin conjunction with the Greek ministry of edu-cation and the Greek School Building Organization(SBO), in November 2001.

Development oof aappropriate methodologies

There are a number of initiatives and profes-sional coalitions, which have been, developed toencourage greater national or technical capacitybuilding to protect critical infrastructure.Because of the strong engineering componentsinvolved, much, but not all of the motivation hascome from seismic experiences and earthquakeengineering fields. The success of the exampleselaborated below can serve as guidance for thefurther development of similar initiatives thatrelate to different types of hazards. A similarapproach towards addressing floods and urbaninfrastructure is a suggested consideration forthe future. One example, already described inchapter two (p. XX) is the RADIUS methodol-ogy developed during IDNDR to assess urbanseismic risk.

The World Seismic Safety Initiative (WSSI) beganin 1992 as an informal initiative of members ofthe International Institute of Earthquake Engineer-ing (IIEE), and later became an IDNDRDemonstration Project active throughout thedecade. It has since proceeded to become amodel of dedicated professionals workingtogether with minimal organizational structureto stimulate seismic risk reduction programmesin developing countries in Asia, the Pacific andAfrica. Throughout its existence, WSSI has hadfour goals:

• Disseminate state-of-the-art earthquakeengineering information globally.

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on hazard reduction and response in metropol-itan regions currently being planned by theUniversity Center for International Studies atthe University of Pittsburgh, in the US. Thisprogramme will work closely with the AmericasCluster Cities project and is planned to belaunched during 2002 at the Americas ClusterCities Workshop in Mexico City.

The Megacities 2000 Foundation was establishedin December 1994, in the Hague, the Nether-lands, following a request by UNESCO to theInternational Academy of Architecture (IAA). Thefoundation collects, processes and disseminatesinformation on the development of big cities. Tothis aim the foundation uses an Internet site,organizes lectures and produces publications.

GeoHazards International (GHI), a California-based non-profit organization is dedicated toimproving earthquake safety in developingcountries. Working together with the UNCRD,GHI is pioneering a method to assess andreduce earthquake risk in urban areas. TheGlobal Earthquake Safety Initiative (GESI)method has been applied in 21 urban areasaround the world and plans are under way for itto be extended to 30 cities in India.

Following the major earthquake in Gujarat,India in 2001, GHI is working in cooperationwith the Indian NGO, Sustainable Environmentand Ecological Development Society (SEEDS) andthe Gujarat State Disaster ManagementAuthority (GSDMA) to assess earthquake riskand to evaluate the risk management options forthree cities. GHI has also signed an agreementwith the Regional Emergency Office of the Ministryof the Interior in Antofagasta, Chile and the Centerof Scientific Investigation and Higher Education, inEnsenada, Mexico to strengthen their collabora-tion in similar activities in those seismic-proneareas.

The Kathmandu Valley Earthquake Risk Manage-ment Project (KVERMP) aims to project soundearthquake management policies for the Kath-mandu valley in Nepal, and to begin the processof implementing them. The experiences gainedin this project should be useful for other earth-quake threatened cities in developing countries,and should further establish NSET Nepal as afocal point for earthquake mitigation activitiesin the Kathmandu valley.

intended to build institutional strength, toincrease accountability and to trigger new initia-tives.

In addition to supporting scientific research,EMI focuses its efforts on specific projectsexpected to have a high impact in acceleratingearthquake preparedness, mitigation and recov-ery. Its projects constitute mechanisms forknowledge building and information sharingamong scientists, practitioners and targetedend-users. These activities are aimed primarilyat building and sustaining professional andtechnical capacities in the megacities of develop-ing countries. EMI has focused its capacitybuilding action plan on three main projects. TheCluster Cities Project (CCP) aims to create anetwork of large metropolises exposed to thethreat of earthquakes so that they can share theirexperiences and coordinate their activities. Theoverriding objective is to enable them to increasetheir capacities for disaster preparedness,response and recovery. EMI serves to facilitateexchanges within the network and to coordinatejoint activities in the project. The Regional Cen-ters Project is an extension of the CCP. TheEMI Training and Education Programinvolves the sharing of knowledge and informa-tion across different professional interest groupsto build local and regional capacities.

EMI held three regional workshop in 2001, inconnection with its Cluster Cities Project. At theThird Americas Cluster Project Workshop inEcuador, three areas of cooperation were identi-fied: community-based vulnerability reduction,population needs and health care delivery in dis-asters, and promoting a culture of prevention.The Oceania Cluster Cities Meeting tookplace in the form of a China-New Zealandworkshop devoted to urban development anddisaster mitigation. It resulted in a coopera-tion agreement between the cities of Tianjinand Wellington. The Euro-MediterraneanCluster Cities Meeting was part of the 2001Med-Safe Network meeting held in Naples.An ad-hoc coordination group was put inplace in order to develop a framework for fur-ther Euro-Mediterranean Cooperationinvolving EMI cities and partners in theregion.

EMI is also participating in the developmentof an interdisciplinary research programme

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ss Some specific challenges and priorities, whichrequire further attention, include:

• How to deal with already existing, vulner-able building stock, which is impossible toimprove or refurbish.

• Need to pay particular attention to infor-mal settlements.

• Need for further efforts by training andacademic institutions, supported amongothers by international development agen-cies, to support and train engineers andother professionals in disaster-pronecountries as a means of enhancing disasterreduction efforts and the broader sustain-able development process.

• Development of effective national engi-neering institutions to accompany govern-mental efforts in maintaining and enforc-ing appropriate standards

• Incentives to enforce existing buildingand construction codes and standards, aswell as policies.


The primary challenge for enhancing riskmanagement practices with respect to criticalfacilities is to place the value of the infrastruc-ture in a broad context of sustainable develop-ment. Only then can the relative priorities beconsidered to provide an acceptable degree ofprotection to those assets. It is equally impor-tant that the full range of technical, social, andpolitical procedures be brought to bearthrough measures of design and construction,land use and siting considerations, and theadherence to standards and regulatory meas-ures.

The priority lays in the development and appli-cation of measures rather than in only under-standing what should be done. The under-standing and acceptance of procedures toencourage or enforce behavior that can providea greater extent of resilience within a commu-nity, as well as the application of existingknowledge and techniques, remain a criticalchallenge.

Building llinks tto rreduce rrisk - eextendedpartnerships aand nnetworking

The wide range of actors and diverse commu-nity, which deals with different aspects of dis-aster risk management, is obvious throughoutthis report. One important challenge whichremains is to stimulate and develop ways onhow to link the various schools of thought,knowledge bases, key actors and stake-holdersrelevant to disaster risk reduction.

Multi-disciplinary research, multi-sector poli-cy and planning, multi-stakeholder participa-tion and networking relevant organizations arefundamental, to address the many dimensionsin which risk reduction efforts are actualized.Benefits that accrue from such connectionsinclude improved efficiency and cost-effective-ness, a unified strategic framework for deci-sion making on issues of common concern,

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lessening duplication of efforts, as well as man-dating an appropriate division of responsibili-ties. Additionally, cutting edge knowledgefrom academic and research institutions can becross-linked to the practical initiatives under-taken by relevant organizations. Fostering theassociation of community groups with largerscale organizations will work towards ensuringthat a higher resolution of needs, capacities,cultural perceptions and traditional knowledgebecome more integrated in national, regionaland international initiatives.

The spectrum of collaboration, processes andactivities goes from various ways of sharinginformation to joint research and integrateddatabases through to participatory strategicplanning and programming. The latter is themore difficult to achieve, but it isalso the moreeffective. Some examples of the ways in whichthis process is realized are:

5.4 Networking and partnerships

Comprehensive disaster risk reduction covers a wide range of dis-ciplines, sectors and institutions, calling for diverse and expandedforms of partnerships. The achievements from networking andresulting partnerships can be far more powerful than the total ofindividual or specialist contributions, alone. Thanks to Internetand global communications, the emergence of networks betweenofficials from government, the general public, private commercialsectors and professional bodies is technically easy. However, theseloose circles based on common interests, can only be successful ifparticipants share the same willingness, motivation, commitmentand desire to openly share information and experiences.

Networks and partnerships, ranging from communication exchange networking to full fledgedand funded implementation partnerships, have great potential. This section is limited to describ-ing some concrete examples of existing ones.

• Building links to reduce risk - extendedpartnerships and networking

• Cross-sectoral coordination and collabora-tion

• Technical and research networks• Multidisciplinary, networked relationships• Technical support for community partner-

ships• Commercial sector and partnership interests

Objective of ISDR: To stimulate multidiscipli-

nary and inter-sectoralpartnerships and expand

risk reduction networks byengaging public participation

at all stages of the imple-mentation of the ISDR.

Partnerships are formed through cooperation. Cooperationresults from the coordination of resources and abilities broughttogether through mutual respect, understanding and trust.Trust is a product of good working relationships between peo-ple and organizations. Good relationships and effective endeav-ours grow from time spent together in addressing commoninterests that yield mutual benefits.

economic early warning systems (seewww.zeneb.de).

Focusing more on natural hazard knowledge inthe disaster equation, the German researchinstitutions have formed the German ResearchNetwork for Natural Disasters (DFNK))(Deutsches Forschungsnetz Naturkatastrophen).

The goal of the network is to provide the sci-entific fundamentals of advanced risk manage-ment associated with natural hazards and tomake that knowledge more widely available forusers. Realistic scenarios are developed to esti-mate current levels of risk and the dynamicfeatures of future risk due to global change insuch areas as climate variability, increasingdensity of population and changing land usevalues in endangered areas. This informationcan be used for early warning purposes, in sup-port of decision-support systems in disastermanagement, and for developing greaterunderstanding of the issues among both politi-cal authorities and the public.

The 14 partner institutions shown in the figurebelow and the projects of the network aregrouped into five clusters: storm risk assess-ment, flood risk assessment, earthquake riskassessment, forest fire simulation system, anddatabases and information systems. The jointuser-oriented research requires close collabora-tion among the different clusters, which isaided by the information cluster. This providesdata, synthesizes information and applies toolsfor higher-level information systems such asclearing house functions, data warehousingand near-real time transmission.

The city of Cologne was chosen as the initialarea of interest for the combined assessment offloods, earthquakes and storms. The respectiveclusters apply extensive data sets, analyticaltechniques and simulation models to risk esti-mation processes so that current risks can bedepicted, future risks detected, and safety rec-ommendations made. A second regionalemphasis has been placed on the Brandenburgregion with Berlin as an adjacent focal point.There, the forest fire simulation cluster is mon-itoring the hazard, using simulations, anddeveloping an early warning system.

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� communication networks/forums for dia-logue;

� institutional partnerships vis a vis mem-orandums of agreements between agen-cies and organizations;

� formalized joint mandates, legislation,policies and plans within public authori-ties;

� multi-sector issue advisory groups;� multi-disciplinary research projects; � integrated databases;� search conferences; and � other participatory planning processes.

Technical aand rresearch nnetworks

Disaster reduction and management requirecomprehensive knowledge about hazardousevents, the likelihood of the occurrence and thepossible impacts they can have on societies, aswell as the social, economic and environmentalimplications related to vulnerability. Germanyhas substantial scientific and technical capabil-ities in these areas. Two complementaryresearch networks have developed with the aimof using this experience to advance multi-disci-plinary approaches to disaster research.

In 1999, the German Committee for NaturalDisaster Reduction urged the creation of aCentre for Natural Risks and Development(ZENEB) (Zentrum für Naturrisiken undEntwicklung) to focus attention on sociologi-cal research about disasters in developingcountries. Organized as a network based inthe Universities of Bonn and Bayreuth, ZENEBinvolves people in Germany and from othercountries who share an interest in the rela-tionships between national developmentissues and natural hazard risks in developingcountries. Within this professional network,general approaches to risk research in thecontext of sustainable development are exam-ined in depth, and individual investigationsand case studies are conducted in developingcountries. An interesting feature is the devel-opment of indicators to describe the relativerisks of different countries, where ZENEBhas been collaborating with UNDP. Anotherundertaking is the set up a database of thoseindicators that may be used to frame socio-

Rural nnetworking ssupport

Case: Mozambique – WFP - FAO – NGOs - Universities

A different form of partnership is required toaddress the vulnerabilities of rural environmentswhere most Mozambicans live in a precariousbalance between subsistence and desperation.Very small fluctuations in climatic conditions,localized flooding, or the outbreak of disease inneighbouring villages can plunge a normally sta-ble family economy into severe difficulty. Toidentify these most vulnerable populations, apartnership has been formed in a VulnerabilityAnalysis Group (VAG). Chaired by the govern-ment’s Department of Early Warning and FoodSecurity (DAPSA), the programme includes theparticipation of WFP and the Division of Nutri-tion in the Ministry of Health working togetherwith local communities to conduct research intochronic vulnerability. The joint initiative has pro-vided analysis of nutritional indicators for theevaluation of chronic vulnerability and has com-piled detailed profiles of food security conditionsin virtually all districts of the country.

A number of other partners have contributed torelated initiatives in this multi-disciplinary effort.FAO has provided funding to monitor foodstocks in the country. In a complementary initia-tive, an Agricultural Markets Information System,

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managed by Michigan State University in theUSA, has been supported by USAID for nearlya decade, to research food security conditions,particularly in relation to rural markets andsmallholder cash crops. This programme is cur-rently developing provincial price informationsystems that can promote the improved commer-cialisation of farm products.

FEWSNET, an NGO also funded by USAID,works closely with VAG and has conducted sev-eral studies of local food economies, includingthose areas most affected by flooding in recentyears. The project operates in conjunction withthe University of Eduardo Mondlane in Maputo toproduce a Disaster Atlas for Mozambique that willmake disaster information and maps availableonline. An earlier initiative, AEDES, was origi-nally an emergency information system createdby Medecins sans Frontieres (MSF) during thedrought in 1992, but it gradually evolved into anational vulnerability information system.

Case: Central America – USAID – EU - NGOs

The Central American Mitigation Initiative(CAMI) is an umbrella programme launched in2001 by OFDA/USAID, with US$ 12 millionbeing channeled through NGOs for disasterreduction activities over a three year period.IFRC and Red Cross Societies, the Corporate

Partners within the DFNK.Headed by the Geo-ForschungsZentrum Potsdam,14 organizations (e.g. universi-ties, federal institutes, insuranceindustry) in Germany and Aus-tria are connected within thenetwork. The work is supportedby users from disaster protection,politics and economics.

Source: Bruno Merz; JanaFriedrich, GeoforschungsZen-trum Potsdam, 2002

America got together in 1992 to constitute LaRed de Estudios Sociales en Prevención de Desastresen América Latina (LA RED – The Latin Ameri-can Network for the Social Study of Disaster Pre-vention). It was initially conceived as a mecha-nism to facilitate comparative research of naturaldisasters from a social perspective. It has devel-oped into the focal point for hundreds of indi-viduals and institutions working in the field ofdisaster and risk management in the differentcountries of Latin America and the Caribbean.

Inspired by LA RED, a similar network in SouthAsia has been organized by people committed topromoting alternative perspectives on disaster andvulnerability as a basis for disaster mitigation inthe region. Duryog Nivaran (“disaster mitigation”in Sanskrit) aims to reduce the vulnerability ofcommunities to disasters and conflicts by integrat-ing alternative perspectives in the conceptual, pol-icy and implementation levels of disaster mitiga-tion and development programmes.

In 1997, Periperi, a network of “partners enhanc-ing resilience for people exposed to risks”, wasestablished by the Disaster Mitigation for Sustain-able Livelihoods Programme (DiMP), Universi-ty of Cape Town, with the support ofOFDA/USAID and DFID. Originally com-posed of 16 different organisations from fiveSouthern African countries, Periperi providesopportunities for a diverse range of organizationsto work together across disciplines and nationalborders, to integrate risk reduction principles andtechnologies into ongoing sustainable develop-ment policy.

Case: Guatemala – Germany

The Peten department of Guatemala contains oneof the largest tropical forest reserves in LatinAmerica. The occurrence of uncontrolled forestfires during the annual dry season endanger thelivelihood of the local population and has lead tolarge-scale impoverishment and destruction offorest ecosystems and biodiversity in northernGuatemala. The government of Guatemala hasembarked on a major programme to promote fireprevention and more effective means to combatthem when they do occur. The programme issupervised by the influential authority of the Exec-utive Secretary of the Presidency and involves theparticipation of several other governmental institu-tions using their own resources.

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Housing Foundation, CARE, Catholic Relief Ser-vices, and other agencies operating in the regionwill concentrate on local levels of involvement,principally in municipalities, to create mechanismsthat can motivate and involve further commitmentfrom national level institutions. Risk reduction isthe primary focus, and while preparedness and dis-aster response problems also are expected to beaddressed, they will be integrated into the overallperspectives of reducing risks.

One of the more innovative CAMI projects isconducted by CARE International with partnersin Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Hon-duras. With an overall budget of more than US$3.5 million and support coming from OFDA, theCanadian International Development Agency(CIDA) and CARE-USA, the project will pro-vide training and technical support to develop arange of risk reduction activities in core munici-palities in different high-risk zones of the fourcountries. The project strives to accomplish atrickle down effect among neighbouring commu-nities by using people trained in the core munici-palities. Benefiting from its association with LARED which provided technical and advisory sup-port for the project, CARE expects to fashion itsother development projects in the region withmore attention given to risk reduction.

During a recent drought in El Salvador, smallgrants were provided for severely affected popula-tion groups to develop pilot Integral SustainableProduction Units. These ISP units promote cropdiversification, foster improvements in commercialpractices, and create opportunities for improvedfood storage by utilizing crop techniques that areenvironmentally friendly. Based on the initial expe-rience with this project, CARE-France presented aproposal to the EU to finance similar schemes intwo other departments of the country, to improvethe food security of 1,000 extremely poor families.Both projects are based on the participation of thepopulation working through collective schemesusing common lands to minimize their risks. Thisapproach represents an alternative to the relianceon emergency food relief.

Networking ssupport ffor ccommunity partnerships

In the beginning of IDNDR a group of socialscientists, NGOs and people interested in thesocial dimensions of risk reduction in Latin

The PRECLIF Project for the Local Preventionand Control of Forest Fires is a complementaryproject to the government-sponsored pro-gramme, which promotes improved preventionand control of forest fires at the local level,employing local techniques in risk management.Project activities train members of the local com-munities to implement measures that can reducethe risk of fires, working closely in conjunctionwith the official municipal committees in chargeof forest fires. The project has also supportedother activities to strengthen community organi-zations such as the establishment of a radio net-work that links six rural communities to theNational Coordinating Agency for Disaster Reduc-tion in Guatemala, (CONRED). A communitynetwork for Central America for risk manage-ment (Red Comunitaria para la Gestion de Ries-go) was involved in the implementation at com-munity level.

This spirit of cooperation and expanded profes-sional activities that have characterized the PRE-CLIF Project have also encouraged new and use-ful relationships between the Global Fire MonitoringCentre at the Max Planck Institute of Chemistry inFreiburg, Germany and the Guatemalan institu-tions involved with forest fire prevention and con-trol. Professional visits have been exchanged, and asuccessful workshop was held in Peten to shareexperiences on the topics of forest fire prevention,management, and control.

There are three active volcanoes in Guatemala,and several communities have established them-selves on the slopes of two of them. Project PRE-VOL is an effort to strengthen the disaster reduc-tion activities conducted by the Risk ManagementDepartment of CONRED, and the national Centrefor Disaster Research and Mitigation (CIMDEN)that works to reduce the risks from volcanic haz-ards. Both CONRED and CIMDEN have beenimplementing activities to promote preparednessfor possible eruptions of Pacaya and Fuego volca-noes. With the support of the Humanitarian Officeof the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Germany,PREVOL has sought to expand those activities toimprove the conditions of both disaster prepared-ness and risk reduction.

Resources furthered the assessment of local vul-nerabilities and the use of locally generated infor-mation to manage risks at the community level.They are being used to increase the resilience ofexisting structures such as hanging bridges and to

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protect community water systems. Locally generateddata will be digitised and used to generate hazardand risk maps that can be displayed in the ruralcommunities and thereby contribute to the formula-tion of emergency plans for local communities.

In addition to providing basic early warning equip-ment and training local emergency committees in 19communities, PREVOL has been able to assistCIMDEN by improving its methods and abilities toconduct volcanic surveillance. This has included thesupply of additional scientific instrumentation tocomplement efforts already underway by the Nation-al Seismic, Volcanic, Meteorological and HydrologicalInstitute of Guatemala and academic interests to mon-itor volcanic activity at Pacaya volcano.

The partnership has emphasized the crucial role oflinking activities in disaster-prone areas with theinterests of the national disaster reduction agency toencourage risk reduction. In this respect, all of theoperations in PREVOL have been conducted bypersonnel from the Risk Management Departmentof CONRED, ranging from the installation ofequipment, local community organization and train-ing, and the design of risk reduction measures. Sim-ilarly, with respect to the sustainability of the project,a priority has been placed on developing and sup-porting the capabilities of national institutions, inparticular those of the CONRED Risk Manage-ment Department.

Cross-ssectoral ccoordination aand collaboration

A positive example of an implementation partnershipis Project Impact, promoted by the American FederalEmergency Management Agency (FEMA) in the lateryears of the 1990s. Project Impact was designed tochange the way the U.S. deals with risks before dis-asters occur. Each community that participated inthe programme was required to undertake a prelim-inary assessment of its natural hazard risks and toprepare a tentative strategy for reducing its long termvulnerability, drawing heavily on both multi-discipli-nary and intersectoral partnership capabilities of thecommunity itself. FEMA then offered technicalexpertise and some financial support as well asinvolving other federal agencies or neighbouringstates in the process.

The objective of the programme was to put the latesttechnology and mitigation practices into the hands oflocal communities and to guide these local initiatives

processes would ensure that their priorities wererepresented in a rapidly evolving environment.

As a result, emphasis was given to address theacute shelter needs and to rehabilitate basic serv-ices including those related to health and essen-tial needs for livelihood activities. The partner-ship demonstrated an opportunity to bring acombination of very highly skilled and valuableprofessional and technical resources to the proj-ect that would have been highly improbable werethe activity approached solely from the stand-point of a governmental or NGO activity alone.

This initiative emphasized the values of commu-nity participation, developing additional liveli-hood opportunities, and incorporating improvedrisk reduction measures to minimize the effectsof future hazards. The primary motivation offorming such a partnership was the shared inter-ests of the collaborators to motivate a high levelof community participation immediately follow-ing the disaster and to be responsive to therequirements of sustaining livelihoods in a man-ner that would establish a safe community envi-ronment.

The fact that all plans for housing and commu-nity facilities were designed to meet constructionstandards for both earthquake and cyclone resist-ance, and that they were approved by both thecommunities and the appropriate governmenttechnical departments, illustrate practical meas-ures that contribute to the future reduction ofrisks for people who live in a naturally hazardousregion. Additionally, by working during a transi-tional period between response and rehabilita-tion, the stakeholders could develop betteropportunities for community mobilization, voca-tional training, the establishment of temporarycommunity infrastructure, and to restart essen-tial community activities like schools and mar-kets.

Commercial ssector aand ppartnership interests

It is not possible to ignore the increasing econom-ic demands for all businesses to become more effi-cient, with production schedules tied to smallerinventories and just-in-time deliveries. Elementsof globalisation and far-reaching internationaltrading practices expose businesses to potentialdisruption or loss through natural disasters.

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through a complete risk assessment process. Thisallowed each community to identify and prioritisethose risk reduction initiatives that would have thegreatest benefits to the community. Within a fewyears, more than 250 communities, located in everystate of the country, had benefited from ProjectImpact, involving more than 2,500 businesses in theprocess. In 2001, FEMA’s Mitigation Bureau was mergedwith the national flood insurance programme tobecome a very different department, known as theFederal Insurance and Mitigation Administration.Funding for Project Impact has been withdrawn orotherwise reallocated, and in the later part of 2001the US radically redefined its perceptions of publicrisk.

There are other professional partnerships whichremain to reinforce disaster risk reduction activitiesas every state in the USA has an office of emergencyservices. Both the Network of State Hazard Mitiga-tion Officers (NEMO) and a National EmergencyManagement Association (NEMA), which serves as aprofessional association of state emergency manage-ment directors, link wide ranging professional inter-ests and disseminate information across the country.

In Gujarat, India, following the earthquake of 2001,other forms of effective partnership emergedthrough the collaboration of NGOs, governmentauthorities, representatives of industry and theaffected communities. One of several examples isthe Gujarat Rehabilitation Project, a partnershipforged between CARE-India, the Federation ofIndian Chambers of Commerce and Industry(FICCI) and the government of Gujarat (GOG).

In part, because the local operational environmentwas politically charged, the resulting reconstructionprocess did not conform to previous or traditionalapproaches for organizing large-scale public works.There was also a need to foster the most productiveforms of synergy between national and internation-al interests, as well as promoting joint economic-gov-ernmental-community approaches for efficientimplementation. There was a conscious effort toinsure that the working partnerships would ensureparticipation by members of the community and that

Partnerships between central and local authorities,and public and private sectors are the most effective means

to reduce the impact of hazards. FEMA (US) Basic Principles, 1996.

It is because these factors, compounded by severalextraordinarily costly and disruptive natural disastersduring the later years of the 1990 that there has beena growing commercial awareness of a correlationbetween disaster preparedness, risk reduction andthe survival of businesses. More than 60 per cent ofthe businesses affected by the Northridge earth-quake in California in 1996 were out of business sixmonths after the quake. Six years after the GreatHanshin earthquake in Kobe, Japan, the heavilydamaged Port of Kobe has not been able to regain itsprevious competitive standing as the third busiestJapanese port.

Motivated by a desire to protect their own assets ortheir competitive standing in markets, commercialenterprises have invested heavily in business conti-nuity services designed to assess and then mitigatephysical or operational risks to their businesses.Local businesses, trade groups, corporate interests,labour organizations, NGOs and community lead-ers are all trying to find effective means to share theirrespective abilities and resources in the assessment,planning and reduction of the risks they share intheir community. In recent years there have beenimportant initiatives of corporate groups and otherbusiness-community relationships promoting disas-ter reduction activities in the common interest.Examples include the Business and Industry Councilfor Emergency Planning and Preparedness (BICEPP),Disaster Recovery Business Alliance (DRBA), PublicPrivate Partnership – 2000 (PPP 2000), and theInstitute for Business and Home Safety (IBHS).

A recent study conducted by the Benfield GriegHazard Research Centre of the University CollegeLondon for DFID concludes that while in quitespecific circumstances the potential for public-pri-vate partnerships may offer promise, in almost allcases they are neither easy to establish, nor to sustainwithout a common understanding and commitmentto the values of risk reduction being shared by allparties involved. This can be very difficult to achieveconsidering the different organizational values andmotivations, not to mention expectations, generallyobserved in commercial, government, and publicinterest organizations.

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The proposed National Disaster Management Poli-cy of Mozambique recognizes that the potentialimpact of disasters on commerce, industry andagribusiness can threaten the national economy ofthe country to an ever-greater degree. It is alsoaware that as the resources available to state struc-tures relative to the business community diminishand as business enterprises assume responsibilityfor providing more essential services to the socie-ty, the private commercial sector needs to becomea more crucial partner in all aspects of disaster riskmanagement. Accordingly, strategies able to dedi-cate resources more effectively for preventingrisks become essential, given the rapid expansionof the national economy.

With this in mind, the National Office for DisasterManagement- Instituto Nacional de Gestao de Cala-madidas (INGC) has made collaboration with theprivate sector a priority, but certain areas of relat-ed risk will require much more attention in thefuture. Most significantly, the threat of seriousindustrial accidents or environmental disasters hasincreased with the development of large-scaleindustrial projects such as refineries or construc-tions of pipelines. The potential human and eco-nomic consequences of a severe cyclone damagingprincipal urban centres also needs to be fully con-sidered in collaboration with the private sector’sown economic interests. Such calculations shouldfactor heavily in national economic policies forassured growth, but also to ensure measures thatcan protect related and essential public infrastruc-ture.

With the growing economic impact of disasters,the private sector could be encouraged to becomeactive both in their own risk management prac-tices, as well as in the related contingency planningand disaster risk reduction measures of society. Astrong case can be made that by lending theirimportant political and economic influence toadvocate for national strategies that can protectcritical infrastructure and property assets on whichtheir own businesses depend from avoidable loss-es, they would also be advancing their own strate-gic commercial interests.

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The major challenges are to stimulate networksand partnerships at local, national, regional andinternational levels, with thematic or sharedinterests to work towards the objectives of dis-aster risk reduction. A need for coherence andunified criteria to support this in a commonprocess is a challenge to address within theISDR. Related priorities include:

• Enhance the critical relationship by link-ing actors for risk reduction with those ofecological management, social develop-ment and economic growth in order toensure sustainable development at inter-national, national and local levels.

• Provide incentives for the strengtheningand/or building of national, sub-regional,regional and international coordinationmechanisms and networks for informationexchange, and the promotion of collabora-tive arrangements that can increase multi-disciplinary disaster reduction capacities.

• At national level, encourage the establish-ment of national committees or platformsfor disaster reduction, with active commu-nity involvement and the participation ofall relevant sectors, should be encouragedto facilitate common approaches, collec-tion of information, undertaking of riskassessments and support to develop coher-ent strategies and action plans.

• In academic circles, stimulate cross-disci-plinary efforts, networks and partnershipsfor integrated and applied research in allrelevant areas of risk management,including gender-sensitive studies, cultur-al and social behaviour and resilience todisasters, early warning systems, hazardand vulnerability analysis, among otherareas. One challenge in this regard is topursue a common and widespread under-standing of disaster risk and risk reduc-tion practices.

Development bbanks ppromoting investment iin ddisaster rrisk rreduction

The World Bank and regional developmentbanks have emerged as one of the main sourcesof funding for recovery and reconstruction fol-lowing a major disaster. A large number ofgovernments in the developing world findthemselves fiscally constrained to reallocatetheir resources for emergent needs following alarge-scale disaster and turn to these financialinstitutions for immediate assistance. All thesebanks have therefore developed a sizeable port-folio of post-disaster recovery and reconstruc-tion programs over a number of years. TheWorld Bank has provided US$14 billion in thelast two decades for post-disaster recovery andreconstruction. These institutions throughtheir large-scale lending are also in a strongersituation to support sustainable disaster riskreduction strategies. In the last few years, thesefinancial institutions have come to recognizethe strategic importance of these projects forimplementing disaster preparedness, mitiga-tion and emergency response programs.


While work related to the economic and finan-cial aspects of disaster reduction is proceeding

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at different paces reflecting different levels ofinterest throughout the world, Latin Americanand Caribbean countries have taken the lead.

Disaster vulnerability and economic develop-ment have been encouraged by influentialregional institutions such as the UN EconomicCommission for Latin America and the Caribbean(ECLAC), the Central American Bank for Eco-nomic Integration (CABEI), the CaribbeanDevelopment Bank (CDB), the Andean Develop-ment Corporation (CAF) and the Inter-AmericanDevelopment Bank (IADB) as well as by theWorld Bank’s Disaster Management Facility(DMF). These organizations have recognisedthe value of disaster reduction measures inreducing and alleviating serious economic dis-ruptions and thus in determining a country’spath towards economic growth.

IADB is a very active lending institution in thefield of disaster reduction with well-definedpolicies and activities, while other regional andinternational banks are still less focused in thisarea. IADB strategies to incorporate disasterreduction in development are outlined in Facingthe Challenge of Natural Disasters in Latin Amer-ica and the Caribbean: An IADB Action Plan(March 2000).

5.5.- Financial and economic tools

In view of the exorbitant economic and social costs of recurring disasters, development assistanceand financial tools and instruments for risk-sharing and risk-transfer are important for theapplication of measures for disaster risk reduction. The increasing involvement of internationaldevelopment banks and agencies in this area supports the strengthening of national and corpo-rate commitment to engage in risk and vulnerability reduction. Insurance and reinsurance areessential instruments for recovering losses and supporting post-disaster recovery. Insuranceschemes need to be complemented by other low-cost risk sharing mechanisms in poorer commu-nities, such as kinship networks, microfinance and public works programmes to increase copingcapacities. Additional tools and financial incentives are necessary to promote proactive disasterrisk reduction investment. It is also important that all development projects include a criticalconsideration of disaster risks and vulnerability, and the policies and programs meant for reduc-ing disasters risks are included in poverty reduction programs.

The first part of this section shows how some of the international development banks havealready adopted policies and instruments to include risk reduction in their normal lending opera-tions. In the subsequent part, a brief overview of specific financial instruments, such as insur-ance, microfinance and public works programmes , has been provided.


The following table summarises the plan of action and activities that IADB is implementing to fulfil its plan.

Instrument/activity

Plan of action

Sector facility fordisaster prevention(March 2001)

Regular loans

Technical coopera-tion projects

Studies/papers

Disaster focalpoints and training

Regional policy dialogue

Cooperation withother agencies

Puebla-PanamaPlan

Example/description

National systems for disaster prevention and response: Building national legal and regulatory frameworks and programmes that bring together planningagencies, local governments and civil society organizations. Developing national strategies for riskreduction, and assessing intersectoral priorities, backed by separate budgets.

Building prevention into the culture: Developing and disseminating risk information and empoweringcitizens and other stakeholders to take risk reduction measures.

Reducing the vulnerability of the poor: Supporting poor households and communities in reducing theirvulnerability to natural hazards and recovering from disasters through reconstruction assistance.

Involving the private sector: Creating conditions for the development of insurance markets. Encourag-ing the use of other risk-spreading financial instruments, and designing economic and regulatoryincentives for risk reduction behaviour.

Risk information for decision-making: Evaluating existing risk assessment methodologies. Developingindicators of vulnerability and stimulating wide dissemination of risk information.

Fostering leadership and cooperation in the region: Stimulating coordinated actions to mobilise regionalresources for investments in risk mitigation.

Strengthen disaster prevention and risk management systems through vulnerability reduction andimproved preparedness to natural disasters. Help countries meet risk reduction objectives for develop-ment through consensus building on intersectoral priorities, strengthened institutions and launch oflarger scale national programmes. The Dominican Republic and Bolivia are the first countries to ben-efit from the first operations.

Finance prevention and mitigation measures, such as through watershed management programmes,urban development projects and social development programmes, especially in hurricane or El Niño-prone countries.

Improvement of decision making in risk management (pilot countries are Barbados, Chile, Guatemalaand Mexico). Development of vulnerability assessment methodology and measure performance ofmanagement tools for vulnerability reduction. Study of socio-economic impacts of El Niño. Sharingexperience on climate change and severe weather events in Asia and the Caribbean.

Study of financial market aspects of natural catastrophes, viability of new insurance, capital marketand risk management techniques in the global and regional financial markets that may help mitigatethe negative economic effects of natural disasters. A document exploring the variety of financialinstruments and techniques that could be incorporated into the overall IADB strategy for managingrisks associated with natural disasters is awaiting publication.

Identified at headquarters and in offices of borrowing countries. Disaster risk management trainingprovided to staff, special briefings for executive directors on instruments for disaster risk mitigation.

Established a natural disaster network.First phase of a study on national systems and institutionalmechanisms for the comprehensive management of disaster risk completed. Second phase will concen-trate on Bolivia, Colombia, the Dominican Republic and El Salvador.

Organization of American States (OAS) Working Group on Financing Within the Inter-American Com-mittee on Natural Disaster Reduction. Continuous work with ECLAC, ADC, CEPREDENAC, theCaribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency (CDERA), ISDR, UNDP, the WMO and other UNagencies.

Develop efficient insurance markets and improve public and private-sector access to insurance andother financial risk transfer instruments.

Combined investment in economic develop-ment, environmental management and relatedrisk factors has also been seen in the inaugura-tion in 2001 of the Regional Corridor Develop-ment “Plan Puebla-Panama” (Puebla in north-ern Mexico) and its inclusion by the MexicanPresident, Vicente Fox, in his National Devel-opment Plan, supported by IADB.

This initiative seeks to accelerate integrationand development in a region that covers nearly375,000 square miles and counts 64 millioninhabitants in Mexico and all seven countriesin Central America. The principal objective ofthis plan is to overcome the region’s vulnerabil-ity to natural disasters and address a long-standing infrastructure deficit that has pre-vented the countries from profiting more fromtheir proximity to large foreign markets.

The Plan Puebla-Panama will include a projectin the area of natural disaster reduction thatwill upgrade the quality of meteorological andhydrological information available in theregion. The plan will also promote the devel-opment of a catastrophe insurance market toprovide coverage for public infrastructure suchas highways, bridges, schools and hospitals.This insurance is expected to reduce the needto raise funds for reconstruction and the pre-miums could act as an incentive for builders toconstruct public works that are more resistantto natural disasters.

CDB has adopted strategic and operationalguidelines for assessing natural disaster man-agement programmes. These initiatives seek toassist member countries in developing disastermanagement capabilities while they make surethat disaster management principles are inte-grated into CDB operations. With the supportof OFDA/USAID, CDB is in the process ofestablishing a disaster management facility.

ECLAC is working with several other UNagencies on improving a socio-economic dam-age assessment methodology to promoteinvestment in risk reduction especially focusedon rehabilitation activities following major dis-asters in Latin America and the Caribbean.

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AAssiiaa

The World Bank and Asian DevelopmentBank (ADB) have supported a large num-ber of projects for disaster recovery andreconstruction in Asia. These projects relateto emergency financial assistance, earth-quake reconstruction, flood recovery andrestoration, and cyclone reconstruction.There are a large number of post-disasterrecovery and reconstruction programs inIran, India, China, Bangladesh, Cambodia,and other countries in the region. Mostrecently, the World Bank supported a largeearthquake reconstruction program inGujarat, India.

The ADB has also supported a number ofTechnical Assistance projects for capacity-building in many countries. In India, ADBhas initiated a programme, which goesbeyond its traditional role of extendingreconstruction loans after disasters to supportlong-term risk management. The ADB cur-rently is supporting a technical assistanceprogramme implemented by the ADPC intwo Indian states, Uttar Pradesh andUttaranchal. The project was formulatedafter the 1999 Chamoli earthquake and isfocused on advising the two state govern-ments in their review and efforts to strength-en existing institutional arrangements for dis-aster management.

Activities include the creation of state, dis-trict and village disaster management andmitigation plans, the development of com-munity awareness videos and publications,and the establishment of a state-wide disas-ter management information system. Theproject is a pioneering initiative undertakenby the ADB to promote disaster reductionmeasures more proactively in the anticipa-tion of future crises. It also represents anexemplary outlook in which disaster recon-struction programmes go beyond interven-tions to satisfy only immediate needs andaim at longer-term vulnerability reduction.

Financial iinstruments aaddressing ddisasterrisk rreduction

Risk-sharing and risk transfer at national(macro), community (meso), and household(micro) levels cut down losses, improveresilience, and contribute to expeditious recov-ery. The efficiency of risk-sharing and risktransfer, however, depends upon the size of therisk pool and availability of financial instru-ments and services. In developed countries,governments, corporate entities and individu-als engage in risk-sharing, which increases thesize of risk pool, thus improving insurability ofproperties and assets, whereas in developingcountries, the size of the risk pool is smaller,resulting into inadequate insurance coverageand pay off. A related requirement is the com-mercial application of specific instruments andservices for risk-sharing at different levels.

Insurance, microfinance and public works pro-grammes are examples of financial instrumentsand programs that can potentially be used for

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The WWorld BBank aand ddisaster rreduction

The World Bank and borrowers today aredeveloping a greater awareness of the need tomitigate or reduce the adverse effects of natu-ral disasters before they strike (see more chap-ter six). A review of the Bank’s disaster-relatedprojects since 1980 recognised that in most ofthe projects, the full loan amount is not dedi-cated to mitigation and prevention measures,but rather includes one or more componentsdedicated to these objectives. Four countriesalone – Bangladesh, Brazil, China and India –accounted for 40 per cent of the mitigationportfolio. Moreover, it is a concern that half ofthe top client countries for reconstruction proj-ects do not appear among the main borrowersfor these mitigation projects. There is scope forgreater bank mitigation assistance to thesecountries that may help reduce demand forreconstruction. There is a trend of increasedbank approval of mitigation projects over time,with 55 approved in the 1990s against only 40in the 1980s.

The bank is reviewing its operational policiesto respond, among other things, to the conclu-sions of its review of disaster-related projectssince 1980 and to incorporate more considera-tions on disaster and vulnerability reductionactivities in its lending operations.

The World Bank is supporting projects inHonduras and Nicaragua with more than US$14 million committed to each country toimprove municipal capabilities in risk manage-ment. Activities will focus on improving land-use and planning procedures based on hazardanalysis and strengthening national risk anddisaster management systems. The schemeworks through umbrella municipal organiza-tions, national disaster organizations and scien-tific and technical institutions such as theNicaraguan Institute of Territorial Studies(INETER). The World Bank is developinganother programme with the Organization ofEastern Caribbean States (OECS) that will offerrisk reduction loans to five countries to supportcapacity building, institutional strengthening,community preparedness and greater protec-tion for key infrastructure.

IInnssuurraannccee iinn tthhee CCaarriibbbbeeaann

United Insurance Company Limited, pro-vides insurance services to several islands inthe region, and offers 25 per cent discounton premiums for clients who have hazardresistant structures. They have also pub-lished two handbooks entitled ProfessionalGuide to Performance-Based Design Upgradefor the purpose of Achieving Hurricane-Resis-tant Construction and Guide to Making YourHome Hurricane Resistant and have promot-ed their use to design professionals andhouseholders.

Working Party on Insurance and Reinsurance:Whilst not an institution, this working partywas developed as a CARICOM initiative.It seeks to minimise the overall economiccosts and social effects of natural hazards inthe CARICOM countries based on anincreased emphasis on vulnerability reduc-tion and a strengthened insurance industry– including increased self-insurance.

mitigation, recovery and reconstruction at dif-ferent levels. Insurance can be used at thenational, community and household levels,while microfinance services are provided at thecommunity and household levels. Public worksprogram have their own specific context, and itcould undertaken to provide relief to householdsand communities struck by situations in whichthere are no income-earning opportunities.These could be great deal of variation in theirforms and applications. It is also likely that in agiven situation a combination of these instru-ments may be required.

At the national level, improvement in the regu-latory frameworks of disaster reduction includ-ing disaster-related insurance, building codesand land use planning will help ensure thatinfrastructure is properly sited and built to min-imise damages as well as to reduce the costs ofrepair. This involves public insurance policy,market and regulatory incentives for risk andvulnerability reduction, protection against fluc-tuations in insurance/reinsurance prices, aug-mentation of insurance coverage at reasonablecost and backstop financial mechanisms.

One of the limitations of hazard mitigationinsurance is that it is primarily a mechanism thatwill help after the disaster occurs. While somegroup-based insurance policies are linked toimprovement in physical surroundings, thereare not many examples of built-in incentives ininsurance policies, which motivate householdsto invest in mitigation. On the contrary, availi-bility of insurance may discourage investment inmitigation, as household may tolerate riskierpractices after purchasing insurance policies.

Well-designed insurance schemes may encour-age appropriate risk management by loweringpremiums if compliance with building codesand land use regulations are observed. Oneexample where the insurance coverage has beenused as an incentive to undertake disaster miti-gation or protection measures is the case ofFlorida in the USA after hurricane Andrew in1992. In this case, the insurance industry pro-moted lower deductibles to wind storm insur-ance if building code compliance was achieved.The problem with this kind of incentives, how-ever, is the certification process. Another limita-tion of insurance coverage is that the market forinsurance is largely underdeveloped in poorcountries.

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Insurance policies should not be seen as a panaceato achieve disaster reduction. If losses from recur-ring disasters are too high, the availability of insur-ance coverage will be reduced and reinsurancecosts will increase, which has happened in manyparts of the world, for example in the Caribbean.Property insurance for reducing economic riskfrom catastrophes might no longer be available atreasonable prices in the future. In this regard,potential socio-economic impacts related to globalenvironmental and climate changes need to becarefully assessed to anticipate and adapt to theirconsequences. The present retrospective claim cal-culation will no longer be commensurate to suchchanges. Therefore, a prospective underwritingapproach is needed by the insurance industry.

Other ffinancial mmechanisms tto ppromote disaster rrisk rreduction aand ssafety nnets

An effort to explore additional and relevant pri-vate sector engagements and alternative financialinstruments, both to serve as incentives for disas-ter reduction and as safety nets for recovery, is anongoing interest. For example, guarantee pro-grammes enable governments to mobilise largeramounts of financing with a given amount of sup-port from the private sector. This mechanism hasnot been used for disaster reduction projects yet.However, it offers the potential to catalyse privatefinancing either for public borrowers or privateprojects in developing countries. Private debtfunds could play an important role in financingisaster recovery and prevention projects.

RRiisskk sshhaarriinngg aanndd ttrraannssffeerr:: pprrootteeccttiinngg iinnvveessttmmeennttss aannddsshhaarriinngg tthhee ccoossttss

The private insurance sector contributes importantfunding for reconstruction after disaster impact indeveloping countries, but it has made fewer inroads indeveloping country markets. In emerging economies,the state and the individual carry much of the cost ofdisasters. As a result, ad hoc funds transfers to respondto disaster emergencies disrupt planned developmentactivities. Tools have to be developed to assist the verypoor to more effectively manage disaster risk. Thisincludes microfinance mechanisms that can deal withrisks such as disasters and that build social capital andencourage risk mitigation for the very poor. In additionto that, measures may include safety nets and calamityfunds, and informal mechanisms.

Source: DMF, 2001

may access resources for building social andphysical assets based on a shared perception oftheir vulnerability. The strong element of peermonitoring in microcredit programmes facili-tates greater community participation. Micro-finance also encourages savings by groupmembers, which may be invested in mitigatinghazards at the household and community level.

A number of microcredit programmes haveincluded government subsidies. If govern-ments provide incentives and subsidies for mit-igation, it is feasible to combine it with micro-credit so that households may access it for spe-cific mitigation measures. Since mitigationrequires financial resources, knowledge of haz-ard, mitigation options, and communityefforts, microcredit models can bring togetherthese essential ingredients.

SSaavviinngg mmeecchhaanniissmmss

Another way to mobilise investment in mitiga-tion is through savings. Households may begiven incentives to save and invest these sav-ings in improving their physical assets. Mor-duch (1998) has cited successful examplesfrom Bangladesh and Indonesia of mobilisingsaving from poor households.

The savings mechanism was also successful inan earthquake reconstruction programme inthe state of Maharashtra, India. Although thegovernment provided assistance in cash and in-kind to households for seismic strengthening,it also organized self-help groups at the villagelevel and encouraged them to save a part oftheir earnings. Most of the households partici-pating in the seismic strengthening pro-gramme invested more money and resourcesthrough their own savings than the govern-ment assistance they received.

PPuubblliicc wwoorrkkss pprrooggrraammmmeess –– aa ssoocciiaall ssaaffeettyy nneett..

In many developing countries, public worksprogrammes were taken up as a scarcity ordrought relief measure. This was a need-basedprogramme supported by governments. Oneof the most important examples was the Maha-rashtra Employment Guarantee Scheme (MEGS)in India, developed as a response to severedrought in 1970-71. This scheme, aimed at

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MMiiccrrooffiinnaannccee

Microfinance, a hybrid of formal and informalfinancial services, has been a recent innovation,which has a great potential for helping thepoor reduce their vulnerability to disasters. Itstarted with credit, and has since come toinclude savings and insurance. These differentinstruments which now comprise microfinanceservice help families increase their coping capac-ity, through diversification of income (differenttypes of jobs and capital, regular employment,opportunities for women). They also serve as akind of insurance policy following disasters.

The need for small amounts of credit and flex-ibility of terms was the motivation factorbehind the idea of microcredit. The GrameenBank in Bangladesh pioneered the concept ofmicrocredit in 1976, primarily for entrepre-neurial activities of the rural poor. Manymicrofinance institutions have since beenestablished to provide financial services to thepoor on a non-profit-making basis.

These institutions have produced microcredit asan effective poverty alleviation instrument. Thelink between microcredit and disaster riskreduction relates primarily to increased capacityto cope with losses from disasters. Some initialexperiences have also promoted investments inrisk reduction measures. Nevertheless, disasterscan also have negative impact on micro-financ-ing institutions themselves. According to IFRC,the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh reported thataround 1.2 million of their 2.3 million memberswere affected by the 1998 floods, which makerepayment of loans difficult. This calls for find-ing ways to insure against credit, which maymake loans more expensive.

One of the distinctive features of microcredit isthat it is based on group lending. Communities

CCoorrppoorraattee ssoocciiaall rreessppoonnssiibbiilliittyy

The research project, Corporate Social Responsibilityand Disaster Reduction, conducted by the BenfieldGreig Hazard Research Centre (BGHRC), is looking atprivate-sector involvement in natural disaster reduc-tion through social responsibility and philanthropicprogrammes, especially in developing countries.

Available at: www.bghrc.com

building public and individual assets yieldedbetter resources for rural communities. It tookcare of the basic entitlements by guaranteeingemployment to the rural poor, including smalland marginal farmers, landless agriculturalworkers and rural artisans.

The public works programme represents animportant social safety net in dealing with sit-uations of mass deprivation. Its effectivenessin protecting poor households from severeshocks is consistent with longer-term goals ofeconomic growth and environmental protec-tion. Public works programmes provideemployment when households find it difficultto restore their productive assets. Publicworks programmes may also contribute toreduce physical risks, by engaging in struc-tural measures. This was the case in Hon-duras after hurricane Mitch, when the Inter-national Labour Organiyation (ILO) supported

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several municipalities to implement intensivework plans to build protection works in riverbasins, as a means of protection but also torestore job-opportunities for victims of thefloods and landslides. Food for Work pro-grammes, employed by the World Food Pro-gramme and others, have also beenshown tobe useful both after disasters, and in promot-ing public works to reduce future risks anddiversify economies.

However, some experience show that a numberof public works programmes have not been sat-isfactory because they are not sufficiently tar-geted and suffer from inefficient implementa-tion. Also, public works programmes havebeen more effective in dealing with droughts orfamine, and its applicability to dealing withother natural hazards such floods and earth-quakes have not yet been tested.

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cchhaall

lleennggee

ssport. It is necessary to evolve financialinstruments that enable households toemploy risk and vulnerability reductionmeasures.

The UN agencies and the development bankscan come together to promote many innova-tive financial instruments and mechanisms indisaster preparedness, mitigation, recoveryand reconstruction. Since a large number ofagencies are participating in this program,mobilization of resources for promotingfinancial and non-financial services for disas-ter risk management should not be difficult.

In addition, regional policy dialogues couldbe supported to facilitate exchanges in severalareas such as governmental strategies andpractices for financing catastrophe loss,including loss to government-owned assetslike infrastructure and government buildings,obligations to reimburse losses due to naturaldisasters, and new financial policy alterna-tives.

Other areas which require more study andunderstanding are, on the one hand the detri-mental effects of deregulation and economicinterconnection, and on the other hand, thebeneficial effects associated with trade oppor-tunities and economic competitiveness.


From the issues described in this chapter, thefollowing main challenges and priorities standout:

• Need for sustained support throughnational and international agencies forthese financial instruments and pro-grammes for establishing their viability inpre- and post-disaster situations.

• Need for setting up vulnerability reduc-tion / mitigation / social funds for sup-porting these financial services. Suchfunds have been set up for many otherdevelopment activities, and so they couldbe effectively used for the purpose of dis-aster risk reduction too.

• The need for continued encouragementfor international development banks anddevelopment agencies to require riskassessment and management for newinfrastructure development projects.

• The need for more systematic documenta-tion and research on quantification of bene-fits of risk reduction and hazard mitigation.

• The need to further elaborate a strategyfor involvement of the financial sector indisaster reduction. This also involves theinsurance sector exploring how insuranceincentives can encourage disaster riskreduction measures.

• Development of more specific financialtools aimed at the very poor. Microcreditor revolving community funds are solu-tions that need more attention and sup-

“In Canada, one of the most importantissues in the development of disaster riskreduction is to be able to substantiate thesavings from mitigation.”

Canada response to ISDR questionnaire, 2001.

Current sstatus oof eearly wwarning tthinking

Early warning has always been considered a cor-nerstone of disaster reduction. From the outset,IDNDR had set as one of the targets to beattained by all countries by 2000, ready access toglobal, regional, national and local warning sys-tems and broad dissemination of warnings. Dur-ing the past decade, significant activities,events/conferences and programmes had pro-moted the feasibility and added value of earlywarning, and identified major strengths andweaknesses of early warning capacities around theworld. These included the 1994 Yokohama Strat-egy and Plan of Action for a Safer World, theDeclaration of the 1998 Potsdam Early WarningConference and the Early Warning ProgrammeAction Plan for the Future presented at theIDNDR Programme Forum in 1999. Specificconcerns were also addressed related to climaticphenomena such as El Niño (Guayaquil Interna-

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5.6 Early warning systems

The ultimate goal of hazard forecasting and early warning systems is to protect lives and proper-ty. They therefore constitute one of the key elements of any disaster reduction strategy. To servethe people effectively, they need to be integrated instruments designed to link the scientific andtechnical initiators of warnings and those who identify vulnerabilities, the intermediaries composedof public authorities who issue warnings and emergency instructions, disseminators and proces-sors of sector-specific products, and the ultimate users of the warnings in local communities.Robust, accurate and timely means of reliable and understandable communications are essential.Effective early warning procedures should be part of the national institutional and legislativeframeworks for disaster management and have redundancy built into the system. To be fully suc-cessful, early warning must be complemented by professional services, training and capacity-building activities and the allocation of resources, to enable timely actions to be taken to avert lossor avoidable damage.

This section begins with the current status of early warning thinking. An effective early warningsystem is built on three requisites:

• Political responsibility to promote early warning strategies;• Participation and knowledge of the public;• Support at the international and regional levels;

completed by the following three elements:

• Technical identification and monitoring of hazards; • Multidisciplinary, multi-agency and intersectoral communications;• Institutional services to react to warnings; and concludes with

Elements of the early warning chain:

� FFoorreeccaasstt aanndd pprreeddiiccttiioonn of impendingextreme events, on the basis of scientif-ic knowledge and monitoring results

� WWaarrnniinngg pprroocceessssiinngg aanndd ddiisssseemmiinnaattiioonnof information from the first segmenttogether with information on the possi-ble impacts on people and infrastruc-ture (i.e. vulnerability assessment) tothe political authorities and to thethreatened population. The informa-tion includes appropriate response-ori-ented recommendations

� RReeaaccttiioonn to warnings based on a prop-er understanding of the information bythe population at risk and local author-ities, and subsequent implementationof protective measures.

encouraged by the United Nations GeneralAssembly. Recently, the crucial importance ofearly warning was again validated by IATF forISDR which identified early warning as a pri-ority area for its future work and created a spe-cific working group on early warning,described later in this chapter.

Advances in science and technology during thelast decade have reinforced the possibilities of

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tional Seminar on the 1997-1998 El Niño Event:Evaluation and Projections in 1998), or to specif-ic circumstances such as those of small islanddeveloping States (Barbados Global Conferenceon the Sustainable Development of Small IslandDeveloping States in 1994).

Renewed efforts at all levels to integrate earlywarning as an essential component in the cul-ture of disaster reduction have always been

Guiding PPrinciples ffor EEffective EEarly WWarning

THE OBJECTIVE of early warning is to empower individuals and communities, threatenedby natural or similar hazards, to act in sufficient time and in an appropriate manner so as toreduce the possibility of personal injury, loss of life and damage to property, or nearby and frag-ile environments.

RRIISSKK AASSSSEESSSSMMEENNTT provides the basis for an effective warning system at any level of respon-sibility. It identifies potential threats from hazards and establishes the degree of local exposure orvulnerability to hazardous conditions. This knowledge is essential for policy decisions that trans-late warning information into effective preventive action.

Several groups must contribute to this empowerment. Each has a set of essential overlappingfunctions for which it should be responsible:

Members of vulnerable populations should be aware of the hazards and the related effects towhich they are exposed and be able to take specific actions themselves which will minimize theirpersonal threat of loss or damage;

LLooccaall ccoommmmuunniittiieess should have sufficient familiarity with hazards to which they are exposed,and the understanding of advisory information received, to be able to act in a manner to advise,instruct or engage the population in a manner that increases their safety or reduces the possibleloss of resources on which the community depends;

NNaattiioonnaall ggoovveerrnnmmeennttss should exercise the sovereign responsibility to prepare and issue hazardwarnings for their national territory in a timely and effective manner, and to ensure that warn-ings and related protective guidance are directed to those populations determined to be mostvulnerable to the hazard risk. The provision of support to local communities to utilize informa-tion and to develop operational capabilities is an essential function to translate early warningknowledge into risk reduction practices;

RReeggiioonnaall iinnssttiittuuttiioonnss should provide specialized knowledge, advice or benefit of experience insupport of national efforts to develop or to sustain operational capabilities related to hazard risksexperienced by countries that share a common geographical environment. Regional organiza-tions are crucial to linking macro-scale international capabilities to the particular needs of indi-vidual countries and in facilitating effective early warning practices among adjacent countries;and

IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall bbooddiieess should provide means for the shared exchange of data and relevant knowl-edge among themselves as a basis for the efficient transfer of advisory information and the tech-nical, material and organizational support necessary to ensure the development and operationalcapabilities of national authorities or agencies officially designated as responsible for early warn-ing practice.

early warning reducing the consequences andespecially the human losses from natural disas-ters. To give but a few examples, forecast timeand location of landfall of tropical cyclones isnow 48 hours in advance; the warning time oftornadoes has doubled in one decade; andwarnings of drought are now issued severalmonths in advance. The development of newinformation technologies and the very rapidspread of global communications have consid-erably increased the availability of informationand early warnings about natural disasters.These technological advances now enable bet-ter monitoring, prediction and forecasting ofextreme weather conditions. Significantimprovements in global observation systemshave also enhanced the early detection of medi-um-term abnormal climatic conditions such asEl Niño events, and will contribute to warn-ings of long-term hazards associated with envi-ronmental change. Sophisticated early warningsystems can only become effective with the freeand unrestricted exchange of meteorologicaldata throughout and among societies, and withsimilar attention given to the expression ofwarnings so that the people for whom they areintended can understand them.

However, the ability to deliver this vital infor-mation to the public in the locations where it ismost likely to be affected by disasters has notalways enjoyed similar success. Local mecha-nisms for communicating risk, or downscalingthe interpretation of alerts to relate to local con-ditions or experience, remain very weak inmany cases. Sophistication has to be weighedagainst local capacities, needs, resources andtraditions. Moreover, information about theadverse impacts of disasters on people andinfrastructure (i.e. vulnerability and riskassessments) that is necessary for informeddecision-making is often missing. Even whereabilities and procedures do exist, communitiesdo not often respond appropriately to them,because there is a lack of planning, resources orviable protective options that they could utilizein a timely manner. Ironically, in many docu-mented cases, the perceived threat of losingtheir property to looters when unprotected dur-ing a time of evacuation, is considered a greaterthreat by many people than a loss caused by asevere weather disaster.

Elements for effective early warning are welldocumented. Guiding principles for effective

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early warning resulted from several years ofwork undertaken under the aegis of theIDNDR Early Warning Programme, byexperts associated with all aspects of warningpractices and for various types of hazards. Thedifferent sets of these guiding principles arereproduced throughout this chapter as theystill provide a clear and comprehensive basisfor the early warning process. The challenge tobe met in the coming years is to translate theseaccepted principles into concrete action-orient-ed modalities.

By way of introduction to the specific issues ofconcern to improve the effectiveness of earlywarning, the Mount Pinatubo example illus-trates the added value of early warning systemsand describes the factors that contribute to theeffective warning of populations at risk.

Early warning is not a technical and even less atechnological issue, but a human and organiza-tional one. Satellite coverage and state-of-the-art surveillance techniques are now sufficientand the most difficult part, which is composedof the following requisites, remains to be tack-led.

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Early warning for the 1991 eruptions of the Pinatubo volcanois a success story in that the number of deaths compared tothat of those at risk was small despite the magnitude and vio-lence of the eruption. The success was due to a number offactors that illustrate the important issues in this chapter: time-ly identification of the hazard and delineation of vulnerableareas, successful application of state-of-the-art monitoring andsurveillance techniques, accurate prediction of the destructivephases, timely issuance and dissemination of easily understoodwarnings, prompt action of key civil defence officials and dis-aster response workers, and timely evacuation of majority ofinhabitants at risk.

The positive aspects of the experience highlighted the value ofthe following: state-of-the-art monitoring equipment and tech-niques, international cooperation based on mutual respect, sus-tained intensive public education, active involvement of select-ed scientists as spokespersons for awareness and disseminationpurposes, open and speedy communication lines between sci-ence people and civil defence officials, good relationshipbetween scientists and the media adapted from

Punongbayan and Newhall, 1998

endorsement from the political centre of Mau-ritius is a particularly strong and commendablefeature of its disaster planning from which oth-ers elsewhere can learn. A high degree of legit-imization is accorded by this support. Effectiveleadership is provided from a central govern-ment committee in the area of disaster pre-paredness (including the warning system),mitigation and recovery (UK Flagship Pro-gramme, 1998).

SADC countries have long focused attentionon drought and resulting food security issuesfor which early warning and preparednessmechanisms have been developed over the lasttwenty years. However, recent extreme weatherevents have encouraged a wider perspective forearly warning and more comprehensive disas-ter preparedness activities. Such a shift conveysthe understanding that potential disasters arerooted in the relations between human actions,environmental conditions, management of nat-ural resources and the climate. Therefore addi-tional warning requirements need to beaddressed through policies that can provide anintegrated regional early warning and disasterpreparedness framework. Necessary steps havebeen taken through the development of aframework for a multisectoral disaster manage-ment strategy supported by UNDP.

Another step forward was made through theprocess launched by SADC heads of State andGovernment following the devastating floodsin Southern Africa in early 2000. This initiativeprovides a good example of political willing-ness to improve early warning and prepared-ness capacities. A review of the contributionsthat meteorological and hydrological servicesprovide to early warning and disaster pre-paredness resulted in recommendations forpolitical decisions to boost regional early warn-ing strategies. Recommendations included theneed for SADC countries to create a policy thatis more focused on regional requirements forearly warning and disaster preparedness. Toachieve this, the formulation and progressiveimplementation of a structured regionalapproach was proposed, able to link increasednational capacities to improve early warning. Itwas also recommended that adequate fundingbe provided to national institutions to equipthem with the necessary facilities and tools tomaintain their high level of public service inthe national interest, and to enable them to

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Political rresponsibility tto ppromote iintegrat-ed eearly wwarning sstrategies

The first requisite for achieving an effectiveearly warning system is recognition of the valueof early warning in protecting the interests ofsocieties and communities. Political willingnessto use it as a meaningful policy instrument fordisaster risk management will derive from thisacknowledgement. However, commitment isnot enough. Mobilizing the necessary political,human, technical, material and financialresources is needed to underpin better warn-ings that can avoid, or at least reduce, risks.Governments need to support legislation,administration, contingency planning andoperational procedures including inter-minis-terial/inter-agency relationships. Well-devel-oped decision-making capacities will avoid dis-asters that occur because predictions are con-sidered as being too uncertain. Governmentsneed to take the initiative to establish, andthereafter, maintain the necessary collaborativeframework needed for the functioning of cred-ible and accountable warning systems. Theyhave the responsibility to promote integratedearly warning strategies so as to gain wide sup-port for the implementation of governmentaldecisions at times of crisis. Political initiativesand support will guarantee the technical andsocial relevance, usefulness and efficiency ofearly warning strategies. One element thatshould increase political commitment towardsearly warning strategies is the availability ofindicators to measure their effectiveness, espe-cially in terms of losses avoided and recipientsatisfaction.

The following are examples of successfulnational early warning systems in use.

Mauritius offers an interesting example ofinstitutional arrangements according high pri-ority to early warning of cyclones. The explicitspecifications of the principal elements of thecyclone warning dissemination system, includ-ing roles and responsibilities (with details ofwarnings and their dissemination) are set outin the Cyclone and other Natural DisastersScheme (1995). The Mauritius Meteorologi-cal Office is part of the Prime Minister’sOffice. The Central Cyclone Committee, awell-administered and communication-orient-ed central body, provides leadership to ensurethe effectiveness of the warning system. This

contribute more effectively to early warning anddisaster preparedness systems on a regionalbasis. Another recommendation was furtherdevelopment of comprehensive implementationand contingency plans by countries that inte-grate early warning systems, disaster prepared-ness and related mitigation activities into over-all national disaster management frameworks.

Thanks to UNDP support, the Viet Nam Dis-aster Management Unit (DMU) is benefitingfrom a nationwide information system thatprovides a combination of real-time informa-tion to the Central Committee for Flood andStorm Control (CCFSC), the primary Govern-ment agency for disaster management. Thesystem provides early warning information,updates on developing disaster situations, andrelated information about damage or needsassessments through a computerized networklinking CCFSC-DMU, the national hydrom-eteorological services and all of the 61 provin-cial committees for flood and storm control.

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The system is also able to draw on informationsupplied by the Ministry of Agriculture andRural Development. Internet provides anexpanded opportunity to disseminate timelywarnings about floods to the public and toaddress immediate emergency requirements,or disseminate general information related todisaster management. Since early 2001, theproject has benefited from more advancedinformation technology provided by additionalfunding from OFDA/USAID. Expandedactivities include the design of weather andnatural disaster warning systems based oncomputer graphics for use by Viet Nam Televi-sion to enable the dissemination of more effec-tive public warnings. Flood maps for all of thecentral provinces in Viet Nam are being creat-ed with the latest GIS technology, accompa-nied by training that will encourage its effectiveuse by provincial and local authorities. A newflood-hazard alerting system is also beingdesigned for the areas most prone to rapid orflash flooding.

In CCuubbaa,, a national hurricane preparedness plan is practised every year before the start ofthe hurricane season, when the early warning system is tested. The system is activated atthe first information notice by the military authorities and civil defence, involving thepolitical party authorities and all provincial or municipal government officials, representa-tives of all administrative and political institutions, companies, co-operatives, etc. Plannedmeasures are then activated according to different levels of warning, including an Infor-mative Phase, a Cyclone Alert, a Hurricane Alarm and a concluding RehabilitationPhase, if required.

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Hurricane Michelle formed in the Gulf of Honduras on the 2 November, 2001, landedon Cuba 4-5 November, reaching wind speeds of up to 220 km/h (category 4 Saffir-Simpson-Scale). Michelle has been the strongest hurricane affecting Cuba in the last 50years.

Upon early notice from the Institute of Meteorology the evacuation plan came intoaction. Twelve provincial and 150 municipal headquarters for civil defense involving 87000 peo-ple were activated. More than 5000 vehicles were deployed for evacuation, etc.

Over 700,000 persons were evacuated, of which 270,000 for a longer time and providedwith temporary accommodation and basic needs. 777,000 animals were also moved to safeareas. Reports indicated only 5 fatalities and 12 people injured.

Nevertheless, a major economic setback was the result of the hurricane. Principal dam-ages were to building infrastructure, agriculture and communications facilities.

authorities to make collective decisions and choic-es. Investment in modern technology and top-down professional expertise to forecast hazardsand issue warnings can only be justified if warn-ings effectively reach every citizen likely to beaffected. In this regard, there is much to be gainedand learned from providing support to grass-rootsbottom-up approaches. Communities and NGOsthat represent their interests are key elements inoperating early warning systems, i.e. disseminatingmessages, operating and maintaining warningequipment, organizing training and regular testingto avoid surprises at times of crisis, raising aware-ness of the responsibility people have for their ownsurvival, providing motivation and coping strate-gies, avoiding confusion, contradiction and con-flicts.


Public kknowledge aand pparticipation

The second requisite for an effective early warningsystem is public participation in the design, imple-mentation and assessment of warning formulationand dissemination. The following principles weredeveloped to provide concrete guidance for the appli-cation of early warning at the national and local level.They cover the issues discussed in this subsection.

Early warning messages should reach, be under-stood, believed and personalized by the public at riskto enable it to take action to reduce its vulnerabilityto hazards. Therefore community involvement isnecessary to design locally efficient and socially rele-vant early warning systems. Such involvement per-mits a continuous dialogue between users and

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1. Early warning practices need to be a coherent set of linked operational responsibilities established at national and local levels ofpublic administration and authority. To be effective, these early warning systems should themselves be components of abroader programme of national hazard mitigation and vulnerability reduction.

2. Within each country, the sole responsibility for the issuance of early warnings for natural and similar disasters should rest with anagency, or agencies, designated by the Government.

3. The decision to act upon receipt of warning information is political in character. Authoritative decision makers should be identi-fied and have locally recognized political responsibility for their decisions. Normally, action resulting from warningsshould be based on previously established disaster management procedures of organizations at national and local level.

4. In the chain of political responsibility, initial hazard information is often technically specialized or specific to a single typeof hazard authority. To be applied effectively, warnings need to be clearly understood and operationally relevant to local agenciesthat are more frequently oriented towards non-specific hazard functions.

5. Early warning systems must be based upon risk analysis that includes the assessment of the occurrence of hazards, thenature of their effects and prevailing types of vulnerability, at national and local levels of responsibility. The warningprocess should lead to demonstrated practices that can communicate warning and advisory information to vulnerable groups ofpeople so that they may take appropriate actions to mitigate loss and damage.

6. Locally predominant hazard types and patterns, including small-scale or localized hydrometeorological hazards related to pat-terns of human, economic or environmental exploitation, must be incorporated if early warning is to be relevant to riskreduction practices.

7. There is a continuing need to monitor and forecast changes in vulnerability patterns, particularly at local levels, such as suddenincreases in vulnerability resulting from social developments. These may include conditions of rapid urbanization, abruptmigration, economic changes, nearby civil conflict or similar elements that alter the social, economic or environmentalconditions of an area.

8. The primary responsibilities must rest at local levels of involvement for producing detailed information on risks, acting on thebasis of warnings, communicating warnings to those individuals at risk and, ultimately, for facilitating appropriate com-munity actions to prevent loss and damage. A high resolution of local knowledge and developed experience of local risks,decision-making procedures, definitive authorities concerned, means of public communication and established copingstrategies are essential for functions to be relevant.

9. Groups of people that exhibit different types of vulnerability will have different perceptions of risk and various copingstrategies. Locally appropriate warning systems will provide a range of communication methods and should provoke multiple strate-gies for protection and risk reduction.

10. To be sustainable, all aspects of the design and implementation of early warning systems require the substantive involvement of stake-holders at the local and national levels. This includes production and verification of information about perceived risks,agreement on the decision-making processes involved, and standard operational protocols. Equally important abilitiesinvolve the selection of appropriate communication media and dissemination strategies that can assure an effective level ofparticipation in acting upon receipt of warning information.

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The following examples show several facets ofpublic involvement, participation and knowl-edge. They display useful practices such aspublic involvement in warning dissemination,strengthening of local capacities, the applica-tion of local experiences and public participa-tion in the design of early warning systems. For the past thirty years, the Bangladesh RedCrescent Society’s Cyclone Preparedness Pro-gramme (CPP) has disseminated warnings andassisted cyclone-affected communities along710 kilometres of the Bangladesh coastline inthe Bay of Bengal. Equipped with hand sirens,megaphones, transistor radios, signal lightsand flags, first-aid and rescue kits, more than30,000 volunteers act as the communicationschannel through which the CPP head office inDhaka relays weather bulletins from theBangladesh Meteorological Department tomore than ten million people living in areas ofhigh cyclone risk. CPP has demonstrated that

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BBeenneeffiittss ooff ppuubblliicc ppaarrttiicciippaattiioonn iinncclluuddee::

• Improved understanding of warnings as a com-plex social process;

• Identification of warning recipients; • Identification of resources available at the local

level to tailor message contents, disseminationchannels and response options (including empir-ical knowledge of hazards and local copingstrategies);

• Access to most vulnerable community groups(an effective early warning system is one thatcaters adequately and equally to remote andother vulnerable social groups with special needsor limited access to resources, including remoteisland communities, squatter settlements, dis-abled and elderly people, tourists and fisher-men);

• Better understanding of user needs and prefer-ences in terms of product-type and application,as well as display of information;

• Social support for public policies and decisions,mass evacuations, for example;

• Enhanced credibility of warning messages;• Easier improvement of early warning systems

based on feedback analysis from warning recipi-ents.

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1. Political commitment to create theconditions for allowing publicinvolvement.

2. Early start in the warning designprocess in order to allow time fortrust-building.

3. Definition of how participationwill be organized.

4. Provision of all necessary informa-tion to community leaders andcivil society representatives.

5. Advertisement and wide sharingof the process through the massmedia, for example.

6. Testing of warning options; moni-toring of implementation.

7. Maintenance of communicationand iteration (feedback with users)during the process.

8. Institutionalisation of feedbackprocedures and assurance of sus-tainability/maintenance of the sys-tem.

Adapted from B. Affeltranger, 2002

The following boxes provide a summary of the benefits of public participation and indicate factorsthat facilitate this process.

disaster preparedness programmes can be suc-cessful through the use of community-basedmanagement methods and basic forms of tech-nology that can link appropriate and effectivewarning systems to distant providers of life-sav-ing information. Selected volunteers serve as“information lifelines” for people at times ofthreatening cyclones.

Through the CPP communications network,high-frequency radio broadcasts are transmittedfrom the capital city of Dhaka to field stationsequipped with additional very high frequency(VHF) radio receivers, where information is thenpassed on to the volunteer unit teams by way oftransistor radios. Local information on theprogress of an approaching cyclone or the result-ing effects after it has passed through an area islikewise transmitted back to the central office.The network has also proved to be an importantasset for relief operations after a cyclone.

er, as the main characteristics of the six zoneswere comparable, regional action was possibleat a local level. As pilot zones, they served asexamples that demonstrated the experienceslocal communities had had in applying localdisaster management techniques, supported bynational and regional structures that were com-petent in the area of disaster reduction. Themain activities implemented during thisprocess were:

• Analysis of the zones of risk and of thespecific demands (risk maps, interviews,participatory planning);

• Training of the local population in flood-fighting measures;

• Selecting, training and equippingobservers and analysts in the watershed ofthe affected river;

• Improving communication capacitiesamong the individuals and institutionsinvolved;

• Developing contingency plans and imple-menting evacuation exercises in the pilotzones.

The results of all these efforts in the six pilotzones were early warning systems that work inthe following way. Selected people living in theupper parts of the river regularly measure rain-fall and water level. They transmit this infor-mation by radio to a central office in the closestmunicipality where the data collected areanalysed. The centre itself is in communicationwith people in the flood-prone areas. At timesof expected danger, the centre can thus alert thepopulation exposed to risks and can prepare fortheir evacuation, if necessary.

In order to be effective, this system requires reli-able communication and coordination processesamong all actors and the population at risk.Responsibilities have also to be clearly assignedand commitment must be continuous. If theseconditions are met, the early warning systemhelps to reduce substantially the losses and dam-ages caused by floods and to motivate people totake further action aimed at achieving sustain-able disaster risk reduction for the region.

The ongoing work to design an early warningsystem for the Lower Mekong floods under-taken by the Mekong River Commission(MRC) and its member countries (Cambodia,the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Thai-

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The CPP volunteer training and public aware-ness programmes are central to its success andwell-founded reputation. Public awarenessabout the risks associated with cyclones is con-veyed by the volunteers themselves anddemonstrated through drills and demonstra-tions, dramas and folk songs. Printed materi-als, the use of films and videos and targetedpublicity campaigns supplement the regularuse of the radio and television media to build acommon understanding of basic elements ofearly warning and cyclone protection behav-iour.

It is the dedication and tireless efforts of thesevolunteers–and all who support them withtheir understanding, support and respect–thatcontributed to the CPP receiving Thailand’s“Smith Tunsaroch Award” in 1998 in recogni-tion of the volunteers’ efforts to protect thepeople of Bangladesh.

The RREELLSSAATT PPrroojjeecctt ((SSttrreennggtthheenniinngg ooff llooccaallssttrruuccttuurreess aanndd eeaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg ssyysstteemmss)) wasimplemented in pilot zones in each of the sixCentral American countries between Novem-ber 1998 and December 1999. The project wasfinanced by the European Commission Human-itarian Aid Office (ECHO) and realized in thecontext of long-term community-based disas-ter risk reduction cooperation betweenCEPREDENAC and the German Agency forTechnical Cooperation (GTZ).

The purpose of the project was to establish effi-cient and reliable early warning systems withregard to floods, tailored to the realities andcapabilities of the selected pilot zones. Howev-

Informal and social networks have been found to reinforcewarning dissemination systems in Mauritius. It appearslikely that small, isolated island communities such as Mau-ritius have particularly strong and effective social networks,which considerably help warning dissemination. Informalpersonal and community networks can be highly effectivein disseminating warnings and deserve the right apprecia-tion from those issuing formal warnings. They usually ben-efit from an organizational and popular culture in whichpreparation for cyclone and cyclone warning and responseare to some extent embedded.

Source: UK Flagship Programme, 1998

land and Viet Nam) illustrates efforts to devisea strategy that is both technically efficient,socially useful and relevant to the recipientcommunities. The ongoing project is guidedby research focusing on the complex socialprocess triggered by warnings, which needs tobe understood to design both the technical andsocial aspects of the warning system. MRCfully endorsed the value of the “social owner-ship” of the warning strategy when developingits Flood Mitigation and Management Plan in2001. Thanks to the Commission and otherparties involved, participatory approaches areprogressively being introduced into the disas-ter management culture of the region. Individ-ual countries should in principle apply a simi-lar approach depending on their institutional

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settings and political preparedness. Possibleaction plans to implement user-based floodwarning and disaster mitigation were present-ed to the MRC secretariat, as well as to repre-sentatives of member countries on the occasionof the MRC Expert Meeting on Flood Fore-casting and Early Warning Systems (PhnomPenh, Cambodia, 26 February-1 March2002). The plans emphasize the need to under-stand vulnerability, risk culture and relatedtrade-offs, as well as the social response tofloods to provide useful warnings. Nationalauthorities were advised to conduct a proactive,preliminary assessment of the social relevance,relative usefulness and expected efficiency oftheir flood warning strategy in order to furtherimprove it.

EEaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg ooff ffoorreesstt ffiirree aatt llooccaall lleevveell

The Integrated Forest Fire Management (IFFM) project in Indonesia is a technical cooperation project supportedby GTZ and the Global Fire Monitoring Centre (GFMC). The project approach relies on the involvement oflocal communities in fire prevention and preparedness (community-based fire management). IFFM has beenworking with a fire danger rating (FDR) system in East Kalimantan since 1995. The FDR is based on the Keetch-Byram Drought Index (KBDI) and is part of a fire information system (FIS) that manages spatial fire-related dataand information in an integrated manner. The graph indicates the KBDI readings for the 1997-1998 El Niñoyears that show the development of drought and fire danger in the coastal zone of East Kalimantan. This droughtindex is easy to handle because it only requires on-site rainfall and temperature measurements. Since fire-weatherpatterns in the tropical rainforest region vary within short distances, it is advantageous for this system to be used bylocal entities such as local fire departments, forestry enterprises and communities.

Source:GTZ/GFMC,2001

the same time ensuring coordination of activi-ties and facilitating the exchange of knowledge.There are many benefits to be found in thethree-tiered support structure in which inter-national/global efforts are mobilized tostrengthen and build capacity at the regionallevel, which level does the same at the nationallevel.

As seen in the examples given in this chapter,regional processes provide a framework foraction at the national level; regional institutionsprovide advice and motivation to national insti-tutions; these assist in fund-raising and are keyinterlocutors for governmental authoritiesthanks to their appreciation of national circum-stances; finally, they assist countries to playtheir part in international activities.

International cooperation provides essentialfinancial and support in kind to build nationalearly warning capacities. Major networkinginitiatives that facilitate exchange of informa-tion and experience and linkage with interna-tional agendas are launched through interna-tional cooperative arrangements for the benefitof national institutions. Specific activities suchas the development of uniform standards andconcepts can only take place internationallywith the cooperation of as many UnitedNations Member States as possible.

Recent activities undertaken at the internation-al level include the Expert Meeting on EarlyWarning and Sustainable Development held inMarch 2002, under the auspices of the GermanCommittee for Disaster Reduction (DKKV),within the framework of ISDR. The purpose ofthe meeting was to translate what is neededfrom the ongoing early warning process intoconcrete recommendations for action. Therationale of the initiative was to define modali-ties to implement the action plans and strategiesresulting from the work carried out during thepast decade and to take the opportunity of theupcoming WSSD to increase the visibility ofthe early warning process. Outputs of the meet-ing are intended to serve the WSSD preparato-ry process and beyond.

The meeting was instrumental in reiteratingthe contribution of early warning systems tothe process of achieving sustainable develop-ment. Building on the elements of early warn-ing and disaster reduction negotiated in the

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A number of activities focused on community-based flood mitigation and management are ongo-ing or have been completed in the Mekong Basin.New projects will capitalize on these initiatives,thereby strengthening networks, building mutualtrust and developing professional practice andexpertise.

Similar approaches have been developed else-where. The European Union’s OOSSIIRRIISS pprroojjeecctt aannddIInnffoorrmmaattiioonn SSoocciieettyy TTeecchhnnoollooggiieess PPrrooggrraammmmee assessedthe potential added value of so-called “new infor-mation and communication technologies” forflood-related warning and information manage-ment. The project also studied conditions foreffective operation of such tools, as well as socialownership. In 2000-2001 the European Centre onRisk Prevention (CEPR), Niort, France, organ-ized community-based workshops. A two-phasedstudy was carried out to understand differences inrisk perceptions and information demandsamongst stakeholders, and to survey the social rel-evance and efficiency of existing or planned floodwarning systems. In Hungary and Mozambique,the United Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization (UNESCO) carried out astudy on flood-related information managementsystems and public participation at community-level in flood mitigation and control.

These examples confirm that early warning strate-gies should not be separated from broader devel-opment planning and poverty reduction goals.Practical and tangible objectives or immediateincentives are likely to trigger communities’ com-mitment to user-based processes. Respectfulunderstanding of existing social processes andcapitalizing upon them are keys to successfulschemes for public participation.

Support aat tthe iinternational and rregional llevels

The third requisite for the emergence, mainte-nance and improvement of effective early warningsystems is the support provided by internationaland regional institutions and networks. The fol-lowing principles provide a basis to guide the col-laboration and coordination efforts required atthe international and regional levels.

First of all, international and regional supportprovides incentives and motivation to strengthenand improve early warning capabilities, while at

WSSD preparatory process, the meeting iden-tified specific needs and suggested a course ofaction to fulfil those needs. First and foremostneed for better interlinkages to ensure dialogueamong all stakeholders at all levels was identi-fied, as well as the lack of vulnerability assess-ments at local and national levels. Capacity-building, technology development, indicatorsto evaluate the effectiveness of early warningsystems as well as a thorough inventory/reviewof ongoing initiatives/programmes were listedamong the specific needs.

The development of a global programme onearly warning was suggested to fulfil the needsidentified. The purpose of the programmewould be to raise political commitment atnational, regional and international levelstowards the integration of early warning sys-tems in disaster risk management strategies.Recognizing and drawing upon the valuablework already under way, especially by WMO,an important dimension of the programmewould be the development of an early warning


platform/forum, under the auspices of theUnited Nations to facilitate dialogue betweenstakeholders and support exchange of experi-ences and information on early warning, at theinternational, regional, national and local lev-els. Hopefully the global programme on earlywarning and the international early warningplatform/forum would trigger the establish-ment of national and subregional early warningplatforms/forums to strengthen networkingand capacities among the actors involved in theearly warning chain. Such a programme wouldalso be active in the areas of capacity-buildingand technical cooperation to reduce the techni-cal/technological and scientific gaps betweendeveloped and developing countries.

The above activities would be elaborated with-in the ISDR framework and relevant strategiesand structures through wide consultations,Working Group 2 and the ISDR secretariatbeing actively associated in this endeavour.Finally, a time frame to implement the aboverecommendations was developed.

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1. In the interest of concerted international efforts to reduce the adverse effects of natural and similar dis-asters, the technologically advanced countries have an obligation to encourage and support improved earlywarning practices in developing countries, small island developing States, economies in transition, andother disaster-prone countries with special circumstances.

2. Primarily affected countries equally have a primary responsibility to conduct a rigorous audit of the effective-ness, or consequential identification of needs, of their early warning capabilities. The conduct of post-mortemassessments of regional and national warning system capabilities is particularly relevant following anydisaster event.

3. Specialized regional and global centres involved in the preparation and dissemination of warnings, such as theWMO Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres (RSMCs) provide important links to national earlywarning systems. The application of their technical capabilities and the utility of their products shouldbe carefully integrated with the needs of the countries being served, including any necessary clarifica-tion about the warning responsibilities between these centres and national agencies in the same region.

4. In the interest of protecting people from the risk of natural hazards, it is essential that the formulationand presentation of warnings be based on the best available technical and scientific knowledge, and free ofpolitical distortion or manipulation.

5. International bodies and regional organizations must work to maintain the vital importance of timelyexchange and unrestricted access of observational data and other warning information between countries, partic-ularly when hazardous conditions affect neighbouring countries.

6. Timely, accurate and reliable warnings should be understood in the context of commonly accepted internationalstandards, nomenclature, protocols and reporting procedures. Established or internationally agreed means ofcommunication should be employed for the international and regional dissemination of any warninginformation to specific authorities designated in each country.

7. Collaboration and coordination is essential between scientific institutions, early warning agencies, publicauthorities, the private sector, the media, and local community leaders to ensure that warnings areaccurate, timely, meaningful and can result in appropriate action by an informed population.

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forecasters and disaster managers from neigh-bouring countries to review advance climateforecast indicators jointly and then to considerthe potential implications in their respectivecountries. The weather forecast data are like-wise discussed with respect to other social andeconomic dimensions of governmental interest,in an effort to develop routine opportunities bywhich climatic and meteorological considera-tions are integrated into disaster management,agricultural, public health, energy, commercialand similar interests shared by all of the partic-ipating countries.

A review to assess the accomplishments andshortcomings of RCOFs and recast theirfuture was carried out in 2000. Conclusions areconsistent with the needs identified at the Bonnmeeting, i.e. improved interlinkages among allstakeholders involved in the early warningprocess. As stated in “Coping with the Cli-mate: A Way Forward”, there is a need to clar-ify and reinforce the current three-tiered sup-port structure. There is also a need to focusand build capacity in key areas, including thedevelopment of improved, user-tailored fore-cast products in partnership with appropriateintermediaries, broader outreach through themedia, verification of forecast products andevaluation of forecast costs and benefits.Development and use of forecasts will beenhanced by “more systematic organization ofthe roles and responsibilities of forum partnersincluding users, researchers, and operationalorganizations” and by the “partnerships …needed at all levels of the process”. Govern-ments, policy makers, development experts,scientists and other interested parties are invit-ed to engage in a process of dialogue and pro-gramme development needed for the manage-ment of climatic impacts.

Technical iidentification aand monitoring oof hhazards

Scientific knowledge and monitoring capabili-ties are needed to identify and forecast short tolong-term hazards. The first segment of theearly warning chain is the forecast and predic-tion of hazards, which along with vulnerabilityand risk information, will allow the formula-tion of warning messages for intermediaries.Until now, early warning has taken place alongthe lines of singular events and hazards or

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At the regional level, the growing economicimportance of climatic variability has prompt-ed WMO and other technical institutions toreach beyond scientific research and to extendavailable information to establish early warningsystems and to strengthen local risk reductionpractices. An excellent example in this area isthe series of Regional Climate OutlookForums (RCOFs) organized by USAID, theUnited States National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (US/NOAA) and WMO. Theseseasonal, multidisciplinary technical meetingshave brought together meteorologists, climate

IISSDDRR TTaasskk FFoorrccee WWoorrkkiinngg GGrroouupp oonn EEaarrllyy WWaarrnniinngg

The aim of Working Group 2 on early warning createdby the ISDR IATF is to better coordinate global prac-tices in early warning and to make sure it is effectivelyutilized as an instrument in disaster reduction activities.The UNEP Division of Early Warning and Assess-ment leads this Working Group whose membershipincludes CDERA, the Food and Agriculture Organi-zation of the United Nations (FAO), the GermanNational Committee for Disaster Reduction, and theADRC, GFMC, the Intergovernmental Authority onDevelopment (IGAD), the SADC Drought Monitor-ing Centres, the South Pacific Applied GeoscienceCommission (SOPAC), the United Nations Pro-gramme for Human Settlements (UN-HABITAT),the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertifica-tion (UNCCD), UNDP, UNESCO and WMO. Thegroup builds on previous activities undertaken in thefield and coordinates with those of the different IATFworking groups in the areas of data and informationmanagement, to support assessments of risk and vul-nerability to natural hazards and early warning and viceversa. The group seeks to involve as many parties aspossible from national, regional and internationalorganizations into its discussions, on an ad hoc basis, toensure its intersectoral and multidisciplinary dimen-sion.

Key words characterizing the six objectives of theGroup are coordination, collaboration, harmonization,dissemination of information and networking to createand share knowledge. The work of the group will focuson inventorying capacities for early warning and vul-nerability assessments, as well as related scientific andtechnical issues, learning lessons and identifying short-comings, developing effectiveness indicators and com-municating early warning information. The group will

organization-specific requirements. Howeverthe challenges that humanity will face in thetwenty-first century require a systematic andcomprehensive approach encompassing bothenvironmental and climatic processes–over alonger period of time as well as during periodsof quiescence (e.g. between El Niño episodes,in between fire weather, smoke and haze sea-sons, during hurricane and typhoon off-sea-sons, etc.). There is then a much greater needfor institutionalized standard nomenclature,procedures, extended organizational relation-ships and common approaches to informationmanagement–which will be eased by advancesin omnidirectional communication facilitiesand information technologies. Recommenda-tions of the Bonn meeting described above andthe action programme to be adopted at WSSDimplicitly provide a starting point to addressthese concerns. As stated in the conclusions ofthe IDNDR Programme Forum in 1999,there is a crucial need to implement an earlywarning concept of the second generation thatmust be interdisciplinary and intersectoralcomprising sociological, economical, political,organizational and scientific wisdom.

It is difficult to pay tribute to the number andvariety of “warning centres”, dispersed by typeof hazard, location, organization, mandates,etc. Some examples have been selected and arebriefly described in this subsection. Otherexamples are given in chapter 4.1 dealing withinformation management and communication.

As almost three-quarters of all natural disastersare related to weather, water or climate, WMOplays an important role in structuring the sys-tematic analysis and reporting on hazards. Itboth works through, and provides, technicalsupport to all National Meteorological andHydrological Services (NMHSs) and manyregional specialized meteorological centresworldwide. Without these institutions, earlywarning capabilities would almost be non-exis-tent.

The following WMO programmes are partic-ularly important in contributing to global capa-bilities in the detection, forecasting and earlywarning of hazards, as well as in providingeffective means and procedures to minimizetheir adverse consequences through the appli-cation of science and technology for greaterpublic understanding:

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• TThhee WWoorrlldd WWeeaatthheerr WWaattcchh ((WWWWWW)) pro-gramme enables the exchange of real-timedata, forecasts, warnings and advisories forthe public and the international community;

• TThhee TTrrooppiiccaall CCyycclloonnee PPrrooggrraammmmee ((TTCCPP))works to develop professional abilities andpromotes nationally and regionally coordi-nated systems to ensure effective prepared-ness measures against tropical cyclones andassociated phenomena;

• TThhee WWoorrlldd CClliimmaattee PPrrooggrraammmmee ((WWCCPP))rovides assistance through its ClimateInformation and Prediction Services tocountries for the application of climateinformation and knowledge in the predic-tion and early warning of climate-relatednatural disasters;

• TThhee WWoorrlldd WWeeaatthheerr RReesseeaarrcchh PPrrooggrraammmmee((WWWWRRPP)) develops and promotes cost-effective and improved techniques for theforecast of high-impact weather like tropicalcyclones, sand and dust storms, and heavyrainfall that can provoke severe flooding;

• TThhee HHyyddrroollooggyy aanndd WWaatteerr RReessoouurrcceess PPrroo-ggrraammmmee assists national hydrological serv-

ices in assessing the risks, and issuing fore-casts, of water-related hazards, with a focuson major floods and droughts; and

• RReeggiioonnaall SSppeecciiaalliizzeedd MMeetteeoorroollooggiiccaall CCeenn-ttrreess ((RRSSMMCCss)) are designated worldwide byWMO to provide weather forecasts andadvisories on tropical cyclones or other spe-cialized risks associated with the atmos-phere or having global implications, likevolcanic plumes, fire haze, or environmen-tal emergencies including nuclear facilityaccidents or other local and large-scale pol-lution emergencies.

WWMMOO tteecchhnniiccaall ccooooppeerraattiioonn pprroojjeeccttss ccoonnttrriibbuuttee ttoo tthheeiimmpprroovveemmeenntt ooff eeaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg ssyysstteemmss iinn ddeevveellooppiinngg coun-tries. For example, one recently completed project supportedearly warning systems for the national meteorological servicesof Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger. Another project is lookinginto the feasibility of establishing a regional system, whichwill produce and utilize early warning of impending dangerand related social and economic consequences based on theactual predictions of El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)and thus ameliorate the socio-economic impacts of ENSOby improved early warning mechanisms. Feasibility will beanalysed from the technical, economical, social, environmen-tal, legal and institutional points of view.

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The success of the WMO programmes illus-trates the economic and social benefits that arederived from an accurate global weather fore-casting system. Studies show that the benefitsof weather forecasting do not stop at earlywarning of natural disasters. However, meteor-ological and hydrological services are stillundervalued in most countries even thoughthey constitute a building element of anynational disaster reduction strategy given theirimportance in early warning systems. More-over, observations of weather phenomena gobeyond the immediate and seasonal forecastsdetermining daily human activity. Long-rangestudies of the stratosphere are crucial in under-standing the phenomenon of global change,including El Niño, climate change or thedepletion of the ozone layer. WMO scientificanalyses and warnings are instrumental inaddressing these issues and supporting multi-lateral environmental agreements.

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An International Research Centre for the El NiñoPhenomenon (IRCEN, CIIFEN in Spanish) isbeing established in Guayaquil, Ecuador,under the auspices of the Government ofEcuador, ISDR and WMO. The Centre willbe a means to conduct a regional project thatwill address, inter alia, early warning systemsfor disaster loss reduction. It is conceived as acentre with global connections to other centres,but with a special focus on the Eastern Equa-torial Pacific and the western countries ofSouth America. Socio-economic benefits willbe derived from seasonal forecasts and ElNiño/La Niña warnings and advisories,which will be converted into informationproducts designed for disaster loss reductionpurposes and key socio-economic sectors,public health, agriculture, fisheries, watermanagement, energy production and use.The centre should be starting its operationsin September 2002.

GGllaacciiaall LLaakkee OOuuttbbuurrsstt FFlloooodd ((GGLLOOFF))

UNEP through its Environment Assessment Programme for Asia and the Pacific (EAPAP), at the Asian Institute ofTechnology, Bangkok, is contributing to the establishment of an operational early warning system to monitor haz-ards in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. Through a project implemented in collaboration with the InternationalCentre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Nepal recently produced inventories of glaciers and glaciallakes in Bhutan and Nepal, specifying the potential risk lakes. Outputs of the project also included recommenda-tions for the establishment of a system for monitoring potential risk lakes using remote sensing, GIS and strength-ening of national capabilities to implement an early warning system for GLOF hazards. Training of local expertswas also provided.

IImmpplleemmeennttaattiioonn ooff aann eeaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg ssyysstteemm iinn NNeeppaall

Following panic created by the media in the summer of 1997 in the Rolwaling and Tama Koshi Valleys, HisMajesty’s Government of Nepal implemented an early warning system at the end of June 1997 to provide timelywarning to the people. An army and two police posts were established at appropriate locations and provided withhigh frequency (HF) radio transceivers, one post having a back-up set. Regular radio contacts were maintainedwith headquarters in Kathmandu. In addition, the posts were provided with satellite telephones. The disaster pre-vention cell at the Home Ministry was informed twice a day. In the event of a GLOF, Radio Nepal, the nationalbroadcaster, would broadcast a warning. Radio Nepal can be received in most places along the valleys that are atrisk.

TThhee GGLLOOFF eeaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg ssyysstteemm

The first flood warning system in Nepal was installed in May 1998 to warn the people living downstream fromTsho Rolpa Glacial Lake, in the potential GLOF affected areas along the Rolwaling and Tama Kosi Valleys aswell as at the Khimti Hydroelectric Project. The Department of Hydrology and Meteorology implemented theproject financed by the World Bank. The operation of the warning system has been satisfactory. The GLOFwarning system can be essentially divided into two general components: the GLOF sensing system, which detectsthe occurrence of a GLOF and initiates the warning process, and the downstream warning system, which conveys

larly. Together with real-time satellite data onactive fires the GFMC information systemprovides a range of information tools forearly warning of critical fire situations.

The Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS)of the International Oceanographic Commission(IOC) of UNESCO provides timely andeffective tsunami warning, watch and infor-mation bulletins to the populations of thePacific. It is operated through the Pacific Tsuna-mi Warning Centre (PTWC) with the support ofnational and regional tsunami warning centres.IOC also maintains an International TsunamiInformation Centre (ITIC), which acts as asource of information for national andregional tsunami warning authorities.

Alongside these programmes, the Three Glob-al Observing Systems (G3OS), namely theGlobal Climate Observing System (GCOS), theGlobal Terrestrial Observing System (GTOS)and the Global Ocean Observing System(GOOS), in which United Nations agencies,the International Council of Scientific Unions(ICSU) and satellite agencies work together,make important contributions to the warningprocess. G3OS activities are harmonizedthrough the Integrated Global Observing Strat-egy (IGOS), to which the United Nations sys-tem-wide Earthwatch is also providing sup-port especially as far as environmental obser-vation and assessment are concerned. Envi-ronmental data need to be integrated intoearly warning strategies and Earthwatch pro-vides a useful platform for information andknowledge exchange.

With continuing globalization in travel andtrade, global epidemic surveillance is essen-tial to ensure international public health secu-rity. International efforts to contain health-related threats are coordinated by WHO.WHO has established a number of interna-tional networks for specific disease threatsand has developed several electronic databas-es including: FluNet, a geographical infor-mation system to monitor influenza activityand the Global Public Health Intelligence Net-work (GPHIN), a web-based system devel-oped in collaboration with Health Canadawhich scans the web for outbreak-relatedinformation. The early warning and responsenetwork of Southern Sudan (see box) also

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GFMC provides a web portal with the glob-al, regional and national systems that areavailable for real-time or nearly real-timeearly warning of wildland fire. Most systemsare based on weather forecasts at short toextended time ranges and global to regionalspace scales. The global system is generatedby the Experimental Climate Prediction Centre(ECPC). Regional systems are provided bythe Association of South-East Asian Nations(ASEAN) Fire Weather Information System(generated by Forestry Canada), the EurasianExperimental Fire Weather Information System(Forestry Canada and GFMC) and theEuropean Natural Hazards Project Forest FireRisk (European Union). Other systems aresatellite-based indices, e.g. the NormalizedDifference Vegetation Index (NDVI) andthermal data from the NOAA Advanced VeryHigh Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR)sensors. Area, intensity and duration of vege-tation stress, fire potential and danger can beestimated from maps that are updated regu-

EEaarrllyy WWaarrnniinngg aanndd RReessppoonnssee NNeettwwoorrkk ((EEWWAARRNN)),, SSoouutthheerrnn SSuuddaann

EWARN was launched in 1999 by WHO in collaborationwith several international agencies, NGOs and local communi-ties to strengthen outbreak detection and response.

Objectives of EWARN: • Early detection, alert and prompt investigation of suspect-

ed outbreaks;• Establishment and strengthening of outbreak preparedness

and rapid response;• Provision of regular feedback and technical guidance to all

involved;• Building local capacity for early detection, prompt investi-

gation and rapid response.

Currently, EWARN partners handle alerts that would previ-ously have called for mobilization of international teams. In 2000 a relapsing fever outbreak was contained within twoweeks of reported onset, with 154 cases and eight deaths. Part-nership has improved alerting, reporting and response in theevent of suspected outbreaks and saved time, money and lives.The development of an early warning and response network inSouthern Sudan which has built on the experiences andresources of existing NGOs, has provided a model of successin using scarce resources to build capacity and make a differ-ence within a multidisease or integrated disease surveillanceand response framework.

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DDrroouugghhtt eeaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg ssyysstteemmss

Possible achievements through concerted and systematic approaches undertaken international-ly, regionally and nationally are evidenced by the accomplishments in drought early warningsystems established in the wake of the world food crisis in the early 1970s.

The FAO Global Information and Early Warning System on Food and Agriculture(GIEWS) provides a framework for institutional links and information-sharing agreementsamong United Nations organizations, governments, NGOs and trade, research and mediaorganizations, while supporting national and regional initiatives. It monitors food supply anddemand conditions for all countries in the world on a continued basis and provides timelywarnings of any imminent food shortages, droughts and hunger at individual country or sub-regional level.

The USAID Famine Early Warning System (FEWS) Net provides a full range of productsand services strengthening the abilities of African countries and regional organizations to man-age threats of food security through the provision of timely and analytical early warning and vul-nerability information.

Article 10 of UNCCD encourages parties to “enhance national climatological, meteorologicaland hydrological capabilities and the means to provide for drought early warning”. UNCCDencourages parties to ensure that the collection, analysis and exchange of data and informationon drought and land degradation addresses the needs of local communities and that these areinvolved in these activities (article 16). Parties to UNCCD have recognized the importance ofbuilding on existing operational early warning systems within the framework of national actionprogrammes. The UNCCD Committee on Science and Technology established two ad hocpanels of experts to examine the issue of early warning systems in the light of the approachadopted by ISDR. The panels concluded that early warning for drought prediction andassessment, and monitoring and assessment for desertification are fundamentally interrelated,yet operationally different activities. The panels recommended that operational drought warn-ing systems should incorporate desertification monitoring into their activities and integratesystems to address both drought and desertification, rather than establishing separate systems.Traditional knowledge should also be integrated into monitoring and assessment activities.

The IGAD policy on food security and environment addresses requirements of early warningsystems such as remote sensing services. Drought Monitoring Centres for Eastern and SouthernAfrica primarily focusing on drought have extended their products and services to coverweather and climatic patterns, as well as impact assessments.

The new SADC Food Security Programme has widened its scope to encompass economicdevelopment, trade, investment and poverty (see also chapter 3.2). A regional coordinationand cooperation programme supports cooperation on all food security, agricultural and naturalresources development issues. A regional information system for food security supports thegeneration and exchange of information relating to all aspects of food security, ranging frominformation about policies through socio-economic data of economies to data concerning thenutrition of households for decision-making purposes across all the facets of the food, agricul-ture and natural resources sector. Components of the system include: the Regional Early Warn-ing System for Food Security (REWS); the Regional Remote Sensing Unit (RRSU); and the Region-al Environmental Information System (REIS).

The Sahelian Regional Training Centre for Agrometeorology and Operational Hydrology and theirApplications (AGRHYMET) of the Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in theSahel (CILSS) is now also dealing with natural resources management and the impacts of cli-mate change.

observation, analysis and transmission are not equallyavailable and affordable throughout the world. Presentand anticipated activities within the ISDR frameworkand bilateral/regional technical cooperation pro-grammes offer concrete vehicles to assist developingcountries in improving their forecast, prediction andcommunication systems. Moreover, it is recognizedthat occurrence of a hazard and ensuing relief aid,usually target the more “technical in nature” needs,such as hazard-resistant forms of communication orsophisticated means of data collection and processing,to mention but two.

The necessity to build or strengthen key lifelineresources, such as electrical supply or telephone net-works, to robust hazard-resistant standards is welldocumented and obvious. Solutions exist and are well

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provides a concrete example of health-related earlydetection, alert and investigation of diseaseutbreaks.

At the national level, the Nicaraguan Governmenthas given natural hazard prevention an importantrole in its politics. Scientific investigations, mappingactivities and the establishment of early warning sys-tems are carried out by INETER. These efforts andcooperation with the Civil Defence of Nicaraguaand other institutions should lead to successful earlywarnings.

Multidisciplinary, iintersectoral aand multi-aagency ccommunications rrequirements

Communication-related issues in the context of earlywarning systems have two aspects; the hardwareaspect relates to the maintenance of lifelines, i.e. thenecessity to build or strengthen robust hazard-resist-ant communication systems; the software aspectrelates to the maintenance of relationships, i.e. theneed to establish and maintain effective links andworking relationships among the actors involved inthe early warning chain.

As stated earlier, considerable scientific, technical,communication and managerial efforts have beenachieved to improve early warning systems for arange of natural hazards. Systems are more accuratethan ever and can deliver information more quicklythan ever. However, most advanced technologies for

Experience shows that one of the most effectivemeasures for reducing damage and consequencesof natural disasters is a well-functioning coordina-tion of actions among a number of governmentalinstitutions involved in this activity. In the frame-work of the State Emergency Commission ofUUkkrraaiinnee, special procedures for natural disasterpreparedness and mitigation have been estab-lished by the Government for national agencies.These specify basic principles and directives,define roles and responsibilities of differentdepartments and institutions for action at thenational, subregional and local levels.

Early wwarning oof vvolcanic eeruptions iin JJapan

The Japanese Coordination Committee for the Prediction of Volcanic Eruptions dedicates its efforts to the mitigation of dam-ages from volcanoes. In this regard, early warning of eruptions is essential. Therefore, the Japan Meteorological Agency(JMA), universities and other research institutes are constantly monitoring and conducting research on volcanoesusing up-to-date technologies. JMA and university institutions regularly observe the most active volcanoes on a real-time basis by using seismographs and cameras. Usu is one of the intensively observed volcanoes. In March 2000, theCommittee reported the possibility of an eruption. In response, the relevant administrative organizations such as theNational Land Agency, JMA, the Ministries of Construction, Home Affairs and Transport, and the national policedispatched officials to the site and organized a local liaison meeting, followed by the setting up of a local headquartersfor major disaster countermeasures to share information and decide on appropriate action. Local government officials,public corporations/companies and relief services were dispatched on site. Thus a response system both at the nation-al and local levels was in place before the eruption. Advisory evacuation bulletins were issued to local residents usinglocal community networks and mass media. The agencies and ministries concerned arranged shelter, transportationand security. Evacuation orders then followed, whereby 10,000 people were evacuated; no death or injury was report-ed. The absence of human casualties can be attributed to the coordinated efforts of the organizations involved in dis-aster management. In this regard, accurate prediction of the eruption through constant observation with the latest tech-nologies was a key factor, allowing quick governmental response. Strong collaboration between each ministry andorganization allowed quick evacuation and provision of shelters. Moreover, partnerships with other organizations suchas the media secured efficient dissemination of warnings and evacuation orders.

Source: ADRC, 2001

known; recent developments in information technologywill go a step further in protecting key resources fromdamages caused by disasters. Back-up communicationsystems such as battery-powered radio and telephonelinks need to be part of effective warning systems. InMMaauurriittiiuuss, the back-up system would still operate evenif a cyclone were to destroy or interrupt the power sup-ply system.

At the intersection of technology and communicationissues, capitalizing on the extensive penetration ofmobile phones even among the poorest of the poor andinto village life, street vendors and coastal fishermen,constitutes a potentially valuable means for “leapfrogtechnology” to be used in delivering warnings. It willrequire a consistent process, based on collaborationbetween public services, communications technologyand a highly competitive commercial field, to work outuniform standards, inter alia.

Improvements in the hardware side of early warninghave unfortunately not meant that communities havebeen made safe from disasters. This will be achieved bydevoting more attention to the software side of earlywarning, i.e. developing improved or alternative meth-ods of communication to address the inappropriatelinkages between technical originators, intermediaries,disseminators and the receivers of warnings. To betruly effective, human and institutional inadequacies ofcommunication links need to be addressed. Communi-cation throughout the early warning chain must be anintegrated multiple-way process, through which origi-nators, intermediaries, disseminators and users are inconstant touch with one another in order to make thesystem responsive to people’s needs, priorities anddecisions or in other words, translate predictions into

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response actions. This implies recognizing earlywarning as a socio-organizational process and find-ing suitable means of communication to establishstrong partnerships between different social groupsand organizational systems, including the media andprivate/commercial communications channels. Insti-tutionalized intersectoral, multi-agency communica-tion capabilities need to be developed outside emer-gency situations so as to be able to function and gen-erate timely response when disasters strike. Suchefforts should start with an assessment of the existinginformation systems and organizations in place, aswell as of their communication channels. Mutualtrust and respect has to grow from friendship andregular joint working between actors in a warningsystem. It is also vital to define roles and responsi-bilities clearly, preferably by law within an effec-tive operational system of disaster management. Inthe PPhhiilliippppiinneess, regular training takes place wherethe different actors in a typhoon warning systemmeet to practise management of the warning–fromorigination to protective action on the ground.

Proper information and data management and trans-fer from the international to the local level will alsohelp countries reduce the resource burden generatedby scientific, technological and technical sophistica-tion.

The basic aim of the recommendations from theBonn meeting described above, was to create link-ages to ensure dialogue among all stakeholdersinvolved in early warning through early warningplatforms. They also addressed most of the concernsdescribed in this subsection.

TThhee rroollee ooff tthhee mmaassss mmeeddiiaa iinn eeaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg ssyysstteemmss

An effective early warning system is one that reaches people using means with which they are conversant.Mass media can serve to warn the public effectively, especially about slow-onset hazards. Television andradio have potentially important roles in making and disseminating public information and educationalprogrammes that can help improve the population’s knowledge and behaviour in the face of hazards andrisks. However low capacity to make their own programmes reduces the extent to which national mediaand broadcast services can fulfil a more important role in hazard education and warning. An additionalshortcoming is the lack of interaction between professional originators of warnings and professional mediapresenters and programmers. If both sides work together, the impact of broadcasts on warning response issignificantly enhanced. In MMaauurriittiiuuss, a low-cost media weather presentation system allows weather profes-sionals to prepare, construct and record their own weather presentations on video for broadcast. Selectedweather professionals are trained in presentation and video recording, as their authority is higher than pro-fessional presenters with some meteorological training.

Source: UK Flagship Programme , 1998.

the river. It also pointed to the need for someearly warning systems to be transboundary innature.

There is one example of disaster managementcontingency planning based upon a well-understood early warning system and accom-plished measures of disaster preparedness thatcould provide wider beneficial experience. Asystematic and annually reviewed process ofcontingency planning for disaster preparednessand response has been in force in MMaauurriittiiuusssince the 1960s. It is derived from the primaryforecasting and early warning authority of theNational Meteorological Service, and is coor-dinated across all operational sectors of gov-ernment, under the overall authority of thePrime Minister’s Office. This programme hasgiven particular attention to maintaining therelevance of its operational plans throughoutchanging conditions of growth and develop-ment in the country, even though tropicalcyclones directly impact the society only everyeight to ten years. The public and officialacceptance of early warning and disaster pre-paredness as integral elements of governmentresponsibility and the resulting informed pub-lic behaviour displayed across generationsmust both be considered as factors of the strat-egy’s success. The National MeteorologicalService has been central to the early warningprocess and has been a motivation for the pre-paredness strategy since its inception. It hasfurther demonstrated the leadership that mete-

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Institutional sservices tthat ccan react tto wwarnings

Warning in itself has no value, what is funda-mental is how people react to it. The ultimateindicator of a warning system’s effectiveness isthe warning recipient’s response to the warn-ing. The mere existence of an efficient earlywarning system should not lead to a false senseof security.

Early warning is widely acknowledged asbeing much more than a technological issuerelated to hazard monitoring, forecasting andtelecommunications and a scientific issue relat-ed to climatology, volcanology and seismology.It is expected to provide clear, consistent, criti-cal and user-friendly information to emergencymanagement officials and the public in duetime to ensure that appropriate action can betaken to minimize loss of life and property.Therefore, the last segment of the early warn-ing chain, namely the reaction to warning mes-sages, deserves more attention in the designand operation of early warning systems.Known, structured, practised and sustainedcontingency action plans are required to elicitproper response after clear and consistent mes-sages are issued, especially when the time to actbecomes shorter. In this regard the importanceof regular simulation exercises is critical toimprove both the efficiency of the responseactions and receive the necessary feedback toadjust the overall design of the early warningsystem. After the disastrous Oder flood eventin 1997 it was recognized that there was anecessity for combined exercises for emergencysituations and improved coordination of coun-termeasures between respective governmentauthorities on the German and Polish sides of

In KKeennyyaa, the Early Warning System (EWS) model pio-neered by the Turkana Drought Contingency Planning Unit(TDCPU), which has now been scaled up to cover 10districts in the north of the country, provides an interest-ing example of how early warning data can be translatedand communicated clearly to decision makers. Althoughmonitoring at least 18 indicators, covering environment,the rural economy and human welfare, EWS delivers asimple message to decision makers. By using a prede-fined sequence of warning stages, from “normal” to“alert” to “alarm” to “emergency”, it presents an easilyunderstood summary analysis, directly linked to responseinterventions.

Warrick et al. (1981) cited the case of the ashfall warning that was issued by the WashingtonState Department of Emergency Services inadvance of the eruption of Mount St. Helens.Although issued by an authoritative source,this message was not passed on to the commu-nity at risk by intermediate agents because itlacked a sense of urgency, was not specificabout the areas likely to be affected by ash falland contained no guidance about precaution-ary actions which people were expected to take.It is now believed that effective warning mes-sages should contain a moderate sense ofurgency, estimate the time before impact andthe scale of the event and provide specificinstructions for action, including the need tostay clear of the hazard zone

Source: Gruntfest 1987

orological services can provide by reaching outto include other partners and professional sec-tors through disaster preparedness initiatives.By appreciating the threat of future potentialnatural disasters, the National MeteorologicalService and the Disaster Management Unitcontinue to work closely with other govern-ment, commercial and public interests on pre-paredness and mitigation initiatives to addressthe possible consequences of climate change onall the social and economic aspects of the coun-try.

Unusual for early warning systems, the Direc-tor of the Mauritius Meteorological Service isempowered by the political authority to issuenecessary warnings himself, without prior oradditional recourse or approval by any otherpublic authority. In the course of a developingemergency, close communication is manifestlymaintained with the political authorities. Thisis, however, a clever contingency if communi-cation is impossible; it also clearly situates theresponsibility on the professional shoulders ofthe Meteorological Service.

The interaction between the prediction andresponse elements of the warning chain isimportant. For example, the RRuussssiiaann FFeeddeerraa-ttiioonn has institutionalized interaction betweendisaster prediction and mitigation in its nation-al “Safety” programme, responsible for riskresponse activities in emergency situations.The framework for interaction extends to allthe member countries of the Commonwealth ofIndependent States through the Inter-StateCouncil on Emergencies. A joint programmedevelops and adopts, inter alia, systems andtechnical means for prediction, warning andquick response measures.

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However, clear procedures for verification thatmessages are not only received and under-stood, but also acted upon, are often over-looked. In HHoonngg KKoonngg, for example, thetyphoon warning system requires that whenmeteorologists issue a warning message to thepolice and fire services, recipients should con-firm that the warning has been received andwill be acted upon.

In some cases, slow or no response to timelyearly warning information received can berooted to a lack of trust in the reliability of thesystem; to contradictory information or to thefact that messages are not tailored to potentialbeneficiaries or do not include advice on viablecourses of action to reduce risk. The socio-eco-nomic, cultural, or else political reasons not toact once warnings are received, need to beovercome by making provisions for follow-upresponse capacities.

This is illustrated by the comparative studyconducted by the Philippine Institute of Volcanol-ogy and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) of the Mayonvolcano and Taal Volcano Island in the Philip-pines. The study showed that on Mayon vol-cano, inhabitants at risk complied with evacua-tion orders received through the radio onlyafter having sought confirmation from thebarangay (village) or municipal leader. In com-parison, on Taal Volcano Island, most of theinhabitants were responsive to evacuationorders received from community leaders andby broadcasts. The difference in attitude wasexplained by reporting habits/styles of popularlocal radio announcers and consistency of theradio announcers’ warning with folk-observedprecursors to eruptions (Jean C. Tayag, 1998).

groups involved in the early warning process,organize information and technologyexchange, train users to find and utilize appro-priate early warning products, strengthen insti-tutions at all levels and build capacities. Insti-tutionalized and regularly tested communica-tion channels clearly spelling out the functionsand roles of the various actors along the warn-ing chain will avoid contradictions and dupli-cation and ensure the ultimate success of get-ting the warning message down to populationsat risk wherever they live. Greater coordinationbetween services involved in the provision ofdata and information will provide a compre-hensive picture of conditions and outlooks nec-essary to inform decision-making and responseactions.

CCoonncceeppttuuaalliizzaattiioonn ooff eeaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg

The initiative to hold a meeting on early warn-ing and sustainable development was timely inaddressing one other challenge, which relatesto the fact that conceptualization and imple-mentation of early warning still take placealong the “old rapid onset hazard/event ororganizational specific” lines. This is counter-productive to an overall, and more systematic,comprehensive approach to the global needs ofthe twenty-first century. Early warning being apillar of disaster reduction strategies has to findits way in sustainable development policies.This means that early warning must now nec-essarily encompass both environmental and cli-matic processes–over a longer period of time aswell as during periods of quiescence (e.g.between El Niño episodes, in between fireweather, smoke and haze seasons, during hur-ricane and typhoon off-seasons, etc.) ratherthan being singular event-based concepts orscenarios. There is then a much greater needfor institutionalized standard nomenclature,procedures and extended organizational rela-tionships, which should benefit from advancesin communications facilities and informationtechnologies. Convergence and coherence inearly warning activities in the context of sus-tainable development should be promoted.This will involve the ability of early warningsystems to deliver information about vulnera-bility patterns in addition to hazards forecast-ing. Systems such as GIEWS and FEWS thatprovide vulnerability information related tofood security are needed in the areas describedin chapter 2.

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cchhaall

lleennggee


What should the early warning process accom-plish in the coming years? From the issues dis-cussed in this chapter, the following areas foraction stand out:

• Human-based and communicationrequirements;

• Conceptualization of early warning;• Interpretation of scientific predictions

based on vulnerability and risk assess-ments and their translation into effectiveactions;

• Public participation;• Coordination of national, regional and

international early warning activities.

The establishment of a global early warningprogramme and the development of an inter-national early warning platform/forum, as sug-gested at the Bonn meeting on early warningand sustainable development (March 2002),should provide a useful framework to respondto these challenges. If as envisaged the globalprogramme on early warning and the interna-tional early warning platform/forum trigger theestablishment of national and subregional earlywarning platforms/forums to strengthen net-working and capacities among the actorsinvolved in the early warning chain, many ofthe above needs could be solved.

HHuummaann-bbaasseedd aanndd ccoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn rreeqquuiirreemmeennttss

This chapter made clear that more than aprocess of technological paraphernalia, theearly warning process should become a clevercommunication system. The most pressingneed is to address the human-based and com-munication systems-related weaknesses. Thisconclusion is not a new one; a major outputfrom the IDNDR early warning systemsWorking Group was that the difficulties aredecidedly NOT technological ones, but ratherconceptual, systemic, and human or institu-tionally-based communication ones. The samefact is reflected in the recommendations of theBonn meeting, which calls for better interlink-ages to ensure dialogue among all stakeholdersat the international, regional, national and locallevels, to, among other things, integrate activi-ties, interests and expertise of the various

Criteria to measure the effectiveness of earlywarning systems need to be elaborated toincrease their credibility and improve their effi-ciency. In this regard, special attention shouldbe given to the accuracy, timeliness and cover-age of warnings, including number of recipi-ents and validation process, calculation ofavoided deaths and economic losses, failure toidentify risk and take response measures, rat-ing of recipients’ satisfaction, including aware-ness of the system in place, warning time, con-flicting information and inappropriateness orinconsistency of it.

IInntteerrpprreettaattiioonn ooff sscciieennttiiffiicc pprreeddiiccttiioonnss bbaasseeddoonn vvuullnneerraabbiilliittyy aanndd rriisskk aasssseessssmmeennttss aanndd tthheeiirrttrraannssllaattiioonn iinnttoo eeffffeeccttiivvee aaccttiioonnss

Unrestricted and affordable access to all rele-vant information on early warning for all usersis necessary but not sufficient. Improvement ofthe interface between issuers and intermedi-aries for a better interpretation of scientific pre-dictions and their translation into positiveadministrative actions is a key factor of theearly warning chain. This issue involves sever-al facets. First of all, if as noted, advances inforecasting and monitoring are remarkable, theaccompanying vulnerability and risk informa-tion is often missing. Major efforts should beundertaken in the coming years to assess vul-nerabilities, generate risk scenarios and vulner-ability maps, based on standardized method-ologies. Then more attention should be devot-ed to developing user-friendly products fordecision makers and communities at risk. Thiswill require a better understanding of userneeds and preferences on how the informationshould be presented and how to apply it in thedecision-making process. This last point willneed treatment of the uncertainty factor in pre-dictions and its consequence for decision-mak-ing processes.

PPuubblliicc ppaarrttiicciippaattiioonn

The user-oriented requirements spelled outabove will be met through structured andfocused participation of the public in the

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design and dissemination of warning messages.People need to know the types of risks they arefacing, then be aware of the alert systems inplace in case the risk becomes a reality, then tounderstand the warning messages they willreceive in case of crisis and finally the reactionexpected from them. Public participation is thekey to trustworthy and credible early warningsystems. Therefore integrated information sys-tems ensuring community participation innational early warning strategies need to bedeveloped. These systems will have built-incapacities to record, test and incorporate tradi-tional and local knowledge and coping strate-gies in early warning systems, including fromone generation to the other. This feature isimportant for infrequent events. Public partic-ipation is also essential to regularly test systemsin place and carry out after-event feedbackanalysis to improve them.

CCoooorrddiinnaattiioonn ooff nnaattiioonnaall,, rreeggiioonnaall aanndd iinntteerr-nnaattiioonnaall eeaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg aaccttiivviittiieess

The need to strengthen the internationalframework for improving early warning sys-tems through an effective international mecha-nism, including for the transfer of technologyto developing countries is not a new one either.The recommendation from the Bonn meetingto establish a global early warning programmeand develop an international early warningplatform/forum responds to this need. Coordi-nation and cooperation, exchange of informa-tion, experience and technologies, interfacebetween national, regional and internationalactivities are necessary driving elements toavoid duplication and move the early warningprocess forward. The early warning processwill benefit from resources andinformation/knowledge exchange throughenhanced contacts with institutions in chargeof multilateral environmental agreements,especially UNCCD and the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC). Such contacts will also improveinteraction between the early warning processand the international agenda for sustainabledevelopment.

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cchhaall

lleennggee

ss MMaaiinn cchhaalllleennggeess ffoorr ddrroouugghhtt eeaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg ssyysstteemmss iilllluussttrraattiinngg tthhee rraannggee ooff iissssuueess ffaacceedd iinn tthhee eeaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg pprroocceessss

• Data sharing: Meteorological and hydrological data are often not widely shared betweengovernment agencies. This restricts early assessment of drought and other climate condi-tions and retards its use in drought preparedness, mitigation and response. In some coun-tries, the high cost of data acquisition from meteorological services restricts the flow ofinformation for timely assessments and for use in research. Memorandums of Under-standing (MOUs) between government agencies would facilitate data sharing and useand could bring tremendous societal benefits;

• Early warning systems products: Data and information products produced by early warn-ing systems are not often user-friendly. Products are often too complicated and do notprovide the type of information needed by users for making decisions. Users are seldomtrained on how to apply this information in the decision-making process or consultedprior to product development. Products are often not evaluated for their utility in deci-sion-making. User needs should be assessed and products evaluated through permanentfeedback mechanisms;

• Monitoring tools: In the case of droughts, triggers for specific mitigation and responseactions are often unreliable because of inadequacy of detection tools and inadequate link-ages between indices and impacts. Integrated assessment products are preferred but fewattempts have been made to integrate meteorological and hydrological information into asingle product for purposes of detecting and tracking drought conditions and develop-ment. It is critical that an integrated approach to climate monitoring be employed toobtain a comprehensive assessment of the status of climate and water supply;

• Impact assessment methodology: One of the missing links in early warning systems is theconnection between climate/drought indices and impacts. The lack of effective impactand reliable assessment methodologies has hindered the activation of mitigation andresponse programmes and reliable assessments of drought-related impacts;

• Delivery systems: Data and information on emerging drought conditions, seasonal fore-casts and other products are not often delivered to users in a timely manner. This charac-teristic significantly limits the usefulness of these products for most users. It is criticalthat delivery systems be improved and be location appropriate. For example, the Internetprovides the most cost-effective information delivery in many settings but is inappropriatein most developing countries. Electronic and print media, as well as local extension net-works, need to be used more fully as part of a comprehensive delivery system to diverseuser groups.

Source: WMO, Early Warning Systems for Drought Preparedness and Drought Management.

6Chapter

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Related international commitments andthe UN role in disaster risk reduction

66..11 Selected international development agendas and commitments

66..22 UN agencies and scope of activities

PPhhoottoo:: GG.. BBeerrzz,, MMuunniicchh RRee

287

6Related international commitments and the UN role in disaster risk reduction

6.1. Selected international development agendas and commitments

The international community has adopted several significant declarations, agendas and conven-tions during the last decades, on, among other things, environment, fresh water management,climate change and desertification, social development, habitat and food security, which allcontain commitments related to disaster reduction. These are often referred to in the text of thisreview.

The following section will provide a short overview of some of the most relevant ones, in partic-ular those related to sustainable development, which is built around three pillars: social andeconomic development, and environmental protection. These are all relevant elements for disas-ter risk reduction and need to be linked to the efforts to implement the objectives of the Interna-tional Strategy for Disaster Reduction. The full implementation of the global visions expressedbelow are yet to be realized.

The following mainstream agreements or subjects are touched upon in this chapter:• Millennium development goals• Sustainable development agenda• Climate change• Desertification and drought • Wetlands• Freshwater agenda• Gender agenda• Habitat agenda• Small island developing states• Least developed countries

An overview of how the different parts of the UN system relate to risk reduction is described insection 6.2. of this chapter.

The MMillennium DDevelopment GGoals

The UN Millennium Summit gathered inNew York in September 2000. A total of 189world leaders met and adopted the UNMillennium Declaration (A/RES/55/2).

Targets, known as the Millennium DevelopmentGoals were established, setting a new milestoneand providing guiding principles for the inter-national community, national governmentsand, in particular, the United Nations. Manyof them touch on areas which are closely linkedto vulnerability to natural hazards, such aseradicating extreme poverty and hunger,achieving universal primary education,promoting gender equality, ensuring environ-mental stability and partnerships for develop-ment. For example, the goal of improving thelives of thousands of slum dwellers around theworld living in high-risk areas by 2020,

involves poverty eradication, proper land useplanning and the improved understanding ofvulnerability to disasters in densely populatedareas.

Under “Protecting our common environment”the declaration resolves "to adopt in all ourenvironmental action a new ethic of conserva-tion and stewardship and, as first steps,resolves...to intensify cooperation to reduce thenumber and effects of natural and man-madedisasters."

"We recognise that, in addition to our separate responsibilitiesto our individual societies, we have a collective responsibility touphold the principles of human dignity, equality and equity atthe global level. As leaders, we have a duty therefore to all theworld's people, especially the most vulnerable and, in particu-lar, the children of the world, to whom the future belongs."Millennium Declaration

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Strategies linked to ISDR for moving ahead onthis goal as described in the "Road maptowards the implementation of the UnitedNations Millennium Declaration" (Secretary-General Report to GA A/56/326) include:

• developing early warning systems, vulnera-bility mapping, technological transfer andtraining;

• supporting interdisciplinary and intersec-toral partnerships, improved scientificresearch on the causes of natural disastersand better international cooperation toreduce the impact of climate variables, suchas El Niño and La Niña;

• encouraging governments to address theproblems created by megacities, the locationof settlements in high-risk areas and othermanmade determinants of disasters;

• encouraging governments to incorporatedisaster risk reduction into national plan-ning processes, including building codes.

The SSustainable DDevelopment AAgenda

The World Summit on Sustainable Develop-ment (WSSD) is being held in Johannesburg,South Africa, in August 2002, 10 years afterthe UN Conference on Environment and Develop-ment (UNCED). UNCED, also known as theEarth Summit, took place in June 1992, in Riode Janeiro, Brazil.

The main outputs of that summit were the Rio Decla-ration on Environment and Development and Agenda 21- a 40 chapter program of action. UNCED also ledto agreement on two legally binding conventions onBiological Diversity (CBD) and Climate Change

(UNFCCC). It also produced a Statement of ForestPrinciples. It started the process of developing aConvention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) inthose countries experiencing serious drought and/ordesertification, in particular in Africa, adopted in1994. The Earth Summit gave rise to a number ofpositive responses including the emergence of thou-sands of local Agenda 21 initiatives and an enhancedpolitical profile of environmental issues. It led to theformation of the Commission for Sustainable Develop-ment (CSD) and many countries set up strategies forsustainable development. But in only a few cases didthese include concerns for risk and disaster reduction.

The journey toward sustainable development isfar from being achieved. This is one conclusionreached during the preparatory process toreview the implementation of Agenda 21, inpreparation for the WSSD. In the last thirtyyears a whole series of summits, meetings andagreements have brought us to the wide rang-ing interpretation of sustainable developmentthat we see today.

For a long time, environment was seen asantagonistic to development. However, in1972 a major step was made towards the recog-nition of the need to address environmentalproblems if better living conditions were to beattained. In 1992, although experience hadbeen gained and environmental policy wasbecoming routine practice worldwide, resist-ance against the environmental agenda was stillhigh. Thanks to the high political profile ofclimate change and biodiversity, the environ-ment agenda was boosted. In 2002, the essen-tial need for environmental strategies toachieve sustainable development is no longerquestioned, even if in terms of implementationthe situation is still far from ideal.

Disaster reduction was not dealt with as suchduring the Rio conference's agenda, even though itwas included in the discussion on human settle-ments, mountain development, fresh watermanagement and land degradation. During theIDNDR, the connection between disaster reduc-tion and sustainable development, including itssocial, economic and environmental dimensionshas been clarified to a greater extent. The aware-ness of these issues and the nature of the cross-sectoral relationships evolved as an increasing arrayof United Nations Multilateral EnvironmentalConventions on climate change, desertification andbiodiversity, signed between 1992 and 1994.

DDiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn aanndd ssuussttaaiinnaabbllee ddeevveellooppmmeenntt

The First World Conference on Natural Disaster Reductionconvened in Yokohama, Japan, in May 1994, represented a turn-ing point for promoting disaster reduction. It led to the adoptionof the Yokohama Plan of Action and changed focus of the workin the second half of IDNDR. The new approach included morefocus on risk and vulnerability reduction and renewed effort toincorporate disaster reduction concerns into sustainable develop-ment. Increased emphasis was given to social sciences and afocus on public policy and promotion of community involvementto reduce risk to disaster in all stages. A ten-year review of theimplementation of the Yokohama strategy will take place in2004.”

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These joined the long standing Ramsar Conven-tion on Wetland Preservation (1971) to emphasizethe importance of natural resource managementand the dynamic growth of risk factors thatcontribute to natural disasters.

History oof tthe EEarth SSummit

The concept of sustainable development datesback a long way but it was at the UN Conferenceon Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972) whenthe international community met for the firsttime to consider the global environment andhighlighted the need to support people in thisprocess. The Conference indicated that indus-trialised environmental problems, such as habi-tat degradation, toxicity and acid rain, were notnecessarily relevant issues for all countries andcommunities. However, it was the existingenvironmental problems that dominated themeeting and led to wider public environmentalawareness.

In the 1980s, the UN set up the World Commis-sion on Environment and Development, alsocalled the Brundtland Commission. Theyproduced Our Common Future, otherwiseknown as the Brundtland Report, whichframed much of what would become Agenda21 and the 27 principles of the Rio Declarationon Environment and Development. It defined

sustainable development as development which"meets the needs of present generations withoutcompromising the ability of future generations tomeet their own needs."

However, the description of sustainable devel-opment in Agenda 21 called for a total shift inthe status quo of prevalent value systems andinstitutional processes. Such global changecould never have occurred over night. Whenprogress was assessed after five years - Rio+5 inNew York, 1997 - many gaps in implementationwere identified, particularly with regard to socialequity and poverty. Falling levels of officialdevelopment assistance (ODA) and growinginternational debt contributed to this. It alsoshowed failures to improve technology transfer,capacity building for participation and develop-ment, institutional coordination, and to reduceexcessive levels of production and consumption.

The review meeting called for the ratificationand implementation of the growing number ofinternational agreements and conventionswhich refer to environment and development.The same concerns regarding implementationhave been raised in the Rio+10 preparatory

EElleemmeennttss

Social and economic dimensions todevelopment

Conservation and management of naturalresources

Strengthening role of major groups

Means of implementation

IIssssuueess

Poverty, production and consumption, health,human settlement, integrated decision-making

Atmosphere, oceans and seas, land, forests, moun-tains, biological diversity, ecosystems, biotechnology,freshwater resources, toxic chemicals, hazardousradioactive and solid waste

Youth, women, indigenous people, NGOs, localauthorities, trade unions, businesses, scientific andtechnical communities, farmers

Finance, technology transfer, information, publicawareness, capacity building, education, legalinstruments, institutional frameworks

TThhee ffoouurr bbrrooaadd aarreeaass ooff aaccttiioonn ooff AAggeennddaa 2211

Sustainable development meets the needs of the presentgenerations without compromising the ability of futureones to meet their own needs….

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process, leading to the WSSD. During thisprocess, natural disaster has been identified asa serious constraint to sustainable developmentand has been included as an action point in thedraft programme of implementation.

More information can be found onwww.earthsummit2002.org

EExxppeecctteedd rreessuullttss ooff WWSSSSDD

• Political declaration on increased commit-ment for action.

• Programme of implementation buildingon Agenda 21 and the Rio Principles.

EElleemmeennttss ddiissccuusssseedd ffoorr tthhee pprrooggrraammmmee ooff iimmpplleemmeennttaattiioonn ooff JJoohhaannnneessbbuurrgg::

"An integrated, multi-hazard, inclusive approach to address vulnerability, risk assessment anddisaster management, including prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery, isan essential element of a safer world in the 21st century." Actions, which are required at all levels,mentioned in the draft after the last preparatory committee held in Bali, call for a strengthenedrole of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), and include:

• The need to strengthen or establish effective regional, subregional and national strategiesand scientific and technical institutional support for disaster management, including jointobservation and research.

• Wetland and watershed protection and restoration to reduce floods, improved land-use plan-ning, improving and applying techniques for assessing the potential adverse effects ofclimate.

• Dissemination and use of traditional and indigenous knowledge to mitigate the impact ofdisasters.

• Promoting community-based disaster management planning by local authorities, includingthrough training activities and raising public awareness.

• Supporting the ongoing voluntary contribution of, as appropriate, NGOs, the scientificcommunity, and other partners in the management of natural disasters according to agreed,relevant guidelines.

• Development and strengthening of early warning systems and information networks indisaster management.

• Strengthening capacity at all levels to collect and disseminate scientific and technical infor-mation, especially El Niño and La Niña, through assistance to institutions devoted toaddressing such events.

• Partnerships (global, regional or sub-region-al) to implement specific parts of the plan ofimplementation.

Disaster is emerging as one of the new subjects inthe draft plan of implementation and will hopefullybe recognised as a prerequisite for sustainabledevelopment. The subject is dealt with under theissue of protecting and managing the naturalresource base of economic and social development,and also touched upon under poverty eradicationfor adequate and secure housing for the poor andunder means of implementation. The sections onsmall island developing states, as well as the one forAfrica, include special concerns and action pointsrelated to increased capacities to cope with disasters.

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UUNN SSuussttaaiinnaabbllee DDeevveellooppmmeenntt PPrroocceessss

11997722 UN Conference on Human Environ-ment (Stockholm) UNEP established

11998800 World Conservation Strategy (IUCN)

11998833 World Commission on Environmentand Development (the BrundtlandCommission) set up

11998899 Brundtland Report Our CommonFuture

11998899 Launch of the International Decade forNatural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)

11999922 UN Conference on Environment andDevelopment (the Earth Summit), inRio de Janeiro. UN Commission onSustainable Development (CSD) estab-lished.

11999977 Rio+5 Summit review (critical becauseof slow implementation)

11999999 End of IDNDR

22000000 Launch of the International Strategy forDisaster Reduction (ISDR)

WWSSSSDD ((RRiioo++1100)) pprroocceessss::

22000011 Defining modalities of process. Nation-al, sub regional and regional preparatorymeetings

22000022 Global Prep Comm. 2 (Jan., New York)Substantive review of implementation ofAgenda 21Global Prep Comm. 3 (March, NewYork)Review and finalize elements forprogramme of actionGlobal Prep Comm. 4 (May, Bali)Identi-fication of priority issues, programme of

KKeeyy EEvveennttss

11998822 UNEP's first high level meeting

11999911 Children's Summit, New York

11999922 Framework Convention on Climate Change(FCCC) and Convention on Biological Diversi-ty (CBD) agreed

11999933 Human Rights Summit, Vienna

11999944 World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduc-tion "For a Safer World", YokohamaConference on Small Island Developing States,Barbados

11999955 Social Summit CopenhagenWomen's Summit, BeijingWorld Trade Organization (WTO) established

11999966 Human Settlements, Summit Istanbul Food Summit, Rome

11999977 Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change adopted

11999988 Convention on Prior Informed Consent adopted

11999999 IDNDR Programme Forum, Geneva

22000000 Millennium Summit, New YorkWorld Youth Forum, Dakar Biosafety Protocol adopted

22000011 UNEP 21st Governing Council, Cartagena UN Third Conference on Least DevelopedCountries, BrusselsInternational Conference on Freshwater, BonnWTO negotiations, including GATTS and agri-culture

22000022 Financing for Development, MexicoWorld Food Summit, Italy

Adapted from www.earthsummit2002.org/Es2002.pdf

Steps tto EEarth SSummit 22002

22000022:: World Summit on Sustainable Development defining national, regional and globalcommitments in Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August-4 September 2002

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United NNations FFramework CConventionon CClimate CChange ((UNFCCC)

The climate change convention was openedfor signature at the UN Conference on Envi-ronment and Development in 1992. Its ultimategoal is the "stabilisation of greenhouse gasconcentrations in the atmosphere at a levelthat would prevent dangerous anthropogenicinterference with the climatic system". TheKyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997, andcompleted three years of negotiations relatingto its operational details in November 2001. Itcontains legally binding commitments fordeveloped country parties. Most OECDcountries agreed to decrease their anthro-pogenic greenhouse gas emissions by at least5 per cent below 1990 levels in the firstcommitment period from 2008-2012. Manycountries with high emission rates have notyet ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the mostevident being the United States. The Protocolis not yet in force.

Since the convention's entry into force, partieshave met annually in the Conference of the Parties(COP) to monitor its implementation andcontinue talks on how best to tackle climatechange. The decisions taken by the COP atannual sessions now make up a detailed rulebook for the effective implementation of theconvention. The landmark Marrakesh Accordsadopted at the seventh session of the COP inMarrakesh, in October/November 2001, wereespecially important in elaborating the conven-tion's rules on issues of particular concern todeveloping countries.

Industrialised countries, who have historicallycontributed most to climate change, arerequested by the convention to submit regularreports, known as national communications,detailing their climate change policies andmeasures. These countries are termed Annex1 Parties of which there are currently 41.

All remaining countries, mostly developingcountries, make up the group of non-Annex IParties, currently numbering 145. Thesecountries are invited to provide nationalcommunications in more general terms on

their actions to address climate change andmeasures taken to adapt to its effect, as well ason their needs to implement the convention. Much of the information requested from Partiesto the Convention will be of use for disasterreduction strategies (for example, informationon policy frameworks for implementing adapta-tion measures and response strategies in thecontext of disaster preparedness, with a view tointegrating climate change impact informationinto national planning processes).

Specific needs and concerns with regard tofinancial assistance and technology transfer,along with support for capacity building ofparticularly vulnerable developing countriesare taken into account under the climateregime. Some developing countries, such aslow-lying island nations or those with areasprone to natural disasters, face high risks fromthe adverse effects of climate change itself,while others, such as oil exporting states, feelmore threatened by the potential economicrepercussions of response measures.

The protocol requests Parties to minimize theadverse effects of their climate change policiesand measures, including social, environmentaland economic impacts on other Parties.

Climate change legislation and financial meansat the disposal of the poorest countriespursuant to the provisions of the UNFCCCwill bring additional benefits to cope withclimate-related disasters, which constitute two-thirds of all disasters.

The 2001 Marrakesh Accords took some impor-tant steps forward on vulnerability and adapta-tion, especially decisions on the adverse effectsof climate change including response toclimate related hazards. Two new conventionfunds, to be managed by the GEF, were alsoestablished, plus one operating under theKyoto Protocol.

The scope of activities eligible for fundingunder the convention was extended, notably inthe area of adaptation to climate change andcapacity building. These include the integra-tion of climate change considerations insustainable development planning, systematicobservation and monitoring networks andearly warning for extreme weather events anddisease outbreaks.

Time is ripe for forging the links between climatechange adaptation and disaster reduction.

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The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)established under the Protocol also represents apotential for financing projects providingdisaster reduction services. This mechanism ismeant to ease emission target compliance fordeveloped countries through the financing ofenergy projects in developing countries. In the

first commitment period reforestation projectswill also be eligible. The door has been leftopen to add land use projects for the secondcommitment period.

More information can be found on www.unfccc.int

TThhee IInntteerrggoovveerrnnmmeennttaall PPaanneell oonn CClliimmaattee CChhaannggee

The IPCC, established by UNEP and WMO in 1988, provides important scientific input to theclimate change process. The current structure of the IPCC consists of three working groups: work-ing group I addresses the science of climate change; working group II deals with impacts, vulnera-bility and adaptation; and working group III with mitigation of greenhouse gases. In addition to thethree working groups, the IPCC also includes a Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas invento-ries.

The IPCC is best known for its comprehensive assessment reports, incorporating findings from all threeworking groups, which are recognised as the most credible source of information on climate change.The latest, Third Assessment Report released in 2001, stated that "there is new and stronger evidencethat most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities and humaninterference will continue to change atmospheric composition throughout the 21st century".

The IPCC has projected the following alarming chain reaction of events by 2010:

• Largest greenhouse gas emissions would increase from today's level of about 365 ppmv (parts permillion by volume) to between 550 and 1000 ppmv.

• Global mean surface temperatures will increase by about 1.5 to six degrees Celsius.• Incidence of some extreme events will increase including the frequency and magnitude of the El

Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon.

These projections directly affect the very existence of some low-lying states and are likely to have aprofound impact on the planet in terms of the likelihood of large-scale disasters.

The IPCC states that there is little evidence that efficient and effective adaptations to climate changerisks will be undertaken autonomously. It says that in most developing countries local governmentsare weak and ineffective at environmental management and have little capacity to integrate disasterpreparedness into current tasks and responsibilities.

More information can be found on www.ipcc.ch, see also Chapter 2

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Combat ddesertification aand ddrought

The international community has long recog-nised that desertification is a major economic,social, and environmental problem of concernto many countries. In 1977, the United NationsConference on Desertification (UNCCD) adopteda Plan of Action to Combat Desertification(PACD). Unfortunately, despite this and otherefforts, the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) concluded in 1991 thatthe problem of land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas had intensified,although there were "local examples of success".

As a result, the question of how to tackle deser-tification was still a major concern for the 1992Rio Earth Summit. The Conference supported

a new, integrated approach to the problememphasizing action to promote sustainabledevelopment at the community level. TheConvention to Combat Desertification inThose Countries Experiencing SeriousDrought and/or Desertification, particularly inAfrica (UNCCD) was adopted in 1994 andentered into force in 1996. Over 179 countriesare now Parties to the convention.

The Conference of the Parties (COP), the conven-tion's supreme body, will hold its sixth sessionin October, 2003. A permanent secretariat isbased in Bonn. The Committee on Science andTechnology (CST) is multidisciplinary and opento the participation of all Parties. Composed ofgovernment representatives, the CST advisesthe COP on scientific and technologicalmatters relevant to desertification and drought.

National Action Programme: Countries affectedby desertification are implementing the conven-tion by developing and carrying out national,sub-regional, and regional action programme.

Drawing on past lessons, the Convention statesthat these programmes: • must adopt a democratic, bottom-up approach• should emphasize popular participation

designed to allow local people to help them-selves to reverse land degradation

• must make politically sensitive changes, suchas decentralizing authority, improving land-tenure systems, and empowering women,farmers, and pastoralists

• should permit NGOs to play a strong role • must be fully integrated into other national

policies for sustainable development • should be flexible and modified as circum-

stances change

Ramsar CConvention - wwetlands

The Convention was adopted in 1971 in Iran,in the city of Ramsar. It came into force in1975 and 131 countries already join theConvention and some other are in the process.Ramsar is the only global environmental treatydealing with a specific ecosystem and themission of the Convention is " the conservationand wise use of Wetlands by national actionand international cooperation as a means toachieving sustainable development throughout

UUNNCCCCDD aanndd ddeesseerrttiiffiiccaattiioonn//llaanndd ddeeggrraaddaattiioonn

Desertification does not refer to the expansion of existingdeserts. It occurs because dry land ecosystems, which coverover one third of the world's land area, are extremely vulner-able to over-exploitation and inappropriate land use. Poverty,political instability, deforestation, overgrazing, and bad irri-gation practices can all undermine the land's productivity.Over 250 million people are directly affected by desertifica-tion. In addition, some one billion people in over onehundred countries are at risk. These people include many ofthe world's poorest, most marginalized, and politically weakcitizens.

Combating desertification is essential to ensuring the long-term productivity of inhabited Rylands. Unfortunately, pastefforts have too often failed and the problem of land degrada-tion continues to worsen. This is because the causes of deser-tification are many and complex, ranging from internationaltrade patterns to unsustainable land management practices.

UUNNCCCCDD aanndd ddrroouugghhtt

Drought has received less attention than land degradation inmost of the national action programs, possibly due to thelack of capacity in many developing countries to addressdrought-related issues, and because it is relatively easier toimplement concrete measures for combating land degrada-tion. Drought strategies are basically dealt with in terms ofadaptation, rather than mitigation.

See more at www.unccd.org (United Nations Secretariat of theConvention to Combat Desertification)

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the world." Some of the main activities of theConvention are the development of NationalWetlands Policy and inventories of Wetlands.The Convention deals with all wetlands issuesfrom surface water to groundwater (salty,freshwater, etc). Wetlands and flood controlwas mentioned in the initial Convention.Nevertheless this has not been a priority untilvery recently. For the Strategic Work Plan2003-2008, this topic is included.

TThhee RRaammssaarr CCoonnvveennttiioonn BBooddiieess are theConference of the Contracting Parties, theStanding Committee (regional representativesof Ramsar's six regions), the Scientific andTechnical Review Panel and the RamsarBureau (Secretariat), in Gland, Switzerland.

Main partners for the implementation of poli-cies are the non-governmental organizationsIUCN-World Conservation Union, WetlandsInternational, World Wide Fund for Nature(WWF) and Birdlife International.

The Ramsar Convention shares headquarterswith IUCN, and has a joint Work Plan withthe Convention on Biological Diversity and aMemorandum of Cooperation with UNCCD,

Convention on Migratory Species and WorldHeritage Programme of UNESCOFor more information see www.ramsar.org

The FFresh wwater aagenda

Some 1.3 billion people worldwide lack accessto safe drinking water and close to 2.5 billionare not provided with adequate sanitation.Water is becoming scarce due to increasingdemands for food production and growingpopulations. Pollution is also on the increase,threatening water supplies.

There are two intrinsic links between disastersrisk reduction and the water agenda. Theimpact resulting from climate change on thenatural surface and ground water systems isincreasingly having an adverse affect on socialand economic development patterns. Freshwa-ter infrastructures are vulnerable to naturalhazards, such as floods, earthquakes, land-slides and volcanic eruptions.

There are many political documents thatmention risk and water related hazards, form-ing the so-called fresh water agenda. Prior to

TThhee RRaammssaarr CCoonnvveennttiioonn oonn WWeettllaanndd PPrreesseerrvvaattiioonn aanndd ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn

Among the many values and functions of wetlands some of the most important involve flood reduc-tion, coastal protection, mitigation of climate change and desertification effects. These considera-tions are at the heart of the Convention's guidance on management planning for wetlands. In addi-tion to the revised management planning guidelines currently under development for adoption bythe Conference of the Parties, additional guidance is also being developed on integrated coastalzone management which stresses these values very strongly.

Ramsar, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), and the Niger Basin Authority are presentlyworking on a project financed by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to designate wetlandsthroughout the Niger River Basin as Ramsar sites and develop management plans for them whichwill help to mitigate the effects of seasonal climate variations. A similar initiative also financed byGEF is currently underway with Ramsar, WWF, and the Lake Chad Basin Commission to bringthe entire basin under a cooperative management plan following Ramsar guidelines.

Similarly, Ramsar staff is working with local officials and NGOs on a number of projects inEurope to develop sound management regimes for transboundary wetlands such as the NeretvaRiver delta, the trilateral Prespa Park, the Danube Delta and the Dyje Morava floodplain.Although the main purpose of these activities is sustainable use of resources, all have a componentthat is relevant to disaster prevention.

Source: Ramsar Secretariat, and G. Bergkamp, B.Orlando, IUCN RAMSAR secretariat and G. Bergkamp, B.t Orlando, IUCN, 1999

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the Rio Earth Summit, the UN InternationalConference on Water and the Environment(ICWE) was held in January 1992. TheDublin Statement (www.wmo.ch/web/homs/documents/english/icwedece.html) on Waterand Sustainable Development establishes fourguiding principles, as well as an agenda foraction, which have guided academic and polit-ical discussions ever since.One of the recommendations relates to the

protection against natural disasters, and callsfor proactive measures to reverse the currenttrends. In particular, the Dublin Statementidentifies climate change and sea level rise asfactors that would exacerbate disaster risk,"threatening the apparent security of existingwater resources". Chapter 18 of Agenda 21covered the "protection of the quality andsupply of freshwater resources: application ofintegrated approaches to the developmentmanagement and use of water resources" withample reference to disasters and hydrologicalextreme events.

More recently, in March 2000, the SecondWorld Water Forum, launched the World WaterVision and a Ministerial Declaration on WaterSecurity in the 21st Century was developed.The declaration identifies seven challenges forthe global community, including the "manage-ment of risk - to provide security from floods,droughts, pollution and other water relatedhazards."

A vast body of knowledge exists on water manage-ment, and flood and drought management inparticular. An increasing focus in local, nationaland international programs is on best ways to

implement these commonly agreed principles. Forexample, the WMO, has set out to promote floodmanagement activities in the context of IntegratedWater Resources Management (IWRM).

The reduction of vulnerability to floods anddroughts will have to be included in the manyfacets of the freshwater agenda. These includethe integration of all stakeholders in river basinmanagement, the institutional framework toeffectively manage water demand and interna-tional trade arrangements, which respectnational water regulations. Such watermanagement processes need to go hand inhand with an increased delegation of responsi-bility and means to local authorities.

At a global level, the upcoming WSSD, theUnited Nations International Freshwater Year2003, as well as the third World Water Forum,to be held in March 2003, will provide oppor-tunities to further develop these concepts.

The ggender aagenda

FFoouurrtthh WWoorrlldd CCoonnffeerreennccee oonn WWoommeenn aannddffoollllooww-uupp

The Beijing Platform for Action, adopted atthe Fourth World Conference on Women(1995) recognised that many women areparticularly affected by environmental disas-ters, disease and violence. It requested govern-ments to "promote knowledge of and sponsorresearch on the role of women, particularlyrural and indigenous women, in food gathering

RReesseeaarrcchh iinn ssuuppppoorrtt ooff IInntteeggrraatteedd WWaatteerrRReessoouurrccee MMaannaaggeemmeenntt aanndd CCoommpprreehheenn-ssiivvee DDiissaasstteerr RRiisskk MMaannaaggeemmeenntt ..

WADI (Water-related Disasters) is a recentresearch initiative of the Potsdam Institutefor Climate Impact Research (PIK) thatresponds directly to humankind's increas-ing vulnerability to water-related disasters.It provides a scientific basis for adaptationand mitigation options for sustainable tran-sition programs that are developed inconjunction with the various stakeholders.

See more at: www.pink-potsdam.de

WWoorrlldd WWaatteerr AAsssseessssmmeenntt PPrrooggrraammmmee

The World Water Assessment Programme/World WaterDevelopment Report (WWAP/WWDR), is administeredby UNESCO, and is a UN-wide effort, set up upon therequest of governments, to pool UN resources regardingworld water management. WWAP will assist developingcountries to strengthen their capacity to assess their ownwater situation. The WWDR will target all thoseinvolved in the formulation and implementation ofwater-related policies and investments.

More information is available at:www.unesco.org/water/wwap

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and production, soil conservation, irrigation,watershed management, sanitation, coastal zoneand marine resource management, integratedpest management, land-use planning, forestconservation and community forestry, fisheries,natural disaster prevention, and new and renew-able sources of energy, focusing particularly onindigenous women's knowledge and experience."

Five years later, the review and appraisal of theimplementation of the Beijing Platform forAction (2000) identified natural disasters andepidemics as emerging issues, which deservedgreater attention. It was noted that the social andeconomic impact of natural disasters andepidemics remained relatively invisible as a poli-cy issue, in particular their impact on the statusof women and the achievement of gender equal-ity. In their responses to a questionnaire, severalstates in Africa and Asia cited the feminization ofpoverty, often aggravated by natural disastersand crop failure, as an obstacle to improvinggender equality.

The twenty-third special session of the GeneralAssembly entitled "Women 2000: gender equal-ity, development and peace for the twenty-firstcentury" acknowledged an increase in casualtiesand damage caused by natural disasters andraised awareness of the inefficiencies and inade-quacies of existing approaches and interventionmethods in responding to such emergency situa-tions, from a gender perspective.

It suggested that a gender perspective be incor-porated into disaster prevention, mitigation andrecovery strategies. The special session alsorecommended that the UN system and interna-tional organizations should assist governments indeveloping gender-sensitive strategies for thedelivery of assistance and responses to humani-tarian crises resulting from natural disasters.

CCoonnvveennttiioonn oonn tthhee EElliimmiinnaattiioonn ooff DDiissccrriimmiinnaattiioonn aaggaaiinnsstt WWoommeenn

Several articles of the Convention on the Elimina-tion of Discrimination against Women explore theviolations of women's human rights in the case ofnatural disasters. A number of general recom-mendations, adopted by the Committee on theElimination of Discrimination Against Women,also offer interpretation of articles of the conven-tion as they relate to disasters and environment.

The committee has urged certain states to paygreater attention to environment and natural disas-ters. In the case of Nicaragua, it suggested thataspects of natural disasters impeded women's fullenjoyment of their rights. When it considered thereport of Kazakhstan, the committee expressedconcern about the degree of environmental degra-dation in the country and its extremely negativeimpact on the health of the whole population, inparticular on women and children.

The committee also expressed its concern aboutthe degree of environmental degradation inUzbekistan and its negative impact on the healthof the whole population, in particular womenand children.

In the case of Belarus, the committee noted thegovernment's attempts to deal with the healthimpact of the Chernobyl disaster and addressedthis issue as a principal area of concern.

CCoommmmiissssiioonn oonn tthhee SSttaattuuss ooff WWoommeenn

The UN Commission on the Status of Women,in its programme of work for 2002-2006, willconsider the "environmental management andmitigation of natural disasters: a gender perspec-tive". In preparation for this topic, an expertgroup was organized by the United Nations Divi-sion for the Advancement of Women (DAW) incollaboration with the ISDR Secretariat.

The expert group meeting discussed the linkbetween gender and environmental manage-

GGeennddeerr mmaaiinnssttrreeaammiinngg:: This is the process ofbringing a gender perspective into the mainstreamactivities of governments at all levels, as a means ofpromoting the role of women in the field of devel-opment, integrating women's values into develop-ment work. Gender mainstreaming builds on theknowledge and lessons-learnt from previous experi-ences with gender equality policies.

GGeennddeerr aannaallyyssiiss:: Gender analysis involves thecollection and use of sex-disaggregated data thatreveal the roles and responsibilities of men andwomen, to be fed into the policy process forenabling assessments of how existing and futurepolicies and programmes potentially affect men andwomen differently. Gender analysis needs to be bothquantitative and qualitative.

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ment, natural disaster reduction and riskmanagement. It adopted a number ofrecommendations some of which were lateradopted by the commission.

Experts recommended, in particular, tosystematically include hazard pronenessand gender-based vulnerabilities in envi-ronmental impact assessments. They alsoreiterated the importance of women'sparticipation in decision-making in publicadministration and in governmental struc-tures at all levels.

Experts also highlighted the necessity tointroduce a gender perspective into theongoing research on the relationshipbetween climate, natural hazards, disasterand related environmental vulnerability.They stressed the need to use gender-sensi-tive indices and indicators and furtherpointed out the need to develop instru-ments for including gender analysis in localdisaster risk management.

The Commission on the Status of Womenin 2002 also called for the integration ofgender perspectives in the implementationof all policy documents and treaties relatedto sustainable development and in thereview of the implementation of the Yoko-hama Strategy for a Safer World.

Email: [email protected]:www.un.org/womenwatch/daw

The HHabitat aagenda

The Habitat agenda was defined during the SecondUnited Nations Conference on Human Settlements in Istan-bul, 1996. It includes a series of commitments and guid-ing principles for sustainable cities. Most disasters arecaused by vulnerabilities created by human action such asuncontrolled or inadequately planned human settlements,lack of basis infrastructure and the occupation of disasterprone areas. The most efficient and effective disasterpreparedness systems are usually provided at the neigh-borhood level through volunteer contributions and localauthority actions. Specific actions are required at theappropriate levels of central government and localgovernments in close coordination with the private sectorand all community groups.

UN HABITAT takes actions in improving disastermanagement in human settlements by working with part-ners that include local governments, insurance compa-nies, NGOs and the academic, health and scientificcommunity. The goal is to adopt appropriate norms forland use, building and planning standard.

More vvulnerable ccities…As more and more people move to cities, the pressure on theland increases. Often, the poorest end up in badly-builthousing in high density areas on marginal land such asexposed coastal areas, river deltas and steep slopes. Theseare the same areas likely to have the poorest supply ofwater, the most rudimentary sewage disposal, and wheregovernment is least likely to enforce safety standards. Theseare the places where, in the event of a disaster, the rescuerswill find it hardest to get to.

CChhaapptteerr IIIIII - CCoommmmiittmmeennttss ……..SSuussttaaiinnaabbllee hhuummaann sseettttlleemmeennttss

"We commit ourselves to the goal of sustainable human settlements in an urbanizing world by developingsocieties that will make efficient use of resources within the carrying capacity of ecosystems and take intoaccount the precautionary principle approach, and by providing all people, in particular those belonging tovulnerable and disadvantaged groups, with equal opportunities for a healthy, safe and productive life inharmony with nature and their cultural heritage and spiritual and cultural values ….." "Preventing man-made disasters, including major technological disasters, by ensuring adequate regulatory and other measuresto avoid their occurrence, and reducing the impacts of natural disasters and other emergencies on humansettlements, inter alia, through appropriate planning mechanisms and resources for rapid, people-centredresponses that promote a smooth transition from relief, through rehabilitation, to reconstruction and devel-opment, taking into account cultural and sustainable dimensions; and rebuilding disaster-affected settle-ments in a manner that reduces future disaster-related risks and makes the rebuilt settlements accessible toall" Extract from the Habitat Agenda, Istanbul 1996.

In the five-year follow up review of the Habitat Agenda in 2001, renewed commitment to engage in disasterpreparedness and risk reduction was stated.


KKoobbee - aa cciittyy aaddaappttiinngg aanndd rreeccoovveerriinngg

The Habitat-agenda aims to buildcapacities for sustainable human settle-ments issues. A window of opportunityfor change is after a disaster. In the caseof Kobe, Japan, disaster and risk reduc-tion acquired a new meaning after 1995.

The Kobe earthquake, with a magnitudeof 7.2 in the Richter scale, hit the cityand its surrounding areas on 17 January1995 at 5:46. There were over 6,400casualties and more than 200,000 people(Hyogo Prefecture Government) wereforced to find temporary shelter due tothe destruction of buildings and infra-structure.

Public facilities such as offices, schools and hospitals were damaged extensively, paralysing servicesfor several days. Utilities were also interrupted - electricity was unavailable in 25 per cent of the cityand telephone, gas and water was disrupted in the entire city. Many severe fires broke out, resultingin more than 800,000 square metres of burnt land. The economic damage to the city was estimatedat 7 trillion Japanese yen (approx. US$60 billion).

The earthquake showed the need for a multidisciplinary approach of disaster management withappropriate incorporation of the socio-economic context. A massive reconstruction plan was under-taken following the earthquake both at the city and provincial levels. The basic ideas of the recon-struction plan were:

• balance between the urban conveniences and safety precautions• raising awareness of both benefits and hazards of nature• more emphasis on human interaction

Key issues for creating community safety were incorporated in the reconstruction planning andemphasised the following:

• Security. Creation of a community where people can live and work with a sense of safety.• Vitality. Creation of a community and built environment full of creativity.• Appeal. Creation of a community consistent with its unique nature and appeal.• Cooperation. Creation of a community that will work together in mutual trust.

The goal of the reconstruction plan was to create a safer city while respecting the necessity to live anormal, everyday life. Many evaluations were conducted during Kobe's reconstruction period.Following are some of the findings found useful in improving earthquake countermeasures:

• Promoting integrated risk management • Enhancing community involvement in the formulation of earthquake countermeasures and devel-

oping cooperation between administrative organizations and residents• Continued efforts toward the creation of safe and disaster resistant towns• Passing results to future generations and establishing a framework for international cooperation

concerning earthquake countermeasures.

Source: Kenji Okazaki, 2001

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Small iisland ddeveloping sstates aand disaster rreduction

All together there are 43 small island developing statesand territories (SIDS) in the Caribbean, Pacific andIndian Ocean regions. Their special circumstances areincreasingly gaining global attention. For example, theRio Declaration and Agenda 21 recognised the specialneeds of SIDS. Subsequently, the Barbados Programmeof Action for the Sustainable Development of Small IslandDeveloping States was adopted in 1994. It includes thecall to develop a vulnerability index, as well as the needto focus on disaster prevention and preparedness. Atthe 2000 UN Millennium Summit, world leadersresolved to "address the vulnerabilities faced by SIDSrapidly and in full by 2015."

The Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) is pursu-ing the interests of SIDS collectively, even thoughnot all SIDS are members of the Alliance. As afollow up to the Barbados Programme of Action, aninternet network, supported by UN/DESA, hasbeen established to ensure easy access of information(www.sidsnet.org). UNESCO is also supporting aninitiative, Small Islands Voice.(www.smallislandsvoice.org)

Owing to the small size, remoteness and fragility ofisland ecosystems, SIDS are especially vulnerable tohazards and the impact of a changing climate. Theymust also deal with the visible sea level rise, carefulmanagement of coastal and marine resources, scarcefresh water resources - in contrast to susceptibility toflood- and waste management. Environmental disas-ters such as oil spills could also severely damage SIDS.

Least ddeveloped ccountries

Least developed countries (LDCs) are the poor-est countries in the world, officially designated assuch by the UN General Assembly. More than600 million people live in the 49 LDCs, half ofwhich are very disaster prone, and 32 of which arelocated in Africa. In 1981, when the concept of anLDC was articulated, there were only 30 suchcountries.

The criteria for being an LDC are the following:• A low gross domestic product.• A low level of economic diversification.• Weak human resources, measured by life

expectancy, calorie intake, primary and second-ary school enrolment and adult literacy.

Three UN conferences have been dedicated toLDCs. All of them have recognised the dispro-portionally high social and economic costs ofdisasters. The programme of action stemmingfrom the first two conferences focussed in this areaon the need to improve disaster response capacity,with some references to early warning capacities.However, during the third conference, held in2001, the focus had shifted to reducing vulnera-bility and developing disaster mitigationprogrammes.

The programme of action for the least developedcountries for the decade 2001-2010 aims to forgestrong partnerships between north and south tosignificantly improve the human and economicconditions in the poorest countries of the world.The programme of action also includes a commit-ment for reducing vulnerability and protecting theenvironment. It suggests actions to strengthen insti-tutions and increase ownership for local stakehold-ers in formulating a sustainable development policy.

It encourages both LDCs and development part-ners to involve the private sector in the areas ofdisaster mitigation and disaster preparedness. Italso encourages the involvement of local commu-nities and NGOs in disaster mitigation, earlywarning systems and relief efforts. A reference ismade to the donor community to give priorityattention to the LDCs for implementing theprogramme set out within the International Strat-egy for Disaster Reduction at national level.

A special Trust Fund within the ONU is open forcontribution to support this action plan. Adminis-trated by UNDRO.

CCaarriibbbbeeaann iissllaannddss- vvuullnneerraabbiilliittyy ttoo hhaazzaarrddss

Similar to the Pacific small island developing states are theCaribbean islands. Idyllic though they may seem, the islands havenot escaped global trends of increasing urbanization and occupa-tion of marginal lands resulting in higher levels of vulnerabilityand exposure to more risk. The economies of most islands areunderpinned by tourism, the very nature of which exposes theindustry's infrastructure and investments to coastal flooding fromstorm surges and tsunamis. Exploitation of natural resources fortourism or the mining industry and development of coastal areasall increase vulnerability. Pollution destroys coral reefs andseagrass beds important to reducing impact of storm surges.Destruction of mangrove stands for coastal development or char-coal production also increases coastal vulnerability.

Past events in banana-based economies have reduced GDP by upto 40% as in the case of St. Lucia and Tropical Storm Debby.

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PPrriinncciippaall oorrggaannss ooff tthhee UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss

General AAssembly Economic aand SSocial Council

• Functional commissions• Regional commissions

United NNations SSecretariat

• Office for the Coordination ofHumanitarian Affairs (OCHA)− Inter-AAgency SSecretariar oof ttheInternational SStrategy ffor DDisasterReduction ((ISDR)

• Department of Economic andSocial Affairs (DESA)- United Nations Centre forRegional Development(UNCRD)

• Regional commission Secretariates• Office for Outer Space Affairs

Specialized aagencies• Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)• International Labour Organization (ILO)• United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO) • World Health Organization (WHO)• World Bank• International Telecommunication Union (ITU)• World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

Programmes aand ffunds• United Nations Develop-

ment Programme (UNDP)• United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP)• World Food Programme

(WFP)• United Nations Children's

Fund (UNICEF)• United Nations Human

Settlements OProgramme(UNCHS/HABITAT)

Other eentities• United Nations University

(UNU)• United Nations Institute for

Training and Research(UNITAR)

• The United Nations Officefor Project Services

Graphic ooverview oof tthe UUnited NNations ssystem iin rrelation tto ddisaster rreductionOnly United Nations entities relevant to disaster reduction are mentioned. This overview is not intended

to illustrate a comprehensive explanation of the complete United Nations system or hierarchy.

6.2 UN agencies and scope of activities

Introduction

The United Nations system is a mosaic that reflects the complexity of activities to be conducted inorder to fulfil the objectives and principles of the Charter of the United Nations. It is composed ofprincipal organs, specialized agencies and other autonomous organizations carrying out specificmandates. Reducing vulnerability and risk to natural or man-made hazards is addressed by many enti-ties of the United Nations system within the framework of their respective field of activities. By estab-lishing the IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall SSttrraatteeggyy ffoorr DDiissaasstteerr RReedduuccttiioonn ((IISSDDRR)) as the successor arrangement to theInternational Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR, 1990-2000), the internationalcommunity recognized the need for a consolidated and coordinated approach to disaster and riskreduction by concerned entities within and outside the United Nations system.

The purpose of this section is to give an indication of how the parts of the United Nations systemfunction when it comes to disaster and risk reduction. It is a general overview, which does not includedisaster relief or emergency management activities. This brief assessment of the key players within theUnited Nations system and their action in disaster reduction seeks to demonstrate the potential forincreased coherence in this field and facilitate a targeted approach to the system by Governments andother entities.

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Economic aand SSocial CCouncil

The Economic and Social Council is the principal organcoordinating the economic, social and related work ofthe United Nations and has 54 members, elected forthree-year terms by the General Assembly. The Councilcooperates with, and to a certain extent also coordinates,the work of United Nations programmes (such as UntedNations Development Programme (UNDP), the UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Unit-ed Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)) and the special-ized agencies (such as Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Orga-nization (UNESCO) and the World Health Organization(WHO), all of which report to the Council. The UnitedNations, and the Economic and Social Council inparticular, are increasingly considering non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs), including academic institutions,private sector and other stakeholders, as partners andvaluable links to civil society. The Council has long sincerecognized that the promotion of economic growth andsustainable development cannot be achieved withoutadequate measures to prevent and reduce the impact ofnatural disasters. It has also consistently called for acoordinated approach to disaster reduction within andoutside the United Nations system. Decisions and reso-lutions of the Council include recommendations to theGeneral Assembly on supporting efforts for the goodfunctioning of IDNDR and later on ISDR as well as onissues such as early warning and the El Niño phenome-non.

Nine functional commissions and five regional commis-sions are part of the Council's so-called machinery thatcarries out its work. The functional commissions, serv-iced by the United Nations Secretariat, are deliberativebodies whose role is to consider and make recommen-dations on issues in their areas of responsibility andexpertise. Two commissions are particularly relevant todisaster reduction: the Commission on SustainableDevelopment (CSD) and the Commission on the Statusof Women (CSW).

Division for ECOSOC Support and CoordinationDepartment of Economic and Social Affairs1 UN Plaza, Room DC1-1428New York, NY 10017, United StatesE-mail: [email protected] site: www.un.org/esa/coordination/desc.htm

GGeenneerraall AAsssseemmbbllyy

The General Assembly is the main deliberativeorgan of the United Nations and is composedof representatives of all Member States. Whilethe decisions of the Assembly expressed in reso-lutions have no legally binding force forGovernments, they carry the weight of worldopinion as well as the moral authority of theworld community. Decisions of the Assemblyare based on documentation produced at itsrequest on reports from United Nations organs(i.e. Secretary-General's reports, reports fromUnited Nations conferences). Non-UnitedNations entities are widely consulted for thedrafting of these reports, which thereforeinclude an overview of issues at stake. TheAssembly's awareness of the necessity to reducethe impact of disasters began in 1971 when itadopted a resolution for the creation of theOffice of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coor-dinator (UNDRO) for the improved coordina-tion of "assistance in cases of natural disasterand other disaster situations", including disastermitigation. In 1988 the Assembly endorsed theestablishment of a Disaster Management TrainingProgramme (DMTP), recommending theupgrading of professional skills in disastermanagement through inter-agency trainingprogrammes under the joint management of theUnited Nations Development Programme(UNDP) and UNDRO. The Assemblyrecognized the need to focus on disaster reduc-tion as an activity in itself in 1987 and launchedthe International Decade for Natural DisasterReduction in 1989 followed by ISDR in 1999.Resolutions were also passed on the need forcooperation to reduce the impact of the ElNiño phenomenon (from 1997) and on earlywarning capacities of the United Nationssystem with regard to natural disasters (from1994). Disaster reduction is generallydiscussed under the segment Environment andSustainable Development in the SecondCommittee of the General Assembly. TheHumanitarian segment of the Assembly mighttouch upon the subject when related to human-itarian issues ("relief to development" isdiscussed in the Third Committee).

Web site: www.un.org/ga/56/

PPrriinncciippaall oorrggaannss ooff tthhee UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss SSyysstteemm ccoonncceerrnneedd wwiitthh ddiissaasstteerr aanndd rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn

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TThhee IInntteerr-AAggeennccyy SSeeccrreettaarriiaatt ooff tthhee IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall SSttrraatteeggyy ffoorr DDiissaasstteerr RReedduuccttiioonn((UUNN//IISSDDRR))

Comprehensive information on the ISDRsecretariat can be found in the section onISDR (see pages 19- 20).

ISDR secretariatPalais des NationsCH-1211 Geneva 10, SwitzerlandTel: (+41-22) 917 2759Fax: (+41-22) 917 0563E-mail: [email protected] site: www.unisdr.org

OOffffiiccee ffoorr tthhee CCoooorrddiinnaattiioonn ooff HHuummaanniittaarriiaann AAffffaaiirrss ((OOCCHHAA))

Formerly Department of Humanitarian Affairs(DHA), which in turn had replaced UNDROin 1992, OCHA is led by the Under-Secre-tary-General for Humanitarian Affairs/Emer-gency Relief Coordinator and located in NewYork and Geneva. OCHA aims at alleviatinghuman suffering by facilitating internationalcoordination for the effective and efficientdelivery of assistance to victims of natural andman-made disasters. While concentrating onthe response side of disasters, OCHA alsopromotes preparedness and prevention effortsto reduce vulnerability to natural disasters andassists the operational humanitarian agencies indeveloping common policies to improve plan-ning, preparedness and response to naturaldisasters, particularly for protracted disasters

such as drought. In this respect, the ResponseCoordination Branch (RCB) as well as the Emer-gency Services Branch (ESB) collaborate closelywith UNDP and other relevant UnitedNations and non-United Nations programmesand agencies on activities such as improvinglinks with national authorities, implementinglessons learned and/or organizing seminars todiscuss coordination mechanisms. Moreover,the ISDR Secretariat in Geneva, OCHA andUNDP maintain periodic working meetingsto share information and engage in commonplans and activities related to disaster reduc-tion. Working with the resident coordinator,the United Nations country team and throughits regional disaster response advisers, OCHAmaintains close contact with countries prone tonatural disasters before and between crises. TheRegional Disaster Response Advisers providetechnical, strategic and training assistance toGovernments, United Nations agencies andregional organizations in order to improvenatural disaster planning, response and post-emergency reconstruction efforts. Desk offi-cers based in Geneva monitor for each regionweather conditions, earthquake bulletins andthe news services for potential natural disastersas well as environmental and technologicalemergencies. The United Nations DisasterAssessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team isa stand-by instrument composed of nationalprofessionals drawn from Governments and/oragencies from around the globe and mobilizedwithin 24 hours to assist affected countries andthe United Nations resident coordinators inassessing damage and preparing recommenda-tions for adequate support often including

United NNations SSecretariat

The United Nations Secretariat, headed by the Secretary-General of the United Nations, servic-es the General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council, and administers theprogrammes and policies laid down by them.

ISDR, placed under the direct authority of the Under-Secretary-General for HumanitarianAffairs, is the only entity within the Secretariat entirely dedicated to disaster reduction. TheOffice for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the Department of Economic and SocialAffairs (DESA) and the secretariats of the regional commissions consider disaster reduction inrelation to their mandated activities. The United Nations Centre for Regional Development(UNCRD) also performs specific disaster reduction-related activities, in particular in its DisasterManagement Planning Hyogo Office in Kobe, Japan.

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actions towards disaster reduction. Adminis-tered by OCHA, ReliefWeb (www.reliefweb.int)is an online source of information on humani-tarian emergencies, including useful tools anddocumentation for disaster prevention such astime-critical situation reports, maps and finan-cial contribution tracking, searchable archivesof over 150,000 emergency response docu-ments and 15,000 links to country-specificbackground information. The Inter-AgencyStanding Committee (IASC), chaired by theUnder-Secretary General for HumanitarianAffairs/Emergency Relief Coordinator, bringstogether a wide range of United Nations andnon-United Nations humanitarian partners,including agencies, NGOs, and internationalorganizations such the Red Cross and RedCrescent Movement, to facilitate inter-agencydecision-making on the response to complexemergencies and natural disasters.

Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian AffairsUnited NationsSecretariat BuildingNew York, NY 10017United StatesTel: (+1-212) 963 8528Fax: (+1-212) 963 9489

Palais des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 10, SwitzerlandTel: (+41-22) 917 2160Fax: (+41-22) 917 0020E-mail: [email protected] site: www.reliefweb.int

DDeeppaarrttmmeenntt ooff EEccoonnoommiicc aanndd SSoocciiaall AAffffaaiirrss ((UUNN//DDEESSAA))

This department is led by the Under-Secre-tary-General for Economic and Social Affairsand is located in New York. The predecessorto DESA, the Department of Policy Coordina-tion and Sustainable Development, was createdas a result of the Earth Summit, held in Rio in1992. The DESA multidimensional program-me promotes broad-based and sustainabledevelopment through an integrated approachto economic, social, environmental, populationand gender-related aspects of development.The Department serves as the secretariat forthe Commission on Sustainable Developmentand is currently organizing the World Summit

on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg,26 August-4 September 2002). The functionsof DESA include normative work, coordina-tion and policy advisory services supplementedby research and training. DESA activities areguided by the programmes and platforms ofaction adopted by major United Nationsconferences and summits, as well as theEconomic and Social Council machinery.Several divisions of the Department areconcerned with disaster reduction, particularlythe Division for Sustainable Development (DSD)with its Water, Natural Resources and SmallIslands Branch and the Division for theAdvancement of Women (DAW).

DDiivviissiioonn ffoorr SSuussttaaiinnaabbllee DDeevveellooppmmeenntt:: Themission of DSD is to facilitate the implemen-tation of Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration onEnvironment and Development, the Non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement ofPrinciples for a Global Consensus on theManagement, Conservation and SustainableDevelopment of All Types of Forests (alsoknown as the Forest Principles), and the Glob-al Programme of Action for SustainableDevelopment of Small Island DevelopingStates (SIDS). The Division carries out multi-year work programmes on sustainable devel-opment indicators, with interest in expandingthe work on disaster reduction indicators.DSD provides substantive services to theEconomic and Social Council functionalcommission CSD. As such, it serves as thesecretariat for the World Summit on Sustain-able Development. CSD was created inDecember 1992 and has 53 members forterms of office of three years. Its function is tofollow up on the Earth Summits.

United NationsDepartment of Economic and Social AffairsDivision for Sustainable DevelopmentUnited Nations Plaza, Room DC2-2220New York, NY 10017, United StatesTel: (+1-212) 963 3170Fax: (+1-212) 963 4260E-mail: [email protected] sites: www.un.org/esa/sustdev/dsd.htmwww.johannesburgsummit.orgwww.sidsnet.org

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Division ffor tthe AAdvancement oofWomen: DAW promotes and supports themainstreaming of a gender perspective intothe work of intergovernmental bodies, poli-cy and programmes of departments andoffices of the United Nations Secretariatand the United Nations system at thenational and regional levels. The Divisionalso provides substantive servicing to theEconomic and Social Council functionalcommission, CSW, which is composed of 45members elected by the Council for a periodof four years.

United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women,DESA2 UN Plaza, DC2-12th FloorNew York, NY 10017, United StatesFax: (+1-212) 963 3463E-mail address: [email protected] site: www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/

UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss CCeennttrree ffoorr RReeggiioonnaall DDeevveellooppmmeenntt ((UUNNCCRRDD))

The UNCRD head office, located in Nagoya,Japan, was created in 1971 and encouragesthrough its substantive programmes for train-ing and research in regional development aswell as information dissemination. The Centrereports to DESA. Since 1992 the UNCRDAfrica Office based in Nairobi has beenmandated to carry out training and researchactivities, advisory services and informationexchange related to local and regional develop-ment in African countries. The UNCRDProject Office for Latin America and theCaribbean was established in Bogotá, Colom-bia in 1997, to carry out UNCRD activities inLatin America and the Caribbean. It conduct-ed three sub-regional workshops (1998) incollaboration with the Organization of Ameri-can States (OAS) and the IDNDR secretariat,in order to assess sectoral needs in terms ofvulnerability and risk reduction to naturalhazards for sustainable cities and commercialcorridors.

The UNCRD Disaster Management Plan-ning Hyogo Office was established in Kobe,Hyogo Prefecture, in 1999 in the aftermath ofthe Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake of 1995.

Activities of this office include basic researchprogrammes for (a) the design of community-based projects for disaster management plan-ning; and (b) disaster management capacity-building introducing best practices case studiesin developing countries. During the past threeyears, the Hyogo Office has developed, testedand evaluated tools that are now recognized asthe basic tools for disaster mitigation atcommunity level. The office closely cooperatedwith the IDNDR Secretariat in carrying outthe RADIUS (Risk Assessment Tools forDiagnosis of Urban Area against SeismicDisasters) Initiative (see page 75).

The Hyogo Office conducted research projectsin developing countries with specific focus onurban vulnerability to earthquakes at the pre-disaster stage (Global Earthquake Safety Initia-tive (GESI)) and on rural vulnerability toearthquakes at the post-disaster stage (rehabili-tation). In the latter the Gujarat earthquake wasgiven special attention. In addition to theseyearly programmes the Hyogo Office has beeninvolved in developing a global database ofactive faults, and its possible hazards, in coop-eration with the Asian Disaster ReductionCenter (ADRC). It is also engaged in acommunity development project in KathmanduValley, Nepal, and a project promoting theconcept of a School Earthquake Safety Initia-tive (SESI).As part of the disaster educationcampaign, the Hyogo Office initiated a CultureExchange Programme between the high schoolstudents of Kathmandu, Nepal, and Kobe,Japan. The Office performed trainingprogrammes and capacity-building in urbanand rural communities, organized workshopsfor the dissemination of best practices, provid-ed advisory services and promoted networkingof different sectors of communities.

UNCRD Web site: www.uncrd.or.jpDisaster Management Planning Hyogo OfficeIHD Centre Building, 3F,1-5-1 Wakihaka Kaigan-dori, Chuo-ku,Kobe 651-0073, JapanWeb site: www.hyogo.uncrd.or.jp

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RReeggiioonnaall CCoommmmiissssiioonnss

The regional economic commissions werefounded by the Economic and Social Council forthe purposes of promoting greater economiccooperation within and between regions,contributing to the economic and social develop-ment of a region, coordinating actions directedtowards this end and reinforcing economic rela-tionships among the countries and with the othernations of the world. The five commissions arethe Economic Commission for Europe (ECE),the Economic and Social Commission for Asiaand the Pacific (ESCAP), the EconomicCommission for Latin America and theCaribbean (ECLAC), the Economic Commis-sion for Africa (ECA) and the Economic andSocial Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA).The secretariats of these regional commissionsare part of the United Nations Secretariat andperform similar functions including disasterreduction activities, although adapted to theneeds and priorities of the region with whichthey are entrusted.

TThhee sseeccrreettaarriiaatt ooff tthhee EEccoonnoommiicc aanndd SSoocciiaallCCoommmmiissssiioonn ffoorr AAssiiaa aanndd tthhee PPaacciiffiicc ((EESSCCAAPP))

Headed by an Executive Secretary at the level ofUnder-Secretary-General of the United Nations,the ESCAP secretariat is located in Bangkok,Thailand. This Commission, comprising 52members and associate members, promotes capac-ity-building in developing countries andcontributes to the mainstreaming of disaster reduc-tion into sustainable development with particularfocus on water-related disasters, especially floods.Activities in this context include the organization ofseminars and training courses for flood control andmanagement, a regional overview of experiences inwater-related disaster management in Asia and aregional project for "strengthening capacity inparticipatory planning and management for floodmitigation and preparedness in large river basins".In cooperation with the World MeteorologicalOrganization (WMO), ESCAP conducted aregional survey, which has contributed to thestrengthening of regional cooperation in flood fore-casting and disaster reduction. Similarly, ESCAPprovided advisory services to the secretariat of theMekong River Commission on the formulation ofthe regional strategy for flood management andmitigation.

ESCAP secretariat The United Nations BuildingRajadamnern Nok AvenueBangkok 10200, Thailand Tel: (+66-2) 288 1234 Fax: (+66-2) 288 1000 Web site: www.unescap.org

TThhee sseeccrreettaarriiaatt ooff tthhee EEccoonnoommiicc CCoommmmiissssiioonn ffoorrLLaattiinn AAmmeerriiccaa aanndd tthhee CCaarriibbbbeeaann ((EECCLLAACC))

The ECLAC secretariat, led by an ExecutiveSecretary, is based in Santiago de Chile with subre-gional headquarters in Mexico City and Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, country offices inBogotá, Brasilia, Buenos Aires and Montevideoand a liaison office in Washington, D.C. TheCommission, with its 41 member States and sevenassociate members, plays an active role in disasterreduction, concentrating especially on the socio-economic impact of natural and other relatedhazards. In this context, ECLAC organized aseries of inter-agency assessment studies on themacroeconomic impact of natural disasters in theregion since the earthquake in Managua in 1972,including the 1999 floods and landslides inVenezuela, the earthquakes in Colombia (1999) andin El Salvador (2001), Hurricanes Georges, Mitch(1998) and Keith (2000), as well as climatic varia-tions like the El Niño current's effects (1997-1998)and the severe drought that affected Central Amer-ica in 2001 and the earthquake of El Salvador in2001. ECLAC has over the years developed amethodology to assess the impact of disasters ondevelopment including an environmental impactanalysis, a gender perspective and a comprehensiveanalysis of the macroeconomic impact of disastersand its effect on reconstruction plans. Currently,this methodology is being disseminated with thesupport of organizations such as the Inter-Ameri-can Development Bank, the Pan American HealthOrganization (PAHO)/WHO and the WorldBank and training is being provided for its use.ECLAC is also advancing the development ofindicators of vulnerability and risk, in terms ofmeasuring the economic, social and environmentalimpact of extreme natural phenomena. In additionto these activities, the Commission has implement-ed training programmes for small island develop-ing states vulnerable to hurricanes through itsregional office for the Caribbean.

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ECLAC secretariat headquartersCasilla de Correo 179-D, Santiago de ChileTel: (+56-2) 210 2000/208 5051Fax: (+56-2) 208 0252E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.eclac.clwww.eclac.cl/mexico/

OOffffiiccee ffoorr OOuutteerr SSppaaccee AAffffaaiirrss ((OOOOSSAA))

Work of the General Assembly is also carried out bybodies it has established to study and report on specif-ic issues. In this respect, the United Nations Office forOuter Space Affairs (OOSA), based in Vienna andlinked to the United Nations Committee on the Peace-ful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), has developed andis implementing a programme for an IntegratedSpace Application System for Disaster Management,in cooperation with a number of United Nationsagencies and programmes as well as other entitiessuch as the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites(CEOS). This activity is carried out in response to thecall for implementing an integrated global systemcapable of using space applications and space-basedservices for disaster mitigation, relief and prevention(UNISPACE III Conference). Space technologiescan play important roles in the reduction of disasters.

The use of such technologies can be particularlyuseful in the risk assessment, mitigation andpreparedness phases of disaster management. Spacetechnologies are also vital to the early warning andmanagement of the effects of disasters. For develop-ing countries to be able to incorporate the routine useof space technology-based solutions there is a need toincrease awareness, build national capacity and alsodevelop solutions that are customized and appropri-ate to the needs of the developing world. OOSA isfocusing on the definition and successful transfer ofsuch solutions by holding Regional Workshops(Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Latin America and theCaribbean) on the Use of Space Technology forDisaster Management. A regional plan of action willthen be defined leading to the definition and imple-mentation of pilot projects that will incorporate andrefine the use of space technology for disastermanagement.

Office for Outer Space Affairs (OOSA)United Nations Office at ViennaA-1400 Vienna, AustriaTel: (+43-1) 260 60 4950 Fax: (+43-1)260 60 5830E-mail: [email protected] Web site:www.oosa.unvienna.org/SAP/stdm/index.html

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Specialized aagencies aand oother aautonomous oorganizations aand ddisaster rreduction

Organizations and agencies part of the United Nations system carry out active programmes insupport of disaster reduction and many of them have strengthened their disaster reductioncapacity in their respective areas of competence during recent years. All agencies andprogrammes work with national or local authorities and in many cases with civil society organi-zations and groups.

PPrrooggrraammmmeess aanndd ffuunnddss

UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss DDeevveellooppmmeenntt PPrrooggrraammmmee

The overarching mission of UNDP is to helpcountries build national capacity to achievesustainable human development. TheProgramme is giving top priority to the elimina-tion of poverty and the building of equity byproviding development advice, advocacy andgrant support. UNDP, with headquarters inNew York and specific functions in Geneva,delivers most of its services through its 132country offices, supported by regional bureaux,specialized programmes and trust funds. In eachcountry office, the UNDP resident representa-tive normally also serves as the resident coordi-nator for the United Nations system as a whole.

UNDP is the most substantive United Nationsprogramme to promote and support the imple-mentation of risk and vulnerability reduction indeveloping countries. In 1997, a GeneralAssembly decision transferred the responsibili-ties of the Emergency Relief Coordinator (headof OCHA) for operational activities for naturaldisaster mitigation, prevention and preparednessto UNDP while OCHA retained its coordina-tion function of international relief operations.UNDP has been a member of the ISDR Inter-Agency Task Force for Disaster Reduction sinceits inception and chairs the Working Group onRisk, Vulnerability and Impact Assessment.

The UNDP Bureau for Crisis Prevention andRecovery (BCPR)-formerly known as theEmergency Response Division (ERD)-is the in-house mechanism set up to provide a quickerand more effective response in Countries inSpecial Development Situations (CSDS)through the provision of services. As part ofBCPR, the Geneva-based Disaster Reductionand Recovery Programme (DRRP) focuses onpromoting and supporting capacity-buildingand/or strengthening of appropriate regional

organizations, national authorities and institu-tions for mitigation, prevention and prepared-ness of natural, technological/industrial andenvironmental disasters, through a structure ofregional advisers. Main functions of DRRPinclude support to preventive development andtraining by:

• Assessing vulnerability to crises and naturaldisasters;

• Establishing early warning systems; • Developing and maintaining a framework of

developmental responses and other contin-gency disaster plans;

• Forming and strengthening country UnitedNations disaster management teams;

• Integrating disaster preparedness, mitigation,prevention and response programmes intonational development programmes;

• Regular reporting and updating of importantdevelopments in CSDS, as a part of the earlywarning process;

• Contributing to human resource developmentby improving capabilities in risk and vulnera-bility analyses; planning for contingencies;designing responsive structures; implement-ing prevention and mitigation strategies fordisaster and crisis.

BCPR New YorkUNDP-1 UN PlazaNew York, NY 10017, United StatesTel: (+1-212) 906 5194Fax: (+1-212) 906 5379E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.undp.org/erd/disred/index.htm

BCPR Geneva11 Chemin des Anémones, ChâtelaineCH-1219 Geneva, SwitzerlandTel: (+41-22) 917 8540Fax: (+41-22) 917 8060E-mail: [email protected] site:www.undp.org/erd/disred/index.htm

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The UNDP Drylands Development Centreformerly the Office to Combat Desertificationand Drought (UNSO) -moved to Nairobi inearly 2002. The Centre is responsible forpromoting sound dryland management anddevelopment as well as drought preparednessand mitigation as part of sustainable humandevelopment. UNSO has been an advocate ofthe United Nations Convention to Combat Deserti-fication and Drought (UNCCD) and providestechnical and catalytic financial support toaffected countries for the implementation of theConvention.

UNDP Drylands Development CentreUnited Nations Avenue-GigiriP.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, KenyaTel: (+254-2) 62 20 57 Fax: (+254-2) 62 46 48E-mail: [email protected] site: www.undp.org/seed/unso

CCaappaacciittyy 2211 is a trust fund launched by UNDPafter the Rio Earth Summit of 1992, whichworks with countries to build skills and aknowledge base to implement the principles ofsustainable development as outlined in Agenda21. Capacity 21 promotes a partnership forincreased coping capacity to deal with naturaldisasters in small island developing States, inthe framework of the World Summit onSustainable Development and the BarbadosPlan of Action. www.undp.org/capacity21/

UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss EEnnvviirroonnmmeenntt PPrrooggrraammmmee((UUNNEEPP))

UNEP is the leading global environmentalauthority and promotes the coherent implemen-tation of the environmental dimension ofsustainable development within the UnitedNations. The Programme is based in Nairobi,Kenya, and counts several regional and themat-ic offices and programmes around the world.The UNEP Governing Council identifiedincreasing environmental emergencies as one ofthe environmental threats that needed to beaddressed and emphasized the important rolethe Programme played globally in the areas ofemergency prevention, preparedness, assess-ment, mitigation and response. Through its

Disaster Management Branch in Nairobi, part ofthe Division for Environment Policy Implemen-tation (DEPI), UNEP has developed a strategicframework on emergency prevention, prepared-ness, assessment, mitigation and response withand agenda for action which serve as basis for thedevelopment and implementation ofprogrammes on disaster reduction at the nation-al, subregional, regional and global levels.Further, has carried out a number of activitiesaimed at reducing the impact of natural and otherrelated environmental and technological disastersin furtherance of the objectives of ISDR. It is amember of the ISDR Inter-Agency Task Forcefor Disaster Reduction and chairs the TaskForce's Working Group on Early Warning. Italso has a joint unit with OCHA in Geneva toassist countries in responding to a variety of envi-ronmental emergencies.

In line with its role in environmental monitoring,assessment and early warning, the UNEP Divi-sion for Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA)has launched a Global Environment Outlook(GEO) report series which contains baselineinformation on environmental emerging issuesand threats, as well as policies being implementedat the global and regional levels.www.unep.org/DEWA.

The UNEP Global Resource Information Database(GRID) is a global network of environmentalinformation centres and aims at providing andfacilitating access to environmental data andinformation for decision-making and policysetting. It underpins the UNEP review of thestate of the world's environment and providesearly warning on environmental hazards. TheUNEP.Net partnership, a global informationnetwork, offers access to distributed and remotedatabases from different institutions to developcomprehensive and local solutions, often relyingon best practices from various regions and coun-tries of the world.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)United Nations Avenue, Gigiri,P.O.Box 30552,Nairobi 00100,KenyaTel: (254 2) 621234 Fax: (254 2) 624489/90Email(generic): [email protected] site: www.unep.org

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included disaster mitigation activities. Forexample, WFP is supporting water harvestingin Sudan to decrease the impact of drought onrural livelihoods. In Tanzania, the WFP Coun-try Programme is using food-for-work activitiesto create assets, such as grain stores and accessroads, in order to improve long-term food secu-rity and decrease the vulnerability of house-holds to drought.

The WFP emphasis on early warning andcontingency planning includes collaborationwith the Framework Team based in New Yorkand the WFP Vulnerability and AnalysisMapping Unit (VAM). The Office of theHumanitarian Adviser (OHA) is responsiblefor coordinating the overall contingency plan-ning process, while the Augmented LogisticsIntervention Team for Emergencies (ALITE)collates specific logistics-based contingencyplanning information such as logistics capacityassessments (LCAs).

WFPVia C.G. Viola 68Parco dei Medici00148 Rome, ItalyTel: (+39-06) 65131Fax: (+39-06) 6513 2840E-mail: [email protected] site: www.wfp.org

UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss CChhiillddrreenn''ss FFuunndd ((UUNNIICCEEFF))

UNICEF headquarters are based in NewYork. UNICEF has regional offices and coun-try offices in 162 countries and territoriesaround the world. The UNICEF mandate toprotect and improve the well-being of the mostvulnerable groups, children and women,anywhere in the world, by definition, includesthe aspect of disaster preparedness and preven-tion. By supporting empowerment of commu-nities at the local level and capacity-building atthe national level, UNICEF programmesenhance abilities to deal with disasters and tomitigate the negative effects of disasters. Poli-cy and procedural guidelines for UNICEFstaff in emergencies include both emergencyresponse and preparedness/prevention activi-ties.

The UNEP Awareness and Preparedness forEmergencies at a Local Level (APELL), basedat the Industry and Environment Office inParis, is a programme serving as a tool fordisaster prevention and preparedness and rais-es public awareness of the need to reduce envi-ronmental emergencies and damage. It seeks tominimize, particularly in developing countries,the occurrence and harmful effects of techno-logical accidents and emergencies resultingfrom human activity or as the consequence ofnatural disasters.

Web site:ww.uneptie.org/pc/apell/disasters/disasters.html

WWoorrlldd FFoooodd PPrrooggrraammmmee ((WWFFPP))

WFP is mandated by the United Nations tocombat global hunger. Based in Rome, Italy,the Programme counts 85 country offices andeight regional offices to assist populations inneed. As the food-aid arm of the UnitedNations, WFP meets emergency needs,provides the necessary logistics to deliver foodand supports economic and social developmentby promoting policies, strategies and opera-tions for the benefit of the poor and hungry.WFP has been a member of the ISDR Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reductionsince its inception in 2000.

In 1999 the WFP key strategy document enti-tled Enabling Development identified disastermitigation as one of the five priority areas ofaction with a focus on reduction of the impactof natural hazards on food security for vulnera-ble populations. A steering committee for disas-ter mitigation was established to assist countryand regional offices to integrate disaster mitiga-tion activities into their developmentprogrammes. The WFP dual mandate fordevelopment and emergencies results in devel-opment activities designed to facilitate potentialemergency response. Guidelines on disastermitigation have been prepared and field-testedin pilot country offices. The formalization ofthe WFP role in disaster mitigation is reflectedin the new generation of programming docu-ments. In 2000 already nine of the 11 CountryStrategy Outlines and Country Programmesthat were approved by the Executive Board had

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The foundation of UNICEF action lies in itslong-term country programme approach andits development orientation. Recognizing thecentral importance of building capacity andself-reliance for effective and sustainable assis-tance and reducing the vulnerability of chil-dren to future disasters, UNICEF aims toenhance rather than supply locally availableresources and mechanisms. The maximuminvolvement of individuals, communities andlocal and national institutions is stressed at alllevels of UNICEF development and emer-gency action.

Following the recommendation of the Yoko-hama Strategy to include disaster reductioninto national development plans, UNICEFprogramme and policy guidance includesincorporation of disaster reduction elementsinto country programmes in disaster-pronecountries. Vulnerability and capacity assess-ment in relation to natural hazards is beingintroduced as an integral part of the situationanalysis process at the country level.UNICEF cooperates with UNDP as part ofthe United Nations country teams at the coun-try level in support of disaster preparednessactivities in national development plans.UNICEF is playing an important role in tack-ling both analysis and capacity-buildingnationally and in the empowerment of commu-nities. Selected programmes in disaster-pronecountries enhance abilities to respond to imme-diate needs and to mitigate the negative effectsof disasters. For example, a major thrust ofUNICEF emergency assistance in a numberof emergency countries is the development andinstitutionalization of local capacities for disas-ter preparedness and management.

In order to ensure adequate levels of prepared-ness for effective response in emergencies,UNICEF country and regional offices carryout preparedness planning as part of theirplanning and programming process. Prepared-ness planning includes risk assessment identi-fying all types of risks from natural hazards toeconomic distress and civil conflicts.

In addition to viewing support to sustainabledevelopment as the key element for disasterreduction, UNICEF country offices in differ-ent parts of the world are involved in specificactivities geared towards improved awarenessof potential natural disasters. These activities

include development of education and aware-ness materials and campaigns for children andadults. UNICEF collaborates closely with theISDR secretariat outpost in Costa Rica andthey have jointly developed educational andawareness materials available on the web sitesof both organizations.

UNICEFUNICEF House3 United Nations PlazaNew York, NY 10017, United States Tel: (+1-212) 326 7000Fax: (+1-212) 887 7465Web site: www.unicef.org

UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss HHuummaann SSeettttlleemmeennttssPPrrooggrraammmmee ((UUNN-HHAABBIITTAATT))

UN-HABITAT promotes socially and envi-ronmentally sustainable human settlementsdevelopment, good urban governance and theachievement of adequate shelter for all. It isbased in Nairobi, Kenya, and is assisted bythree regional (Brazil, Japan and Kenya) andseveral liaison and information offices world-wide. The Programme has been a member ofthe ISDR Inter-Agency Task Force for Disas-ter Reduction since 2002.

The establishment of ISDR coincided with theconsolidation of the process of restructuringcarried out by UN-HABITAT. A key compo-nent of this process was the consolidation of theRisk and Disaster Management Programme(RDMP) and the establishment of the Disas-ter, Post-Conflict and Safety Section (DPCSS)to cater for an increasing demand frommember countries for technical support,normative and policy tools and field opera-tional capacity concerning disaster prevention,mitigation and post-disaster rehabilitation inhuman settlements, as well as on issues relatedto urban safety. UN-HABITAT disaster-relat-ed activities focus in particular on the physicaland management components of shelter, infra-structure and service, with priority given toactivities at the local level. Emphasis is given tothe development of training and technicalsupport programmes to increase the capacity oflocal authorities and communities forimproved disaster and human settlements

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management in a context of good local gover-nance. UN-HABITAT is an active partner ofISDR, especially in the areas of land and urbanmanagement, impact assessment and capacity-building. Processes such as the GlobalCampaigns on Urban Governance and forSecure Tenure constitute important opportuni-ties to promote disaster reduction in urbanareas and strengthen collaboration with localauthorities.

RDMP under DPCSS is a programme estab-lished to strengthen UN-HABITAT capacityto deliver technical cooperation and capacity-building services with a focus on direct coun-try support, with the objective of helpingvulnerable communities and human settle-ments to reduce vulnerability and bettermanage the effects of disasters and conflict.RDMP provides support to national govern-ments, local authorities and communities inclose cooperation with UN-HABITAT tech-nical cooperation units and other specializedprogrammes. As part of its normative func-tions, RDMP develops and disseminatesmanagement tools and capacity-building activ-ities. Its operational activities deliver directsupport to national and local partners through:

• Technical advisory missions upon requestby Governments and external supportagencies;

• Execution of assessments in disaster-prone/hit and post-conflict countries;

• Identification, design, technical backstop-ping and follow-up of operational projectsin response to countries' demands;

• Participation in donor consultations andnegotiations for the provision of externalsupport to affected countries;

• Assessment of global and regionaldemands for support on disasters andhuman settlements management and thedesign and implementation ofglobal/regional projects and methodologi-cal approaches through collaboration withcountries and other external support agen-cies.

UN-HABITATP.O. Box 30030, Nairobi, KenyaTel: (+254-2) 621 234Fax: (+254-2) 624 266/624 267E-mail: [email protected] site: www.unhabitat.org

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FFoooodd aanndd AAggrriiccuullttuurree OOrrggaanniizzaattiioonn ((FFAAOO))

The FAO general mandate is to raise the levelsof nutrition and standards of living, to improveagricultural productivity and to better thecondition of rural populations. Based in Rome,Italy, FAO has engaged itself to help buildinga food-secure world for present and futuregenerations over the next 15 years, as adoptedin its Strategic Framework (2000). FAOcounts five regional and five subregionaloffices and about 80 country offices workingdirectly with member countries and otherdevelopment partners at national level to coor-dinate interventions including with regard todisaster management. FAO is a member of theISDR Task Force for Disaster Reduction andparticipates actively in its working groups.

The World Food Summit of 1996 mandatedFAO, among others, to assist member coun-tries develop national food insecurity andvulnerability information and mapping systems(FIVIMS), based on the existing national foodsecurity information systems, many of whichwere established with FAO assistance, with aview to halving malnutrition by 2015 andreducing food insecurity and rural poverty,which includes disaster preparedness as well aseffective and sustainable responses to food andagricultural emergencies. FAO developed animportant strategy of which the key componentis to strengthen the capacity of communitiesand local institutions in preparing for andaddressing natural disasters, recognizing thatgenerally the resource-poor are the mostvulnerable while the people most severelyaffected by disasters are often those living inrural areas. In order to reduce disruption ofagricultural and food systems, this strategicobjective focuses on:

• Strengthening disaster preparedness andmitigating the impact of emergencies thataffect food security and the productivecapacities of rural populations;

• Forecasting and providing early warningof adverse conditions in the food and agri-cultural sectors, and of impeding foodemergencies;

• Strengthening programmes for agricultur-al relief and rehabilitation, and facilitatingthe transition from emergency relief to

reconstruction and development in foodand agriculture; and

• Strengthening local capacities and copingmechanisms by guiding the choice of agri-cultural practices, technologies andsupport services to reduce vulnerabilityand enhance resilience.

Through its normative and operationalprogrammes, FAO assists and provides techni-cal assistance to member States in the develop-ment and implementation of disaster preven-tion programmes and preparedness plans, inorder to reduce the vulnerability of agricultur-al production systems to disasters. FAO,through its World Agricultural InformationCentre (WAICENT), develops and maintainsa web site on disaster-related activities toprovide access to disaster reduction informa-tion and has mobilized international supportthrough its Global Information and EarlyWarning System (GIEWS). This systemmonitors food supply and demand around theworld, provides policy makers and analystswith up-to-date information on crop prospectsand gives early warning on imminent foodcrises. FAO has upgraded its capability toprovide an operational service on environmen-tal information through an Advanced Real-Time Environmental Monitoring InformationSystem (ARTEMIS) using satellite remotesensing data. Moreover, the FAO Environ-ment and Natural Resources Service of theSustainable Development Department devel-ops various spatial information infrastructureand databases and uses integrated remote sens-ing and geographic information systems forsustainable development planning, includingdisaster impact assessments and mapping ofrisk and vulnerability to natural hazards.

For the sake of reducing impacts of disasterson rural poverty and food insecurity, FAOassists member countries in the adoption ofsustainable agricultural and land-use systems.The FAO Land and Water DevelopmentDivision plays an important role in reversingdegradation and reducing vulnerability todisasters through promoting the developmentof sustainable and resilient agro-ecosystemsand the efficient, productive and environmen-tally sound use of land and water resources.Integrated planning and management of landresources are an essential prerequisite to imple-menting the multiple national action plans and

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sectoral strategies that emanated from theAgenda 21 process and related conventionsand thereby to achieving sustainable agriculturaland rural development.

The Special Programme for Food Security(SPFS) assists low-income food deficit countriesin improving food security both at national and athousehold levels, through rapid increases in foodproduction and productivity, by reducing year-to-year variability in production and by improvingpeople's access to food. Chronic malnutrition andfood insecurity can be caused by high seasonal andyear-to-year variability in food supplies, often theresult of unreliable rainfall and insufficient waterfor crop and livestock production. Community-centred nutrition programmes will strengthenlivelihood resilience to natural disaster throughincreased household food security, better healthand appropriate care for vulnerable individuals(small children, pregnant and lactating women,elderly people, the chronically sick and disabled).

The FAO Emergency Coordination Group,chaired by the Assistant Director-General of theDepartment of Technical Cooperation, is theorganizational mechanism for the overall coordi-nation of emergency and disaster reduction-relat-ed issues. An interdisciplinary process has beenestablished within FAO to strengthen its capacityto address disaster prevention, mitigation andpreparedness and post-emergency relief and reha-bilitation in a more integrated way, together withmember countries and partners. The areas ofattention initially identified include:

• The preparation of a disaster managementdatabase;

• The development of a guide for emer-gency needs assessment and guidance onmanagement of food and agriculturalemergencies; and

• The development of strategies and capaci-ty-building on drought mitigation, includ-ing a regional workshop and programmedevelopment on capacity-building indrought mitigation.

FAOViale Delle Terme di Caracalla00100 Rome, ItalyTel: (+39-06) 5705 5583Fax: (+39-06) 5705 3369E-mail: [email protected] site: www.fao.org

UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss EEdduuccaattiioonnaall,, SScciieennttiiffiicc aannddCCuullttuurraall OOrrggaanniizzaattiioonn ((UUNNEESSCCOO))

UNESCO has its headquarters in Paris,France, and 73 field offices and units in differ-ent parts of the world. The main objective ofUNESCO is to contribute to peace and secu-rity in the world by promoting collaborationamong nations through education, science,culture and communication in order to furtheruniversal respect for justice, for the rule of lawand for human rights and fundamental free-doms.

UNESCO is a member of the ISDR Inter-Agency Task Force for Disaster Reduction andpromotes activities aimed at developing abetter scientific understanding of the occur-rence and distribution of disasters in time andspace in respect of natural hazards and themitigation of their effects. It contributedactively to IDNDR. UNESCO is also activein the area of educational material developmentto raise public awareness and facilitate publicinformation and the provision of technicaladvice on the hazard resistant construction ofschools and the protection of cultural heritage.

The UNESCO scientific and technical contri-bution to disaster reduction is promoted underthe Organization's natural hazardsprogrammes in the Earth sciences and buildson its five intergovernmental and internationalscientific programmes: the InternationalGeological Correlation Programme, the Inter-national Hydrological Programme, the Manand Biosphere Programme, the Intergovern-mental Oceanographic Commission (IOC)and the Management of Social Transforma-tions Programme (MOST). The GlobalOcean Observing System (GOOS) hosted inIOC provides a framework to coordinatesystematic observations of the world's oceans.Both the Medium-Term Strategy (2002-2007)and the Programme and Budget for 2002-2003 include provisions for an interdiscipli-nary programme related to natural disasterreduction.

UNESCO 7 place de Fontenoy75352 Paris 07-SP, FranceTel: (+33-1) 45 68 10 00Fax: (+33-1) 45 67 16 90 Web site: www.unesco.org

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WWoorrlldd HHeeaalltthh OOrrggaanniizzaattiioonn ((WWHHOO))

WHO is the United Nations specializedagency with responsibility for health. WHO isa decentralized organization with about 150country offices worldwide and six regionaloffices in Africa, the Americas, the EasternMediterranean region, Europe, South-EastAsia and the Western Pacific. Its headquartersare based in Geneva, Switzerland. The purposeof WHO presence at country level is to assistmember States to achieve sustainable nationalhealth policy goals and to draw on the experi-ence of individual countries to build publichealth knowledge that benefits the rest of theworld. WHO has been a member of the ISDRTask Force for Disaster Reduction since 2002.

WHO works at country, regional and globallevels for disaster mitigation, emergencypreparedness and response, as well as for advo-cacy for health and humanitarian action. Fail-ure on the part of the health sector to be insti-tutionally prepared is particularly costly, notonly in terms of lives lost, but also technicallyand politically. WHO aims to achieve a reduc-tion of avoidable death and illness that resultfrom any type of natural or man-made disasterand to ensure that member States and theinternational community are equipped toprevent disasters and mitigate their healthconsequences, in synergy between relief andsustainable development. WHO applies theepidemiological method and the public healthmodel to emergency management and disasterreduction. Risk reduction, preparedness andresponse against epidemics are responsibilitiesof WHO.

More specifically, WHO focuses on strength-ening health systems for preparedness andresponse against all types of disaster. Trainingis provided to Ministries of Health and theirstaff in preparedness and response, as well asfor the development of emergency contingencyplans. WHO distributes guidelines, publica-tions and audio-visual material on applyingbest public health practices in preparing forand assessing the impact of disasters. TheWHO early health assessment and healthintelligence web site provides situational infor-mation including baseline statistics, health situ-ation reports and epidemiological surveillancedata.

The health sector does not exist in isolation andmust cooperate with other groups involved inthe overall framework for emergencypreparedness and establish priorities in accor-dance with the overall disaster response plan.WHO has several collaborating centresaround the world, whose work is related todisaster reduction, including the Centre forResearch on the Epidemiology of Disasters(CRED), School of Public Health at theUniversity of Louvain in Brussels. In LatinAmerica and the Caribbean, there is the Schoolof Public Health at the University of Antio-quia, Colombia, for higher education in disas-ter management issues and the Faculty ofEngineering of the University of Chile fordisaster mitigation in hospitals and health serv-ices.

WHOGeneva, SwitzerlandTel: (+41-22) 791 2750Fax: (+41-22) 791 4844E-mail: [email protected] site: www.who.int/disasters

The WHO Regional Office for the Americas,the Pan-American Health Organization(PAHO), is the most active WHO office inthe area of disaster reduction. PAHO is alsopart of the inter-American system and theoffice has been active in reducing the impact ofnatural and other related environmental andtechnological disasters in the Americas and theCaribbean since the mid-seventies. PAHOwas a close collaborator and contributor toIDNDR in Latin America and the Caribbean.The PAHO disaster preparedness programmehas three subregional offices (Barbados, CostaRica and Quito). PAHO contributes to insti-tutional strengthening by supporting thecreation and enhancement of disasterprogrammes in the Ministries of Health in allcountries of the region and promotes coordina-tion with other sectors involved in disasterreduction. It organizes workshops on allaspects of disaster management for the benefitof professionals dealing with disaster reduc-tion. In addition, PAHO encourages univer-sities throughout the region to incorporatedisaster management in their formal curricu-lum. The preparation and distribution of train-ing materials have been a cornerstone of theprogramme. Over the last two decades this

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effort has produced a considerable body oftechnical material (publications, slides andvideo programmes). Print copies are distrib-uted free of charge to institutions dealing withdisaster mitigation in member countries andelectronic copies are also made available on theInternet for worldwide access. PAHO worksat the highest level in member countries toensure that disaster mitigation becomes anintegral part of national disaster reductionprogrammes. Special programmes to developtechnical guidelines and political support tovulnerability assessments and disaster mitiga-tion for water systems and health services havebeen developed over the last decade.

PAHO has a letter of understanding with theISDR Secretariat, in which both parties haveagreed on a number of measures to strengthencooperation in priority areas for the region,such as the publication of studies, joint lessons-learned exercises and the strengthening of theRegional Disaster Information Centre(CRID), a regional multi-organization consor-tium formed by the Coordinating Centre forthe Prevention of Natural Disasters in CentralAmerica (CEPREDENAC), Costa Rica's :National Risk Prevention and EmergencyResponse Commission (CNE), the Interna-tional Federation of Red Cross and Red Cres-cent Societies (IFRC), ISDR, Médecins sansfrontières (MSF) and PAHO/WHO.PAHO, in collaboration with ISDR, is work-ing on the implementation of a developmentplan for CRID in San José, Costa Rica. ISDRand PAHO have also agreed to increase accessto disaster information, exchange and network-ing among countries and organizations in theregion, through the joint support of CRID andnational and subregional disaster informationnetworks, including the Caribbean DisasterInformation Network.

PAHO Washington, D.C., United StatesTel: (+1-202) 974 3434Fax: (+1-202) 974 3663E-mail: [email protected] site: www.paho.org/disasters

www.disaster.net

WWoorrlldd MMeetteeoorroollooggiiccaall OOrrggaanniizzaattiioonn ((WWMMOO))

Based in Geneva, Switzerland, WMO coordi-nates global scientific activity to allow increas-ingly prompt and accurate weather informationand other services for public, private andcommercial use. WMO activities contribute tothe safety of life and property, the socio-economic development of nations and theprotection of the environment.

WMO participated actively in the implemen-tation of IDNDR and is now a member of theISDR Inter-Agency Task Force for DisasterReduction. It supports the work of its workinggroups, in particular those on Climate andDisaster Reduction (for which it has leadresponsibility), on Early Warning and onVulnerability and Risk Assessment. TheWMO constituent bodies, including theCongress and the Executive Council, followand provide guidance on the policy, scientificand technical aspects of the implementation ofISDR objectives at the regional and globallevels.

As nearly three-quarters of all natural disastersare related to weather and climate, WMO hasa number of scientific and technicalprogrammes related to the mitigation of natu-ral disasters supported by the participation ofNational Meteorological and HydrologicalServices (NMHSs) and a number of RegionalSpecialized Meteorological Centres (RSMCs)worldwide. The WMO World Weather Watch(WWW) programme coordinates the prepara-tion and distribution of weather, climate andhydrological data, analyses and forecast prod-ucts to all nations. The WMO TropicalCyclone Programme promotes the establish-ment of national and regionally coordinatedsystems to ensure effective preparedness so thatthe loss of life and damage caused by tropicalcyclones and associated phenomena arereduced to a minimum. The WMO PublicWeather Services (PWS) programme supportsNMHSs in disaster reduction planning byproviding a variety of routine forecasts andinformation to enhance the social and econom-ic well-being of nations. The World ClimateProgramme (WCP) provides an authoritative

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international scientific voice on climate, climatevariations and climate change. WCP hasprovided advanced climate database manage-ment systems to many countries, with applica-tions in several areas of disaster mitigation,especially drought. WMO continues to assistits members in the development of techniquesto assess and combat drought, desertificationand other extreme events through its agricul-tural meteorology programme. Through itsleadership of the ISDR Working Group onClimate and Disaster Reduction, WMOcontributes to the review of sectoral systemswithin and outside the United Nations thatmonitor climate sensitive emergencies. Ofparticular interest are the monitoring andprediction of climate-related natural disastersassociated with the El Niño and La Niñaphenomena. The World Weather ResearchProgramme (WWRP) is aimed at developingimproved and cost-effective techniques forforecasting high-impact weather and atpromoting their applications among countries.The Hydrology and Water ResourcesProgramme assists the national hydrologicalservices of member countries to assess the riskof, and forecast, water-related hazards, inparticular major floods and droughts.

WMO7 bis avenue de la Paix CH-1211 Geneva 2, SwitzerlandTel: (+41-22) 730 8315 Fax: (+41-22) 733 2829/730 8027 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.wmo.ch

TThhee WWoorrlldd BBaannkk GGrroouupp

The World Bank Group, based in Washing-ton, D.C., United States, is one of theworld's largest sources of development assis-tance. It works in more than 100 developingcountries. The World Bank Group consistsof five closely associated institutions, allowned by member countries that carry ulti-mate decision-making power. Each institu-tion plays a distinct role in the mission tofight poverty. The term "World Bank" refersspecifically to the International Bank forReconstruction and Development (IBRD)and the International Development Associa-

tion (IDA). IBRD provides loans anddevelopment assistance to middle-incomecountries and creditworthy poorer countries.It is not a profit-maximizing organizationbut has earned a net income every year since1948, which is used to fund several develop-mental activities. The World Bank considersdisaster reduction as an element in the fightagainst poverty linked to environmentalmanagement. In order to advance the goalof reducing the impact of disasters advocat-ed by ISDR, the World Bank updated itsstrategies and procedures to promote proac-tive ways to integrate disaster preventionand mitigation into its development work.

IBRD, through its Disaster ManagementFacility (DMF), is a member of the Inter-agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction.DMF was established in July 1998 topromote disaster risk management as apriority issue for poverty reduction. DMFhas worked actively to promote the integra-tion of risk analysis into project design andthe inclusion of effective prevention andmitigation measures into the Bank's Coun-try Assistance Strategies. The staff has beentrained to design safer investments empow-ering communities to reduce their vulnera-bility to disasters. Furthermore, disaster riskmanagement is being mainstreamed into theBank's development efforts. Reconstructionprojects, such as those carried out in theaftermath of the earthquake in Turkey, ofHurricane Mitch in Central America and ofthe January 2001 earthquake in Gujarat,India, have been designed to go beyondmere rebuilding and to focus on how torebuild in a better way to strengthenresilience to future disasters. Along thesame lines, DMF pilot efforts are graduallybeing incorporated into Bank operations. Agood example of this approach is in Mexicowhere, following a DMF case study toassess the capacity of the country to managedisaster risk, the Government requested theBank to prepare a project aimed at reducingdisaster losses.

The Bank is also working closely with itspartners through the ProVention Consor-tium, which serves as mechanism for thevarious partners to combine efforts to gener-

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ate evidence on the economic and financialimpact of disasters on longer-term develop-ment, to develop methodologies and stan-dards for conducting damage and needsassessments following a disaster, tostrengthen communities' resilience to theimpact of disasters and to identify innova-tions in risk transfer and financing.

The World Bank1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433, United StatesTel: (+1-202) 473 1000Fax: (+1-202) 477 6391Web sites: w.worldbank.org/html/extdr/back-grd/ibrd/www.worldbank.org/dmfwww.proventionconsortium.org

IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall LLaabboouurr OOrrggaanniizzaattiioonn ((IILLOO))

ILO is the United Nations agency specializedin matters related to labour and seeks thepromotion of social justice and internationallyrecognized human and labour rights. ILO isbased in Geneva, Switzerland.

In 1999, to address the new trends character-ized by globalization, socially and environmen-tally sustainable growth patterns and the conse-quence of economic reforms and structuraladjustment in many developing countries,ILO established a special In-FocusProgramme on Crisis Response and Recon-struction (IFP/Crisis) that concentrates onvarious types of crises including natural disas-ters.

The Programme is implementing the ILODecent Work approach-emphasizing employ-ment-to lay the foundations for crisis preven-tion, by promoting employment and creatingthe conditions for long-term reintegration,reconstruction, economic growth and socio-political stability. Activities of the Programmerelated to disaster reduction include:

• Knowledge development-ILO knowledgein crisis situations is continuouslyreviewed, updated and expanded with thelatest data and analyses. Links arestrengthened with ILO technical unitsand field offices, external research institu-tions and crisis practitioners worldwide;

• Tools development-Ready-made guide-lines and standard packages to answer thespecific needs of each individual crisiscontext and to steer rapid response action.These essential tools underpin effectivework, especially in ILO areas of concern;

• Technical assistance-Direct interventionsin emergencies are undertaken, for rapidneeds assessment, programme develop-ment and implementation and to reducethe likelihood and inverse impact of futurecrises;

• Capacity-building-Capacity to respondeffectively to crises is strengthenedthrough wide dissemination of the abovetools, along with training programmes andadvisory services;

• Advocacy-A variety of activities promotenational, subregional, regional and inter-national recognition of the employmentdimension and other ILO crisis concernsand its contribution to effective crisismanagement. They include awareness-raising workshops, presentations, publica-tions, videos and public material;

• Resource mobilization-Efforts are made tomobilize resources internally and external-ly for timely interventions.

ILORoute des Morillons 4, CH-1211 Geneva 22, SwitzerlandTel: (+41-22) 799 7722Fax: (+41-22) 799 6895E-mail: [email protected] site: www.ilo.org

IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall TTeelleeccoommmmuunniiccaattiioonn UUnniioonn((IITTUU))

ITU, with its headquarters in Geneva, Switzer-land, is an international organization wheregovernments and the private sector coordinateglobal telecommunication networks and servic-es. ITU is a member of the ISDR Inter-AgencyTask Force on Disaster Reduction.

In 1994, the ITU Plenipotentiary Conferencein Kyoto, following the Yokohama Conferenceon Natural Disaster Reduction, emphasizedthe importance of telecommunications fordisaster mitigation and disaster relief opera-tions. In 1998, the Tampere Convention on theProvision of Telecommunication Resources for

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Disaster Mitigation and Relief Operations wasadopted by the Intergovernmental Conferenceon Emergency Telecommunications (ICET-98). It raised concerns about the impact ofdisasters on communication facilities andinformation flows. Unexpected natural andman-made disasters can occur anywhere, at anytime. Rapid response to organize and coordi-nate recovery operations is essential to savelives and restore community infrastructure.Disaster recovery activities depend upon avail-ability and access to telecommunicationresources. However, telecommunicationnetworks often experience severe stress duringthese events due to high traffic demands andinfrastructure damage.

Against this background, ITU is working onthe development of global standards to supportan Emergency Telecommunications Service(ETS). Many dimensions need to beaddressed in achieving an effective solution foremergency telecommunications includingtechnical aspects as well as issues associatedwith user requirements, operational, policy,legal and regulatory aspects. Cooperation andliaison among the many interest areas areessential to ensure consistency and complete-ness in the provisioning of an effective emer-gency telecommunications capability. ITU istherefore engaging in the following activities:

• Study of the impact on telecommunica-tions of disaster events;

• Identification of requirements/applica-tions of emergency telecommunicationusers;

• Identification of types/modes of telecom-munications for emergencies;

• Definition of the capabilities and priorityaspects needed for emergency telecommu-nications;

• Identification of means of interchange ofemergency data for distributed databases;

• Identification of specific types and sourcesof information needed to provide emer-gency telecommunication services, includ-ing the means of conveyance;

• Identification of security aspects forauthentication of users and prevention ofinterference with ETS traffic;

• Identification of those dealing with variousaspects (technical and other) related toemergency telecommunications.

ITUPlace des NationsCH-1211 Geneva 20, SwitzerlandTel: (+41-22) 730 5111 Fax: (+41-22) 733 7256E-mail: [email protected] site: www.itu.int

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OOtthheerr eennttiittiieess

UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss UUnniivveerrssiittyy ((UUNNUU))

UNU, with headquarters in Tokyo,Japan, comprises 13 research and trainingcentres and programmes around theworld and its partners include over 30United Nations organizations and morethan 100 research institutions globally.The overall mission of UNU is tocontribute, through research and capaci-ty-building, to efforts to resolve thepressing global problems that are theconcern of the United Nations MemberStates.

With regard to disaster reduction, UNUhas focused its activities in support of theISDR goals in three main areas: firstly,the social aspects of urban vulnerability (aUNU initiative has been designed tohighlight, produce and disseminatemethodologies for the analysis of urbansocial vulnerability); secondly, disasterinformation and technologies (activitieswhich have been carried out in partner-ship with the University of Tokyo's Inter-national Center for Disaster Mitigation-Engineering (INCEDE)); and thirdly,enhanced preparedness for climate-relat-ed disasters, which has always been a highpriority area for the University.

A number of initiatives developed overthe years to address these important glob-al issues have made a significant contri-bution in linking the scientific communi-ty and the United Nations system. Oneparticular example is the study on the ElNiño phenomenon, which was carried outas a joint project between the ISDR secre-tariat, the National Center for Atmos-pheric Research (NCAR) (Boulder,Colorado, United States), UNEP, UNUand WMO. This activity, which includedthe work of multidisciplinary teams in 16countries, led to findings that have beencrucial to improving preparedness for thenext El Niño occurrence and otherclimate-related disasters. As a follow-upto the El Niño project, UNU has devel-oped a new Climate Affairs Programme,which will encompass a broad spectrum ofissues ranging from ethics and policy

formulation to the impact of climaticphenomena. An important contribution ofthis initiative is the development of amultidisciplinary Climate Affairs Capaci-ty Building Programme, which facilitatescapacity development to meet disasterreduction challenges. Finally, UNUtogether with the University of Genevaand the Federal School of Lausanne haveprovided fellowships to postgraduatestudents from developing countries toattend the international course in analysisand management of geologic risk. UNUalso participates in the work of the Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reductionas a member of the Working Group onClimate and Disasters.

UNU53-70 Jingumae 5-chome, Shibuya-kuTokyo 150-8925, JapanTel: (+81-3) 3499 2811Fax: (+81-3) 3499 2828E-mail: [email protected] site: www.unu.edu

UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss IInnssttiittuuttee ffoorr TTrraaiinniinnggaanndd RReesseeaarrcchh ((UUNNIITTAARR))

UNITAR is an autonomous body withinthe United Nations with a mandate toenhance the effectiveness of the UnitedNations through training and researchactivities. Its headquarters are located inGeneva, Switzerland, where a majority ofthe UNITAR training and capacity-building programmes are organized. Italso has a liaison office in New York.

UNITAR has provided training and proj-ect services for policy and institutionaldevelopment. These activities haveaddressed risk issues in the areas ofchemical and waste management, climatechange, biodiversity, land degradation,environmental law, environmental negoti-ations, national reconstruction, the use ofinformation systems and the involvementof local authorities. UNITAR conducteda programme in collaboration with sever-al other United Nations organizations,local authorities, NGOs, universities andthe private sector consisting in launching

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an International Training Centre forLocal Actors (CIFAL) in Divonne-les-Bains, France. This Centre provides aservice structure, an international meet-ing location and an exchange of experi-ences open to all actors involved withsustainable development and internationalcooperation at the local level.

Recognizing the utility of geographicinformation systems and other moderninformation and communication tech-nologies for advancing disaster reduction,UNITAR has been organizing trainingsessions in these fields since 1986 as wellas several training activities related todisaster reduction. These include training

sessions for African civil servants work-ing in the field of land degradation, work-shops for local authorities in Crimea andLebanon and additional workshops fornational decision makers in the Democra-tic Republic of the Congo and countriesof the Southern Caucasus on the use ofinformation systems for disaster reduc-tion.

UNITARPalais des NationsCH 1211 Geneva 10, SwitzerlandTel: (+41-22) 917 12 34Fax: (+41-22) 917 80 47E-mail: [email protected] site: www.unitar.org

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IInntteerr-aaggeennccyy mmeecchhaanniissmmss aanndd ccoommmmoonn iinniittiiaattiivveess wwiitthhiinn tthhee UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss SSyysstteemm

The ISDR Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction is the only platform within the Unit-ed Nations system entirely dedicated to the coordination and policy setting of disaster reduction.The other inter-agency United Nations platforms and tools mentioned below complement andcontribute to the promotion and efficient implementation of disaster reduction activities.

the Inter-Agency Task Force on DisasterReduction are circulated to CEB through itssecretariat. Several members of CEB arepermanent members of the Inter-AgencyTask Force on Disaster Reduction. Thisprovides a unique opportunity for strength-ening coordination among agencies andorganizations active in disaster reduction,humanitarian assistance and related devel-opment and environmental issues.

IISSDDRR IInntteerr-AAggeennccyy TTaasskk FFoorrccee oonn DDiissaasstteerr RReedduuccttiioonn Web site: www.unisdr.org

Membership: United Nations system organizations: FAO,ITU, UNDP, UNEP, UNESCO, UN-HABITAT, WFP, WHO, WMO, WorldBank.

Non-UN organizations:ADRC, African Union (AU), ADPC,Commonwealth of Independent States(CIS) Interstate Council, Council ofEurope EUR-OPA Major Hazards Agree-ment, Drought Monitoring Centre (Nairo-bi), GFMC, Ibero-American Associationfor Civil Defense and Protection, IFRC,International Council for Science (ICSU),Munich Re, OAS/Inter-American Commit-tee on Natural Disaster Reduction (IACN-DR), SOPAC.

Comprehensive information on the ISDRsecretariat and the Inter-Agency Task Forceon Disaster Reduction can be found in thesection on ISDR (see pages 19-20).

UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss DDeevveellooppmmeenntt AAssssiissttaanncceeFFrraammeewwoorrkk ((UUNNDDAAFF))Web site: www.dgo.org/

UNDAF constitutes a key component of

UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss SSyysstteemm CChhiieeff EExxeeccuuttiivveeBBooaarrdd ffoorr CCoooorrddiinnaattiioonn ((CCEEBB)) Web site: www.ceb.unsystem.org

Membership: United Nations Secretariat, ILO, FAO,UNESCO, International Civil AviationOrganization (ICAO), WHO, World Bank,International Monetary Fund (IMF),Universal Postal Union (UPU), ITU,WMO, International Maritime Organiza-tion (IMO), World Intellectual PropertyOrganization (WIPO), International Fundfor Agricultural Development (IFAD),United Nations Industrial DevelopmentOrganization (UNIDO), InternationalAtomic Energy Agency (IAEA), WorldTrade Organization (WTO), UnitedNations Conference on Trade and Develop-ment (UNCTAD), UNDP, UNEP, Officeof the United Nations High Commissionerfor Refugees (UNHCR), United NationsRelief and Works Agency for PalestineRefugees in the Near East (UNRWA),UNICEF, United Nations Population Fund(UNFPA), WFP, United Nations Interna-tional Drug Control Programme(UNDCP), UN-HABITAT.

CEB-formerly the Administrative Commit-tee on Coordination (ACC)-chaired by theSecretary-General of the United Nations, isthe forum that brings together the executiveheads of all United Nations organizations tofurther coordination and cooperation on thewhole range of substantive and managementissues facing the United Nations system.

Since 1998 the former ACC had been regu-larly informed of the activities of IDNDRand subsequently of ISDR. It had periodi-cally considered disaster reduction amongits agenda items and had issued severalstatements on the importance of increasedinter-agency coordination in this field.ISDR summary reports of the meetings of

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the United Nations Secretary-General'sreform proposals adopted in 1997, topromote common objectives, time frames aswell as improved collaboration betweenUnited Nations programmes and funds. Ithas been designed as the centrepiece ofUnited Nations development cooperation atcountry level. UNDAF is primarily a Unit-ed Nations instrument to respond strategi-cally to countries' development challengesand to the United Nations global agenda.UNDAF is intended to strengthen thecapacity of host Governments to implementtheir development programmes andstrengthen their relations with the UnitedNations system. It is complemented withCommon Country Assessments (CCAs),carried out between the agencies and thehost country authorities. UNDAF andCCAs are therefore useful tools for theincorporation of disaster risk assessmentsand reduction measures into inter-agencyassessment and action in a country.

UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss DDeevveellooppmmeenntt GGrroouupp((UUNNDDGG))Web site: www.undg.org

UNDG Executive Committee membership:UNDP, UNICEF, UNFPA, WFP andother entities participating as warranted bytheir interests and mandates. The Office ofthe Spokesman for the Secretary-Generaland the United Nations Fund for Interna-tional Partnerships (UNFIP) participate inUNDG as observers.

UNDG members: DESA, UNDCP, UN-HABITAT, United Nations Office forProject Services (UNOPS), UnitedNations Development Fund for Women(UNIFEM), Joint United NationsProgramme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS),UNCTAD, WHO, IFAD, UNESCO,FAO, the regional economic commissions,the High Commissioner for Human Rightsand the Special Representative of the Secre-tary-General for Children and ArmedConflict.

UNDG, chaired by the UNDP Adminis-trator, provides a framework for greatercoherence and cooperation in UnitedNations development operations. This

enables UNDG members to maximize theircomparative advantages and build on andsupport the work of other members at thecountry level. As most of the UNDGmembers carry out activities towards disas-ter reduction (see previous pages of thissection), this group represents an opportu-nity to integrate disaster reduction intoother areas of concern, in particular sustain-able development.

The DevLink web site, managed byUNDG, provides key documents, examplesof good practice, training materials, sourcesof additional information and links to rele-vant United Nations and non-UnitedNations sites on UNDG areas of activityand in support of the implementation of theMillennium Declaration and the Secretary-General's reform programme, particularlyCCAs and UNDAF.

UUnniitteedd NNaattiioonnss DDiissaasstteerr MMaannaaggeemmeenntt TTrraaiinniinngg PPrrooggrraammmmee ((UUNNDDMMTTPP))Web site: www.undmtp.org

Membership:United Nations system agencies/organiza-tions: FAO, IBRD, ILO, InternationalOrganization for Migration (IOM),OCHA, ISDR, Office of the UnitedNations High Commissioner for HumanRights (OHCHR), United Nations Centrefor Human Settlements (UNCHS),UNCTAD, UNDP, UNEP, UNESCO,UNFPA, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNITAR,UNOPS, United Nations Staff College(UNSC), United Nations Volunteers(UNV), WFP, WHO, WMO.

Non-United Nations organizations: Inter-national Committee of the Red Cross(ICRC), International Council of VoluntaryAgencies (ICVA), IFRC, National RefugeeCommission (NRC), Steering Committeefor Humanitarian Response (SCHR)

Under the management of UNDP, DMTPis an inter-agency tool shared to supportcapacity-building activities in the field ofcrisis and disaster management by under-taking training to meet the needs of govern-ment personnel, civil society groups,community leaders and partners in the

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United Nations system. DMTP alsoprovides training for in-country UnitedNations system Disaster ManagementTeams (DMT).

DDiissaasstteerr MMaannaaggeemmeenntt TTeeaammss

DMT are established in countries where theUnited Nations system works, in differentgrades of formality, towards promoting coher-ence, coordination and information exchangeamong agencies in disaster-related matters andbetween the United Nations system and thehost Government.

All relevant agencies with presence in thecountry are encouraged to participate in DMT.

UNDP, WFP, UNICEF, WHO (PAHO),FAO and UNESCO are the most commonlyrepresented agencies in the Teams. While thespirit of DMT is to promote medium andlong-term disaster reduction concerns in devel-opment planning to reduce vulnerability tonatural or man-made hazards, the teams arehowever more active in the aftermath of disas-ters and serve as a coordinating mechanism toprovide assistance for relief and recovery. Inareas where similar natural disasters are recur-rent, it is recommended that DMT embarksystematically on preparedness programmingas an exit strategy.

See: "The Role and Responsibilities of theUNDMTs" at the website www.undmtp.org

7Chapter

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Challenges for the future

11..11 SSuumm uupp - cchhaalllleennggeess aahheeaadd11..22 MMeeaassuurreemmeenntt ooff pprrooggrreessss

PPhhoottoo:: IISSDDRR SSeeccrreettaarriiaatt

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7Challenges for the future

Challenges for the future

As recognized by the IDNDR Programme Forum in 1999, a great dealof learning and experience was gained by individuals, communities, gov-ernments and specialists from different fields during the Decade. Manynational and local plans have benefited from progress made at all levels onemploying new institutional and technical tools for improving disasterreduction practices. Particularly valuable advances occurred in theincreasing use of risk assessments, specific methodologies and researchinitiatives, early warning systems, information, training, education andpublic awareness activities.

Nevertheless, no formal evaluation of achievements or systematic moni-toring of progress was carried out. Therefore, the ISDR secretariat hasembarked on developing a process for a continuous global review of dis-aster reduction initiatives. The aim is twofold: to gather and provideinformation on ongoing activities and the evolving “state of the art” ofdisaster risk reduction, and to initiate the development of a conceptualframework for monitoring progress made by governments, civil societyand other relevant organizations.

This final chapter outlines some of the main conclusions and recommen-dations stemming from the research and consultation effort undertaken forthis global review.

Only by showing evidence of the benefits of reducing the vulnerability todisasters can future investment and priorities in this area be sustained.The continuous work of local and grass roots organizations, govern-ments, the scientific and technical community, international and regionalorganizations remains essential to unite efforts in a common process toensure sustainable development. This is where the ISDR mechanismsshould make a difference.

The process of reviewing disaster reduction initiatives is an essential func-tion of the ISDR, which will be gradually enhanced. This initial workreflected in Living with risk will contribute to the process of the ten-yearreview of achievements and shortcomings in the implementation of theYokohama Strategy and Plan of Action of 1994. This exercise, planned for2003, is expected to be completed in 2004. It should also contribute toshaping the growing international agenda for disaster risk reduction.

This current issue of the global review is a preliminary version, intendedfor consultation and discussion. It is expected to spark an exchange ofideas and wider circulation of experiences among those interested in thesubject – scholars, practitioners, policy-makers, leaders, managers andprofessionals concerned with the enormous losses in lives and assetscaused by the lack of prevention and protection from disasters that slowsdevelopment and renders it more difficult and expensive. The globalreview will be elaborated and refined further based on the commentsreceived and additional experience disclosed by new developments.

IDNDR mid-reviewin Yokohama

The mid-term reviewof IDNDR, at the

World Conference onNatural Disaster

Reduction in Yoko-hama, May 1994,

revealed in its assess-ment that “ awarenessof the potential benefitsof disaster reduction is

still limited to spe-cialised circles and hasyet not been successfully

communicated to allsectors of society…” In

addition, it states that a“number of positive

results have beenachieved…although

unevenly and not in theconcerted and systematic

way envisaged…”These are challengesstill to be addressed.

The international community equally bears aresponsibility to motivate, and indeed to sup-port, policies and actions in developing coun-tries that pursue structured and evident disas-ter risk reduction strategies. As long as the onlymessage that national governments receivefrom the international development "commu-nity" in connection with disaster risks is theequivalent of, "please prepare a consolidatedrelief appeal when there is a crisis", and that thecosts and associated responsibilities for poorlymanaged risks are transferred to the interna-tional community, there will remain slightincentive for the seriously disaster-prone devel-oping countries to embrace significant, inter-nal, commitments or responsiblility for sus-tained disaster risk management practices.

In this respect there is a crucial role for inter-national organizations and the collective inter-ests of the United Nations system, in concertwith the influential bilateral and multilateraldevelopment assistance agencies to support,rather than undermining national initiativesand local efforts to develop capacities for


Sum uup –– cchallenges aahead

Throughout this review it is often repeated thatthere is a need for disaster and risk reduction tobe an essential part of broader sustainable devel-opment concerns. As discussed in chapter six, theinternational development targets set for the year2015 in the Millenium Declaration cannot bereached unless the heavy toll of disasters inhuman and economic terms is reduced. That isbecause risk and vulnerability to natural, techno-logical and ecological hazards are driven bysocial, economic and environmental activities.The subject has emerged as a new area of concernfor governments in the preparatory process forthe World Summit for Sustainable Developmentin August 2002.

It is important to remember that current develop-ment practices do not necessarily reduce commu-nities’ vulnerability to disasters. Ill-advised andmisdirected development practices often increasethe risk to disasters. The challenge of influencingand enhancing development plans, programmesand projects pursued by countries is still great.

CChhaalllleennggeess ffoorr tthhee PPaacciiffiicc iissllaannddss –– rreepprreesseennttaattiivvee ffoorr mmaannyy ppaarrttss ooff tthhee wwoorrlldd

The following future challenges to incorporating a Comprehensive Hazard And Risk Management (known as CHARM in thePacific) into national development planning were indicated in the regional ISDR review for the Pacific region, undertaken withSOPAC. These challenges are valid for most of the regions in the world and at a global scale and are therefore reproduced here.

AAccccoommpplliisshhiinngg aa ppaarraaddiiggmm sshhiifftt ffrroomm mmaannaaggiinngg ddiissaasstteerrss ttoo mmaannaaggiinngg rriisskkss:: A big educational drive is needed toinstil the distinctive concepts of hazards, vulnerability, risks and the value of managing risks. High-level advocacyand influential public champions are needed to promote risk reduction in their societies.

PPrroodduucciinngg mmoorree aaddeeqquuaattee hhaazzaarrdd aanndd vvuullnneerraabbiilliittyy aasssseessssmmeennttss aanndd iimmpprroovvee pprreesseennttaattiioonn:: More work is needed toproduce detailed hazards and vulnerability maps. Assessments should integrate community-derived perceptions andpriorities about vulnerability and risk analysis.

EEnnssuurriinngg uunniiffoorrmm aanndd ccoonnssiisstteenntt aapppprrooaacchheess ttoo aa ccoommmmoonn pprroobblleemm:: There are often several agencies delivering riskmanagement services to countries within a given region. This results in over-taxing capacities of recipient countriesand a potential confusion of purpose. In the Pacific specifically, a requirement would be agreed negotiations withmajor development partners to adopt a uniform approach and common standards to disaster risk management andconsolidated support for its continued implementation.

EEnnssuurriinngg nnaattiioonnaall iinntteeggrraattiioonn aanndd ccoo-oorrddiinnaattiioonn:: Agencies often create spheres of authority and accountability thatresult potentially in resistance or inflexibility. Formulating policy at 'whole-of-government' incorporating risk reduc-tion programmes into national planning arrangements for sustainable development, enhancing information sharing,upgrading communications systems and training capabilities and providing adequate levels of resources can min-imise such constraints.

LLaanndd uussee ssyysstteemmss aanndd tteennuurree:: Social relationships, land rights and local prerogatives are particularly complicated andvaried across the Pacific region. Convincing, consistent and sustained public awareness and advocacy programmeshave to be institutionalised in order to gain acceptable levels of understanding and commitment.

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improved disaster risk reduction. The pesistentextravagance too often displayed in emergencyassistance following an " international " disas-ter, in contrast to the much smaller ongoingcommitments to support local endeavours ofdisaster risk reduction, is nothing less. There isaccordingly a serious need for internationalpolicy-makers to proceed beyond rhetoricalresolutions and to invest in considered, andsustained, measures of disaster risk reduction.This can, and indeed should, be reflected bythe incorporation of risk factors - starting withsystematic risk assessments - in both emer-gency assistance grants and the more funda-mental development assistance programmesunderwritten by the international community.

This approach, needs to be coupled with thedemanding task of accomodating the short-term and immediate needs of developing coun-tries while still maintaining an appreciation ofthe value of medium and long-term objectivesdemanded by both disaster reduction and sus-tainable development. Too often these linkageshave been either obscured, or ignored, in prac-tice. These issues become glaring in thosecountries where "development" is a fundamen-tal element of simple, basic survival for themajority of the population. To be effective, dis-aster risk reduction can only be integrated intoall relevant sectors of national social and eco-nomic interest: health, education, environ-ment, agriculture, transportation, infrastruc-ture, communications, public administration,planning - even security. Responsible gover-nance, in fact.

The challenges and priorities noted in the con-lusions of previous chapters are not repeatedhere, but the overaching concerns for furtherstrengthening include:

• IInnccrreeaassiinngg tthhee wwiiddeesspprreeaadd uunnddeerrssttaannddiinnggooff ddiissaasstteerr rriisskk.. This is a cross-cuttingneed related to all sectors. It includes ashift in approach towards the develop-ment of risk management as an essentialtool for planning and managing develop-ment.

• BBrriinnggiinngg tthhee eeccoollooggiiccaall sspphheerree iinnttoo ddiissaass-tteerr rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn.. Disaster reduction hasprimarily focused on physical protectionto hazards and the economic and socialspheres of sustainable development. Achallenge is to bring the ecological con-


cerns and the considered management ofnatural resources more emphatically intodisaster risk reduction. Environmentaldegradation and global change call forthis.

• RReeccooggnniizziinngg ddiissaasstteerr rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn pprriimmaa-rriillyy aass nnaattiioonnaall aanndd llooccaall rreessppoonnssiibbiilliittiieess..Increased evidence of national and localcommitment ir required, including institu-tional structures being in place. Cross-sec-toral and policy cooperation is needed tobuild a culture of prevention linked to envi-ronmental and socio-economic activities.

• CCoonnttiinnuuiinngg eeffffoorrttss ttoo ddeecceennttrraalliizzee rriisskkmmaannaaggeemmeenntt iinn pprraaccttiiccee.. Community par-ticipation and local decision making isessential to promote increased nationalpublic commitment.

• EEnnhhaanncciinngg ppoolliiccyy ddeevveellooppmmeenntt aanndd iinnttee-ggrraattiioonn to ensure that all relevant sectorsinclude risk management as a basic toolunder the overall perspective and goals ofsustainable development.

• IInnccrreeaassiinngg eedduuccaattiioonn,, iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn nneett-wwoorrkkiinngg aanndd rreesseeaarrcchh on risk management,and developing tools to reduce gender andculture-sensitive risks, adapted to differentgeographical and cultural contexts.

• EExxppaannddiinngg ppaarrttnneerrsshhiippss at all levels,including those among the private sector,academic institutions and NGOs workingalong with government. This should beemphasized as a main objective of nation-al platforms to address disaster risk reduc-tion in each country. For greater coher-ence and impact, these efforts need to befocussed and supported by methodologi-cal tools to establish links among initia-tives, systematize and unify processes.

• DDeevveellooppmmeenntt ooff ssppeecciiffiicc mmeetthhooddoollooggiieess toreduce risk and vulnerability to disastersin such key areas as environmental man-agement, land use planning, protection ofcritical facilities, financial tools and earlywarning. Take stock of existing tools andtechnologies and lessons-learnt.

• MMeeaassuurreemmeenntt ooff pprrooggrreessss.. The fundamentalchallenge is to achieve a reduction in fatalitiesand property loss from disasters in a growingnumber of communities and countries. Inorder to do this it is essential to show evi-dence that disaster risk reduction is beingunderstood, measures are progressivelybeing put into practice and targets or bench-marks and indicators are developed.

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Measurement oof pprogress –– the bbenefits oof rreporting

At the outset of the task to conduct a global review ofdisaster reduction initiatives, the advisory panel forthis review recommended that it should embark onthe development of criteria to measure effectivenessof disaster risk reduction. These should ultimatelyreflect how lives and assets have been saved, as wellas where countries stand in accomplishing the objec-tives of the ISDR.

A number of experts, scholars and agencies hascalled for the determination and application of spe-cific disaster risk reduction baselines, targets andindicators. These could include commitment forintegrating risk reduction into national planningand educational systems. These must necessarilyvary taking account of each national context, hazardfrequency and annual losses. Global targets couldhowever aim at reducing the number of victims andeconomic losses by an agreed percentage over aspecified period of time. Targets could be more spe-cific for governments and local communities,reflecting local criteria and conditions or otherwisebased on performance.

This task is obviously a difficult and complex one.Scientific and technical approaches in the past havefocused on indicators to suggest a hierarchy ofaccomplishment (number of risk assessments car-ried out, existence of databases, number of decreesor legal acts, research programmes, educationalreforms, etc.). The quantitative measurement of theimpact of individual disaster risk reduction initia-tives or projects that typically span a relativelyshorter time period, is difficult to achieve. If no dis-aster has occurred after the measure has been put inplace it could be difficult to test the relative effec-tiveness of measures undertaken. One approach to

“Each country bears the primary responsibility for pro-tecting its own people, infrastructure, and other national

assets from the impact of natural disasters.”

Principle nine of the Yokohama Strategy andPlanof Action for a Safer World

dealing with this dilemma would be to try and iden-tify situations where a “before and after” scenariowould apply.

Measuring the qualitative advancement is even moredemanding as changes in perceptions, values, atti-tudes and behaviour are difficult to assess. However,these are the essential changes needed to move to ahigher phase in the pursuit of sustainable develop-ment. Benchmarks and indicators for reducing disas-ter risk can also become valuable instruments tomonitor other sustainable development requirementsin fields such as education, community participation,local management and self reliance, sustainable liveli-hoods, environmental management, urban and ruralor land-use planning, and gender balance.

Measuring the progress of disaster risk reduction ina country or region requires different frameworks atdifferent time-scales. In the long term, disasterinduced changes in the indicators of sustainabledevelopment, such as the Human DevelopmentIndex, GDP, poverty reduction, improved environ-mental management practices can reflect, to a degree,the extent to which a community has become moreresilient to disasters.

The ISDR secretariat is working with its partners toaddress these needs. With UNDP, in particular, ithas initiated collaboration for the development ofcommon criteria to identify and assess the impacts ofdisaster risk reduction. UNDP chairs the workinggroup on vulnerability, risk and impact assessmentsof the Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduc-tion, and is currently producing a Global Risk Vul-nerability Index as part of the forthcoming WorldVulnerability Report. Collaboration is also takingplace with UN/DESA on sustainable developmentindicators and with a number of others such as theIFRC.

ISDR aims to assess and monitor disaster risk reduc-tion by focussing on measuring the multiple process-es leading to a culture of prevention, including theparticipation of the national and local communities inthe application of the most up-to-date knowledge forrisk management. In order to assure credibility andacceptance, it is essential to engage in a transparentand participatory process for developing and evaluat-ing the performance of an appropriate set of indica-tors. Examples for specific priority in the develop-ment of “performance targets” are suggested in var-ious sections of this global review.

Reduced losses from disasters, as well as reduced level of exposure tohazards, should become a more explicit development target in its

own right, both nationally and globally, as recognised in the Millen-nium Development goals and through the ISDR.

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Building pperformance ttargets

In order to develop and assess effective disaster riskreduction strategies, governments need to focus on aseries of performance targets or benchmarks.

They need to be, among other things ”SMART”: sus-tainable, measurable, achievable, relevant and timely:

• SSuussttaaiinnaabbllee over time.• MMeeaassuurraabbllee, with defined criteria for success and

specific benchmarks.• AAcchhiieevvaabbllee within the time frame that govern-

ments set. This may extend over months or yearsdepending on available resources and nationalpriorities.

• RReelleevvaanntt,, to satisfy varied national situationsrelated to national hazards, vulnerabilities andcapacities and set within national governmentalstructures.

• TTiimmeellyy, related to carefully time-framed tasks,with clear short and long term goals.

They must also be:

• Clearly ddeeffiinneedd.• FFlleexxiibbllee,, to enable on course corrections to be

made.• AAddaappttaabbllee to suit changing needs and percep-

tions.• Well iinntteeggrraatteedd among sectors, line ministries or

departments and between fields or disciplines.• AAcccceepptteedd by all contributing bodies both inside

and outside governments.• RReefflleeccttiinngg oonn iinntteerrnnaattiioonnaall eexxppeerriieennccee from coun-

tries that have succeeded in creating effective mit-igation and preparedness strategies.

Performance targets need to be adapted to each spe-cific geographical and cultural context and testedaccordingly.

A ccollaborative eeffort tto mmeasure aaccomplishment

While the motivation and the responsibility to evaluateprogress towards more effective risk reduction restswithin individual countries and local communities,there is a collective requirement that extends through-out the disaster risk reduction community to deter-mine broadly agreed terms of reference and to increaseknowledge about available methodologies. Specificperformance targets and priorities clearly will varyfrom country to country, but crucial areas of emphasiscan be tied to various functions and abilities associated

with the different aspects of disaster risk reduction thatall comprehensive strategies share.

• Designated government authorities at bothnational and local levels of responsibility will ide-ally work closely with specialized institutions andcommunity-based organizations to apply the for-mulas considered most appropriate for theirrespective requirements. By drawing on their ownlocal experiences though, they also can contributeto the broader search and progressive refinementof both methodologies and appropriate criteriathat may hold wider relevance and appeal.

• Equally, international agencies representing bothbilateral and multilateral interests can contributeto this on-going assessment process as part ofrealizing their on-going development policies,programmes and projects.

• Individual "centers of excellence" devoted todisaster reduction at local, national, regionaland international levels of activity can furtheraugment the process of identifying, compilingand circulating different approaches to evaluatethe various dimensions of disaster risk manage-ment in practice.

In this respect, ISDR's extended international frame-work, associated technical specialists and interestedinstitutions can contribute various examples or broadparameters of possible criteria within designated areasof interest. Working in concert, they can also facilitatethe wider distribution and progressive refinement orvalidation of different needs and experience. There arecrucial roles to compare, circulate and progressivelyconsolidate possible approaches to gauge globalprogress, with the overall aim of enhancing and utiliz-ing multiple capacities for a shared global purpose.

An example of one such conceptual framework suitedto a particular set of circumstances is presented on thefollowing pages. It was developed through nationaland sub-regional collaboration in the PREANDINOprogramme involving Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador,Peru and Venezuela, with the encouragement of theISDR secretariat. While the expressed need for thisframework evolved within the countries concerned, itsinitial development also serves the purpose of thisglobal review by demonstrating one approach to a sys-tematic and structured review process of accomplish-ments in disaster risk management practice. Theframework will continue to be refined as appropriatecriteria become fashioned through further develop-ment and the methodology is honed through practi-cal testing, but it represents an important start to theprocess.

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Focus aarea ffor pper-formance ttargets

Impact on institu-tional framework

Impact on theplanning process

Impact on thecreation of a cul-ture of preventionat the level of theentire society

Variable

Political wwill (incorporationof disaster prevention in thepolitical value system)

Institutional development(for risk management)

Risk reduction and/or disas-ter prevention plans

Incorporation of risk assess-ments and disaster preven-tion measures in develop-ment plans and controlmechanisms

Support systems for decision-making

Education and capacity building

Information and communication

Criteria ffor iindicators (existence oof…, nnumber oof…., llevel oof…)

• Official statements• Formal decisions on disaster prevention and risk management• High-level programmes for promoting disaster prevention and risk reduc-

tion

• Organization - degree of organizational development• Legal and juridical support• Risk reduction law or legislative acts (in related areas)• Other regulations• Budget for institutional strengthening and other disaster reduction actions

Existence and development of risk reduction/prevention plans (within differ-ent relevant sectors)

• Incorporation of risk assessments and risk reduction measures in develop-ment plans

• Incorporation of risk assessments and prevention in land-use managementplans

• Consideration of disaster risk assessments in projects (directly or in con-junction with environmental impact assessments)

• Coordination mechanisms for plan design• Establishment of critical capabilities for protecting lives and assets and

implementing alternatives in disaster situations (such as, projects for controlof floods and other natural hazards and for protection against their impact,vulnerability reduction for health facilities, evacuation routes, alternativelife-lines, communication centres, airports, information management)

• Information systems on risks and disasters• Impact measuring systems (indicators and methodologies)• Management assessment systems (management indicators)

• Incorporation of hazard and risk management in the basic primary and sec-ondary curriculum (related to natural and social sciences and environmentaleducation)

• Incorporation of specialized topics in higher education• Higher education courses in prevention and risk management (architec-

ture, engineering, urban planning, medicine and public health, agriculture,sociology, economy, pedagogy, history, among others)

• Risk management training programmes for public administration and otherstakeholders

• Community training programmes

• Formal prevention information and dissemination programmes• Channels of access to information (electronic and documentation centres)• Communication programmes aimed at the general population• Role of the media (permanent presentation of this type of information in weath-

er forecast broadcasts; links between the media and specialized informationproduction centres)

Elements for development of indicators or performance targets for an institutional framework for disaster risk reduction and instilling a culture of prevention

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Focus aarea ffor pper-formance ttargets

Impact on knowl-edge productionfor risk reductionand management

Impact of the par-ticipation by thenational communi-ty in preventionand risk reductionefforts

Impact of specificdisaster riskreduction meas-ures

Variable

Production of knowledge

Support infrastructure

Institutional development ofthe knowledge sector

Private sector participation

Community action and par-ticipation

Demonstrated application

Criteria ffor iindicators (existence oof…, nnumber oof…., llevel oof…)

• Public awareness programmes (institutionalised)• Specialized information networks for risk reduction (public and private)

• Research and analysis of hazards (natural, technological, environmental)• Vulnerability analysis and assessments (social, economic, physical and envi-

ronmental vulnerability)• Risk assessments (risk maps)• Socio-economic impact studies (methodologies, estimates, lessons learned)• Development of planning methodologies

• Monitoring networks, remote sensing, GIS and other information technol-ogy capacity

• Communications network

• Channels of coordination between researchers and/or monitors (inter-disci-plinary and multi sectoral)

• Role of academic institutions in research• Links between knowledge institutions and information producers• Channels for the dissemination of scientific and applied information to

communities• Type of information generated (degree to which it meets the demand;

product supply and level of detail)

• The insurance sector• Finance (criteria for approval of project financing)• Business and interest groups• Partnerships (public-private)

• Specialized NGOs that can play a technical or awareness role in disasterprevention

• Community based organizations• Mechanisms for community participation• Agreements between the governments (nationl and local) and civil society

(NGOs, organized communities)

• Use of technical knowledge in engineering and other applications forvulnerability reduction (protection of critical facilities)

• Existence and application of technical construction standards• Control mechanisms of the application of technical standards• Development and application of urban planning standards• Control mechanisms for urban planning regulations• Control mechanisms for land-use management plans• Programmes for improving the application of prevention techniques• Early warning systems (application of technology, extension of the warning

network)

Methodological approach developed in the context of the PREANDINO programme (Bolivia,Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela) and in collaboration with the ISDR secretariat.

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A wwindow oof oopportunity

The two Chinese characters, which together form the word crisis, separatelymean threat and opportunity. An etymology like this is a reminder that as

conditions change, so can attitudes. In a world in which things seem sure to getworse, there is increasing incentive to make sure they do not.

When old menaces seem to multiply, new thinking must provide the solutions.Communities must adopt the notion that disaster impacts can be reduced andtherefore not only wait for disasters to be managed. In some cases, it might be

possible to reduce hazards themselves. If not, then it would certainly be possible to reduce human vulnerability to those hazards.

The combination of science and history is instructive – it provides the assurancethat disasters that happen once can happen again and again. Earthquakes, for

instance, are a fact of life at tectonic plate boundaries and these have been well-mapped. Floods are a fact of life on flood plains, and their rich soils are

down-to-earth proof of it.

To go from disaster management to disaster risk reduction is to exploithindsight and develop foresight through insight.

CCrriissiiss ==tthhrreeaatt ++ ooppppoorrttuunniittyy

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Annexes

1. Terminology: Basic terms of disaster riskreduction

2. Directory: International, regional, nationaland specialized organizations involved in dis-aster reduction and related issues

3. List of acronyms 4. Bibliography

Annex 1Terminology: Basic terms of disaster risk reduction

Throughout this global review the ISDR secretariat presents main terms related to disaster riskreduction to practitioners and experts for their consideration and further refinement. They arebased on a broad collection of different international sources, with the purpose of developingcommon understanding of terminology on disaster reduction, useful for the public, authoritiesand practitioners. This is a continuing effort to be reflected in future reviews, responding to aneed expressed in several international venues, regional commentary and national responses tothe ISDR questionnaire.

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a1Annexes

Capacity may include physical, institutional, socialor economic means as well as skilled personal orcollective attributes such as leadership and man-agement. Capacity may also be described as capa-bility.

CCaappaacciittyy bbuuiillddiinnggEfforts aimed to develop human skills withina community, organisation or institution need-ed to reduce the level of risk.

In extended understanding, capacity building alsoincludes development of institutional, financial andother resources, such as technology at different lev-els and sectors of the society.

CClliimmaattee cchhaannggee Refers to a statistically significant variation ineither the mean state of the climate or in itsvariability, persisting for an extended period(typically decades or longer).

Climate change may be due to natural internalprocesses or external forcing, or to persistentanthropogenic changes in the composition of theatmosphere or in land use (IPCC, 2001).

CCooppiinngg ccaappaacciittyyThe manner in which people and organisa-tions use existing resources to achieve variousbeneficial ends during unusual, abnormal,and adverse conditions of a disaster phenome-non or process.

The strengthening of coping capacities usuallybuilds resilience to withstand the effects of naturaland other hazards.

AAcccceeppttaabbllee rriisskk The level of loss a society or community con-siders acceptable given existing social, eco-nomic, political, cultural and technical condi-tions.

In engineering terms, acceptable risk is also used todescribe structural and non-structural measuresundertaken to reduce possible damage at a level,which does not harm people and property, accord-ing to codes or “accepted practice” based, amongother issues, on a known probability of hazard.

BBiioollooggiiccaall hhaazzaarrddProcesses of organic origin or those conveyedby biological vectors, including exposure topathogenic micro-organisms, toxins and bioac-tive substances, which may cause the loss of lifeor injury, property damage, social and econom-ic disruption or environmental degradation.

Examples of biological hazards: outbreaks of epi-demic diseases, plant or animal contagion, insectplagues and extensive infestations.

BBuuiillddiinngg ccooddeessOrdinances and regulations controlling thedesign, construction, materials, alteration andoccupancy of any structure for human safetyand welfare. Building codes include bothtechnical and functional standards.

CCaappaacciittyyA combination of all the strengths andresources available within a community ororganisation that can reduce the level of risk,or the effects of a disaster.

EEaarrllyy wwaarrnniinngg

The provision of timely and effective informa-tion, through identified institutions, that allowindividuals at risk of a disaster, to take actionto avoid or reduce their risk and prepare foreffective response.

Early warning systems consist of three elements (i)forecasting and prediction of impending events, (ii)processing and dissemination of warnings to politi-cal authorities and population, and (iii) undertak-ing appropriate reaction to warnings.

EEccoossyysstteemmA system of interacting living organismstogether with their physical environment.

The boundaries of what could be called an ecosys-tem are somewhat arbitrary, depending on thefocus of interest or study. Thus the extent of anecosystem may range from very small spatial scalesto, ultimately, the entire Earth (IPCC, 2001).

EEll NNiiññoo-ssoouutthheerrnn oosscciillllaattiioonn ((EENNSSOO))An irregularly occurring pattern of abnormalwarming of the surface coastal waters offEcuador, Peru and Chile. This coupledatmosphere-ocean phenomenon is associatedwith the fluctuation of intertropical surfacepressure pattern and circulation in the Indianand Pacific oceans, called the Southern Oscil-lation.

There have been a number of attempts to define ElNiño, both quantitatively and qualitatively, butnone has achieved universal recognition. This phe-nomenon triggers a shift in seasonal patterns ofweather systems over many subtropical and mid-latitude parts of the globe.

LLaa NNiiññaa is the opposite of an El Niño event, dur-ing which waters in the west Pacific are warmerthan normal and trade winds are stronger.

EEmmeerrggeennccyy mmaannaaggeemmeenntt The organisation, management of resourcesand responsibilities for dealing with all aspectsof emergencies, in particularly preparedness,response and rehabilitation.

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a1 Living with Risk: A global review of disaster reduction initiatives

CCoouunntteerr mmeeaassuurreessAll measures taken to counter and reduce dis-aster risk. They most commonly referred toengineering (structural) measures but can alsoinclude other non-structural measures andtools designed and employed to avoid or limitthe adverse impact of natural hazards andrelated environmental and technological disas-ters.

DDiissaasstteerr

A serious disruption of the functioning of acommunity or a society causing widespreadhuman, material, economic or environmentallosses which exceed the ability of the affectedcommunity/society to cope using its ownresources.

A disaster is a function of the risk process. Itresults from the combination of hazards, conditionsof vulnerability and insufficient capacity or meas-ures to reduce the potential negative consequences ofrisk.

DDiissaasstteerr rriisskk rreedduuccttiioonn ((ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn))The systematic development and applicationof policies, strategies and practices to min-imise vulnerabilities and disaster risksthroughout a society, to avoid (prevention) orto limit (mitigation and preparedness) adverseimpact of hazards, within the broad context ofsustainable development.

The disaster risk reduction framework, asdescribed in this review, is composed of: - Risk awareness and assessment including

hazard analysis and vulnerability/capacityanalysis;

- Knowledge development including education,training, research and information;

- Public commitment and institutional frame-works, including organisational, policy, legis-lation and community action;

- Application of measures including environ-mental management, land-use and urbanplanning, protection of critical facilities, appli-cation of science and technology, partnershipand networking, and financial instruments;

- Early warning systems including forecasting,dissemination of warnings, preparednessmeasures and reaction capacities.

Emergency management involves the plans, struc-tures and arrangements which are established tobring together the normal endeavours of govern-ment, voluntary and private agencies in a compre-hensive and coordinated way to deal with thewhole spectrum of emergency needs. This is alsoknown as disaster management.

EEnnvviirroonnmmeennttaall iimmppaacctt aasssseessssmmeenntt ((EEIIAA)) Study undertaken in order to assess the effecton a specified environment of the introductionof any new factor, which may upset the eco-logical balance.

EIA is a policy making tool that serves to provideevidence and analysis of environmental impacts ofactivities from conception to decision-making. It isutilised extensively in national programming andfor international development assistance projects.An EIA must include a detailed risk assessmentand provide alternatives solutions.

EEnnvviirroonnmmeennttaall ddeeggrraaddaattiioonnProcesses induced by human behaviour andactivities (sometimes combined with naturalhazards), that damage the natural resourcebase or adversely alter natural processes orecosystems. Potential effects are varied andmay contribute to an increase in vulnerabilityand the frequency and intensity of naturalhazards.

Some examples: land degradation, deforestation,desertification, wildland fires, loss of biodiversity,land, water and air pollution, climate change, sealevel rise, ozone depletion.

FFoorreeccaassttDefinite statement or statistical estimate of theoccurrence of a future event (UNESCO,WMO).

This term is used with different meaning in differ-ent disciplines, as well as “prediction”.

GGeeoollooggiiccaall hhaazzaarrddNatural earth processes or phenomena, whichmay cause the loss of life or injury, propertydamage, social and economic disruption orenvironmental degradation. Geological hazard

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includes processes of a geological, neotectonic,geophysical, geomorphologic, geotechnicaland hydrogeological nature.

Examples of geological hazards are: earthquakes,tsunamis; volcanic activity and emissions; massmovements (landslides, rockslides, rockfall, lique-faction, submarine slides, etc.); subsidence, surfacecollapse and geological fault activity.

GGeeooggrraapphhiicc iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn ssyysstteemmss ((GGIISS))Computer programmes that combine a rela-tional database with spatial interpretation andoutputs in form of maps. A more elaboratedefinition is that of a system for capturing,storing, checking, integrating, analysing anddisplaying data about the earth that is spatiallyreferenced. It is normally taken to include aspatially referenced database and appropriateapplications software.

Geographical information systems are increasinglybeing utilised for hazard and vulnerability map-ping and analysis, as well as for the application ofdisaster risk reduction measures and its manage-ment.

GGrreeeennhhoouussee ggaass ((GGHHGG))A gas, such as water vapour, carbon dioxide,methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) andhydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), thatabsorbs and re-emits infrared radiation,warming the earth’s surface and contributingto climate change (UNEP, 1998).

HHaazzaarrddA potentially damaging physical event, phe-nomenon and/or human activity, which maycause the loss of life or injury, property dam-age, social and economic disruption or envi-ronmental degradation.

Hazards can include latent conditions that mayrepresent future threats and can have different ori-gins: natural (geological, hydrometeorological andbiological) and/or induced by human processes(environmental degradation and technologicalhazards). Hazards can be combined, sequential orcombined in their origin and effects. Each hazardis characterised by its location, intensity, frequencyand probability.

Natural hazards can be classified by origin in:geological, hydrometeorological or biological.

PPrreeppaarreeddnneessssActivities and measures taken in advance toensure effective response to the impact of dis-aster, including the issuance of timely andeffective early warnings and the temporaryremoval of people and property from a threat-ened location.

PPrreevveennttiioonnActivities to provide outright avoidance of theadverse impact of hazards and related environ-mental, technological and biological disasters.

Depending on social and technical feasibility andcost/benefit considerations, investing in preventivemeasures is justified in areas frequently affected bydisasters. In the context of public awareness andeducation, prevention refers to changing attitudeand behaviour towards a “culture of prevention”.

PPuubblliicc aawwaarreenneessssThe processes of informing the general popu-lation, increasing their levels of consciousnessabout risks and how to take action to reducetheir exposure to hazards. This is particularlyimportant for public officials in fulfilling theirresponsibilities to save lives and property inthe event of a disaster.

Public awareness activities support a change inbehaviour leading towards a culture of prevention.This involves public information, dissemination,education, radio or television broadcasts and theuse of printed media, as well as, the establishmentof disaster information centres and networks.

PPuubblliicc iinnffoorrmmaattiioonnInformation, facts and knowledge provided orlearned as a result of research or study, whichis public, open to the people as a whole.

RReeccoovveerryyDecisions and actions taken after a disasterwith a view to restoring the living conditionsof the stricken community, while encouragingand facilitating necessary adjustments toreduce disaster risk.

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HHaazzaarrdd aannaallyyssiissIdentification, studies and monitoring of anyhazard to determinate its potentiality, origin,characteristics and behaviour.

HHyyddrroommeetteeoorroollooggiiccaall hhaazzaarrddssNatural processes or phenomena of atmos-pheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature,which may cause the loss of life or injury,property damage, social and economic disrup-tion or environmental degradation.

Examples of hydrometeorological hazards are:floods, debris and mud flows; tropicalcyclones, storm surges, thunder/hailstorms,rain and wind storms, blizzards and othersevere storms; drought, desertification, wild-land fires, heat waves, sand or dust storms;permafrost and avalanches.

LLaa NNiiññaa(see El Niño-southern oscillation).

LLaanndd-uussee ppllaannnniinngg Branch of physical planning that determinesthe most desirable way land should be used.Involves land-use studies and mapping, analy-sis of data acquired, formulation of alternativeland-use decisions and design of a long-rangeland-use plan for different geographical andadministrative scales.

Land-use planning can help to mitigate disastersand reduce risks by discouraging settlements andconstruction of key installations in hazard proneareas, control of population density and expan-sion, and the siting of service routes in transport,power, water, sewerage and other critical facilities.

MMiittiiggaattiioonnStructural and non-structural measuresundertaken to limit the adverse impact of nat-ural hazards, environmental degradation andtechnological hazards.

NNaattuurraall hhaazzaarrddssNatural processes or phenomena occurring inthe biosphere that may constitute a damagingevent.

Recovery (rehabilitation and reconstruction) is anopportunity to develop and apply disaster riskreduction measures.

RReelliieeff // rreessppoonnsseeThe provision of assistance and/or interven-tion during or immediately after a disaster tomeet the life preservation and basic subsis-tence needs of those people affected. It can beof an immediate, short-term, or protractedduration.

RReessiilliieennccee // rreessiilliieennttThe capacity of a system, community or socie-ty to resist or to change in order that it mayobtain an acceptable level in functioning andstructure. This is determined by the degree towhich the social system is capable of organis-ing itself, and the ability to increase its capaci-ty for learning and adaptation, including thecapacity to recover from a disaster.

RReettrrooffiittttiinngg ((oorr uuppggrraaddiinngg))Reinforcement of structures in order to bemore resistant to the forces of natural hazards.

Retrofitting involves consideration of changes inthe mass, stiffness, damping, load path and ductili-ty and can involve radical changes such as theintroduction of energy absorbing dampers and baseisolation systems. Examples of retrofitting includesthe consideration of wind loading to strengthen andminimize the wind force, or in earthquake proneareas, the strengthening of structures by addingshear walls.

RRiisskk The probability of harmful consequences, orexpected loss (of lives, people injured, proper-ty, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted orenvironment damaged) resulting from inter-actions between natural or human inducedhazards and vulnerable/capable conditions.Conventionally risk is expressed by the equa-tion Risk = Hazards x Vulnerability /Capacity.

Beyond expressing a probability of physical harm,it is crucial to appreciate that risks are always cre-ated or exist within social systems. It is importantto consider the social contexts in which risks occurand that people therefore do not necessarily share

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the same perceptions of risk and their underlyingcauses.

RRiisskk aasssseessssmmeenntt//aannaallyyssiissA process to determine the nature and extentof risk by analysing potential hazards andevaluating existing conditions of vulnerabili-ty/capacity that could pose a potential threator harm to people, property, livelihoods andthe environment on which they depend.

The process of conducting a risk assessment is basedin a review of both technical features of hazardssuch as their location, intensity, frequency, andprobability, and also the analysis of the physical,social and economic dimensions of vulnerability,while taking particular account of the coping capa-bilities pertinent to the risk scenarios.

RRiisskk rreedduuccttiioonn mmeeaassuurreessThe development and application of policies,procedures and capacities of the society andcommunities to lessen the negative impacts ofa possible impact of natural hazards and relat-ed environmental and technological disasters.This includes structural and non structuralmeasures to avoid (prevention) or to limit(mitigation and preparedness) adverse impactof hazards, as well as the development of cop-ing capabilities.

RRiisskk mmaannaaggeemmeennttThe systematic management of administrativedecisions, organisation, operational skills andresponsibilities to apply policies, strategies andpractices for disaster risk reduction.

SSttrruuccttuurraall mmeeaassuurreessEngineering measures and construction ofhazard-resistant and protective structures andinfrastructure

SSuussttaaiinnaabbllee ddeevveellooppmmeenntt Development that meets the needs of thepresent without compromising the ability offuture generations to meet their own needs. Itcontains within it two key concepts: the con-cept of “needs”, in particular the essentialneeds of the world’s poor, to which overridingpriority should be given; and the idea of limi-

VVuullnneerraabbiilliittyyA set of conditions and processes resultingfrom physical, social, economical, and envi-ronmental factors, which increase the suscep-tibility of a community to the impact of haz-ards.

Positive factors, that increase the ability of peopleand the society they live in, to cope effectively withhazards, that increase their resilience, or that oth-erwise reduce their susceptibility, are considered ascapacities.

WWiillddllaanndd ffiirreeAny unplanned and uncontrolled fire regard-less of ignition, that may damage or benefitland of recognised value to a society.

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tations imposed by the state of technology andsocial organization on the environment’s abili-ty to meet present and the future needs.(Brundtland Commission, 1987).

Sustainable development is based on socio-culturaldevelopment, political stability and decorum, eco-nomic growth and ecosystem protection, which allrelate to disaster risk reduction.

TTeecchhnnoollooggiiccaall hhaazzaarrddssDanger originating from technological orindustrial accidents, dangerous procedures,infrastructure failures or certain human activi-ties, which may cause the loss of life or injury,property damage, social and economic disrup-tion or environmental degradation.

Some examples: industrial pollution, nuclearactivities and radioactivity, toxic wastes, damfailures; transport, industrial or technological acci-dents (explosions, fires, spills).

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Annex 2Directory: International, regional, national, and specialized organizations involved in disaster reduction and related issues

This list contains brief descriptive information and contact details of the academic and research institu-tions, specialized governmental and non-governmental organizations mentioned in the Global Review.Additional information about the United Nations is listed in Chapter 6.2 "UN agencies and scope ofactivities". The ISDR Secretariat is preparing a more comprehensive directory focusing on internetsources on disaster reduction and related issues. This directory, compiled in a database, will be availableon the ISDR Website www.unisdr.org.

The ISDR secretariat would be pleased to receive your comments, corrections or additional informationfor future versions.

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African CCenter oof MMeteorological AApplications ffor DDevelopment ((ACMAD), NNiamey, NNigerACMAD is the focal point in fostering regional cooperation among the fifty-three African states with the rest of theworld in climate and environmental concerns with regard to sustainable social and economic development. The centercoordinates the activities of the National Meteorological and Hydrological Services (NMHSs) of these countries.http://205.156.54.206/ia/acmad.htm http://www.acmad.ne/uk/

African UUnionThe African Union is the successor to the Organization of African Unity launched in Durban, South Africa in July,2002. http://www.africa-union.org/

Agence eeuropéenne ppour lle DDeveloppement eet lla SSanté ((AEDES)The European Agency for the Development and Health focuses on public health policies, food security and socialprogrammes such as gender policy. http://www.aedes.be/

Agency oof IIndustrial SScience aand TTechnology ((AIST), JJapanThe National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), is an Independent AdministrativeInstitution under the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry . On April, 2001 the new AIST began operations. Itcomprises 15 research institutes previously under the former Agency of Industrial Science and Technology (the for-mer AIST) in the Ministry of International Trade and the Weights and Measures Training Institute. AIST is Japan’slargest public research organization. http://www.aist.go.jp/index_en.html

Alliance oof SSmall IIsland SStates ((AOSIS)AOSIS is a coalition of small island and low-lying coastal countries that share similar development challenges andconcerns about the environment, especially their vulnerability to the adverse effects of global climate change. It func-tions primarily as an ad hoc lobby and negotiating voice for small island developing states (SIDS) within the UnitedNations system. AOSIS has a membership of 43 states and territories, drawn from all oceans and regions of theworld: Africa, Caribbean, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, Pacific and South China Sea. Thirty-seven are members ofthe United Nations, close to 28 percent of developing countries, and 20 percent of the UN’s total membership.Together, SIDS communities constitute some five percent of the global population. Member States of AOSIS worktogether primarily through their New York diplomatic Missions to the United Nations. http://www.sidsnet.org/aosis

ASEAN EExperts GGroup oon DDisaster MManagement ((AEGDM)ASEAN cooperation on natural and man-made disasters is coordinated by AEGDM, which was established in 1976,and which meets every two years to discuss and share experiences of the region’s disaster management and mitigationactivities. http://www.adpc.ait.ac.th/pdr-sea/newsletter/issue3/pdr-update.html

ASEAN RRegional FForum ((ARF)ARF is a regional platform of ASEAN countries and dialogue partners for confidence building and dialogue onregional security concerns. It was established in 1994. It draws together 23 countries which have an impact on or areinvolved in the security of the Asia Pacific region. It comprises the 10 ASEAN member states (Brunei, Cambodia,Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam); the 10 ASEAN dialogue part-ners (Australia, Canada, China, the European Union, India, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Russia and theUnited States); the one ASEAN observer (Papua New Guinea); as well as the Democratic Peoples Republic of Koreaand Mongolia.http://www.dfat.gov.au/arf/arfintro.html

Asian DDevelopment BBank ((ADB), MManila, PPhilippines ADB is a multilateral development finance institution dedicated to reducing poverty in Asia and the Pacific.http://www.adb.org/

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Asian DDisaster PPreparedness CCenter ((ADPC), BBangkok, TThailand ADPC is a regional resource center established in 1986 dedicated to disaster reduction for safer communities and sustainabledevelopment in Asia and the Pacific. It is recognized as an important focal point for promoting disaster awareness and develop-ing capabilities to foster institutionalized disaster management and mitigation policies. http://www.adpc.ait.ac.th/

Asian DDisaster RReduction CCenter ((ADRC), KKobe, JJapan ADRC was established in July 1998 to promote multilateral cooperation for disaster reduction and to network the various playersin the region. It has held annual meetings to network the focal points in governments of its member countries. Its activities focuson information sharing, capacity building and cooperation. It has developed several successful capacity building programmeswith its member countries. www.adrc.or.jp

Asian IInstitute oof TTechnology ((AIT), BBangkok, TThailandAIT is an international graduate institution of higher learning with a mission to develop highly qualified andcommitted professionals who will play a leading role in the sustainable development of the region and its integration into the global economy. http://www.ait.ac.th/

Asia-PPacific EEconomic CCooperation ((APEC), SSingaporeIts goal is to advance economic dynamism and sense of community within the Asia-Pacific region.APEC has established itself as the primary regional vehicle for promoting open trade and practical economic and technical coopera-tion. http://www.apecsec.org.sg/

Association oof CCaribbean SStates ((ACS), PPort oof SSpain, TTrinidad aand TTobago, WWest IIndiesThe Convention Establishing the ACS was signed on 24 July 1994 in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, with the aim of promoting con-sultation, cooperation and concerted action among all the countries of the Caribbean, comprising 25 Member States and three AssociateMembers. Eight other non-independent Caribbean states are eligible for associate membership. Its current focus is on cooperation intrade, transport, sustainable tourism and natural disasters. http://www.acs-aec.org/

Association oof SSouth EEast AAsian NNations ((ASEAN), BBangkok, TThailandThe ASEAN Declaration states that the aims and purposes of the Association are: (i) to accelerate the economic growth, socialprogress and cultural development in the region through joint endeavours in the spirit of equality and partnership in order tostrengthen the foundation for a prosperous and peaceful community of Southeast Asian nations, and (ii) to promote regional peaceand stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries in the region and adherenceto the principles of the United Nations Charter. http://www.aseansec.org/

Auckland LLocal AAuthority HHazard LLiaison GGroup, NNew ZZealandIt was established by the Auckland Regional Council to enhance communication between local authorities in hazard managementissues and to facilitate intra-council communication. The Group was set up to recognize the link between hazard mitigation andland use planning, and the need to develop tools in areas to successfully manage risk, and to improve communication between thoseworking in the area of sustainable development and environment management.http://www.ema.gov.au/5virtuallibrary/pdfs/vol16no4/pardy.pdf

Australian EEmergency MManagement IInstitute ((AEMI), VVictoria, AAustralia ((See :: EEMAI)AEMI was an arm of Emergency Management Australia (EMA), which is the federal agency responsible for reducing the impactof natural and man-made disasters on the Australian community. AEMI as a registered training organisation, annually conductinga range of Commonwealth-funded activities designed to improve Australia’s capability to cope with disasters. http://www.emer-gency.nsw.gov.au/AEMI.htm

Australian GGeological SSurvey OOrganization ((AGSO)Geoscience Australia is the national agency for geoscience research and information. It contributes to enhance economic, social andenvironmental benefits to the community - by providing input for decisions that impact upon resource use, management of the envi-ronment, and the safety and well-being of Australians. Its major planned outcomes are: enhanced global attractiveness of Australia’soffshore and onshore exploration, improved resource management and environmental protection, safer communities and trans-portation. http://www.agso.gov.au/

Benfield GGreig HHazard RResearch CCentre ((BGHRC), UUniversity CCollege LLondon, UUnited KKingdomThe BGHRC is an academic research centre which comprises three groups: Geological Hazards, Meteorological and Space Haz-ards, and Disaster Management. The BGHRC provides a conduit for the transfer of cutting-edge natural hazard and riskresearch, practice, and innovation from the academic environment to the business world and government and international agen-cies. www.bghrc.com

Bureau dde lla pprotection ddes iinfrastructures eessentielles eet dde lla pprotection ccivile, CCanada (BPIEPC). AAlso OOffice oof CCritical IInfrastructure PProtection aand EEmergency PPreparedness ((OCIPEP)Its mission is to enhance the safety and security of Canadians in their physical and cyber environment.http://www.ocipep-bpiepc.gc.ca/index.html

cBusiness aand IIndustry CCouncil ffor EEmergency PPlanning aand PPreparedness ((BICEPP)In 1983, the Mayor of Los Angeles and a group of business leaders met to discuss disaster preparedness. This group subsequentlybecame a steering committee and formed the Business and Industry Council for Emergency Planning and Preparedness (BICEPP). Itwas established as a private sector, self- help association funded by annual sponsorship donations. BICEPP later evolved into a non-profitcorporation, lead by an Executive Committee and a Board of Directors. It goal is to provide a forum for information exchange, toenhance emergency preparedness and contingency planning within the business community.http://www.bicepp.org/

Canadian IInternational DDevelopment AAgency ((CIDA)CIDA supports sustainable development activities in order to reduce poverty and to contribute to a more secure, equitable and pros-perous world. http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/index.htm

Caribbean CCommunity ((CARICOM)Its mission is :”To provide dynamic leadership and service, in partnership with Community institutions and Groups, toward the attain-ment of a viable, internationally competitive and sustainable Community, with improved quality of life for all.” http://www.caricom.org/

Caribbean DDevelopment BBank ((CDB), SSt. MMichael, BBarbadosCDB intends to be the leading Caribbean development finance institution, working in an efficient, responsive and collaborativemanner with its borrowing members, leading towards the systematic reduction of poverty in member countries, through social andeconomic development. http://www.caribank.org/

Caribbean DDisaster EEmergency RResponse AAgency ((CDERA), SSt. MMichael, BBarbadosCDERA is an intergovernmental, regional disaster management organization with 16 participating states, headquartered in Barba-dos. CDERA’s main function is to launch an immediate and coordinated response to any disastrous event affecting any participat-ing state, once the state requests such assistance. www.cdra.org

Central AAmerican BBank ffor EEconomic IIntegration ((CABEI), HondurasCABEI, as a development bank and the financial arm of integration, has as its mission to promote progress and integration in the Isth-mus, to foment economic growth with equity and to respect the environment, by means of supporting public and private projects andprograms that create productive employment and contribute to improve productivity and competitiveness, as well as to increase thehuman development indices of the region. Headquartered in Tegucigalpa, Honduras, CABEI was founded on December 13, 1960, bythe Republics of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica to promote regional integration and development. Thebank’s membership has since grown to include the extra-regional members of Mexico, the Republic of China (Taiwan), Argentina and,most recently, Colombia. http://www.bcie.org/

Central CCommittee ffor FFlood aand SStorm CControl ((CCFSC), VViet NNam The CCFS Control is responsible for emergency responses to disastrous events in Viet Nam.

Central EEuropean DDisaster PPrevention FForum ((CEUDIP)This Forum has been established in 1999 by decision of the Central European Committees for the International Decade for Natural Dis-aster Reduction of the United Nations (IDNDR). This was done in order to continue the efforts initiated during the Decade by thecountries of Central Europe (Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia) in activities requiring collaboration ofneighbouring countries in all types of disasters, in particular in floods on rivers which are shared by these countries. The main focus wason early warning, but other important issues are being mutually considered, including the media’s role, disaster prevention and mitigationand legislation on states of emergency . http://www.unisdr.org/unisdr/dirregional.htm

Centre IInternational dde FFormation ddes AActeurs llocaux ((CIFAL), FFrance ((International TTraining CCentre ffor LLocal AActors)The objectives of the center are: to contribute to crisis management by UN agencies; to focus on the role of local community for emer-gency humanitarian response and aids for reconstruction and to establish partnership with UN agencies and other international actors.http://www.unitar.org/cifal/

Center ffor EEcology aand HHydrology ((CEH), UUnited KKingdomThe Centre for Ecology and Hydrology’s site at Wallingford is home to the hydrology research centre for the United Kingdom (the for-mer Institute of Hydrology), as well as the British Geological Survey’s hydrogeology research group, the publishing office of the Interna-tional Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS Press) and a section of the Natural Environmental Research Council’s (NERC) cen-tral IT Solutions and Services Group.www.nerc-wallingford.ac.uk www.ceh.ac.uk

Center ffor IIntegration oof NNatural DDisaster IInformation ((CINDI), UUnited SStates GGeological SSurvey CINDI is a research and operational facility that explores methods for collecting, integrating, and communicating informationabout the risks posed by natural hazards and the effects of natural disasters.http://mac.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/factsheets/fs00301.html

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Center oon IIntegrated RRural DDevelopment ffor AAsia aand tthe PPacific ((CIRDAP), DDhaka, BBangladeshCIRDAP is a regional, intergovernmental and autonomous institution established in July 1979 by the countries of Asia and the Pacificregion. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, which had the support of several other UN bodies anddonor countries and agencies such as Japan, and the Swedish International Development Agency took the initiative for its creation. Themember countries of CIRDAP are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan,Philippines, Sri Lanka,Thailand, and Vietnam. http://www.cirdap.org.sg/

Centre eeuropéen dde pprévention ddes rrisques ((CEPR), FFranceThe CEPR is a center on applied sciences in the field of prevention. Its work is founded on the expertise of insurers, researchers, andmanufacturers of products and services. http://www.cepr.tm.fr/fr/index.htm

Centre ffor RResearch oon tthe EEpidemiology oof DDisasters ((CRED), CCatholic UUniversity oof Louvain, Brussels, Belgium Although the main focus of the Centre is on safeguards, public health and the sanitary aspects of disasters,CRED also studies the socio-economic and long-term effects of these large-scale disasters. Increasingly, preparedness, principally at thelevel of human resource development as well as problems linked to the management of crises, have gained a higher profile withinCRED’s activities. It maintains the OFDA/CRED international disaster database EM-DAT. http://www.cred.be/

Centre RRégional AAGRHYMET, NNiamey, NNiger Created in 1974, AGRHYMETis a specialized hydro-meteorological institute of the Permanent Interstate Committee for DroughtControl in the Sahel (CILSS http://www.agrhymet.ne/AGRHYMET

Centro dde CCoordinacion ppara lla PPrevención dde DDesastres NNaturales een AAmérica CCentral (CEPREDENAC), RRepublic oof PPanama ((Coordinating CCentre ffor tthe PPrevention oof NNatural Disasters iin CCentral AAmerica) CEPREDENAC was established in 1988 as a coordination center for strengthening the capacity of the region as a whole to reducethe vulnerability of the population to the effects of natural disasters. In May 1995, CEPREDENAC became an official organizationset up to foster the Central American Integration System (SICA)with the Governments of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Hon-duras, Nicaragua and Panama as members. www.cepredenac.org/

Centro NNacional dde PPrevención dde DDesastres (CENAPRED), MMexixo ((National CCenter ffor DDisaster PPrevention)The National Centre for Disaster Prevention was created by an Agreement of Cooperation between the governments of Mexicoand Japan for the use and transfer of technology for the prevention of disasters. http://www.cenapred.unam.mx/

Centro PPeruano JJaponés dde IInvestigaciones SSísmicas yy MMitigación dde DDesastres (CISMID), ((Peruvian-JJapanese CCentre ffor SSeismic RResearch aand DDisaster MMitigation)http://www.cismid.uni.edu.pe/

Centro RRegional dde IInformacion dde DDesastres ((CRID), SSan JJosé, CCosta RRica ((Regional DDisaster Information CCentre) CRID is an initiative sponsored by six organizations that decided to join efforts to ensure the compilation and dissemination of disas-ter-related information in Latin America and the Caribbean. Its mission is to promote the development of a prevention culture in theLatin American and Caribbean countries, through the compilation and dissemination of disaster-related information, and the promo-tion of co-operative efforts to improve risk management in the region. www.crid.or.cr

Center ffor DDisease CControl aand pprevention ((CDC) AAtlanta, UUnited SStatesCDC is recognized as the lead federal agency for protecting the health and safety of people – at home and abroad, providing credibleinformation to enhance health decisions, and promoting health through strong partnerships. CDC serves as the national focus for devel-oping and applying disease prevention and control, environmental health, and health promotion and education activities designed toimprove the health of the people of the United States. http://www.cdc.gov/

Comité ppermanent IInter-EEtats dde LLutte CContre lla SSécheresse ddans lle SSahel ((CILSS), OOuagadougou,Burkina Faso (Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel)Its mission is to be involved in the research of food security and to combat the effects of drought and desertification for better ecologicalstability. http://www.cilss.org/

Comisión CCentroamericana dde AAmbiente yy DDesarrollo ((CCAD), EEl SSalvador ((Central AAmerican Commission ffor EEnvironment aand DDevelopment)It is called to protect and, at the same time, give value to the regional patrimony, which is characterized by its biological diversity andecosystems. Accordingly, it is also called to be a bridge of collaboration between the countries of the region seeking the adoption of thethemes of sustainable development by soliciting the collaboration of all the parties that work in the field of development. It is the region-al institution in Central America responsible for the coordination of Corridor activities and other regional environment and developmentinitiatives in Central America. http://ccad.sgsica.org/

Comisión NNacional dde PPrevención dde RRiesgos yy AAtención dde EEmergencias ((CNE), CCosta RRica (National Risk Prevention and Emergency Response Commission)The National Commission for Risk Prevention and Emergency Management is the entity responsible for the coordination of preventionwork on risk and for the mitigation and response to emergency situations (Article 19 of the Legislature). The development of the Nation-al Law for Emergencies, on the 14th of August, 1969, was the foundation for the National Commission. www.cne.go.cr

Comisión PPermanente dde CContingencias ((COPECO), HHonduras ((The PPermanent CCommission ffor CContingencies)Presently, the Executive Council is organizing the lobbying of a new law which will make the management of contingencies more efficientand which will support the creation of a National System for the prevention, mitigation and management of disasters and emergencies.http://www.copeco.hn/

Commission ffor tthe GGeological MMap oof tthe WWorld ((CGMW)The CGMW’s aims are to promote, coordinate and publish synthetic Earth sciences maps, at small scale, of continental and / or oceanicareas of the World. It is a non-profit scientific and pedagogic body governed by French law.http://ccgm.free.fr/ccgm_gb.html-World GGeological MMaps SSearch SSystem : http://www.aist.go.jp/RIODB/g-mapi/welcome.html

Committee oon EEarth OObservation SSatellites ((CEOS)CEOS is an international organization charged with coordinating international civil spaceborne missions designated to observe and studyplanet Earth. Comprising 41 space agencies and other national and international organizations, CEOS is recognized as the major interna-tional forum for the coordination of Earth observation satellite programs and for interaction of these programs with users of satellite dataworldwide.http://www.ceos.org/

Committee oon tthe PPeaceful UUses oof OOuter SSpace ((COPUOS), UUnited NNationsThe Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space was set up by the United Nations General Assembly in 1959 to review thescope of international cooperation in peaceful uses of outer space, to devise programmes in this field to be undertaken under Unit-ed Nations auspices, to encourage continued research and the dissemination of information on outer space matters, and to studylegal problems arising from the exploration of outer space. http://www.oosa.unvienna.org/COPUOS/copuos.html

Consejo RRegional dde CCooperación AAgricola ((CORECA) ppara AAmerica CCentral, MMexico yy lla RRepublica DDominicana ((Regional CCouncilfor AAgricultural CCooperation iin CCentral AAmerica, MMexico aand tthe DDominican RRepublic).The development of Regional Council for Agricultural Cooperation (CORECA) began in 1980 when a meeting of the International andRegional Committee on Agronomic Security, under the guidance of Panama and the Dominican Republic, put forward the idea of estab-lishing a political forum at the Ministerial level for the agricultural sector. The Council’s principal objective was to serve as a permanentforum for consultation and cooperation between the various political parties of the regions’ agricultural sectors. Particularly, it wouldfocus on raising the quality of life for farmers, improving the environment, initiating technological development and offering wide-rang-ing cooperation. The Member States of CORECA include : Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua,Panama, and the Dominican Republic. http://www.sagarpa.gob.mx/Dgai/coreca.htm

Consultative GGroup ffor IInternational AAgricultural RResearch ((CGIAR)The CGIAR was created in 1971, when its first formal meeting was held at the World Bank. Its mission is now to contribute, throughits research, to promoting sustainable agriculture for food security in developing countries. Membership of the Group has increased fromeighteen to fifty-eight, the number of CGIAR centers has grown to sixteen, and their research interests have been diversified. http://www.cgiar.org/

Coordinadora NNacional ppara lla RReducción dde DDesastres ((CONRED), GGuatemala ((National CCoordinator ffor DDisaster RReduction)http://www.conred.org/

Coordinating CCommittee ffor CCoastal aand OOffshore GGeoscience PProgrammes iin EEast aand SSoutheast Asia ((CCOP), BBangkok, TThailandCCOP is an Intergovernmental Organization focused on regional geo-scientific aspects. It consists of 11 member countries i.e., Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, The Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam and is supported by 14 cooperating countries and several international organizations. http://www.ccop.or.th/

Coordinating CCouncil ffor DDisaster MManagement ((CCGC), MMozambiqueThe Co-ordinating Council for Disaster Management (CCGC) is the government body responsible for policy decisions relating to disas-ters. The Prime Minister chairs the CCGC and his deputy is the Minister of Foreign Affairs & Co-operation.

Cooperative ffor AAssistance aand RRelief EEverywhere ((CARE)CARE, an NGO, consists of 11 member organizations, working as a global force dedicated to achieving lasting victory over poverty. http://www.care.org/

Corporación AAndina dde FFomento ((CAF), CCaracas, VVenezuela ((Andean DDevelopment CCorporation)The CAF is made up of Latin American and Caribbean shareholders (Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,Venezuela, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Jamaica, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, and Trinidad and Tobago and 22 private

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banks in the Andean region). It has the mission of backing the sustainable development of its shareholder countriesand of integration by raising funds to provide a range of financial services. http://www.comunidadandina.org/ingles/who/caf.htm

Council ffor SScientific aand IIndustrial RResearch ((CSIR), SSouth AAfricaConstituted as a Science Council by an Act of Parliament, the CSIR operates as a market-oriented contract and consortium researchpartner to its clients and stakeholders. CSIR focuses on building Africa’s capacity in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)project management. CSIR Water, Environment and Forestry Technology (Environmentek) has been involved in the developmentand presentation of EIA capacity building courses for the past 10 years. www.csir.co.za

Council oof EEurope –– EEUR-OOPA MMajor HHazards AAgreementThe Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe has set up the Open Partial Agreement in 1987. This intergovernmentalAgreement is a platform for cooperation in the field of major natural and technological disasters between Eastern Europe, theMediterranean area and Western Europe concerning knowledge about prevention, risk management, post-crisis analysis andrehabilitation.http://www.coe.int/T/E/Cultural_Co-operation/Disasters/http://ps.superb.net/icod/OPA.HTM

Cranfield DDisaster MManagement CCenter, UUniversity oof CCranfield, UUnited KKingdomThe Disaster Management Centre was founded in 1985. Its aim is to save lives and livelihoods at risk from disaster impactthrough the promotion of risk and vulnerability reduction, preparedness and effective disaster response. The Disaster Manage-ment Centre believes that disaster risks and vulnerabilities can be reduced through the application of sound management princi-ples and practice. http://www.cranfield.ac.uk/deptsshr.htm

Department oof HHydrology aand MMeteorology ((DHM), NNepalDHM is an organisation under the Ministry of Science and Technology. The department with headquarters in Kathmandu hasfour basin offices: Karnali Basin Office in Surkhet, Narayani Basin Office in Pokhara, Bagmati Basin Office in Kathmandu, andKosi Basin Office in Dharan. DHM has a mandate from to monitor all the hydrological and meteorological activities in Nepal.The scope of work includes the monitoring of river hydrology, climate, agrometeorology, sediment, air quality, water quality, lim-nology, snow hydrology, glaciology, and wind and solar energy. General and aviation weather forecasts are the regular servicesprovided by DHM. As a member of the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), DHM contributes to the globalexchange of meteorological data on a regular basis. DHM actively participates in the programs of relevant international organisa-tions, such as, UNESCO’s International Hydrological Program (IHP) and WMO’s Operational Hydrology Program (OHP).http://www.dhm.gov.np/

Department oof IInternational DDevelopment ((DFID), UUnited KKingdomDFID is a United Kingdom Government department, working to promote sustainable development and eliminate world poverty. http://www.dfid.gov.uk/

Deutsches FForschungsnetz NNaturkatastrophen ((DFNK), GGermany ((German RResearch NNetwork ffor Natural DDisasters) The German Research Network for Natural Disasters is an initiative of German research programmes and institutions. The Network’sgoal is to collect, organize and disseminate information from research, knowledge and methodology on the topic of natural disasterstaken from technical, environmental and social research sources working in this field. http://dfnk.gfz-potsdam.de/index.html

Deutsche GGesellschaft ffür TTechnische ZZusammenarbeit ((GTZ), GGermany ((German AAgency fforTechnical CCooperation)GTZ is a government-owned corporation for international cooperation with worldwide operations. In more than 120 partner countries, GTZ is supporting many development projects and programmes, chiefly under commissions from the German Federal Government. GTZ’s aim is to improve the living conditions and perspectives of people in developing and transition countries. http://www.gtz.de/

Deutsches KKomite ffür KKatastrophenvorsorge ee.V. ((DKKV) ((German CCommittee ffor DDisaster RReduction)The tasks of the DKKV for disaster reduction are numerous and to a degree very particular: From technical projects researching theeffects of disasters on society to political programmes encouraging the growth of disaster reduction initiatives. http://www.dkkv.org/

Disaster MManagement aand MMitigation UUnit ((DMMU), ZZambiaIn 1998, the Government of Zambia established the DMMU as part of the Vice President’s Office to coordinate disaster relatedactivities. The DMMU is supported by a Technical Committee, which includes the Ministry of Agriculture’s Office of EarlyWarning Systems (EWS), the Ministry of Agriculture Food and Fisheries, the Central Statistical Office, and key line ministriessuch as Health, Finance and Economic Development.

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Disaster MManagement CCenter, UUniversity oof WWisconsin, UUSA.The center’s goal is to help improve the emergency management performance of non-governmental organizations, local and nation-al governments, and international organizations, through a comprehensive professional development program in disaster manage-ment. Distance learning is the principal approach for this international program. http://dmc.engr.wisc.edu/about/edlinks.html

Disaster MManagement FFacility ((DMF), WWorld BBank, WWashington DD.C., UUSADMF aims to reduce human suffering and economic losses caused by natural and technological disasters. Making sure that disaster pre-vention and mitigation are integral parts of development requires action, the DMF takes action by providing technical support to WorldBank operations, promoting capacity-building, and establishing partnerships with the international and scientific community working ondisaster issues. http://www.worldbank.org/dmf/mission.htm

Disaster MManagement IInstitute oof SSouthern AAfrica. ((DMISA), SSouth AAfricaDMISA is an organisation where everyone involved in Disaster Management can relate to others with similar interests, and cre-ates opportunities for the improvement of disaster management in Southern Africa.http://www.cmc.gov.za/pht/DMISA.htm

Disaster MManagement TTechnical CCouncil ((CTGC), MMozambiqueThe CTGC provides technical back-up to the National Disaster Management Institute (INGC), an autonomous institution underthe Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation.

Disaster MManagement UUnit, ((DMU), SStanding OOffice oof tthe CCentral CCommittee ffor FFlood aand SStorm CControl (CCFSC), VVietnamThe Vietnam Disaster Management Unit (DMU) is the mechanism chosen by the Government of Vietnam and UNDP to join together over 1000 years of Vietnamese flood protection culture with twenty-first century western technology to better protect the entire population of Vietnam against the annual natural disasters that ravage the country. http://www.undp.org.vn/dmu/index.html

Disaster RRecovery BBusiness AAlliance ((DRBA)DRBA is an organization, a process and a product that is designed to provide an improvement in a community’s ability to deal with dis-aster recovery by the formation of an effective alliance between the private and public sectors of a community. It offers a tested model toassist local leaders in forming and facilitating a lifeline-based planning organization to serve a local community. It was established andfunded by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and co-founded by the Department of Energy, and the Association of Contin-gency Planners (ACP). DRBA has formed partnerships with many public and private sector organizations such as the Central UnitedStates Earthquake Consortium (CUSEC), National Emergency Management Association (NEMA), the Institute for Business andHome Safety (IBHS) and many others. http://www.acp-international.com/drba/

Disaster RResearch CCenter, UUniversity oof DDelaware, UUSADRC, is a social science research center devoted to the study of disasters. It was established at Ohio State University in 1963 and movedto the University of Delaware in 1985. The center conducts field and survey research on group, organizational and community prepara-tion for, response to, and recovery from natural and technological disasters and other community-wide crises. DRC researchers have car-ried out systematic studies on a broad range of disaster types, including hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, tornadoes, hazardous chemicalincidents, plane crashes. http://www.udel.edu/DRC/nodhtml.html

Drought MMonitoring CCentre ((DMC), HHarare, ZZimbabwe aand NNairobi, KKenya The Drought Monitoring Centres (DMCs) for Eastern and Southern Africa are charged with the responsibility of monitoring ofdrought and other climatic conditions in a timely manner with respect to intensity, geographical extent, duration and impact upon agri-cultural production and to give early warning for the formulation of appropriate strategies to combat any anticipated adverse effects. http://www.meteo.go.ke/dmc/contact.html http://lion.meteo.go.ke/dmc/

Earthquake DDisaster MMitigation RResearch CCenter ((EDM), MMiki, JJapanThe main purpose of the EDM is to produce “Frontier Research on Earthquake Disaster Mitigation for Urban Regions.” The majorresearch activities are performed by three research teams: the disaster process simulation team, the disaster information system team andthe structural performance team. http://www.edm.bosai.go.jp/english.htm

Earthquake EEngineering RResearch IInstitute ((EERI), OOakland, CCalifornia, UUSA The objective of EERI is to reduce earthquake risk by advancing the science and practice of earthquakeengineering, by improving understanding of the impact of earthquakes on the physical, social, economic,political and cultural environ-ment, and by advocating comprehensive and realistic measures for reducing the harmful effects of earthquakes. http://www.eeri.org/

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EMERCOM RRussiaMinistry of Civil Defense and Emergencies. http://emercom.on.ufanet.ru/

Emergency MManagement AAustralia ((EMA)EMA provides national leadership in the development of measures to reduce risk to communities and manage the consequencesof disasters. It is the Federal Agency responsible for reducing the impact of natural and man-made disasters on the Australian com-munity. http://www.ema.gov.au/

Emergency MManagement AAustralia IInstitute ((EMAI), MMt. MMacedon, AAustraliaEmergency Management Australia’s research and training centre at Mt Macedon was renamed the “Emergency Management Aus-tralia Institute” (EMAI) in January, 2002 . The change was made to better reflect the Institute as an integral part of EMA’s corebusiness and to stress the holistic nature of the organisation’s operations across its sites in Canberra and Mt. Macedon Victoria.EMAI conducts a program of activities which includes the National Studies Program, education and training activities, resourcedevelopment to support the curriculum and the provision of information through the Australian Emergency Management Informa-tion Centre. EMAI is the education and information arm of Emergency Management Australia (EMA). http://www.ema.gov.au/fs-education.html

Emergency PPreparedness CCanada ((EPC)see: Office of Critical Infrastructure Protection and Emergency Preparedness (OCIPEP).http://www.ocipep-bpiepc.gc.ca/home/index_e.html

Environment aand SSociety IInstitute ((ESI), State UUniversity oof NNew YYork, BBuffalo, UUSAIt offers courses on engineering and applied sciences and hosts the National Centre for Geographic Information and Analysis(NCGIA), the Center for Urban Studies. The Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (MCEER) is an affiliat-ed research center. http://www.buffalo.edu/

European CCommunity HHumanitarian OOffice ((ECHO)The European Union’s mandate to ECHO is to provide emergency assistance and relief to the victims of natural disasters or armedconflict outside the European Union. The aid is intended to go directly to those in distress, irrespective of race, religion or political con-victions. http://europa.eu.int/comm/echo/en/index_en.html

European EEnvironment AAgency ((EEA), CCopenhagen, DDenmarkThe EEA aims to support sustainable development and to help achieve significant and measurable improvement in Europe’s envi-ronment through the provision of timely, targeted, relevant and reliable information to policy making agents and thepublic.http://www.eea.eu.int/

European DDirectorate GGeneral JJoint RResearch CCentre ((JRC)The Joint Research Centre (JRC) Directorate-General is an integral part of the European Commission. It provides independentscientific and technical advice to the Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of Ministers and EU Member States insupport of European Union (EU) policies. Its main aim is to help to create a safer, cleaner, healthier and more competitive Europe.Its seven scientific institutes carry out research of direct concern to EU citizens. It provides technical know-how both directly andthrough co-ordinating and contributing to numerous broader networks linking industry, universities and national institutes. TheJRC is playing an important role in helping establish the European Research Area (ERA). http://www.jrc.org/

European LLaboratory ffor SStructural AAssessment –– EEarthquake EEngineering ((ELSA), IIspra, IItalyThe construction of bridges, viaducts, buildings or tunnels, which can withstand earthquakes, involves using particularly sophisti-cated simulation laboratories. The most prestigious of these is ELSA, which is a technological flagship for the European Commis-sion’s Joint Research Centre. http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/success/en/env/0071e.html

European RResearch AArea ((ERA)On 18, January 2000 the European Commission adopted this Communication “Towards a European Research Area” which ismeant to contribute to the creation of better overall framework conditions for research in Europe. ERA is regrouping all Communi-ty supports for the better coordination of research activities and the convergence of research and innovation policies, at national andEU levels. http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/era/index_en.html

European UUnion ((EU)The European Union (EU) was set through the process of European integration was launched on 9 May 1950 when France offi-cially proposed to create ‘the first concrete foundation of a European federation’. Six countries (Belgium, Germany, France, Italy,Luxembourg and the Netherlands) joined from the very beginning. Today, after four waves of accessions (1973: Denmark, Irelandand the United Kingdom; 1981: Greece; 1986: Spain and Portugal; 1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden) the EU has 15 MemberStates and is preparing for the accession of 13 eastern and southern European countries. Its main agencies are: European Parlia-ment, Council of the Union, European Commission, Court of Justice, Court of Auditors, European Central Bank, European Eco-nomic and Social Committee, Committee of the Regions, European Investment Bank, European Ombudsman.http://www.europa.eu.int/

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Experimental CClimate PPrediction CCenter ((ECPC), UUSAECPC is developing an integrated regional climate prediction capability by undertaking basic research to identify coupled land-atmosphere-ocean linkages. ECPC models are being used to make routine experimental forecasts, which are continually evaluated inorder to demonstrate their utility to various sectors on temporal scales ranging from seasonal to interannual but also touching upondaily and decadal to centennial time scales. Once ECPC has demonstrated the usefulness of various forecast tools and methodolo-gies, its goal is to transfer these experimental methodologies to NCEP, IRI and various regional application centers.http://ecpc.ucsd.edu/

Facultad LLatinoamericana dde CCiencias SSociales ((FLASCO), ((Latin AAmerican SSocial SScience Faculty) The faculty’s creation is based on the recommendation of UNESCO and the governments of Latin America and the Caribbean. Itsobjective is to promote education, research and technical cooperation in the field of social sciences for the entire region. www.flacso.cl

Federal HHighway AAdministration ((FHWA), UUS GGovernmentThe Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is a part of the U.S. Department of Transportation, headquartered in Washington,D.C., with field offices across the United States. Its mission is to provide leadership, expertise, resources and information in coopera-tion with partners to enhance the country’s economic vitality, the quality of life, and the environment. The FHWA directly adminis-ters a number of highway transportation activities including standards development, research and technology, training, technical assis-tance, highway access to federally owned lands and Indian lands, and commercial vehicle safety enforcement. Further, FHWA has asignificant role, working through partnerships, programs, policies, and allocating resources which facilitate the strategic developmentand maintenance of State and local transportation systems as effective and efficient elements of the national intermodal transportationsystem. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/

Federation oof IIndian CChambers oof CCommerce aand IIndustry ((FICCI)FICCI was established in 1927, on the advice of Mahatma Gandhi, to garner support for India’s independence and to further the interests of the Indian business community. Today, after five decades of Indian independence, FICCI is in the vanguard of nation building and is moving ahead to integratethe Indian economy with the global mainstream. http://www.ficci.com/ficci/index.htm

Fondo ppara lla RReconstruccion yy eel DDesarrollo SSocial ddel EEje CCafetero ((FOREC), AArmenia, CColombiaThe Fund for Reconstruction and Social Development in the Coffee Region is a specialized agency with its headquarters in Armeniaadministered by a legal staff under financial and political autonomy. Its objective is to promote the necessary work on economic, socialand ecological reconstruction in the Andean region affected by the earthquake of 25January, 1999. FOREC’s mission is to manage thepublic commitment of national institutions and agencies in the reconstruction work with honesty, clarity, will and efficiency in the use ofthe public resources and technological assistance offered for this work. FOREC received the UN Sasakawa Award for Disaster Reduc-tion in 2000. http://www.forec.gov.co/

Food, AAgriculture aand NNatural RResources ((FANR) - DDevelopment UUnit, HHarare, ZZimbabweThe Southern African Development Community (SADC) is promoting regional Cooperation in economic development. It has adopted a Programme of Action covering cooperation in various sectors, including food security and natural resources management. In order to enhance food security for all in the region,SADC established a Food Security Programme. Its secretariat is formed by the Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources (FANR) Development Unit. http://www.sadc-fanr.org.zw/

Foundation ffor IInternational CCommunity AAssistance ((FINCA)FINCA has been helping families to create their own solution to poverty since 1984. FINCA provides financial services to theworld’s poorest families so they can create their own jobs, raise household incomes and improve their standard of living.http://www.villagebanking.org/

Foundation ffor tthe SSupport oof WWomen’s WWork ((FSWW)The FSWW established in 1986 by a group of women from different backgrounds, is a non-profit NGO. It aims to build social,economic and community assets for and by grassroots women, and support their leadership throughout Turkey in improving thequality of their lives and of the community. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/env_manage/documents/EP11-2001Nov07.pdf

Fundación NNacional ppara eel DDesarrollo ((FUNDE), EEl SSalvador ((National DDevelopment FFoundation) FUNDE’s mission is to offer critical thinking, analysis and proposals for sustainable development and to engage the different partiesand leading institutions of the country with research and assistance in order to better the quality of life and opportunities of the mar-ginalized. http://www.funde.org/

Fundación ppara lla CCooperación yy eel DDesarrollo CCommunal ((CORDES), EEl SSalvador ((Development CCorporation)Founded in 1988, CORDES is a non-governmental organization dedicated to the management of socio-economic development of therural communties in El Salvador, where the poverty and destruction from the war have affected human settlements by forcing the peopleout of their land. http://www.geocities.com/lia_hernandez/Perfil.html

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Fundación SSalvadoreña ppara lla AAsistencia IIntegral ((FUSAI), EEl SSalvador ((Salvadorian Foundation ffor IIntegral AAssistance)Its mission is to support the socioeconomic integration of sectors, regions and parties marginalized in society with the benefits ofdevelopment http://www.fusai.org/

GeoHazards IInternational ((GHI), CCalifornia, UUSAGHI was established in 1993 as a nonprofit organization to reduce death and injury caused by earthquakes in the world’s mostvulnerable communities. In particular, GHI makes a community safer by raising awareness of its risk, building local institutions tomanage that risk, and strengthening schools to protect and train the community’s future generations. http://www.geohaz.org/

Geological SSurvey oof JJapan ((GSJ)GSJ is one of the 15 research institutes of the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST).http://www.aist.go.jp/GSJ/

General DDirectorate oof CCivil PProtection, GGovernorate oof GGrand AAlger, AAlgeriaThe General Directorate has carried out significant training activities on disaster prevention and the organization of internationalforums on disaster prevention.

Global FFire MMonitoring CCenter ((GFMC), FFreiburg, GGermanyThe Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC) was been established in 1998 at the Fire Ecology and Biomass Burning ResearchGroup, a subdivision of the Biogeochemistry Department of the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry (Mainz, Germany). Foundedin the 1970s at Freiburg University (Germany) the Fire Ecology Research Group was incorporated into the Max Planck Institute forChemistry in 1990. http://www2.ruf.uni-freiburg.de/fireglobe/

Gujarat SState DDisaster MManagement AAuthorities ((GSDMA), IIndiaThe Government of Gujarat established the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority in February, 2001 to co-ordinate thecomprehensive earthquake recovery program. The GSDMA is registered as a society with a vision to go beyond reconstruction andmake Gujarat economically vibrant, agriculturally and industrially competitive with improved standards of living and with a capacityto mitigate and manage future disasters. http://www.gsdma.org/

High PPowered CCommittee ((HPC) oon DDisaster MManagement PPlans, GGovernment oof IIndiaHPC has been constituted to review existing arrangements for preparedness and mitigation of natural and manmade disasters includingindustrial, nuclear, biological and chemical disasters; recommend measures for strengthening organizational structures, and recommenda comprehensive model plan far management of these disasters at National, State and District Level.http://www.ndmindia.nic.in/committee/hpcomm.html

Hungarian NNational DDirectorate GGeneral ffor DDisaster MManagement ((HNDGDM), BBudapestFrom January, 2000 an integrated organization, the National Directorate for Disaster Management, Ministry of Interior has beenestablished in Hungary as the central organ of the integral national disaster management. It was established on the basis of the legalpredecessors, that is, the Civil Protection and the Fire Service. The system of protection against disasters is divided into three levels: international, national, the level of municipalities.

Ibero-AAmerican AAssociation oof CCivil DDefense aand CCivil PProtection, SSpainThe Ibero-American Association for Civil Defense and Protection emerged from a 1-5 July 1996 meeting organized in Santiago, Chile,by the Pro Tempore Secretariat of the Space Conference of the Americas and Chile’s ONEMI. The subject of the meeting was the useof aerospace technology in disaster prevention and mitigation.http://www.proteccioncivil.org/asociacion/aigo0.htmhttp://www.crid.or.cr/crid/EIRD/DIRDNINF/No1_a1_2000/INGLES/pagina30.htm

Institute ffor BBusiness HHome SSafety ((IBHS), BBoston, UUSAThe Institute for Business & Home Safety (IBHS) is a nonprofit association sponsored by the insurance industry that engages incommunication, education, engineering and research. Its mission is to reduce deaths, injuries, property damage, economic losses andhuman suffering caused by natural disasters. http://www.ibhs.org/

Institute oof PPhysical aand CChemical RResearch ((RIKEN). JJapanRIKEN carries out high level experimental and research work in a wide range of fields, including physics,chemistry, medical science, biology, and engineering extending from basic research to practical application.http://www.riken.go.jp/

Instituto NNacional dde GGestao dde CCalamidades ((INGC), MMozambique ((National DDisaster MManagement Institute)Day-to-day management of matters relating to disasters is the responsibility of the National Disaster Management Institute. This is anautonomous institution under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Cooperation.

Instituto NNicaraguense dde EEstudios TTerritoriales ((INETER), MManagua, NNicaragua, (Nicaraguan IInstitute ffor TTerritorial SStudies) INETER is the technical and scientific body of the State that provides its services to the entire population in such areas as basicinformation (Cartography, Meteorology, Hydrology, etc.) as well as projects and studies of the environment which contribute tosocio-economic development and the lowering of vulnerability to natural disasters, continuously tracking dangerous natural phenom-ena. http://www.ineter.gob.ni/

Inter-AAmerican CCommittee ffor NNatural DDisaster RReduction ((IACNDR)The IACNDR is the main forum of the OAS and the Inter American System for the analysis of policies and strategies aimed at nat-ural disaster reduction in the context of the sustainable development of member states. The OAS General Assembly established theIACNDR based on the need to strengthen the role of the OAS in natural disaster reduction and emergency preparedness.

Inter-AAmerican DDevelopment BBank ((IADB), WWashington ,, DDC, UUSAThe IADB is the oldest and largest regional multilateral development institution. It was established in December1959 to help accelerate economic and social development in Latin America and the Caribbean. http://www.iadb.org/

Inter-ddepartmental DDisaster MManagement CCommittee, SSouth AAfricaIn April 1999, the Interim Disaster Management Centre was replaced with the Inter-departmental Disaster Management Committee todeal with disasters and other phenomena and to give advice to the Committee. The National Disaster Management Centre came intooperation on 1 April 2000. http://www.gov.za/structure/disaster.htm

Intergovernmental AAuthority oon DDevelopment ((IGAD), DDjibouti, RRepublic oof DDjibouti ((Autorité Intergouvernementale ppour lle ddéveloppement)IGAD’s vision is based on determination of the Governments of the Sub-region to pool resources and co-ordinate development activities in order to tackle the present and future challenges more efficiently, and enable the sub-region to interact and compete in the global economy. www.igadregion.org

Intergovernmental OOceanographic CCommission ((IOC), PParis, FFranceThe Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO was founded in 1960 on the basis of therecognition that “the oceans, covering some seventy percent of the earth’s surface, exert a profound influence on mankind and even on allforms of life on Earth... In order to properly interpret the full value of the oceans to mankind, they must be studied from many points ofview. While pioneering research and new ideas usually come from individuals and small groups, many aspects of oceanic investigationspresent far too formidable a task to be undertaken by any one nation or even a few nations.” http://ioc.unesco.org/iocweb/default.htm

Intergovernmental PPanel oon CClimate CChange ((IPCC)In 1988, UNEP and WMO jointly established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as concern over climate change became a political issue. The purpose of the IPCC was to assess the state of knowledge on the various aspects of climate change including science, environmental and socio-economicimpacts and response strategies. The IPCC is recognized as the most authoritative scientific and technical

voice on climate change, and its assessments had a profound influence on the negotiators of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol. The IPCC continues to provide governments with scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant to evaluating the risks and developing a response to global climate change. http://www.grida.no/climate/vital/16.htm www.ipcc.ch

Inter-mministerial CCommittee ffor DDisaster MManagement ((IMC), SSouth AAfricaThe IMC provides leadership for the development and implementation of national policy on disaster management. Under the lead-ership of the IMC, the Department of Constitutional Development published the Green Paper on Disaster Management for SouthAfrica for comment in February 1998. After consultation with key role players and comments from both the private and public sec-tors around the Green Paper, the White Paper evolved.www.polity.org.za

International AAssociation oof EEarthquake EEngineering ((IAEE), JJapanThe IAEE aims to promote international cooperation among scientists and engineers in the field of earthquake engineering throughinterchange of knowledge, ideas, and results of research and practical experience. http://www.iaee.or.jp/

International AAssociation oof SSeismology aand PPhysics oof tthe EEarth’s IInterior ((IASPEI)The purpose of IASPEI is to promote the study of problems relating to earthquakes, to the propagation of seismic waves, and to theinternal structure, properties and processes of the Earth; to initiate and co-ordinate the conduct of researches which depend oncooperation between different countries, and to provide for their scientific discussion; to facilitate particular researches on scientificand applied seismology, such as the comparison of instruments used in different countries, researches on blasting and generally all matters to which seismology is related. http://www.seismo.com/iaspei/home.html

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International AAssociation oof VVolcanology aand CChemistry oof tthe EEarth’s IInterior ((IAVCEI)The Association represents the primary international focus for: (1) research in volcanology, (2) efforts to mitigate volcanic disas-ters, and (3) research into closely related disciplines, such as igneous geochemistry and petrology, geochronology, volcanogenic min-eral deposits, and the physics of the generation and ascent of magmas in the upper mantle and crust. http://www.iavcei.org/

International BBank ffor RReconstruction aand DDevelopment ((IBRD), TThe WWorld BBankEstablished in 1945, IBRD aims to reduce poverty in middle-income and creditworthy poorer countries by promoting sustainabledevelopment, through loans, guarantees, and other analytical and advisory services.

International CCenter ffor IIntegrated MMountain DDevelopment ((ICIMOD), NNepalICIMOD is committed to developing an economically and environmentally sound ecosystem and improving living standards of mountain communities, mainly in the Hindu Kush-Himalayas area. http://www.icimod.org.sg/

International CCenter ffor TTheoretical PPhysics ((ICTP), TTrieste, IItalyFounded in 1964 by Abdus Salam (Nobel Laureate), ICTP operates under the aegis of two United Nations Agencies: UNESCO andIAEA and is regularised by agreement with the Government of Italy which provides the major part of the Centre’s funding. One of themain aims of ICTP is to foster the growth of advanced studies in developing countries. http://www.ictp.trieste.it/

International CCenter ffor DDisaster MMitigation EEngineering ((INCEDE), UUniversity oof TTokyo, JJapanEstablished in 1991 as a national contribution of Japan towards the United Nations IDNDR, INCEDE serves as a forum fornational and international researchers in disaster-mitigation engineering and as an information clearance house.http://incede.iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp/

International CCommission ffor tthe PProtection oof tthe RRhine ((ICPR), ((Internationalen KKommission zzum SSchutz ddes RRheins ((IKSR))Nobody is more aware of the fact that water protection is an international affair than the Dutch. The Rhine pollution has always shownparticularly negative effects in the Netherlands. That is why the Netherlands united the Rhine-bordering countries (Switzerland, France,Luxembourg, Germany) to discuss problems of water protection and to look for common solutions. The “International Commission forthe Protection of the Rhine against Pollution” (ICPR) was founded in Basel on July, 1950. http://www.iksr.org/index.htm

International CCommittee oof tthe RRed CCross ((ICRC)ICRC is an impartial, neutral and independent organization whose exclusively humanitarian mission is to protect the lives and dig-nity of victims of war and internal violence and to provide them with assistance. It directs and coordinates the international reliefactivities conducted by the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement in situations of conflict. It also endeavours to prevent suffer-ing by promoting and strengthening humanitarian law and universal humanitarian principles. http://www.icrc.org/

International CCouncil oof SScience ((ICSU), PParis, FFranceICSU is a non-governmental organization, founded in 1931 to bring together natural scientists in international scientific endeavour. Itcomprises 98 multidisciplinary National Scientific Members (scientific research councils or science academies) and 26 international, sin-gle discipline Scientific Unions to provide a wide spectrum of scientific expertise enabling members to address international, interdisci-plinary issues which none could handle alone. www.icsu.org

International CCouncil oof VVoluntary AAgencies ((ICVA), SSwitzerlandThe International Council of Voluntary Agencies (ICVA), founded in 1962, is a global network of human rights, humanitarian, and development NGOs, which focuses its information exchange and advocacy efforts primarily on humanitarian affairs and refugee issues. http://www.icva.ch/

International DDecade ffor NNatural DDisaster RReduction ((IDNDR), 11990-11999An International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, beginning on 1 January 1990, was launched by the United Nations, fol-lowing the adoption of Resolution 44/236 (22 December 1989). The Decade was intended to reduce, through concerted interna-tional action, especially in developing countries, loss of life, poverty damage and social and economic disruption caused by naturaldisasters. To support the activities of the Decade, a Secretariat was established at the United Nations Office in Geneva, in closeassociation with UNDRO.

International DDevelopment AAssociation ((IDA), TThe WWorld BBankThe International Development Association, IDA, is the World Bank’s concessional lending window. It provides long-term loans atzero interest to the poorest of the developing countries. IDA helps build the human capital, policies, institutions, and physical infra-structure that these countries urgently need to achieve faster, environmentally sustainable growth. IDA’s goal is to reduce disparitiesacross and within countries, especially in access to primary education, basic health, and water supply and sanitation and to bringmore people into the mainstream by raising their productivity. http://www.worldbank.org/ida/

International DDrought IInformation CCenter, UUniversity oof NNebraska, UUSAThe University of Nebraska at Lincoln established the International Drought Information Center (IDIC) to better understand theproblem of drought. IDIC strives to improve communication about prediction, monitoring, impact assessment, adjustment and adap-tation, and planning and response to drought. http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/hazard/resource/methaz/drtinfoa.htmlwww.enso.unl.edu/agmet/centers.htm

International FFederation oof RRed CCross aand RRed CCrescent SSocieties ((IFRC)IFRC is the world’s largest humanitarian organization, providing assistance without discrimination as to nationality, race, religiousbeliefs, class or political opinions. http://www.ifrc.org/

International IInstitute ffor DDisaster RRisk MManagement ((IDRM), MManila, PPhilippinesThe IDRM promotes international standards and best practices in disaster and risk management. It works on principles of continuous learning, organizational and individual professional development. IDRM experts and partners are committed to applying appropriate, innovative and inexpensive solutions to development and disaster risk management. http://www.idrmhome.org/

International IInstitute oof EEarthquake EEngineering aand SSeismology ((IIEES), TTehran, IIranThe main goal of IIEES is seismic risk reduction and mitigation both in Iran and the region by promoting research and educationin science and technology related to seismotectonic, seismology and earthquake engineering. IIEES activity in research covers allaspects of earthquakes from tectonic study to retrofitting complex structure; and in education from public education to Ph.D pro-gram in earthquake engineering. http://www.iiees.ac.ir/English/eng_index.html

International IInstitute ffor SSustainable DDevelopment ((IISD), WWinnipeg, MManitoba, CCanadaIts mission is to champion innovation, enabling societies to live sustainably. It advances policy recommendations on internationaltrade and investment, economic policy, climate change, measurement and indicators, and natural resource management to makedevelopment sustainable. By using the Internet it covers and reports on international negotiations and brokers knowledge gainedthrough collaborative projects with global partners, resulting in more rigorous research, capacity building indeveloping countries anda better dialogue between North and South. IISDnet identifies issues, sets goals, and compiles information on sustainable growth.www.iisd.org/default.asp

International OOrganization ffor SStandardization ((ISO), GGeneva, SSwitzerlandISO is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies from some 140 countries, one from each country. ISO is a non-govern-mental organization established in 1947. The mission of ISO is to promote the development of standardization and related activitiesin the world with a view to facilitating the international exchange of goods and services, and to developing cooperation in the spheresof intellectual, scientific, technological and economic activity. ISO’s work results in international agreementswhich are published as International Standards. www.iso.org

International RResearch IInstitute ffor CClimate PPrediction ((IRI), NNY, UUnited SStatesIRI was established as a cooperative agreement between US NOAA Office of Global Programs and Columbia University. IRI is a unitof the Columbia Earth Institute located at Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. The vision of the IRI is that of an innovative scienceinstitution working to accelerate the ability of societies worldwide to cope with climate fluctuations, especially those that cause devastatingimpacts on humans and the environment, thereby reaping the benefits of decades of research on the predictability of El Niño-SouthernOscillation phenomenon and other climate variations. By orchestrating a wide network of collaborations and comprehensive programsthat couple physical science research and applications research with capacity building, the IRI is a unique institution in the internationaldevelopment of applications of climate prediction. http://iri.ldeo.columbia.edu/

Internationale KKommission zzum SSchutz ddes RRheines, ((IKSR), GGermany. SSee: IInternational CCommission for the protection of the Rhine(ICPR). http://www.iksr.org/

International TTsunami IInformation CCenter ((ITIC), HHonolulu, HHawaiiITIC was established on 12 November 1965 by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic UNESCO. In 1968, IOC formed an Interna-tional Coordination Group for the Tsunami Warning System in the Pacific (ICG/ITSU). ITIC monitors the activities of the TsunamiWarning System in the Pacific.http://www.shoa.cl/oceano/itic/frontpage.html

Instituto NNacional dde GGestao dde CCalamidades, ((INGC), MMozambique ((National IInstitute ffor DDisasterManagement)The National Institute for Disaster Management was created in June 1999, under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation.It has an executive role in preventive actions and assistance for victims and areas at risk or affected by disasters. http://www.teleda-ta.mz/ingc/default_eng.htm

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Japan IInternational CCooperation AAgency ((JICA)JICA is responsible for the technical cooperation aspect of Japan’s Official Development Assistance (ODA) programs. Technical coop-eration and a variety of programmes are aimed at the transfer of technology and knowledge that can serve the socio-economic develop-ment of the developing countries. http://www.jica.go.jp/

Japan MMeteorology AAgency ((JMA)The major activities of JMA are: (1) to issue warnings, advisories and forecasts in short-range, one-week and long range ; (2) to dealwith the global environmental issues such as global warming and ozone depletion; (3) to provide information on earthquake and vol-canic activities. http://www.kishou.go.jp/english/index.html

La RRed dde EEstudios SSociales een PPrevención dde DDesastres een AAmérica LLatina ((LA RRED), ((The LLatin American NNetwork ffor tthe SSocial SStudy oof DDisaster PPrevention)Initially conceived as a mechanism to facilitate comparative research of natural disasters from a social perspective, LA Red has devel-oped into the focal point for hundreds of individuals and institutions working in the field of disaster and risk management in the dif-ferent countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. http://www.desenredando.org/

Médecins ssans FFrontiéres ((MSF)MSF is an international humanitarian aid organization that provides emergency medical assistance to populations in danger in morethan 80 countries. In countries where health structures are insufficient or even non-existant, MSF collaborates with authorities suchas the ministries of health to provide assistance. MSF works in rehabilitation of hospitals and dispensaries, vaccination programmesand water and sanitation projects. MSF also works in remote health care centres, slum areas and provides training of local personnel. All this is done with the objective of rebuilding health structures to acceptable levels. http://www.msf.org/

Megacities 22000 FFoundation, NNetherlandsThe Megacities Foundation in the Netherlands was started as a direct result of an initative taken by UNESCO which asked theInternational Academy of Architecture (IAA) to focus attention on the problems of the explosively growing megalopolises. TheMegacities Foundation was created in December 1994 and has since organised the following events: Step-up conference, May 1995in Rotterdam: “Megacities 2000” First Megacities Lecture, February 1997 in The Hague: Peter Hall, “Megacities, world citiesand global cities” Second Megacities Lecture, November 1998 in The Hague: Saskia Sassen, “Urban Economy and Fading Dis-tance, Cities in the Unlimited Space of a Global Network” (workingtitle) http://www.megacities.nl/main.htm_

Mekong RRiver CCommission ((MRC), CCambodiaMRC promotes and co-ordinates sustainable management and development of water and related resources among countries border-ing the Mekong River in Southeast Asia. http://www.mrcmekong.org/

Ministerio dde MMedio AAmbiente yy RRecursos NNaturales ((MARN), EEl SSalvador ((Ministry oof Environment aand NNatural RResources)Its mission is to direct an effective management of the environment through the clear policies and all-encompassing initiatives whichhelp sustain development of the Salvadorian society. http://www.marn.gob.sv/

Ministry oof SScience aand TTechnology ((MCT), VVenezuelaIts mission is : To develop policies, strategies and plans which support the creation of a scientific and technical entity that carries outresearch and initiatives in pursuit of satisfying the needs of the population and promoting the national industry; To strengthen researchand development initiatives for the improvement of innovations and national production; To support postgraduate programmes thatfoment scientific, technical and humanitarian development in the country; To collaborate with the Ministry of Commerce and Industryand other regional organizations in the support of the national industry; To support and strengthen the scientific and technical commu-nity as an important tool for socio-economic development. http://www.mct.gov.ve/

Multi-ddisciplinary CCenter ffor EEarthquake EEngineering RResearch ((MCEER), BBuffalo, NNY, UUSAMCEER’s overall goal is to enhance the seismic resiliency of communities through improved engineering and management tools forcritical infrastructure systems (water supply, electric power, hospitals, transportation systems). Seismic resilience (technical, organiza-tional, social and economic) is by reduced probability of system failure, reduced consequences due to failure, and reduced time to sys-tem restoration. MCEER works toward this goal by conducting integrated research, outreach, and education activities in partnershipwith the users of the center products. http://mceer.buffalo.edu/

Munich RReinsurance, GGermanyMunichRe is not only a world leader in reinsurance but it has also strategically strengthened its business with strong involvement in pri-mary insurance and in asset management. Knowledge and expertise, client services and preferred partner in risk: these are the attributeswhich characterize Munich Re. It covers a range of special subjects such as: risk management and industrial insurance, alternative risktransfer. In “Topics”, a publication which appears twice a year, Munich Re experts look at the current situation of natural disastersthroughout the world and current topics and trends in the insurance industry. “Topics” also presents new Munich Re products andservices, as well as the world map on natural catastrophes.http://www.munichre.com/index.html

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Musokotwane EEnvironment RResource CCentre ffor SSouthern AAfrica ((IMERCSA), ZZimbabwe IMERCSA is a unit established in 1994, within the Southern African Research and Documentation Centre (SARDC). IMERCSA hasbibliographic databases with more than 6,000 records on the environment and disaster management issues. Its contacts databases, whichlist individual experts and organizations involved in environment and disaster management issues in the SADC region, have a total ofabout 2,600 entries. The centre also has a public library with reading facilities for policy planners, researchers, diplomats, journalists, andothers interested in issues with a regional perspective. IMERCSA provides in- house training for young documentalists and journalists.In collaboration,with regionally-based organizations, IMERCSA also carries out training workshops mainly formenvironmental journal-ists in southern Africa. Although the centre does not carry out primary research, it responds to information requests from researchers who are involved in this activity. IMERCSA has produced several books and environmental articles, factsheets and reports on topicalenvironmental issues in the SADC region. http://www.sardc.net/imercsa/

National AAeronautics aand SSpace AAdministration ((NASA), UUSASince its inception in 1958, NASA has accomplished many great scientific and technological feats in air and space. NASA technologyalso has been adapted for many non-aerospace uses by the private sector. NASA remains a leading force in scientific research and instimulating public interest in aerospace exploration, as well as science and technology in general. http://www.nasa.gov/

National CCenter ffor AAtmospheric RResearch ((NCAR), BBoulder, CColorado, UUnited SStatesIt is NCAR’s mission to plan, organize, and conduct atmospheric and related research programs in collaboration with the universitiesand other institutions, to provide state-of-the-art research tools and facilities to the atmospheric sciences community, to support andenhance university atmospheric science education, and to facilitate the transfer of technology to both the public and private sectors. Created in 1960, the Center is operated by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) under a cooperative agree-ment with the National Science Foundation.http://www.ncar.ucar.edu/ncar/index.html

National CCenter ffor DDisaster MManagement ((NCDM), NNew DDehli, IIndiaNCDM has been established by the Government of India and located in the Indian Institute of Public Administration with the objec-tives of providing training programs for senior and middle level administrative government officials which sensitize them for disastermitigation; coordinating the research activities in different aspects of disaster management at national level.

National CCommittee ffor DDisaster MManagement ((NCDM), PPhnom PPenh, CCambodiaIn 1995, as a result of the country’s experience with regularly occurring disasters, the Royal Government of Cambodia establishedNCDM. Its responsibilities are defined in terms of, not only providing timely and effective emergency relief to the victims of disasters,but also developing preventive measures to reduce loss of lives and property. This is accomplished by applying scientific and technicalknowledge to mitigate disasters. www.cred.be/centre/research/ncdm.pdf

National DDisaster MManagement CCentre ((NDMC), PPretoria, SSouth AAfrica Its mission is to improve knowledge, awareness and understanding of disasters, and to coordinate and facilitate Access to informa-tion and resources in order to promote and support comprehensive, integrated and effective disaster management in South Africa.http://sandmc.pwv.gov.za/

National DDisaster PPrevention aand PPreparedness CCommission ((DPPC), AAddis AAbaba, EEthiopiaFormely known as the Relief and Rehabilitation Commission. It was first established in June 1974 following the outbreak of famine inthe two northern provinces of Ethiopia. In August 1995, it was re-established as the DPPC. The objectives of the Commission coverprevention, preparedness and response aspects of disaster management.

National DDirectorate oof WWater ((DNA), MMozambique, ((Direcçao NNacional dde AAguas)DNA is responsible for water policy and its implementation, strategic and integrated planning on the management of water resources aswell as water supply and sanitation services. The Directorate is a government agency working under the Ministry of Public Works andHousing. http://www.dna.mz/

National IInstitute ffor MMeteorology, MMozambique ((INAM), ((Instituto NNacional dde MMeteorologia)Its mission is to minimize the impacts of hydrometeorological hazards and contribute to sustainable development and the reductionof poverty. http://www.inam.gov.mz/

National IInstitute oof AAdvanced IIndustrial SScience aand TTechnology ((AIST), JJapanAIST is an Independent Administrative Institution under the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry. On April, 2001, the NationalInstitute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology began operations. It comprises 15 research institutes previously under the for-mer Agency of Industrial Science and Technology in the Ministry of International Trade and Industry and the Weights and Measures Training Institute. http://www.ais..t.go.jp/index_en.html

National IInstitute oof RRural DDevelopment ((NIRD), HHyderabad, IIndiaNIRD is India’s apex body for undertaking training, research, action research and consultancy functions in the rural development sector.It works as an autonomous organization supported by the Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment, Government of India.www.nird.org

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National EEmergency MManagement AAssociation ((NEMA), UUSANEMA is the professional association of state, Pacific and Caribbean insular state emergency management directors committed to pro-viding national leadership and expertise in comprehensive emergency management. It serves as a vital information and assistanceresource for state and territorial directors and their governors, while forging strategic partnerships to advance continuous improvementsin emergency management. http://www.nemaweb.org/index.cfm

National OOceanic && AAtmospheric AAdministration ((NOAA), WWashington DDC, UUSANOAA’s mission is to describe and predict changes in the Earth’s environment, and conserve and wisely manage the Nation’s coastaland marine resources. NOAA’s strategy consists of seven interrelated strategic goals for environmental assessment, prediction and stew-ardship. http://www.noaa.gov/

National SScience FFoundation ((NSF), WWashington DDC, UUSANSF is an independent agency of the US Government, established by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950. Its mission is topromote the progress of science; to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare; and to secure the national defense.http://www.nsf.gov/

National SSociety ffor EEarthquake TTechnology ((NSET), KKathmandu, NNepalNSET strives to assist all communities in Nepal to become earthquake safer by developing and implementing organized approaches tomanaging and minimizing earthquake risks. http://www.nset.org.np/home.htm

Natural HHazards RResearch aand AApplications IInformation CCenter, UUniversity oof CColorado, BBoulder, Colorado, UUSAThe Center is a national and international clearinghouse that provides information on natural hazards and human adjustments to these risks. The center’s prime goal is to increase communication among hazard and disaster researchers and individuals, agencies, and organizations who are actively working to reduce disaster damage and suffering. The Natural Hazards Center carries out its mission in four principal areas: information dissemination, an annual workshop, research, and library services. http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/intro.html

Nuclear RRegulatory CCommission ((NRC), UUnited SStatesNRC is an independent agency established by the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 to regulate civilian use of nuclear materials.http://www.nrc.gov/who-we-are.html

Office FFédéral dde ll’Environnement, ddes FForêts, eet ddu PPaysage ((OFEFP), SSuisse ((Swiss AAgency ffor tthe Environment, FForests aand LLandscape, ((SAEFL), SSwitzerland)SAEFL is the responsible federal office for environment. It is integrated into the Federal Department of Environment, Transportation,Energy and Communication. http://www.umwelt-schweiz.ch/buwal/fr/index.htmlhttp://www.umwelt-schweiz.ch/buwal/eng/index.html

Office ffor FForeign DDisaster AAssistance/U.S. AAgency ffor IInternational DDevelopment (OFDA/USAID)OFDA/USAID has been the principal US agency to extend assistance to countries recovering from disaster, trying to escape poverty, and engaging in democratic reforms. USAID is an independent federalgovernment agency that receives overall foreign policy guidance from the Secretary ofState. http://www.usaid.gov/hum_response/ofda/

Office oof DDisaster PPreparedness aand EEmergency MManagement ((ODPEM), KKingston, JJamaicaThe Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management is committed to taking pro-active and timely measures to prevent orreduce the impact of hazards in Jamaica, its people, natural resources and economy through its trained and professional staff, the use ofappropriate technology and collaborative efforts with national, regional and international agencies. http://www.odpem.org.jm/

Organization ffor EEconomic CCooperation aand DDevelopment ((OECD), PParis, FFranceThe OECD groups 30 member countries sharing a commitment to democratic government and the market economy. With active rela-tionships with some 70 other countries, NGOs and civil society, it has a global reach. Best known for its publications and its statistics,its work covers economic and social issues from macroeconomics, to trade, education, development, science and innovation.http://www.oecd.org/

Organization oof AAmerican SStates ((OAS), ((Organización dde EEstados AAmericanos), WWashington, DDC, UUSAThe nations of the Americas are working more closely together than ever before –strengthening democracy, advancing human rights,promoting peace and security, expanding trade and tackling complex problems caused by poverty, drugs and corruption. Togetherthey are building a better future for the next generation. At the outset of a new century and a new millennium, the challenge is how toturn citizens’ high expectations into reality. OAS is playing a central role in working toward many of the goals that are shared by the countries of North, Central and South America and the Caribbean. http://www.oas.org/

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Organization oof EEastern CCaribbean SStates ((OECS), CCastries, SSt LLuciaThe OECS came into being on 18 June, 1981, when seven Eastern Caribbean countries signed a treaty agreeing to co-operate witheach other and promote unity and solidarity among the Members. It is composed of 9 Member States: Antigua and Barbuda,Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines and 2 Associated Member States:Anguilla, British Virgin Islands. http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/decdo/oecs.htm http://oecs.org

Organization oof RRural AAssociations ffor PProgress ((ORAP), ZZimbabweORAP was founded in 1981 by a small group of people in Matabeleland Province to discuss development options following theindependence war which ended in 1980. ORAP aims at creating employment and greater self reliance through promoting culturallyrelevant self-help activities. The organisation also aims at encouraging grassroots programme development and promoting economicand financial autonomy.http://iisd1.iisd.ca/50comm/commdb/desc/d41.htm

Overseas DDevelopment IInstitute ((ODI), UUnited KKingdomIts mission is to inspire and inform policy and practice which lead to the reduction of poverty, the alleviation of suffering and theachievement of sustainable livelihoods in developing countries. It does this by locking together high-quality applied research, practi-cal policy advice, and policy-focused dissemination and debate. It works with partners in the public and private sectors, in both devel-oping and developed countries. http://www.odi.org.uk/

Pacific TTsunami WWarning CCentre ((PTWC), HHonolulu, HHawaiiEstablished in 1949, the PTWC in Ewa Beach, Hawaii, provides warnings for tsunamis to most countries in the Pacific Basin aswell as to Hawaii and all other U.S interests in the Pacific outside of Alaska and the U.S West Coast. Those areas are served by theWest Coast / Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (WC/ATWC) in Palmer, Alaska. PTWC is also the warning center for Hawaïi’s localand regional tsunamis. http://www.prh.noaa.gov/pr/ptwc/

Philippine CCommission oon HHigher EEducation ((CHED)CHED is mandated to undertake the following tasks: 1. Promote quality education; 2. Take appropriate steps to ensure that educa-tion shall be accessible to all; and 3. Ensure and protect academic freedom for the continuing intellectual growth, the advancementof learning and research, the development of responsible and effective leadership, the education of high level professionals, and theenrichment of historical and cultural heritage. www.info.com.ph/~chedco

Philippine IInstitute ffor VVolcanology aand SSeismology ((PHIVOLCS), QQuezon CCity, PPhilippinesThe principal goal of PHIVOLCS is to formulate up-to-date and comprehensive disaster preparedness and loss reduction actionplans for volcanic eruption, earthquake occurrences and related geotectonic processes/phenomena (e.g. faulting, landslides andtsunamis) which imprint significant impacts on man and his environment. A corollary goal is to exploit the positive aspects of theseprocesses to uplift of the people’s quality of life. In line with its role in the promotion of science and technology in thecountry, PHIVOLCS undertakes activities geared towards making people aware of volcanoes and volcanology, earthquakes and seismol-ogy, and to understand why, where and how natural disasters of volcanic and seismic origins occur in the Philippines.http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/

Phnom PPenh RRegional PPlatform oon SSustainable DDevelopment ffor AAsia aand tthe PPacific, PPhnom PPehn, CambodiaThe High-level Regional Meeting for the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) reviewed the progress in the implemen-tation of Agenda 21 in the region and identifies key policy issues, priorities, goals, constraints and actions in preparation for the WSSD.http://www.johannesburgsummit.org/html/prep_process/asiapacific.html

PLANAT ((Swiss NNational PPlatform ffor NNatural HHazards), BBern, SSwitzerlandThe Federal Council aims to improve prevention in the field of natural hazards. To this end, it created the national PLAtform forNATural hazards - PLANAT. This consultative body of the Confederation is organized as an extra parliamentary commission.Whilst taking care to avoid a duplication of efforts, it also ensures a better use of the existing structures.http://www.planat.ch/e/index.htm

Potsdam IInstitute ffor CClimate IImpact RResearch ((PIK), PPotsdam, GGermanyThe founding of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research in 1992 arose out of the growing need among political decision-makers to be informed about the consequences of Global Change. Of particular importance in this respect was thequestion of increasing concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere and the effect this would have on climate, the environment and society.Since then PIK has been involved in investigating the ecological, geophysical and socioeconomic aspects of worldwide climatic change,and climate-impact research has become part of a comprehensive Earth system analysis. http://www.pik-potsdam.de/

ProVention CConsortium ((Disaster MManagement FFacility, WWorld BBank)Its mission is “to help developing countries build sustainable and successful economies and to reduce the human suffering that too oftenresults from natural and technological catastrophes”. The ProVention Consortium is a global coalition of governments, internationalorganizations, academic institutions, the private sector, and civil society organizations aimed at reducing disaster impacts in developingcountries. The Consortium functions as a network to share knowledge and to connect and leverage resources to reducedisaster risk. It focuses on synergy and coordination so that efforts, and benefits, are shared. http://www.proventionconsortium.org/

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Regional CConsultative CCommittee ((RCC) iin DDisaster MManagement, BBangkok, TThailandWithin the framework of the Advisory Council, an ADPC Consultative Committee on Regional Cooperation in Disaster Managementhas been established. The Committee comprises members of the ADPC Board of Trustees/Advisory Council who are working in keyGovernment positions in the National Disaster Management systems of countries of the Asian region. The role of RCC is to providean informal consultative mechanism for development of action strategies for disaster reduction in the region and promotion of cooperative programs on a regional and sub-regional basis; so as to guide ADPC’s work. http://www.adpc.ait.ac.th/pdp/consultative.html

Regional EEarly WWarning UUnit ((REWU), SSADC, HHarare, ZZimbabweThe SADC Regional Early Warning Unit is an institution of the Southern African Development Community financially supportedthrough contributions from Member States. The SADC Regional Early Warning System operates as an integrated project, comprising aRegional Early Warning Unit (REWU), based in Harare, and autonomous National Early Warning Units in each of the ten originalSADC member states.http://www.sadc-fanr.org.zw/rewu/rewu.htm

Regional RRemote SSensing UUnit ((RRSU), SSADC, HHarare, ZZimbabwe The main objective is to strengthen national and regional capabilities in the area of remote sensing and GIS for use of early warning forfFood security and natural resources management. http://www.sadc-fanr.org.zw/rrsu/rrsu.htm

Regional UUnit ffor TTechnical AAssistance ((RUTA), ((Unidad rregional dde aassistencia ttécnica), CCosta RRicaRUTA is the collaboration between governments and international development agencies in the sustainable development of rural areasin Central America. Its mission is to contribute to sustainable rural growth in order to reduce rural poverty in the Central Americanregion by means of national and regional development agendas – a common effort between governments, civil societies and social agen-cies. www.ruta.org

Save tthe CChildren FFund, UUnited KKingdom ((SCF-UUK)SCF-UK is the leading United Kingdom charity working to create a better world for children. http://193.129.255.93/

Secretaría GGeneral dde PPlanificación ((SEGEPLAN), GGuatemala ((Planning SSecretariat)The Secretariat of Planning and Programming (SEGEPLAN) is an institution that supports decision making, within the Presidencyand other centers of public policy formulation in the Executive Branch, by providing specific social-economic information that facilitatesinformed decisions related to the country’sdevelopment. http://www.segeplan.gob.gt/

Sistema dde IIntegración CCentroamericana ((SICA)SICA, and its secretariat, is a regional organization created by the Central American Presidents in the Declaration of Tegucigalpa withthe purpose of offering its technical services as well as political expertise to the initiatives of regional integration, and particularly to thedevelopment of the Centroamerican Union.http://www.sicanet.org.sv/

Sistema NNacional ppara lla PPrevención, MMitigación yy AAtención dde DDesastres ((SNPMAD), NNicaragua (National SSystem ffor DDisaster PPrevention, MMitigation aand AAttention) On March, 2000, the “Legislation 337” was approved for the establishment of the National System for the Prevention, Mitigation of,and Attention to Disasters (the System). The National Committee is the administrative entity of the System, whose role it is to define thepolicies and plans of the System, as well as to assist the President of the Republic with the declaration of a State of Emergency andapprove the annual budget directed to the National Fund for Disasters. In order to meet its objectives in terms of the prevention, miti-gation of, and attention to disasters, the System has established Commisions for Sectorial Initiatives for the execution of the plans adopt-ed by the National System. Legislation 337 stipulates that the Commissions shall be organized and coordinated at the Ministerial level.http://www.sosnicaragua.gob.ni/

Sistema NNacional dde PProtección CCivil ((SINAPROC), PPanama ((National CCivil PProtection SSystem)SINAPROC is an infrastructure of programmes, institutional relationships, methodologies and processes, which coordinates the com-mon efforts of the institutions of the three governmental hierarchies, as well as the public and private social agencies, to protect societyagainst the dangers of natural risks and disasters.http://www.c-com.net.pa/~snpce/

South AAfrican QQualifications AAuthorities ((SAQA)The South African Qualifications Authority is a body of 29 members appointed by the Ministers of Education and Labour. The mem-bers are nominated by identified national stakeholders in education and training. Its National QQualifications FFramework is the set of prin-ciples and guidelines by which records of learner achievement are registered to enable national recognition of acquired skills and knowl-edge, thereby ensuring an integrated system that encourages life-long learning.http://www.saqa.org.za/

South AAsian AAssociation ffor RRegional CCooperation ((SAARC), KKathmandu, NNepalSAARC was established when its Charter was formally adopted on 8 December, 1985 by the Heads of State or Government ofBangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. SAARC provides a platform for the peoples of South Asiato work together in a spirit of friendship, trust and understanding. It aims to accelerate the process of economic and social develop-ment in Member States. http://www.saarc-sec.org/

South PPacific AApplied GGeoscience CCommission ((SOPAC), FFijiIts mission is to improve the well being of the peoples of Pacific Island developing states through the application of geoscience to themanagement and sustainable development of their non-living resources. SOPAC member countries include: Australia, CookIslands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia (Associate), Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, New Caledonia(Associate), Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu.www.sopac.org.fj/

Southern AAfrica DDevelopment CCommunity ((SADC), GGaborone, BBotswanaThe primary role of SADC is to help define regional priorities, facilitate integration, assist in mobilizing resources and to maximizethe regional impact of projects. The approach is to address national priorities through regional action. The SADC Programme ofAction is made up of all the programmes and projects approved by the Council of Ministers. www.sadc.int http://www.sad-creview.com/- SADC FFood aand NNatural RResources CCoordination UUnit ((See FFANR)- SADC EEnvironmental aand LLand MManagement CCoordination UUnited NNationsThe SADC Environment and Land Management Sector (ELMS) has been given the responsibility to catalyse the transitiontowards environmentally sustainable development within the SADC countries. Thus the overall objective of the sector, like itsmandate, is long term and conforms to the SADC Treaty “to achieve sustainable utilisation of natural resources and effective pro-tection of the environment.” http://www.sadcreview.com/sectoral%20reports%202001/environmentandland.htm- SADC WWater RResources CCoordination UUnit In view of the importance of the role that water plays in ensuring the well-being of the peoples of SADC, a distinct Water Sectorwas established by the community in 1996. The day-to-day oordination activities of the sector are undertaken by a dedicated unitknown as the SADC Water Sector Coordinating Unit (SADC WSCU), located in the Ministry of Natural Resources, in Lesotho.The vision of the SADC Water Sector is, “to attain the sustainable, integrated planning, development, utilisation and managementof water resources that contribute to the attainment of SADC’s overall objectives of an integrated regional economy on the basis ofbalance, equity and mutual benefit for all member States”. http://www.sadcwscu.org.ls/

Southern AAlliance ffor IIndigenous RResources ((SAFIRE), HHarare, ZZimbabweSAFIRE was founded in October 1994 and since then it has steadily evolved to become one of the larger environmental NGOs inSouthern Africa, and is associated particularly with natural products development, forestry related issues in communal lands, andwith participatory approaches to community based natural resource management. http://www.safireweb.org/

Southern AAfrican RResearch aand DDocumentation CCenter ((SARDC), HHarare, ZZimbabweSARDC’s objective is to improve the base of knowledge about economic, political, cultural and social developments, and their impli-cations, by making information accessible to governments and policy makers, non-governmental organizations, the private sector,regional and international organizations, development agencies, parliaments, and the media. http://www.sardc.net/

Southern CCommon MMarket ((MERCOSUR) AAgreementThe Treaty establishes a Common Market between the Argentine Republic,. the Federal Republic of Brazil, the Republic of Paraguayand the Eastern Republic of Uruguay. http://www.sice.oas.org/trade/mrcsr/mrcsrtoc.asp

Sustainable EEnvironment aand EEcological DDevelopment SSociety ((SEEDS), NNew DDelhi, IIndiaSEEDS, a non-profit voluntary organization, is a collective endeavor of young professionals drawn from development related fields. Itoriginated as an informal group of like-minded people, getting together for the purpose of creative research projects of academic interest.The group was later formalized in early 1994 and has been active in the field ever since. It is involved in research activities in communitydevelopment, disaster management, environmental planning, transport planning, and urban and regional planning. Activities are carriedout on behalf of government, semi-government and international development agencies. Independent programs on vital issues are alsotaken up. http://www.gdrc.org/uem/seeds.html

Swedish IInternational DDevelopment AAgency ((SIDA)SIDA creates the preconditions for change and sustainable development. http://www.sida.org/

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Swiss AAgency ffor DDevelopment aand CCooperation ((SDC), ((Agencia SSuiza ppara eel ddesarrollo yy lla ccooperacion ((COSUDE))SDC is part of the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. Its mandate is based on the Federal Law on InternationalDevelopment Cooperation and Humanitarian Aid enacted on 19 March 1976, and on a federal decree of 24 March 1995 oncooperation with the countries of Eastern Europe. In order to make the greatest contribution, SDC concentrates its long-termefforts on cooperating in development in specific sectors and with a limited number of countries in Africa, Asia, Latin Americaand Eastern Europe. In Latin America, the Swiss Cooperation has chosen to focus its efforts on Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador andCentral America, particularly Nicaragua. http://www.eda.admin.ch/lima_emb/s/home/devcop.htmlhttp://194.230.65.134/dezaweb2/frame_ie.asp?bgstyle=bg_homepage

Swiss RReinsurance CCompany ((SwissRE), ZZurich, SSwitzerlandSwiss Re - the global reinsurer: With more than 70 offices in 30 countries. The Financial Services Business Group brings togetherworld-class capital management expertise and risk-taking capabilities. Swiss Re’s success in business is attributable to two factors: intel-ligent risk management and, at its heart, an in-depth analysis of the nature of risk. The product of the first is a contract; the product ofthe second is published work (top topics, Sigma). http://www.swissre.com/

Technicon, UUniversity oof TTechnology, FFree SState, SSouth AAfricaThe research mission of the Technikon Free State, a South African university of technology is in line with the higher education mis-sion of teaching, research and community service: To advance, transfer and sustain knowledge and understanding, through theconduct of career teaching, research and scholarship, as well as community capacity building and services, at the highest internation-al standards, for the benefit of national and international communities and that of the Free State Province in particular.http://www.tofs.ac.za/index.asp

Third WWorld AAcademy oof SSciences ((TWAS), IItalyThe Third World Academy of Sciences is an autonomous international organization, founded in Trieste, Italy, in 1983 by a distin-guished group of scientists under the leadership of the late Nobel laureate Abdus Salam of Pakistan. It was officially launched bythe then Secretary General of the United Nations in 1985. Since 1986, TWAS has been supporting research work of scientific meritin 100 countries in the South through a variety of programmes. In addition, joint activities have been developed with UNESCO,the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), ICSU, the International Foundation for Science (IFS) andthe International Science Programme (ISP).

Tropical CCyclone RRegional SSpecialized MMeteorological CCentres ((RSMCs), WWorld MMeteorological Organization ((WMO)RSMCS is a network of five centres designated by WMO as Tropical Cyclone Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres (RSMCs) and located in:La RRéunion, www.meteor,fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/trajGP/data/home_trajGPMiami , www.nhc.noaa.gov/productsNadi ((Fiji), www.met.gov.fj/advisoriesNew DDelhi , www.imd.ernet.in/services/cyclone/cyclone-warning-servicesTokyo, http://ddb.kishou.go.jp/typhoon/cyclone/cyclone.htmland six specialized tropical cyclone warning centres with regional responsibility to carry out activities coordinated at the global and regional levels by WMO through its World Weather Watch and Tropical Cyclone Programmes. They are located in:Brisbane, www.bomgov.au/weather/qld/cycloneDarwin, www.bom.gov.au/weather/nt/inside/cyclone/cyclone.shtmlPerth, www.bom.gov.au/weather/waWellington, www.metservice.co.nz/forecasts/high_seas.aspPort MMoresby, and Honolulu, www.nws.noaa.gob/pr/hnl/cphc/pages/cphc.html

Turkana DDrought CContingency PPlanning UUnit ((TDCPU), KKenyaThe Early Warning System of Turkana was set up in 1987. It operates at the sub-national level, for the district of Turkana in the north-ern part of Kenya. It is run by local government, by the TDCPU. It provides information on how early warning data can be translatedand communicated to decision makers.

Uganda’s SSeismic SSafety AAssociation ((USSA)In 1997, following the WSSI High Level Meeting in Kampala, the Uganda Seismic Safety Association was formed.USSA is anon-profit professional organization some of whose members are affiliated to the Uganda Institution of Professional Engineers,International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Government Ministries, NGOs, insurance industry, communityleaders, and members from the general public.

Ukuvuka –– OOperation FFirestop, SSouth AAfricaOperating within the scope of the authority of the local municipal authorities and the Cape Peninsula National Park, the UkuvukaCampaign intends to accomplish the work identified by a public awareness campaign, through management support, funding, com-munication, monitoring and facilitation. http://www.ukuvuka.org.za/

Unit ffor SSustainable DDevelopment aand EEnvironment oof tthe OOrganization oof AAmerican SStates (USDE/OAS), WWashington DDC, UUSAThe Unit for Sustainable Development and Environment is the principal technical arm of the OAS General Secretariat for respond-ing to the needs of member states on issues relating to sustainable development within an economic development context. Technicalissues addressed by the USDE include transboundary management of water resources, reduction of vulnerability to naturalhazards, public participation in decision-making, climate change, sea-level rise, coastal-zone management, renewable energy planning,and biodiversity. http://www.oas.org/usde/USDE.htm

United NNations CCenter ffor RRegional DDevelopment/Disaster MManagement PPlanning HHyogo OOffice (UNCRD/DMPHO), JJapanUNCRD/DMPHO was established in Kobe in 1999 after the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake of 1995. While applying the les-sons learned from the experience of the earthquake of 1995, the Hyogo office has formulated integrated projects for ‘SustainableDevelopment through Disaster Management’. The office has three basic research programs: 1) Design of community based projectsfor disaster management planning, 2) School earthquake safety project, and 3) Disaster management capacity building program tointroduce best practices case studies on disaster management in developing countries.http://www.hyogo.uncrd.or.jp/ws2002/index_e.html

United SStates AAgency ffor IInternational DDevelopment ((USAID), WWashington DDC, UUSAUSAID is an independent federal government agency that receives overall foreign policy guidance from the Secretary of State. Theagency works to support long-term and equitable economic growth and advancing U.S. foreign policy objectives by supporting: eco-nomic growth, agricultural and trade; global health; and, democracy, conflict prevention and humanitarian assistance.http://www.usaid.gov/

United SStates FFederal EEmergency MManagement AAgency ((FEMA), WWashington DDC, UUSAFEMA is an independent agency of the federal government, reporting to the President. Its mission is to reduce loss of life and prop-erty and to protect the nation’s critical infrastructure from all types of hazards through a comprehensive, risk-based, emergency man-agement program of mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. www.fema.gov

United SStates GGeological SSurvey ((USGS), RReston, VVirginia, UUSAThe USGS provides reliable scientific information to describe and understand the Earth; minimize loss of life and property fromnatural disasters; manage water, biological, energy and mineral resources and enhance and protect the quality of life.http://www.usgs.gov/

Universidad NNacional dde TTrujillo, PPeru ((National UUniversity)Peru’s National University at Trujillo operates as the Technical Secretariat for the General Coordination of EDUPLAN in Latin Ameri-ca and the Caribbean. http://www.unitru.edu.pe/

University oof CCape TTown, SSouth AAfricaThe Environmental Evaluation Unit and the Disaster Mitigation for Sustained Livelihoods Project (DIMP) are associated with thedepartment and operate from the Shell Environmental and Geographical Science building. The staff of these units consult on a widerange of practical environmental issues and problems, and also contribute to the teaching and research activities of the academicdepartment. http://www.uct.ac.za/

University oof PPotchefstroom, SSouth AAfricaThe university is in the process of establishing an African Centre for Disaster Studies (ACDS).(http://www.puk.ac.za/fakulteite/lettere/sosialestudies/acds/)http://www.puk.ac.za/

Other uuniversities ddealing wwith ddisaster mmanagement aand rrelated iissues

Universidad dde CCosta RRica ((UCR), ((University oof CCosta RRica) http://www.ucr.ac.cr/Universidad ddel VValle, BBogota, CColombia http://www.univalle.edu.co/Universidad ddel VValle, GGuatemala http://www.uvg.edu.gt/Universidad dde llos AAndes, BBogota, CColombia http://www.uniandes.edu.co/home-visitantes/Universidad NNacional dde CCuyo, MMendoza, AArgentina http://www.uncu.edu.ar/nueva/index.htmlUniversidad NNacional dde NNicaragua ((UNAN), ((National UUniversity oof NNicaragua) http://www.unan.edu.ni/Universidad NNacional, HHeredia, CCosta RRica ((UNA), ((National UUniversity, HHeredia, CCosta RRica) www.una.ac.crUniversity oof CCranfield, UUnited KKingdom http://www.cranfield.ac.uk/University oof tthe FFree SState, SSouth AAfrica http://www.uovs.ac.za/University oof MMutare, ZZimbabwe http://www.carbon.org/AfricaUniv.htmUniversity oof NNairobi, KKenya http://www.uonbi.ac.ke/University oof WWitwatersrand, SSouth AAfrica http://www.cs.wits.ac.za/

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Wetlands IInternationalWetlands International is a leading global non-profit organisation dedicated solely to the crucial work of wetland conservation andsustainable management. Well-established networks of experts and close partnerships with key organisations provide WetlandsInternational with the essential tools for catalysing conservation activities worldwide. Activities are based on sound science and havebeen carried out in over 120 countries. Its mission is to sustain and restore wetlands, their resources and biodiversity for future gen-erations through research, information exchange and conservation activities,worldwide. http://www.wetlands.org/

World CConsevation UUnion ((IUCN), SSwitzerlandIUCN’s mision is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of natureand to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable. http://www.iucn.org/

World OOrganization oof VVolcano OObservatories ((WOVO), The World Organization of Volcano Observatories was established as the result of a meeting of representatives from world-wide vol-cano observatories, held in Guadeloupe in 1981. WOVO became the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of theEarth’s Interior Commission in the following year. http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/wovo/

World WWide FFund ffor NNature ((WWF)WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmo-ny with nature, by:conserving the world’s biological diversity ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainablepromoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption. Since it was founded in 1961, WWF has become one of theworld’s largest and most effective independent organizations dedicated to the conservation of nature. http://www.panda.org

Zambesi RRiver AAuthority ((ZRA)The bi-national Zambesi River Authority (ZRA) was established through an agreement between Zambia and Zimbabwe. ZRA nowhas the responsibility for operation and maintenance of the Kariba Dam, while the two power plants are operated by power compa-nies of the respective countries.

Zentrum ffür NNaturrisiken uund EEntwicklung ((ZENEB), GGermany ((Center ffor NNatural HHazards aand DDevelopment)The objective of ZENEB is the creation of a “culture of a prevention” for the advancement of sustainable development. According-ly, initiatives in the reduction of vulnerability of natural hazards are being made in cooperation with issues of science and policy.http://www.giub.uni-bonn.de/zeneb/

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Annex 3List of ACRONYMS

ACC Administrative Committee on Coordination (now CEB)ACMAD African Center of Meteorological Applications for Development (Centre africain des applica-

tions de la météorologie pour le développement), Niamey, NigerACS Association of Caribbean StatesADB Asian Development Bank, Manila, PhilippinesADMIN Australian Disaster Management Information NetworkADPC Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, Bangkok, ThailandADRC Asian Disaster Reduction Center, Kobe, JapanADRRN Asian Disaster Reduction and Response NetworkAEDES Agence Européenne pour le Developpement et la SantéAEGDM ASEAN Experts Group on Disaster Management AEMI Australian Emergency Management Institute (now EMAI)AGIS Agriculture Geo-referrenced Information System AGMP Agricultural Meteorology Programme, WMOAGRHYMET Specialized hydrometeorological institute of the Permanent Interstate Committee for

Drought Control in the SAHEL (CILSS). See also : CILSS, Comité permanent InterEtats de Lutte Contre la Sécherresse dans le SAHEL.

AGSO Australian Geological Survey OrganizationAIDIS Asociación Interamericana de Ingeniería sanitaria y Ambiental (Panamerican Engineering

Association for the Public Health and Environment)AIST Agency of Industrial Science & Technology, JapanAIT Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, ThailandALIDES Alianza para el Desarrollo Sostenible (Alliance for Sustainable Development), Central

AmericaALITE Augmented Logistics Intervention Team for Emergencies, WFPAOSIS Alliance of Small Islands StatesAPEC Asia-Pacific Economic CooperationAPELL Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at the Local Level (UNEP Program)ARF ASEAN Regional Forum (for Regional Cooperation in Disaster Management)ARPDM ASEAN Regional Program on Disaster ManagementARTEMIS Advanced Real Time Environmental Information Monitoring System, FAOASEAN Association of South East Asian NationsAU African UnionAUDMP Asian Urban Disaster Mitigation Program, ADPC, ThailandAusDIN Australian Disaster Information NetworkAVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

BCPR Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery, UNDP (formely Emergency Response Division,ERD)

BGHRC Benfield Greig Hazard Research Centre, University College London, United KingdomBIBEX Biomass Burning ExperimentBICEPP Business and Industry Council for Emergency Planning and PreparednessBIT Bandung Institute of Technology, IndonesiaBPIEPC Bureau de la protection des infrastructures essentielles et de la protection civile, Canada. See

Also: OCIPEP, Office of Critical Infrastructure Protection and Emergency Preparedness

CABEI Central American Bank for Economic IntegrationCAMI Central American Mitigation Initiative (Iniciativa Centroamericana para la Mitigación)CAC Consejo Agricola Centroamericano (Central American Agricultural Advisory Board)CAF Corporación Andina de Fomento (Andean Development Corporation)CARDIN Caribbean Disaster Information NetworkCARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief EverywhereCARICOM Caribbean CommunityCBD United Nations Convention on Biological DiversityCBDM Community Based Disaster Management

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CCAs Common Country AssessmentsCCAD Comisión Centroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrollo (Central American Commission for

Environment and Development) CCFSC Central Committee for Flood and Storm Control,VietnamCCGC Coordinating Council for Disaster Management, MozambiqueCCOP Coordinating Committee for Coastal and Offshore Geoscience Programmes

in East and Southeast AsiaCCP Cluster Cities ProjectCDB Caribbean Development BankCDC Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, USACDERA Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response AgencyCDM Clean Development Mechanism,UNFCCCCDMP Caribbean Disaster Mitigation ProjectCDPC Cranfield Disaster Preparedness Center, United KingdomCDRN Citizen’s Disaster Response Network, PhilippinesCEB United Nations System Chief Executives Board for Coordination (formerly ACC)CEH Center for Ecology and Hydrology, United KingdomCENAPRED National Center for Disaster Prevention, MexicoCEOS Committee on Earth Observation SatellitesCEPREDENAC Centro de Coordinación para la Prevención de Desastres Naturales en America Central

(Coordinating Centre for the Prevention of Natural Disasters in Central America)CEP Caribbean Environment Program, UNEPCEPAL Comisión Económica para America Latina (Economic Commission for Latin America)CEPR Centre européen pour prévention des risques (European Center for Risk Mitigation), FranceCEUDIP Central European Disaster Prevention ForumCGIAR Consultative Group for International Agricultural ResearchCGMW Commission for the Geological Map of the WorldCHARM Comprehensive Hazard and Risk Management Program (Pacific Island States)CHED Philippine Commission on Higher EducationCIDA Canadian International Development AgencyCIFAL International Training Centre for Local Actors, Divonne-les-Bains, FranceCIMDEN Center for Disaster Research and Mitigation, GuatemalaCILSS Comité permanent Inter Etats de Lutte Contre la Sécherresse dans le SAHEL (Permanent Inter-

state Committee for Drought Control in the SAHEL)CINDI Center for Integration of Natural Disaster Information (USGS)CIRDAP Center on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific, Dhaka, BangladeshCIS Commonwealth of Independent States CISMID Centro Peruano Japonés de Investigaciones Sísmicas y Mitigación de Desastres CLIVAR Climate Variability and Predictability, Project, World Climate Research ProgrammeCNCIDR China National Committee for International Disaster ReductionCNCNDR China National Center for Natural Disaster ReductionCNDR Corporate Network for Disaster ReductionCNE Comisión Nacional de Prevención de Riesgos y Atención de Emergencias, Costa Rica

(National Risk Prevention and Emergency Response Commission) CNHAP Canadian Natural Hazards Assessment ProjectCOEN Comite de Emergencia Nacional, El Salvador (Committee for National Emergency) COHG Conference of Heads of Governments of the Caribbean CommunityCONRED Coordinadora Nacional para la Reducción de Desastres, Guatemala (National Coordinator for

Disaster Reduction)COP Conference of the PartiesCOPECO Comisión Permanente de Contingencias, Honduras (Permanent Commission Contingency)COPUOS United Nations Committee for Peaceful Use of Outer SpaceCORDES Corporación para el Desarrollo, El Salvador (Development Corporation)CORECA Consejo Regional de Cooperación Agricola (Central American Advisory Board for Agricul-

tural Cooperation) COST European Cooperation in the Field of Scientific and Technical ResearchCOSUDE Agencia Suiza para el desarrollo y la cooperación (COSUDE), (Swiss Agency for Develop-

ment and Cooperation (SDC))CPACC Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Global Climate Change (project)CPP Cyclone Preparedness Program (Bangladesh Red Crescent Society)

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CRED Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Catholic University of Louvain, Brus-sels, Belgium

CRID Centro Regional de Información sobre Desastres, América Latina y El Caribe, Costa Rica(Regional Disaster Information Centre, Latin America and the Caribbean)

CSD Commission on Sustainable Development, United NationsCSDS Countries in Special Development SituationsCSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South AfricaCST UNCCD’s Committee on Science and TechnologyCSW Commission on the Status of Women , United NationsCTGC Disaster Management Technical Council, Mozambique

DAPSA Department of Early Warning and Food Security, MozambiqueDAW Division for the Advancement of Women , United NationsDDMFC Department of Dyke Management and Flood Control, VietnamDEPHA Data Exchange Platform for the Horn of AfricaDEPI Division for Environment Policy Implementation, UNEPDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsDESINVENTAR Inventario de Desastres, LA RED, (Disaster Inventory) DEWA Division for Early Warning and Assessment, UNEPDFID Department for International Development, United KingdomDFNK Deutsches Forschungsnetz Naturkatastrophen (German Research Network for Natural Disasters)DG JJRC Directorate General Joint Research CentreDHA Department of Humanitarian Affairs (now UN/OCHA)DHM Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, NepalDiMP Disaster Mitigation for Sustainable Livelihoods Programme, University of Cape Town, South

AfricaDIPECHO Disaster Preparedness, European Community Humanitarian OfficeDISMAC Disaster Management Committee at National Divisional and Districts levels, FijiDKKV Deutsches Komitee für Katastrophenvorsorge e.V. (German Committee for Disaster Reduction)DMC Drought Monitoring Centre (Harare, Zimbabwe and Nairobi, Kenya)DMF Disaster Management Facility, IBRDDMIS Disaster Management Information System, IFRCDMISA Disaster Management Institute of Southern Africa, South AfricaDMMU Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit, ZambiaDMT Disaster Management TeamsDMTP Disaster Management Training Programme, United NationsDMU Disaster Management Unit,VietnamDNA National Directorate of Water, MozambiqueDPCCN Department for the Prevention and Control of Natural Disasters, MozambiqueDPCSS Disaster, Post-Conflict and Safety Section, UN-HABITATDPPC Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Commission, EthiopiaDRBA Disaster Recovery Business AllianceDRRP Disaster Reduction and Recovery Programme, UNDPDSD Division for Sustainable Development, United Nations

EANHMP Eastern Asia Natural Hazards Mapping ProjectEAPAP Environment Assessment Program for Asia-Pacific

(Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand)ECA Economic Commission for Africa, United Nations, Addis Ababa, EthiopiaECE Economic Commission for Europe, United Nations, Geneva, SwitzerlandECHO European Community Humanitarian OfficeECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, United Nations, Santiago, ChileECOSOC United Nations Economic and Social CouncilECPC Experimental Climate Prediction Centre, USAEDM Earthquake Disaster Mitigation Research Center, Miki, Japan EEA European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, DenmarkEERI Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Oakland, California, USAEEZ Exclusive Economic Zone

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EHP/USGS Earthquake Hazards Program of the United States Geological SurveyEIA Environmental Impact AssessmentELMS Environment and Land Management Sector of SADC, Southern AfricaELSA European Laboratory for Structural Assessment – Earthquake EngineeringEMA Emergency Management AustraliaEMAI Emergency Management Australia Institute (former AEMI)EM-DDAT Emergency Events Database (CRED,Catholic University of Louvain)EMI Earthquake and Megacities InitiativeEMS Environmental Management SystemsENSO El Niño Southern OscillationEPC Emergency Preparedness CanadaEPOCH European Programme on Climatology and Natural HazardsEQTAP Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster Mitigation Technologies in the Asia-Pacific RegionERA European Research AreaERD Emergency Response Division, UNDP (now BCPR)ERWIN Early Warning System for tropical cyclone, Cook IslandsESB Emergency Services Branch, UN/OCHAESCAP Economic and Social Commission of Asian and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand, United NationsESCWA Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, Beirut, Lebanon, United NationsESPRIT European Strategic Programme for Research and Information TechnologyETS Emergency Telecommunications Service, ITUEU European UnionEUR-OOPA Major Hazards Agreement of the Council of EuropeEWARN Early Warning and Response Network, Southern SudanEWSs Early Warning Systems

FANR Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Sector of SADC, Southern AfricaFAO Food and Agriculture Organization, United NationsFAO/AGL Food and Agriculture Organization/Land and Water Development DivisionFDR Fire Danger RatingFEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency, US GovernmentFEMID Fortalecimiento de Estructuras Locales para la Mitigación de Desastres (Strengthening of

Local Structures for Disaster Mitigation)FEWS Famine Early Warning SystemFEWSNET Famine Early Warning System NetworkFHWA Federal Highway Administration, US GovernmentFICCI Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and IndustryFINCA Foundation for International Community AssistanceFIVIMS Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping Systems, FAOFLACSO Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales (Latin American Social Science Faculty) FOREC Fondo para la Reconstruccion y el Desarrollo Social del Eje Cafetero, Manizales, ColombiaFSWW Foundation for the Support of Women’s WorkFUNDE Fundación Nacional para el Desarrollo (National Development Foundation) FUSAI Fundación Salvadoreña para la Asistencia Integral, El Salvador (Salvadorian Foundation for

Integral Assistance)

GA General Assembly, United NationsGADR Global Alliance for Disaster Reduction, USAGAV Vulnerability Analysis GroupGCOS Global Climate Observing SystemGDIN Global Disaster Information NetworkGDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environmental Facility (implemented by UNDP, UNEP and the World Bank)

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GEO Global Environment Outlook Report,UNEPGESI Global Earthquake Safety Initiative, Hyogo Office, JapanGFMC Global Fire Monitoring Center, GermanyGHI GeoHazards International, California, USAGIEWS Global Information Early Warning System, FAOGIS Geographic Information SystemsGLIDES GGLobal IDEntifier numberGLO-DDISNET Global Disaster Information NetworkGLOF Glacial Lake Outburst FloodGMES Global Monitoring for the Environment and Security (EU initiative)GMGS Groupe Maghrébin de Génie SismiqueGNP Gross National ProductGOOS Global Ocean Observing SystemGPHIN Global Public Health Intelligence NetworkGPS Global Positioning System GRID Global Resource Information Database, UNEPGROOTS Grass Root Organization Operating in SisterhoodGSDMA Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority, IndiaGSJ Geological Survey of JapanGSHAP Global Seismic Hazard Assessment ProgramGTOS Global Terrestrial Observing SystemGTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit

(German Agency for Technical Cooperation)

HAZ TTAIWAN Earthquake Loss Estimation Methodology, TaiwanHAZUS Natural Hazard Loss Estimation Methodology, FEMAHDR Human Development Report, UNDPHIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency SyndromeHNDGDM Hungarian National Directorate General for Disaster ManagementHOMS Hydrological Operational Multipurpose System of WMOHPC-DDMP High Powered Committee on Disaster Management Plans, IndiaHYCOS Hydrological Cycle Observing System

IACNDR Inter-American Committee for Natural Disaster ReductionIADB Inter-American Development Bank. See also: IDB.IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency, United NationsIAEE International Association of Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo, JapanIASC Inter-Agency Standing CommitteeIASPEI International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth’s InteriorIATF Inter-Agency Task Force (ISDR)IAVCEI International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s InteriorIBHS Institute for Business and Home Safety, USAIBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, World BankICAO International Civil Aviation OrganizationICET Intergovernmental Conference on Emergency TelecommunicationsICIMOD International Center for Integrated Mountain Development, NepalICRC International Committee of the Red CrossICSU International Council of Science, Paris, FranceICTP International Center for Theoretical Physics, Trieste, ItalyICVA International Council of Voluntary AgenciesICWE International Conference on Water and the Environment, United Nations IDA International Development Association, World BankIDAACA International Distributed Active Archive Centre for AfricaIDB Inter-American Development Bank (Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo). See also: IADBIDF Institutional Development Fund, World BankIDMC Inter-departmental Disaster Management Committee, South AfricaIDNDR International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, 1990-1999

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IDPs Integrated Development PlansIDRM International Institute for Disaster Risk Management, Manila, PhilippinesIERMP Iran Earthquake Risk Mitigation ProgramIFAD International Fund for Agricultural DevelopmentIFFM Integrated Forest Fire Management (Project, Indonesia)IFP/Crisis In-Focus Programme on Crisis Response and Reconstruction, ILOIFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent SocietiesIGAC International Global Atmospheric ChemistryIGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development, Republic of DjiboutiIGADD Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (now IGAD since 1996)IGBP International Geosphere-Biosphere ProgrammeIGCP International Geological Correlation Programme, UNESCOIGOS Integrated Global Observing Strategy IHP International Hydrological Programme, UNESCOIIEES International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology, IranIIPA Indian Institute of Public AdministrationIISD International Institute for Sustainable Development, CanadaIKSR Internationale Kommission zum Schutz des Rheines, Germany (International Commission for the

Protection of the Rhine (ICPR))ILO International Labour Organization, United NationsIMC Inter-ministerial Committee for Disaster Management, South AfricaIMERCSA Musokotwane Environment Resource Centre for Southern Africa, ZimbabweIMF International Monetary FundIMO International Maritime OrganizationINAM National Institute for Meteorology, MozambiqueINCEDE International Centre for Disaster Mitigation Engineering, University of TokyoINDECI National Civil Defence System, PeruINGC Instituto Nacional de Gestao de Calamidades, Mozambique (National Institute for the Manage-

ment of Calamities)INETER Instituto Nicaraguense de Estudios Territoriales (Nicaraguan Institute for Territorial Studies)IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic CommissionIOM International Organization for MigrationIPCC Intergovermental Panel on Climate Change IRCEN International Research Centre for the El Niño Phenomenon, Guayaquil, EcuadorIRI International Research Institute for Climate Prediction, Columbia University, USAISDR International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, United NationsISO International Organization for Standardization, SwitzerlandISP Integral Sustainable Production UnitsITIC International Tsunami Information Center , Honolulu, HawaiiITU International Telecommunication Union, United NationsIUCN The World Conservation UnionIWRM Integrated Water Resources Management

JICA Japan International Cooperation AgencyJMA Japan Meteorological AgencyKBDI Keetch-Byram Drought IndexKVERMP Kathmandu Valley Earthquake Risk Management Project, NSET, Nepal

LA RRED La Red de Estudios Sociales en Prevención de Desastres en América Latina (The LatinAmerican Network for the Social Study of Disaster Prevention)

LCAS Logistics Capacity Assessments, WFPLDCs Least Developed CountriesLIDERES Curso Internacional para Gerentes sobre la salud, desastres y desarrollo (PAHO)LILACS Latin American and Caribbean Health Science Literature

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mMAB Man and Biosphere Programme, UNESCOMADER Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Development, MozambiqueMANDISA Monitoring, Mapping and Analysis of Disaster Incidents in South Africa MARN Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales, El Salvador (Ministry of Environment

and Natural Resources)MATE Ministère de l’Aménagement du Territoire et de l’Environnement, France (Ministry of land

use planning and environment)MCEER Multi-disciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research, USAMCT Ministry of Science and Technology, VenezuelaMDSP Minister of sustainable development and planning, BoliviaMEER Marmara Earthquake Emergency Reconstruction Project MEGS Maharashtra Employment Guarantee SchemeMERCOSUR Southern Common Market, South AmericaMOST Management of Social Transformations Programme, UNESCOMOU Memorandum of UnderstandingMRC Mekong River Commission, CambodiaMSF Médecins sans FrontièresMSP Multi-stakeholder processes

NaDiVA National Disaster Vulnerability Atlas, South AfricaNANADISK-NNET National Natural Disaster Knowledge Network, IndiaNASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USANASG North African Scientific GroupNCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, USANCDM National Committee for Disaster ManagementNDC National Development Commission, El Salvador (Comisión Nacional de Desarrollo)NDMC National Disaster Management Centre, South AfricaNDMO National Disaster Management OfficeNDMS National Disaster Mitigation Strategy, CanadaNDRP National Disaster Reduction Plan, People’s Republic of ChinaNDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation IndexNEAP National or regional Environmental Action PlanNEDIES Natural and Environmental Disaster Information Exchange SystemNEMA National Emergency Management Association, USANEMO Network of State Hazard Mitigation Officers, USANEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s DevelopmentNEWU National Early Warning Unit, AfricaNFIP National Flood Insurance Program, USANICT New Information and Communication TechnologiesNIRD National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad, IndiaNMHSs National Meteorological and Hydrological Services, WMONOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, USANOVIB Netherlands Organisation for International Development CooperationNRA National Resource AccountsNRC Nuclear Regulatory CommissionNSA National Systems for Environmental AccountingNSF National Science Foundation, USANSET National Society for Earthquake Technology, Nepal

OAS Organization of American States (Organización de Estados Americanos), Washington, DC, USA

OCIPEP Office of Critical Infrastructure Protection and Emergency Preparedness, Canada. Also see:BPIEPC, Bureau de la protection des infrastructures essentielles et de la protection civile

ODA Official Development AssistanceODI Overseas Development Institute, United KingdomODPEM Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management, JamaicaOECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, FranceOECS Organization of Eastern Caribbean States, Castries, Santa Lucia

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OFDA/USAID Office for Foreign Disaster Assistance/US Agency for International Development OFEFP Office Fédéral de l’Environnement, des Forêts, et du Paysage, Suisse (Swiss Agency for the

Environment, Forests and Landscape, Economics and Climate Section).OGP/NOAA Office of Global Program/ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, USA OHA Office of the Humanitarian Adviser, WFPOHCHR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human RightsOOSA Office for Outer Space Affairs, United NationsORAP Organisation of Rural Associations for Progress, ZimbabweOSDMA Orissa State Disaster Mitigation Authority, IndiaOSIRIS Operational Solutions for the Management of Inundation Risks in the

Information Society (project)

PACD Plan of Action to Combat DesertificationPAHO Pan American Health Organization (Organización Panamericana para la Salud), Washington,

DC, USAPBSP Philippine Business for Social Progress, Manila, PhilippinesPHIVOLCS Philippine Institute for Volcanology and SeismologyPICCAP Pacific Island Climate Change Assistance ProgramPIK Postsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, GermanyPLANAT National Platform for Natural Hazards, SwitzerlandPPP 22000 Public Private Partnership – 2000, Washington DC, USAPRA Participatory Rapid AppraisalsPREANDINO Andean Regional Programme for Risk Prevention and Reduction, Caracas, VenezuelaPRECLIF Project for the Local Prevention and Control of Forest Fires, GuatemalaPREVAC Programa de Prevención de Desastres en América Central (Disaster Prevention Program in

Central America) PTWS Pacific Tsunami Warning System PTWC Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre, HawaiiPWS Public Weather Services, WMO

RADIUS Risk Assessment Tools for Diagnosis of Urban Areas against Seismic DisastersRADIX Radical Interpretation of DisasterRCB Response Coordination Branch, UN/OCHARCC Regional Consultative Committee on regional cooperation in disaster management, AsiaRCCs Regional Climate Centers, WMORCOFs Regional Climate Outlook Forums RDMP Risk Disaster Management Programme, UN-HABITATREIS Regional Environmental Information SystemRELEMR Reduction of Earthquake Losses in the Eastern Mediterranean Region (project)RELSAT Strengthening of local structures and early warning systems (project)RESCDAM Development of rescue actions based on dam-break flood analysis (project)REWS Regional Early Warning System, AfricaREWU Regional Early Warning Unit, SADC, ZimbabweRIKEN Institute of Physical and Chemical Research, JapanRRSU Regional Remote Sensing Unit, SADC, ZimbabweRSMCs World Meteorological Organization Specialized Regional Meteorological CentersRTD Research and Technological Development, EURUTA Regional Unit for Technical Assistance (Project UNDP/World Bank)

SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, Kathmandu, NepalSADC Southern Africa Development CommunitySADCC Southern African Development Coordination ConferenceSAFIRE Southern Alliance for Indigenous ResourcesSAR Synthetic Aperture RadarSAQA South African Qualifications Authority

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SARCOF Southern Africa Region Climate Outlook ForumSARDC Southern African Research and Documentation Center, ZimbabweSAREC Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing Countries SBO School Building Organization, GreeceSCF-UUK Save the Children Fund, United KingdomSCHR Southern Centre for Human Rights, USASEAGA Socio-Economic and Gender AnalysisSEEA System for Environmental Economic AccountingSEEDS Sustainable Environment and Ecological Development Society, IndiaSEGEPLAN Secretaría General de Planificación, Guatemala, (Planning Secretariat)SEISMED Co-operative Project for Seismic Risk Reduction in the Mediterranean RegionSERMP Suva Earthquake Risk Management Scenario Pilot Project, FijiSESAME Secure European System for Applications in a Multi-vendor EnvironmentSESI School Earthquake Safety Initiative, UNCRD/DMPHOSETSAN Secretariat for Food Security and Nutrition, MozambiqueSICA Sistema de Integración Centroamericana (Central American Integration System)SIDS Small Island Developing StatesSIDS-PPOA Small Island Developing States Program of ActionSIDA Swedish International Development AgencySINAPROC Sistema Nacional de Protección Civil, Panama (National Civil Protection System)SNPMAD Sistema Nacional de Prevención, Mitigación y Atención de Desastres, Nicaragua (National

System for Disaster Prevention, Mitigation and Attention) SNET Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales, El Salvador

(National Service for Territorial Studies)SOPAC South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission, FijiSOPAC-DDMU South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission B Disaster Management UnitSPDRP South Pacific Disaster Reduction Program (UNDP South Pacific Office)SPFS Special Programme for Food Security, FAOSPPO South Pacific Program OfficeSPREP South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme, UNEPSSP Swayam Shiksam Prayong, IndiaSwissRE Swiss Reinsurance Company

TEFER Turkish Emergency Flood and Earthquake RecoveryTDCPU Turkana Drought Contingency Planning Unit, KenyaTRM Total Disaster Risk Management (RCC strategy)TWAS Third World Academy of Sciences, Italy

UCR Universidad de Costa Rica (University of Costa Rica)UNA Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica (National University, Heredia, Costa Rica)UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDSUNAN Universidad Nacional de Nicaragua (National University of Nicaragua)UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat DesertificationUNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNCHS United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (now UN-HABITAT)UNCRD United Nations Center for Regional DevelopmentUNCRD/DMPHO United Nations Center for Regional Development/Disaster Management Planning Hyogo

Office, JapanUNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and DevelopmentUNDAC United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination teamUNDAF United Nations Development Assistance FrameworkUNDCP United Nations International Drug Control ProgrammeUNDG United Nations Development GroupUNDHA-SSPO United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs-South Pacific OfficeUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNDP-SSPO United Nations Development Programme-South Pacific OfficeUNDRO Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

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UNEP/DEPI United Nations Environment Programme/Division of Environmental Policy ImplementationUNEP/DEWA United Nations Environment Programme/Division of Early Warning and AssessmentUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUNFIP United Nations Fund for International PartnershipsUNFPA United Nations Population FundUNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesUN-HHABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme (Previously UNCHS)UNICEF United Nations Children’s FundUNISPACE United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer SpaceUNIDO United Nations Industrial Development OrganizationUNIFEM United Nations Fund for WomenUNITAR United Nations Institute for Training and Research UN-OOCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian AffairsUNOPS United Nations Office for Project ServicesUNRWA United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near EastUNSC United Nations Staff CollegeUNSO Office to Combat Desertification and Drought, UNDP (Now Drylands Development Centre)UNU United Nations UniversityUNV United Nations VolunteersUPU Universal Postal UnionUSAID US Agency for International DevelopmentUSDE/OAS Unit for Sustainable Development and Environment of the Organization of American StatesUSGS United States Geological SurveyUSSA Uganda’s Seismic Safety AssociationUWI University of the West Indies, Jamaica

VAG Vulnerability Analysis GroupVAM Vulnerability Assessment and Mapping, WFPVAT Vulnerability Assessment and TechniquesVCA Vulnerability and Capacities AssessmentVEI Volcanic Explosivity IndexVHF Very High Frequency

WAICENT World Agricultural Information Centre, FAOWB World BankWCP World Climate Programme, WMOWFP World Food Programme, United NationsWHO World Health Organization, United NationsWIPO World Intellectual Property Organization, United NationsWMO World Meteorological Organization, United NationsWOVO World Organization of Volcano ObservatoriesWOVOdat World Organization of Volcano Observatories’ databaseWRCU Water Resources Coordination Unit, SADC, Southern AfricaWSSD World Summit on Sustainable DevelopmentWSSI World Seismic Safety InitiativeWTO World Trade OrganizationWVR World Vulnerability Report, UNDPWWAP/WWDR World Water Assessment Programme/World Water Development ReportWWF World Wide Fund for NatureWWRP World Weather Research Programme, WMOWWW World Weather Watch, WMO

ZRA Zambesi River AuthorityZENEB Zemtrum für Naturrisiken und Entwickung, Germany (Centre for Natural Risks and Development)ZFFHC Zimbabwe Freedom from Hunger Campaigns

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The International SStrategy ffor DDisaster RReduction ((ISDR) is a global framework established within the UnitedNations for the promotion of action to reduce social vulnerability and risks of natural hazards and related techno-logical and environmental disasters.

Its main purpose is to facilitate, in an inter-agency effort, that Governments and communities in disaster-proneareas integrate the management of risk into their development policies, programmes and projects. The long-termgoal is to enable communities to become resilient to disasters saving lives as well as social, economic, and environ-mental assets.

By working through a network of international organizations, scientific and expert institutions, civil society, privatesector interests and government officials, the ISDR aims to increase public awareness about disaster reduction, tomotivate commitment from public authorities, and to stimulate inter-disciplinary and inter-sectoral partnershipsthat can improve the scientific knowledge on natural hazards and the causes of disasters.

The Strategy was launched in January 2000, through United Nations General Assembly with the support of twointernational mechanisms:

• an Inter-Agency Secretariat, in Geneva, Switzerland, and

• an Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction, that represents:

- UN agencies, organizations and programmes: FAO, ITU, UNDP, UNEP, UNESCO, UN/HABITAT,WFP, WHO, WMO, and World Bank;

- Regional entities: African Union, Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), Asian DisasterReduction Center (ADRC), Interstate Council of the Commonwealth of Independent States, Councilof Europe, Ibero-American Association of Civil Defence and Civil Protection, Organization ofAmerican States/Inter American Committee for the Reduction of Natural Disasters (OAS/IACN-DR), South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), and.

- Civil Society Organizations: Drought Monitoring Centre (DMC), Kenya; Global Fire MonitoringCentre (GFMC), Freiburg, Germany; International Council for Science (ICSU); InternationalFederation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), and Munich Reinsurance Company,Germany.

For additional information about ISDR, see pages 19-20 of this volume and visit the website at www.unisdr.org.

Earthquakes are inevitable, but death in an earthquake is not. Floods are a fact of life, but they need not wash away health, hope and livelihoods. Living with risk- a global review of disaster reduction initiatives is a

publication to guide and inspire practitioners in disaster and environmental management, and sustainable development, coordinated by the Inter-Agency Secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction of the United Nations. It focuses on the lessons from the past on how to reduce risk and

vulnerability to hazards and on the challenges of tomorrow.

Disaster and risk reduction need to become essential parts of sustainable development. That is because vulnerability to natural, technological and ecological hazards are driven by social, economic and

environmental activity. Natural hazards threaten everybody. But to live with them is also an imperative that involves everybody, from villagers to heads of state, from bankers and lawyers to farmers and foresters,

from meteorologists to media chiefs. The annual toll of climate related disasters has doubled in five years, and increased impacts are expected from climate change. Human pressure on the environment has never

been greater. Living with risk outlines the challenges ahead in a race against time.

The ISDR Secretariat welcomes comments and sharing of experiences, which will be reflected in coming issues of this global review.

United NationsInter-Agency Secretariat

International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR)Palais des Nations

CH-1211 Geneva 10, [email protected]

www.unisdr.org

“In recent years the world has witnessed an interminable succession of disasters -- floods, storms, earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions and wildfires that have many thousands of claimed lives, caused material losses in the

tens of billions of dollars, and inflicted a terrible toll on developing countries in particular, where disasters divert attention and resources needed desperately to escape poverty.

……… Living with risk shows that we are far from helpless in the face of natural hazards. Early warning and risk reduction measures have been important factors in helping to reduce significantly the number of people who lose

their lives to disasters. New planning and forecasting tools are helping to mitigate the devastation regularly wrought by floods. We can and must build a world of resilient communities and nations. I hope that this publication reaches

the widest possible readership and rouses the international community to do its utmost to better equip people everywhere for life in our hazard-filled planet.”

Kofi A. Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations.

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