LITERATURE REVIEW

Before embarking on to the study of any area of interest it is essential to look

into the pertinent work previously done on it. Since it gives a fabulous insight about

the topic and gives way to mend away the lacunae left in the process of exploration of

the research study. It helps in finding out the new horizons of our field of research.

Therefore this chapter is devoted for an analysis of various literatures available on

different aspects of Trends and levels of Urbanization with respect to Environment in

India.

Urbanization is highly diverse phenomenon, manifesting itself in a multi-

functional space and no doubt drawn attention of scholars of several academic

disciplines such as Sociology, Statistics, Geography, Economics, Political Science, as

a result of which vast literature on this subject relating to different countries, states

and cities of the world are available. It is difficult to cite all the works here. The

measurement of level of urbanization simply involves the assessment of the

percentage of urban population in cities and towns of a specified criterion. However,

the process bringing about the concentration of population into cities and towns of

various sizes are not easy to summarize and quantify.

The literature on urbanization as a process and its spatial manifestation in

terms of levels of urbanization has been extremely varied and intensive. Studies on

the emerging trends of urbanization especially from environmental perspective are

sectoral and widely distributed. In India, though urbanization is a recent phenomenon,

is posing various problems as it is arising out of more tertiary or allied services than

the secondary sector itself. The conditions, which exist in few large urban centres of

the developing countries especially in connection with the on-going mechanism in

India, have been widely criticized. The process of urbanization in India was labelled

as “pseudo” as it was different from the urbanization occurred sequentially and

gradually. In India the process of population concentration in cities was not backed by

corresponding economic progress.

Similarly, the literature on environmental issues are immense, but dispersed

and often concentrated on very specific problems and sometimes highly technical in

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nature. The literatures available on environmental economics are much less developed

and it is only in recent times that economists are involved in the analysis of

environmental problems. Furthermore, the extra-ordinary vastness of the topic

contributes the integration of technological and economic aspects of environmental

issues and it leads to the complexity of analysis. Here an attempt is made to review

the available literature on the topic concerning urbanization and related environmental

issues.

Bert F. Hoselitz (1962)1 in his article “The Role of Urbanization in

Economic Development; Some International Comparisons” summarises the

significant differences between European urbanization and Indian urbanization in the

following words “Compared with European cities during a corresponding period of

economic development, the cities of India, therefore show the following economic

features: Urban industry is less developed and characterised by a larger number of

small-scale and cottage type enterprises; the labour force, therefore, is made up of a

smaller portion of industrial workers and a larger portion of persons in miscellaneous,

usually menial, unskilled services; the urban labour market is fractionalised and

composed of mutually non-competing groups, thus impeding optimum allocation of

resources and preventing upward social mobility and relief in the amount of

unemployment. All these features make economic development more difficult in India

today than was the case in Europe in the 19th century”.

Louis Wirth (1964)2 in his book “Urbanism As a Way of Life” observed

that urbanism is a way of life of the people who lives in urban areas tend to be highly

mobile, there are weak bond between them, pace of life is faster, larger number of

people live in close proximity to one another without knowing each other personally.

Most contact between city dwellers are fleeting and partial rather than being satisfying

relationships in themselves.

Urbanism as a characteristic mode of the life may be defined by three

interrelated perspectives;

I. As a physical structure comprising a population base, a technology and an

ecological order.

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II. As a system of social organisation involving a characteristic and a typical

pattern of social relationship.

III. As a set of attitudes and ideas and a constellation of personalities engaging in

typical forms of collective behaviours and subject to characteristic mechanism

of social control.

There is a great deal of confusion in the use of the term ‘urbanization’ and

‘urbanism’. Urbanization is not urbanism and it is generally misconceived. Urbanism

represents a particular way or style of life contrast with that of rural agriculturally

dominated communities while urbanization refers to the process whereby a

traditionally rural bond community wholly or partially moves to adopt different

patterns of living. According to him, urbanism is a way of life of urban places. He

defines it, “the complex of trails which makes up the characteristic mode of life in

cities and urbanization which denotes the development and extension of these factors.

G.K. Roy (1988)3 in his article “Economics of Urban Solid Waste

Management” analysed the social crisis arising out of energy and material shortage

and ecological imbalance is going to hit the developed and the developing nations of

the world in a big way. Of late, the attention of the city planners and the scientists has

rightly been focussed on the huge tonnages of solid waste generated by the urban folk,

which otherwise poses a serious threat to the habitat due to its improper and

unscientific disposal. On the other hand, hygienic solid waste management techniques

are often cost - intensive. Technological innovations with resource or energy winning

are economically - balanced propositions for urban solid waste management. In this

article, a socio - economic analysis of the traditional and the methods of urban solid

waste management has been presented. Strategies for economic solid waste

management in the Indian context have also been highlighted.

Donella Meadows et al (1992)4 in their book “Beyond the Limits” explained

the obvious causes of ecological degradation with the help of a formula known as

PAT formula. The formula denoted that I = P x A x T, where I is environmental

impact, P is population. A is material throughput associated with Affluence and T is

technology. The formula showed that environmental degradation is not the result of

increased population or increased accumulation or the introduction of less

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environmentally benign technology. It is the product of all these variables, therefore

Improvements in any one of the variables has a beneficial environmental impact.

Ramachandran (1992)5 has a mixture of intention in his book on

“Urbanization and Urban System in India” . Firstly, he wishes to write on Indian

point of view in order to correct imbalances which arise from a western dominated

literature. Ramachandran writing is full of Indian statistics and application of urban

geographical principles to India’s history of urban development. Secondly, the author

has something of a mission calling for studies which address current urban problems

in India, including proliferation of slums, the inadequacy of city transport, inflated

land values, deficiencies in infrastructure and the unequal spatial distribution of urban

services.

The scope and content of the book gives exposition and evaluation on the

general study of urbanization, the long 500 years of urbanization in India, and the

conventional geographers concerns with patterns of settlement. Ramachandran has

extensive discussions of criteria for defining urban places, the theory of systems

approaches to urban hierarchy in geographical space and the nature of city-region

relationships. He also deals with the policy of urbanization. India has an unequally

long and varied 5000 year history of invasions and successions of cultures and

peoples with their contrasting expression of urban development. Ramachandran is

ready to accept such things as green belts, planning to achieve constrained, sizes of

urban areas and so on.

C.K. Varshney (1993)6 in his book “Environmental Challenges”

commended that with increasing population and growing consumerism, the demand

for environmental resources outstrips the carrying capacity of the environment.

Moreover, the prolonged disregard to nature, cumulative impact of industrialization

and overuse of natural resources had resulted in severe backlash represented by global

warming, depletion of ozone layer, loss of biodiversity and economic disparities. Now

the environmental problems become transnational and transgenerational in character,

thereby requiring a transdisciplinary approach.

Usha P. Raghupathi (1993)7 in her book “Environmental Protection In

Developing Countries” classified the urban environmental problems and their

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consequences into three spatial levels as (1) micro level environmental problems

related to the residence and immediate surrounding (2) micro level problems related

to the city and the region and (3) macro level problems related to countries and the

globe as a whole. Now the principal environmental concern of cities is not the

pollution by chemicals or by industrial wastes but by human discarded wastes. The

ground water or even the surface water is polluted by the discharge of solid wastes

into open dumps. So the problem of solid waste is very serious in rapidly growing

urban centres.

Amitabh Kundu (1994)8 published an article on “Pattern of Urbanization

with special reference to Small and Medium Towns in India” . According to him,

urban growth across the size categories presents some interesting features. Till the

nineties Class I cities in developed states grew at a faster rate as compared to small

and medium towns. Whereas in the less developed states, small and medium towns

grew at a similar or higher rate than that of Class I cities. This pattern changed in the

nineties. Many of the less developed states like Assam, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh,

Orissa and Rajasthan experienced high urban growth in their Class I cities as

compared to smaller towns. Cities with million plus population registered a higher

growth than the overall growth of all the Class I cities during 1981 -91 recorded 2.96

per cent growth while in 1991-2001 growth rate of 2.76 per cent was recorded. During

the same period, million plus cities grew at the rate of 3.25 per cent and 2.88 per cent

respectively.

Dileep Kumar (1995)9 in his dissertation “Solid waste disposal with special

reference to Thiruvananthapuram city” attempted to find out the composition and

sources of municipal solid waste in Thiruvananthapuram city. He concluded that the

major sources of municipal solid wastes in the city were the big 40 and small legal

and illegal markets, the slaughter houses, 20 government and 34 private hospitals,

1,000 hotels and 164,565 houses with 1,71,432 households. He estimated that the

quantity of MSW generated from the corporation area come to 264.5 tons per day and

on per capita basis it was 0.32 kg/day. He also recommended composting as the most

suitable disposal option for solid waste since 70 per cent of the wastes generated in

the city consisted of vegetable and putrescible matter.

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Mahinder Chaudhry (1995)10 in his article “Global Population Growth,

Economic Development and Environmental Impact: Case-Study of India, 1991-

2001” discussed that both developed and developing economies face the challenge of

sustained economic development without environmental damage. Although sustained

economic growth is a necessary condition for eradication of poverty and wide-spread

increase in human welfare. Economic progress has, in general, potential adverse

environmental effects. Nature of environmental problems depends upon the level of

economic development, the nature of industrialization, the degree of urbanization and

the effectiveness of public policies. This article examines the impact of population

growth and economic development separately, but with reference to the conjectured

global warming between 1991 and 2001, with special reference to India.

Philip Amis (1995)11 in his paper entitled “Employment Creation or

Environmental Improvements: A Literature Review of Urban Poverty and

Policy in India” attempted to provides a general literature review on the question of

Indian urban poverty with the object of considering the importance of an employment

creation or environmental improvement approach to poverty alleviation. The aim of

this paper is to examine the nature of urban poverty in India and the policy response.

This paper also explores the policy responses aimed at creating employment and

increasing incomes as well as environmental improvement initiatives. The literature

clearly shows the importance of the labour market in terms of segments and

casualisation, gender and short run shocks in explaining the incidence of poverty.

However, the independent nature of environmental problems is also highlighted.

The author, on the basis of his analysis, has suggested that recent urban policy

developments have been dominated by two major reports: Firstly, the Planning

Commission’s Task Force (1983), which considered the question of urban

development from a management perspective and suggested methods to strengthen

urban local government. Secondly, the 1988 National Commission on Urbanization

(NCU) was an important study making numerous recommendations; the concern here

is with the Working Group on Urban Poverty. The main recommendations were the

continuation of area based schemes (like EIS) and emphasis on asset creation for the

urban poor through public employment schemes.

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The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990) saw the introduction of two

programmes specifically targeted on urban poverty. Firstly, the Urban Basic Services

(UBS) was designed to improve the access of low-income groups to basic services

and thus indirectly an attempt to increase productive employment. Secondly, the Self

Employment Programme for the Urban Poor (SETUP), which is a subsidised credit

scheme for income-earning assets, was introduced. Thus, the objective of this paper is

to consider these two approaches by reviewing the available Indian literature.

Anantha Duraiappah (1996)12 in his paper “Poverty and Environmental

Degradation: a Literature Review and Analysis” examined that there is much

controversy surrounding the poverty-environmental degradation nexus. The

predominant school of thought argues that poverty is a major cause of environmental

degradation and if policy makers want to address the environmental issues, then they

must first address the poverty problem. Another school of thought argues that this

causal link is too simplistic and the nexus is governed by a complex web of factors. In

this paper, a formal structure for analysing the complex web of factors is formulated

and used to review the existing literature on the links between poverty and the

degradation of four natural resource sectors. The analysis highlights the institutional

and market failures which encourage unsustainable activities, which in turn forces

some income groups into poverty. Another important factor is the role of conflicts

between different agents (income groups) in the poverty-environmental degradation

nexus. The analysis also highlighted the presence of feedback loops between

environmental degradation and poverty.

Ellen Brennan (1999)13 in her project on “Population, Urbanization,

Environment, and Security: A Summary of the Issues” advocates that one of the

most striking features of world population growth is the rising predominance of the

developing world. Currently, 81 million persons are added annually to the world’s

population (95 percent of them in developing countries). The second striking feature

is related to urban growth. Although the growth of world urban population has been

slower than projected twenty years ago, it has nevertheless been unprecedented. In

1950, less than 30 per cent of the world’s population were urban dwellers. Between

1995 and 2030, the world’s urban population is projected to double-from 2.6 to 5.1

billion, by which time three-fifths of the world’s population will be living in urban

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areas (United Nations 1998b). As in the case of total population, there will be a

significant redistribution of world urban population between the developed and the

developing regions. Currently, 59 million new urban dwellers are added annually (89

percent in developing countries). By 2025-2030, 76 million will be added annually

(98 percent in developing countries).

Further she observed that to understand the critical linkages between

urbanization, public health and habitat, the environment, population growth, and

international security, this article highlights the trends in urban growth, particularly in

the developing world, and their potential to affect the international community. Issues

addressed include migration to the urban centres, the immediate environmental and

health impacts of urban pollution on developing country cities, and the link between

the crime and security.

John Bellamy foster (1999)14 in his book “The Vulnerable Planet: A Short

Economic History of the Environment” traced out the impact of development on

planet as changes in four key areas via, population, energy, industrialization and

urbanization. In his opinion environmental degradation is not the result of increased

population, or increased accumulation or the introduction of less environmentally

benign technology. It is the product of all these factors. Therefore improvements in

any one of these variables can have a beneficial environmental impact and vice versa.

Susan E. Chaplin (1999)15 in her paper entitled “Cities, sewers and poverty:

India's politics of sanitation” discusses the political circumstances which help

explain why the insanitary living conditions of such a large section of India’s urban

population have been ignored, and contrasts these with the circumstances which

explain successful sanitary reform in Britain in the second half of the 19th century. In

India, there is little middle class pressure for sanitary reform, in part because of the

ability of the middle classes to monopolise what basic urban services the state

provides, in part because modern medicine and civil engineering have lowered the

health risks that they might face from the sanitation-related diseases that lower

income groups suffer. In addition, the ‘threat from below’ including organized trade

union pressure was more influential in mid 19th century Britain than in India today.

The paper ends by reflecting on what factors might change this.

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M. V. Nadkarni (2000)16 in his paper entitled “Poverty, Environment,

Development: A Many-Patterned Nexus” analysed that the tremendous complexity

and diversity of India have to be reckoned with when studying the nexus between

poverty, environment and development. The rates of growth of the country's GNP

have jumped from below 3 per cent up to the 1980s to above 5 per cent during the

1990s. But this jump has not been enough to make a substantial impact on poverty.

The incidence of poverty has declined significantly over the last three decades, but

still every third Indian is below the poverty line. Direct, target-oriented programmes

alone are not enough to deal with this problem and the stepping up of economic

development is considered a more effective strategy for eliminating poverty. Besides,

the direct programmes will have continued on a larger scale. But they need more

resources, which can be generated only through higher growth rates.

Yohei Harashima (2000)17 in his research note “Environmental

Governance in Selected Asian Developing Countries” argued that the core issue of

environmental governance is the way societies deal with environmental problems. It

concerns interactions among formal and informal institutions and actors within

society that influence how environmental problems are identified and framed. The

purpose of this note is to review and survey the current state of environmental

governance in Asian developing countries in a comparative manner, with special

reference to case studies of China, Thailand and India, the most influential countries

in each sub-region of Asia. This note reveals that, although many positive trends have

been found recently in environmental governance of Asian countries, their

environmental governance systems have not yet developed satisfactorily at the

national level.

Darshini Mahadevia (2001)18 in her paper entitled “Sustainable urban

development in India: an inclusive perspective” said that the mainstream debate on

urban development looks either at urban development or sustainable cities, and tends

to miss out on people-centred approaches to development. The former addresses the

issues of economic growth, whereas the latter that of environmental problems, to the

exclusion of development concerns of the poor. The new perspective of Sustainable

Cities in the South is an ‘inclusive approach’, which puts the vision of the poor and

marginalised sectors at the centre and includes all the dimensions of development in a

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holistic and synergetic manner. The paper presents such a vision of sustainable cities

in India and describes activities aimed at reaching this vision.

Amitabh Kundu (2003)19 published an “Impact of Neo-Liberal Paradigm

on Urban Dynamics in India”. According to him, there has been change in the

pattern of urban growth. The urban growth rate from 1951 to 1991 was generally high

in relatively less developed states like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan and

U.P. The relatively better developed states like Punjab, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal

experienced low urban growth. The developed states like Gujarat, Haryana and

Maharashtra recorded high or medium growth. There was a significant departure of

this pattern in nineties from the earlier decades as the developed states registered

urban growth above the national average while the less developed states experienced

growth either below or equal to the Country’s growth rate. Thus, Urbanization during

the nineties is characterized by concentration of population in developed regions or

large cities.

G.V. Joshi and Norbert Lobo (2003)20 in their book “Rural Urban

Migration and Rural Unemployment in India” studied that human beings migrate

because they are living beings with experiences and aspirations. There is no dispute

regarding the fact that rural-to-urban migration is a component of population change.

Its impact is felt in the region where both ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors operate with

varying intensity. We can visualise the possibility of positive effects of rural-to-urban

migration overtaking negative effects in a specific regional context.

Rural unemployment is one of the burning problems that India has been

facing. Its severity has increased in the period following the new economic reforms.

To think more about it is to think more about Indian rural problems in general and

rural-to-urban migration in particular.

This interesting study highlights the variations in the extent of rural-to-urban

migration at the national, state and district levels. Besides, it discusses at length the

extent of rural unemployment in India and changes in it over the years.

Barney Cohen (2004)21 in his paper entitled “Urban Growth in Developing

Countries: A Review of Current Trends and a Caution Regarding Existing

Forecasts” said that the purpose of this paper is to clarify the nature of the on-going

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urban transition in developing countries, the quality of the available data, and the

uncertainty of existing urban forecasts. Although the recently released United

Nations’ publication World Urbanization Prospects is an invaluable resource for

those interested in studying urban change, the data in the report are somewhat

deceptive in their apparent completeness and beyond the narrow confines of technical

demography there is a great deal of misunderstanding and misreporting about what

these data mean and how they should be interpreted.

Emma Mawdsley (2004)22 in her article “India’s Middle Classes and the

Environment” has estimated that the focus of most analyses of environmental

struggles and discourses in colonial and postcolonial India is on rural and forest areas,

and on subalterns versus elites. Recently, however, there has been increased interest

in urban environmental issues, and, to some extent, in India’s (variously defined)

‘middle classes’. This article reviews a range of literatures - environmental, social-

cultural and political - in order to draw out themes and arguments concerning the

relationships between India’s middle classes and the complex meanings and

materiality’s of the environment. Three issues are explored in detail: civic

indifference and the public sphere; environmental activism; and Hinduism and

ecological thinking. The article emphasises the importance of recognising diversity

and dynamism within the middle classes in relation to the environment. It argues the

need to develop situated understandings of what constitutes ‘the environment’

amongst different middle class groups; and underlines the ways in which

environmental issues reflect and are often emblematic of wider social and political

debates.

Sivaramakrishnan and B.N. Singh (2004)23 in their study “Urbanization”

said that migration is not the principal or dominant factor in urban growth. During the

period 1981-91, natural increase accounted 60 per cent of urban growth, migration

accounted for 21.20 per cent and reclassification of new towns accounted for 18.80

per cent. The figures for the past 3 decades show that nearly 60 per cent of the total

migratory movement has been from rural to rural. However, in the case of some large

cities, for certain period of time, migration was a major factor. For instance, between

1981 and 1991, migration increased in the case of Mumbai, Delhi and Hyderabad, but

as a component of city’s growth, its share declined. However, in the case of

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Bangalore, the proportion increased slightly. It is therefore worthy of note that the

common notion that migration largely fuels urban growth is only partial correct.

Sudarsanam Padam and Sanjay Kumar Singh (2004)24 in their paper

“Urbanization and urban transport in India: the search for a policy” has

analysed that urban population in India has increased significantly from 62 million in

1951 to 285 million in 2001 and is estimated to be around 540 million by the year

2021. In terms of percentage of total population, the urban population has gone up

from 17 per cent in 1951 to 29 per cent in 2001 and is expected to increase up to

around 37 per cent by the year 2021. Consequently, the number and size of cities have

also increased significantly. Although circumstances differ considerably across cities

in India, certain basic trends which determine transport demand (such as substantial

increase in urban population, household incomes, and industrial and commercial

activities) are the same. These changes have placed heavy demands on urban transport

systems, demand that many Indian cities have been unable to meet.

The author, on the basis of his study suggested that for example, while the

scale of urban change is unprecedented and the nature and direction of urban change

is more dependent on the global economy than ever before, many aspects of the

traditional distinction between urban and rural are becoming redundant. This paper

provides a broad overview of the available evidence on patterns and trends in urban

growth in developing countries, highlighting regional differences where appropriate.

The paper also examines the quality of past urban population projections and finds

that there has been considerable diversity in their quality by geographic region, level

of development, and size of country.

The present paper also discussed about the impact of urbanization on

environment and quality of life. The provision of infrastructural facilities required to

support such large concentration of population is lagging far behind the pace of

urbanization. As a consequence, the urban environment, particularly in large cities, is

deteriorating very rapidly. All cities have severe shortage of water supply, sewerage,

developed land, housing, transportation and other facilities. The level, quality and

distribution of services have been very poor. Several cities have indicated large

segments of urban population don’t have access to drinking water, sanitation, basic

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health services and education. These deficiencies have serious health impacts

particularly affecting the urban poor.

This paper attempts to highlight the need for a cogent urban transport policy

without which there will be ad hoc interventions. Such interventions, apart from not

adding up to a comprehensive approach, will result in greater confusion. Furthermore,

it emphasises that if there is no worthwhile public transport, it will still need to be

reinvented to promote a better quality of life. The need of the hour is formulation of

an urban transport strategy that is both pragmatic and holistic in its approach.

Hidefumi Imura, et al (2005)25 in their paper entitled “Urban

Environmental Issues and Trends in Asia—An Overview” observed an overview

of the linkages between population growth, urbanization, economic development, and

environmental issues in Asian cities. Focusing on the areas of transport planning and

air pollution, solid waste management, and water supply and sanitation, it looks at the

major environmental issues faced by cities in the region, at the challenges confronting

city administrators, and at some of the ways that they are responding. From the

perspective of the environmental Kuznet's curve hypothesis, the authors argue that

with appropriate policies, it should be possible for governments to continue to pursue

economic growth while reducing environmental impacts.

Om Prakash Mathur (2005)26 in his book “Globalisation and Urban

Development” studied effects and implications of globalisation and liberalisation on

India’s urban system. According to him, the implication of India’s post-1991

liberalisation and globalisation on the national urban system, not only resulted in

rapid economic growth but affected cities in different ways, primarily by the growth

of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). The urban population distribution in India

reflects the absence of primacy. In fact, the million plus cities grew more slowly in

the 1990’s in an era of lower population growth. The macro-economic reforms and

globalisation have forced many policy changes at the city level, private sector

involvement in infrastructure development and management, allowing city access to

capital markets and setting up Central Government Funding Programme to promote

urban structural change. The scale of FDI is low compared with other Asian

Countries; the direct impacts were geographically concentrated in six larger cities.

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Globalisation hasn’t accelerated urban growth, only a few economic sectors have been

impacted and most obvious changes have been in the built environment (example,

new buildings) and spatial structure.

Sancheeta Ghosh (2005)27 in her paper entitled “Concern of Environmental

Degradation in India’s Planning –A Review” analyses that India’s environmental

problems are gaining global significance because of the rapid and aggressive speed of

urbanization and lack of infrastructure. Increasing urbanization, industrialization and

transportation, the second cousins of economic development put tremendous pressure

on natural resources and therefore there is a pressing need to strike a balance between

developmental planning and urgency to safeguard the environment. India is the first

country, which has provided for the protection and improvement for the environment

in its constitution. The author in her paper, therefore, made an attempt to throw light

on the trends in India’s planning for the reduction of environmental degradation. Data

have been used from the Planning Commission Report of Government of India, from

first five-year plan up to tenth five-year plan.

The study focused on two dimensions, such as outlays of plans in different

sector of environment taken by the government and total expenditure of the outlays.

Report shows that there is an increasing importance in planning and policies

throughout the plan periods. Though in first few five year plans there were no such

concrete policies to reduce the degradation. But from the footsteps of 6th five-year

plan, environmental degradation coming into focuses in India’s planning and policies.

Siddharth Agarwal Shivani Taneja (2005)28 in their article “All Slums are

Not Equal: Child Health Conditions Among the Urban Poor” observed that

Increasing urbanization has resulted in a faster growth of slum population. Various

agencies, especially those in developing countries are finding it difficult to respond to

this situation effectively. Disparities among slums exist owing to various factors. This

has led to varying degrees of health burden on the slum children. Child health

conditions in slums with inadequate services are worse in comparison to relatively

better served slums. Identification, mapping and assessment of all slums are important

for locating the hitherto missed out slums and focusing on the neediest slums. In view

of the differential vulnerabilities across slums, an urban child health program should

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build context appropriate and community-need-responsive approaches to improve

children’s health in the slums.

Sivaramakrishnan, Amitabh, Kundu and B.N. Singh (2005)29 in their book

“Handbook of Urbanization in India: An Analysis of Trends and Process”

studied the urbanization; their trends and process. They studied urban settlements by

comparative method. In this book, for the first time comprehensive analysis of

urbanization trends in India was done using 2001 census data. It looks at definitional

problems in the identification of urban settlements for comparative analysis. The

realistic quantification of migration, its share of urban growth in large cities, the role

of small and medium towns, and growth of large urban agglomerations are also

considered.

They studied 17 major states across India; the study takes into account

regional dimensions both at state and district level as well as urban population growth

across states. Micro level perspectives are included by bringing district level analysis

of two developed states- Maharashtra and Punjab and two relatively backward states-

Rajasthan and Bihar. The study analysis shows:

• The extent, patterns and trends as well as socio-economic and spatial

characteristics of urbanization.

• Interdependencies between urbanization and available infrastructural facilities.

• Trends of rural-urban migration and its relationship with employment

situation.

• Globalisation and lopsided urban growth.

Sutapa Maiti and Praween K. Agrawal (2005)30 in their paper entitled

“Environmental Degradation in the Context of Growing Urbanization: A Focus

on the Metropolitan Cities of India” examined that the study concentrate on some

of the important environmental problems caused by over population growth and rapid

urbanization process in the metropolitan cities of India. Total urban population in

India has increased more than ten times surpassing India’s total population growth,

which has increased less than five times during 1901 to 2001. Also, there was about

three-fold increase in the percentage of total urban population in Class-I city followed

34

by almost a fifty-fold increase in the total population in the million plus cities in India

from 1901 to 2001. Despite several Government housing policies, 41 per cent of the

total slum population of India is residing in million plus city alone. A three-fold

increase in the number of motor vehicles has been found in India in the last decade. In

all the four metro cities SPM was found highest along with the problem of solid

wastes. The noise pollution was noticed more than the prescribed standard in all the

four metro cities. Five and more person residing in a room was faced by more than

one fourth population of Mumbai followed by a little less than one fifth population of

Kolkata and about 10 per cent population of Delhi and Chennai both. Also there is an

acute shortage of piped drinking water in these metro cities. India’s urban future is

grave.

Therefore there is an urgent need to tackle the urban environmental problem in

a rational manner giving attention to the need for improving urban strategies.

Dewaram A. Nagdeve (2006)31 in his paper entitled “Population, Poverty

and Environment in India” examined the relationship of population to the

environment and with growing population, poverty and urbanization, the environment

is degrading. The study reveals that the country's population growth is imposing an

increasing burden on the country's limited and continually degrading natural resource

base. The natural resources are under increasing strain, even though the majority of

people survive at subsistence level. Population pressure on arable land contributes to

the land degradation. The increasing population numbers and growing affluence have

already resulted in rapid growth of energy production and consumption in India. The

environmental effects like ground water and surface water contamination; air

pollution and global warming are of growing concern owing to increasing

consumption levels.

Globalisation, liberalisation, privatisation are addressing negative process for

urbanization in India. Policy relates to urban planning where city planning will consist

of operational, developmental and restorative planning.

Peter Newman (2006)32 in his paper entitled “The environmental impact of

cities” has analysed that cities are growing inexorably; causing many to think that

inevitably their environmental impact will worsen. In this paper, three approaches to

35

understanding the environmental impact of cities are analysed, namely population

impact, Ecological Footprint and sustainability assessment. Although the population

impact model provides some perspective on local impact, and the Ecological

Footprint model on global impact, only the sustainability assessment approach allows

us to see the positive benefits of urban growth and provides policy options that can

help cities reduce their local and global impact while improving their liveability and

opportunity, which continue to drive their growth. This approach is then applied in the

city of Sydney.

Pranati Datta (2006)33 in his article “Urbanization in India” analyzes

urbanization as an index of transformation from traditional rural economies to modern

industrial one. It is a long term process. This article endeavours to illuminate the

process of urbanization in India over a century with emphasis on level, tempo of

urbanization and urban morphology using Indian Census data during 1901-2001. At

the moment, India is among the countries of low level of urbanization. Number of

urban agglomeration town has grown from 1872 in 1901 to 5161 in 2001. Number of

population residing in urban areas has increased from 2.58 crore in 1901 to 28.53

crore in 2001. Only 28 per cent of population was living in urban areas as per 2001

Census. On the contrary the concentration of population in medium and small towns

either fluctuated or declined. The number of urban centres from rural population size

categories to Class I cities have resulted top heavy structure of urban population in

India. India’s urbanization is often termed as over urbanization or pseudo-

urbanization. The big cities attained in ordinate large population size leading to virtual

collapse in the urban services and followed by basic problems in the field of housing,

slum, water, infrastructure, quality of life etc. urbanization is a product of

demographic explosion and poverty induced rural-urban migration. It is occurring due

to rural push but not due to urban pull.

The author from his analysis has suggested that the relationship between

population growth, resource depletion and environmental degradation has been a

matter of debate for decades. The argument has been between those who view

population numbers as the main culprit in increasing pressure on the environment and

those who place more blame on economic development, non-sustainable agricultural

and industrial practices, and excessive and wasteful consumption. In fact, both

36

population growth and non-sustainable development are cause for concern in India.

Though the relationship is complex, population size and growth tend to expand and

accelerate these human impacts on the environment. What is more concern, the

number of population rise will increase to such an extent in future that it will cause

overall scarcity for resources.

But at the same time, the author has voiced her concern that poverty and other

forms of social disadvantage translate into poorer health status and outcomes for the

urban poor. There is a need for comprehensive policy for primary healthcare for urban

areas, which take into account the special concerns of the poor. Such a policy would

aim, first, to address the absolute deprivation of basic necessities- food, housing,

water supply and sanitation that the urban poor experience. Second, there is a need to

create an adequate and functional network of free services that are non-discriminatory

and reach out to all section of the population. Finally, an urban health policy would

need to address the problem of social inequality in a pro active manner.

Further, the author suggested that housing is an activity that is typically labour

intensive and, therefore, fits in well with the pattern of development envisaged for

India. The provision of shelter is a basic need which must be met. Housing

construction also creates much-needed employment for the unskilled and, therefore,

income for the relatively poor. Urban and housing policies have been witnessing a

continuous change since the launching of the First Five Year Plan in 1951, and

particularly so since 1991.

Neha Madhiwalla (2007)34 in her article “Healthcare in Urban Slums in

India” has analysed that the growth of cities has always been accompanied by the

growth of slums. The industrial revolution in Western Europe led to the migration of

people to slums in cities which created new conditions of ill health due to

overcrowding, poor housing and unsanitary environment, coupled with poverty.

While public health crisis were not unknown in earlier times, the institutions of family

and church were primarily responsible for care and relief.

Rishi Muni Dwivedi (2007)35 in his book “Urban Development and

Housing in India - 1947 to 2007” has said that urbanization is a natural consequence

of economic changes that take place as a country develops. At the same time,

37

urbanization helps to contribute to the growth process at large. This is manifest in the

increasing contribution of urban sector to national income. The positive role of

urbanization is often over-shadowed by the evident deterioration in the physical

environment and quality of life in the urban areas caused by widening gap between

demand and supply of essential services and infrastructure. The challenge of

reorienting the urbanization process, thus, lies in overcoming the infrastructural

deficiencies and taking the best advantage of economic momentum inherent in

urbanization. The broad objective of urbanization policy should be to secure balanced

development between large, medium-sized and small industries, and between rural

and urban areas.

Siddharth Agarwal, et al (2007)36 in their paper “Urbanization, Urban

Poverty and Health of the Urban Poor: Status, Challenges and the Way

Forward” have suggested that one of the dominant concerns of the present age is the

improving the living conditions of the rapidly increasing population living in cities.

For the first time in human history beginning 2007, more than half of the world’s

population will live in cities. Estimates by the United Nations suggest that the world’s

urban population has been increasing at a rate of 1.8 per cent annually and will soon

outpace the overall world population growth rate of 1 per cent. Nearly 48 per cent of

the world’s population lives in urban areas and the prime locus of this spurt in city

dwellers are the developing countries such as India.

This paper analyses the association between urban poverty and health of the

urban poor in India. The health situation among the urban poor is described on the

basis of the analysis of the NFHS-2 data by economic status. The paper also outlines

some of the challenges in improving health outcomes of the urban poor and the

potential operational solutions to address such challenges.

Chetan Vaidya (2009)37 in his paper entitled “Urban Issues, Reforms and

Way Forward In India” has examined that India has to improve its urban areas to

achieve objectives of economic development. However, urban governance and

management of the services is far from satisfactory. In this context, the Government

has launched a reform-linked urban investment program, JNNURM. The paper has

analysed urban trends, projected population, service delivery, institutional

38

arrangements, municipal finances, innovative financing, etc. It has also described

status of JNNURM. As per population projection for 2026, level of urbanization

would be different in various states. India’s future urban strategy should recognize

these differences and plan accordingly. India’s future strategy should focus on: (a)

Inter-government transfers with built-in incentives to improve performance; (b)

Capacity building of ULBs; (c) Investments on asset creation as well as management;

(d) Integrate urban transport with land use planning; (e) Integrate various urban

development and related programs at local, state and national levels; (f) Strengthen

urban institutions and clarify roles of different organizations; and (g) Second

generation of urban reforms should further focus on regulation, innovative financing

and PPP, and climate change initiatives; (h) Different approach of supporting reform-

linked investments needed for different states based on level of urbanization. It has

recommended constitutional amendments as well administrative actions to improve

India’s urban areas.

H.A.C. Prasad and J.S. Kochher (2009)38 in their paper entitled “Climate

Change and India- Some Major Issues and Policy Implications” attempted to

explores Global warming, an important aspect of climate change is primarily a

consequence of accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This paper

examines the genesis of Climate Change which has been referred to as the defining

human development issue of our generation. Also studied is the impact of this

problem in the global as well as Indian context. India is not immune from the impact

of global warming and climate change. The paper also highlighted major international

developments related to Climate Change including the UN Framework Convention on

Climate Change(UNFCCC ), 1992 and Kyoto Protocol are described along with

significant meetings like those at Bali and Bangkok and outcomes at these

international exchanges.

The author, on the basis of their analysis, suggested that it is important for us

to stick to the principle of common but differentiated responsibility in our

negotiations and to take forward the concept of equalising per capita emissions of

countries proposed by the Prime Minister of India. At the same time, we should be

tactfully showcasing our efforts to conserve use of fossil fuels and reducing GHG

emissions. We should clearly show that India cannot be clubbed with three big

39

polluters including China. While all possible mitigation and adaptation measures

should be considered by us, there is also a need to see that the climate change issue is

not overplayed as cautioned by UNDP.

Partha Mukhopadhyay and Aromar Revi (2009)39 in there paper entitled

“Keeping India’s Economic Engine Going: Climate Change and the

Urbanization Question” have attempted to examine that, urbanization in India is

both a necessary input and an inevitable consequence of growth. However, we must

accept that the existing urbanization models are unsustainable at the Indian scale and

there is no available alternative trajectory. The international climate change

negotiations can be seen as an opportunity to create an environment that will help in

the discovery of a more sustainable urbanization. This paper explores a limited set of

emergent issues that will have to be considered as India develops its domestic

approach to urbanization, while negotiating its international position on climate

change.

Further, this paper is structured into three broad sections: (a) the feedback

loops from urbanization to climate change and vice versa, (b) actions needed at

multiple levels to influence these processes, and (c) the implications of these for

India’s negotiating position on climate change.

R.B. Bhagat and Soumya Mohanty (2009)40 in their paper “Emerging

Pattern of Urbanization and the Contribution of Migration in Urban Growth in

India” examined that as India has embarked upon economic reforms during the

1990s, published data from the 2001 Census provides an opportunity to study the

country’s urbanization process with reference to regional inequality and to the

contribution of the components of urban growth, namely, natural increase, emergence

of new towns, and the net contribution of rural to urban migration. India has more

than 4000 cities and towns, which comprise 28 per cent of India’s population of 1028

million as enumerated in 2001. However, about two-fifths of India’s urban population

live in only 35 metropolitan cities. The rate of urban population growth slowed down

during the 1990s despite the increased rate of rural to urban migration due to a

significant decline in natural increase in urban areas. This has led to an observable

slowdown in the pace of India’s urbanization.

40

U.S. De and V.K. Soni (2009)41 in their paper entitled “Climate Change,

Urbanization - What citizens can do” highlights that anthropogenic Climate Change

of post industrial era is expected impact on all sectors of the society and needs

strategic steps to reduce it. Mitigation efforts include global effort leading to

curtailing the emission of green house gases. Adaptation measures on the other hand

complement the mitigation measures by reducing the impact of global warming.

Historically, mitigation has received more media attention due to its global canvas;

while the adaptation measures have remained in the back ground.

In this paper, authors have presented certain simple concepts which can be

undertaken at the people's level to combat the impacts of Climate Change. In the field

of mitigation, people can help reduce emission by reducing their consumption and

demand for energy through use of:

(i). Energy efficient gadgets.

(ii). Eco friendly transport such as cycle for short distances and bus or car pool for

longer distance travel.

(iii). Local products of food and clothing, thus avoiding energy expended in

transportation.

(iv). Schools can encourage travel to and from by school buses rather than by

individual transport.

Urbanization is linked with development and has been quite rapid in recent

years. While urban areas cover only 3 per cent of the global land, it gives shelter to

nearly 26 per cent of the global population. The phenomenal increase in the

population during the last fifty years has led to rapid industrialization and high rate of

urbanization which have created tremendous pressure on natural resources like land,

air and water. The urban population has increased three and half times, from 62.4

million in 1951 to 217.6 million in 1991 and it again increased to 286 million in 2001.

A typical case is that during last 180 years, the urban area in the city of Pune has

grown from a mere 5 Sq. Km to 700 Sq. Km. from 1901 to 2001. The urban

population has grown from 1.64 lakhs to 42 lakhs. Bangalore, Hyderabad and other

growing towns tell the same story.

41

The authors, on the basis of their study have suggested that such unplanned

growth leads to widespread damage to existing ecosystem, deforestation and loss of

agriculture land, apart from its effect on climate and environment. Tall concrete

buildings cement roads and tarmac change the albedo of the urban areas and reduce

the free flow of air. 'Heat island' is an urban effect, which is felt in all major cities in

India. A study for Bangalore shows significant rise in minimum temperature during

recent decades. Likewise the city of Pune shows these signatures also. Urban planning

and decongesting the major urban centers by diversifying industries and other

activities is needed to make urban climate more agreeable and safe for human

settlement. More green cover, lakes and well spread parks are needed to make

growing cities a more comfortable place to live. Action is needed now before it

becomes too late to repair the damage to climate and environment due to urbanization.

Citizens can play a crucial role in reducing the impacts of climate change and

urbanization.

Martin Medina (2010)42 in his study “Solid Wastes, Poverty and the

Environment in Developing Country Cities: Challenges and Opportunities”

observed that many cities in Africa, Asia, and Latin America face serious problems

managing their wastes. Two of the major problems are the insufficient collection and

inappropriate final disposal of wastes. Despite spending increasing resources, many

cities – particularly in Africa and Asia – collect less than half of the waste generated.

Most wastes are disposed of in open dumps, deposited on vacant land, or burned by

residents in their backyards. Insufficient collection and inadequate disposal generate

significant pollution problems and risks to human health and the environment. Over

one billion people living in low income communities and slums lack appropriate

waste management services. Given the rapid population growth and urbanization in

many cities, the management of wastes tends to further deteriorate. Thus, this paper

examines the challenges and opportunities in this regard.

Vijai Kumar Agarwal (2010) 43 in his article “Ethics and Environment” has

examined the issue of environment from the ethical point of view. Environment and

climate change are one of the biggest challenges facing humanity. Ethics can be

defined as a set of standards that society places on itself which helps guide actions,

options and behaviour. The Author suggests that environmental problems raise

42

fundamental questions of ethics and philosophy. Problems need not be examined only

from a ‘technical solution’ point of view. He examines in depth the sustainability of

physical prosperity without moral values and brings out how spiritual values are the

prime requirements for sustaining moral values.

The Author further suggests that problem solving in an increasingly

interdependent world needs a collective approach of self regulation through ethical

actions not only between the citizens but also between the various nations.

R.B. Bhagat (2011)44 in his article “Emerging Pattern of Urbanization in

India” examined that the declining trend in the urban population growth rate

observed during the 1980s and 1990s was reversed at the national level, and the level

of urbanization increased faster during 2001-2011. The urban population grew from

286 million in 2001 to 377 million in 2011 – an increment of 91 million, which is

larger than the rural population increment of 90.5 million for the first time since

independence. A substantial increase in the urban population is due to a net rural-

urban classification and rural-to-urban migration. A huge number of new towns

emerged during the last decade, contributing significantly to the speeding up of

urbanization. On the other hand, although the contribution of the natural increase in

urban growth has declined in terms of proportions, its share in absolute numbers

(about 40 million) continues to be huge due to the large base of the urban population.

This has implications not only for providing urban infrastructure and civic amenities,

but also for reproductive and child health services in urban areas.

Siddharth Agarwal (2011)45 in his paper “The state of urban health in

India; comparing the poorest quartile to the rest of the urban population in

selected states and cities” observed that India has the world’s second largest urban

population (after China). This study shows the large disparities within urban

population in health-related indicators. It shows the disparities for child and maternal

health, provision for health care and housing conditions between the poorest quartile

and the rest of the urban population for India and for several of its most populous

states. In the poorest quartile of India’s urban population, only 40 per cent of 12 to 23

month-old children were completely immunized in 2004—2005, 54 per cent of under-

43

five year-olds were stunted, 82 per cent did not have access to piped water at home

and 53 per cent were not using a sanitary flush or pit toilet.

He observed the large disparities in eight cities between the poorest population

(the population in the city that is within the poorest quartile for India’s urban areas),

the population living in settlements classified as “slums” and the non-slum

population. He also highlights the poor performance in some health-related indicators

for the population that is not part of the poorest quartile in several states- for instance

in under-five mortality rates, in the proportion of stunted children and in the

proportion of households with no piped water supply to their home.

The above mentioned review of major works done on urbanization, especially

with reference to environment shows that most of the studies are either period specific

or region specific or deals with particular problems of environment; studies with

economic framework are very limited. Therefore a meaningful study of the levels and

trends of urbanization within environmental frame work would be highly useful for

policy purposes. Thus the above brief account of the existing literature on the subject

of the present study shows, though a vast literature on various aspects of urbanization

and environment is available, no comprehensive work has been done to assess the

levels of urbanization and its economic impact by sub-classifying the period in to pre

and post reform. The present study also includes the economic aspects such as

poverty, population explosion, health and also environmental degradation in the form

of Solid/liquid/Gaseous generations. Thus, the study under concern is a pioneer work

to find out not only the levels and trends of urbanization but also its environmental

implications on the society or nation.

44

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