Literature Review on Strategically Important …file/Literature_Review-eng.pdfLiterature Review on...

Literature Review on Strategically Important

Tourism Destinations and Attractions

FINAL DOCUMENT

Prepared for

Industry Canada - Tourism Branch

Prepared by

InterVISTAS Consulting Inc.

June 2012

Literature Review on Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions FINAL DOCUMENT

June 2012

Table of Contents

Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................... 1

1. Introduction........................................................................................................................ 4

2. Approach and Methodology ............................................................................................. 6

3. Summary of Key Findings ................................................................................................ 7

4. Detailed Key Findings and Sources............................................................................... 13 4.1 What Are Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions? .........................13

4.1.1 Selected Literature................................................................................................13 4.1.2 Additional Literature..............................................................................................17

4.2 How Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions Stimulate Economic Growth...............................................................................................................................20 4.2.1 Selected Literature................................................................................................20 4.2.2 Additional Literature..............................................................................................21

4.3 How Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions Influence Travellers’ Decisions to Make Return Visits........................................................................................23 4.3.1 Selected Literature................................................................................................23 4.3.2 Additional Literature..............................................................................................24

4.4 How Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions Affect a Tourism Brand.................................................................................................................................27 4.4.1 Selected Literature................................................................................................27 4.4.2 Additional Literature..............................................................................................29

4.5 How Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions are Measured............33 4.5.1 Selected Literature on the Economic Impact Assessment Methodological Approach...........................................................................................................................33 4.5.2 Economic Impact Models and Related Studies.....................................................35

Literature Review on Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions FINAL DOCUMENT 1

June 2012

Executive Summary

The Government of Canada recognizes the importance of the tourism sector to the economy and to social well-being. Over the years it has launched a number of key initiatives to enhance opportunity in the tourism industry.

The Federal Tourism Strategy, released in 2011, includes a commitment to product development and investment in Canadian tourism assets and products. One goal of the strategy is to strengthen understanding of “strategically important tourism destinations and attractions” and their role in stimulating economic growth, allowing for evidence-based decisions and plans.

To further this goal, InterVISTAS Consulting Inc. was commissioned to conduct a literature review of strategically important tourism destinations and attractions in an attempt to answer the following questions:

I. How are strategically important tourism destinations and attractions being defined or identified, and what role do they play as tourism assets within communities and regions?

II. Is there evidence of the economic impact of incremental investments made by government and the private sector on the economy and the tourism supply chain?

To accomplish these study objectives, InterVISTAS developed a comprehensive five-stage plan. The project stages were:

1. A worldwide scan, identification and collection of relevant literature 2. A detailed review and synthesis of all relevant literature collected 3. Development and production of a high-level overview of emerging findings in

PowerPoint presentation format 4. Development and production of a preliminary findings document 5. Development and production of a final summary document, which presents key

findings

Findings

In total, 150 papers were identified from the existing literature as studies of merit and relevance. From a detailed review of this body of work, it is generally found that strategically important tourism destinations and attractions are being broadly described as important catalysts for tourism and economic development. However, the literature review reveals no standard definitions or terminology to categorize strategically important tourism destinations and attractions, with the exception of some generic definitions for “mega”, “flagship”, “iconic”, or “hallmark” events and attractions. Some case studies point to the influence of government policies and destination market organization programs for stimulating tourism activity.

The research also shows that strategically important tourism destinations and attractions can improve infrastructure and community facilities, and thereby enhance regional or national prestige, well-being and quality of life. Moreover, they enable successful marketing and sustained visitation, and can contribute significantly to enhancing regional and national economies, brand and image, as well as provide new opportunities for economic growth and diversification. However, such


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attractions and destinations must be managed in a balanced manner to avoid or mitigate adverse socio-cultural and/or environmental impacts.

Furthermore, economic growth can be further enhanced when destinations and attractions are developed through a disciplined and integrated plan, and are located where there is an established cluster of activities and experiences that encourage longer stays and incremental spending, with sufficient space for expansion and to accommodate additional infrastructure development. In addition, greater levels of economic growth can be achieved by offering a variety of experiences that meet the needs of a large and diverse visitor base, and by enhancing the uniqueness of the tourism destination or attraction with high quality interpretation, positioning and marketing.

The literature also conveys that strategically important tourism is scalable – and there is existing evidence that a destination or attraction can be strategically important on a small-scale regional basis, with all the benefits accruing to that region. This finding may have important implications for tourism development and planning at local and regional levels.

Although a number of methodological approaches were deployed to measure the economic impact of strategically important tourism destinations and attractions, the literature shows that most tourism economic impact studies in Canada and overseas use the supply perspective approach. This means that studies often utilize input-output multipliers to transform tourism expenditure or other data into economic impact and spin-off effects. This is known to be one of the most reliable methods for estimating economic impacts, and is commonly used by both government and the private sector in Canada and around the world.


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1. Introduction

The Government of Canada has recognized the importance of the tourism sector to the economy and to social well-being. Over the years it has launched a number of key initiatives to enhance opportunity in the tourism sector.

The Federal Tourism Strategy, released in 2011, includes a commitment to product development and investment in Canadian tourism assets and products. One goal of the strategy is to strengthen understanding of “strategically important tourism destinations and attractions” and their role in stimulating economic growth, allowing for evidence-based decisions and plans.

To further this goal, InterVISTAS Consulting Inc. was commissioned to conduct a literature review of strategically important tourism destinations and attractions in an attempt to answer the following questions:

I. How are strategically important tourism destinations and attractions being defined or identified, and what role do they play as tourism assets within communities and regions?

a. What methodological approaches are currently being used by government, organizations and academia to define or identify such destinations and attractions?

b. What is the role of strategically important tourism destinations and attractions for stimulating economic growth?

c. What is the role of strategically important tourism destinations and attractions in influencing travellers’ decision to make return visits?

d. What is the role of strategically important tourism destinations and attractions in affecting a country’s tourism brand?

II. Is there evidence of the economic impact of incremental investments made by government and the private sector on the economy and the tourism supply chain?

a. What methodological approaches are available for assessing tourism economic impacts?

b. What are some examples of tourism economic impact literature completed in Canada and elsewhere and what methodological approaches are being used in practice?

To accomplish these objectives, InterVISTAS developed a comprehensive five-stage plan. The project stages were:

1. A worldwide scan, identification and collection of relevant literature 2. A detailed review and synthesis of all relevant literature collected 3. Development and production of a high-level overview of emerging findings in

PowerPoint presentation format 4. Development and production of a preliminary findings document 5. Development and production of a final summary document, which presents key

findings


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Document Outline

This document is structured as follows:

Section 2 outlines the review team’s qualifications, the approach and methodology deployed, and the literature selection and validation processes used.

Section 3 provides a brief review of top line findings in each area of inquiry.

Section 4 provides a detailed listing of all literature sourced for the review, with two sets of information. The first, “Selected Literature”, were chosen as seminal or key exemplar studies and include both key findings and abstracts. “Additional Literature” includes abstracts only.


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2. Approach and Methodology

To ensure that this literature review process was rigorous and comprehensive, was based on the most relevant and topical information and materials available, and would generate meaningful outcomes, InterVISTAS employed the following approach and methodology:

1. Assembled a literature review panel with the following qualifications: a. Doctorate and Masters level expertise; b. Operates in both industry roles and academia; and c. Has renowned expertise with over 60+ years senior level experience in tourism,

economics, planning, policy and related fields. 2. Sourced, validated and assessed merits of the literature through:

a. Direct contact with tourism academia and tourism-specialty academic centres nationally and internationally;

b. Accessing studies via global academic intranet networks, academic libraries/e-libraries; and

c. Accessing relevant provincial/territorial documents, and other publically available studies.

3. Applied a rigorous critical analysis and appraisal filter to ensure the literature selected met the following criteria:

a. Use valid and accepted methodologies and definitions; b. Are unbiased c. Past articles were relatively current and topical (unless judged as seminal or

informative works applicable to today’s environment, articles more than 20 years old were not reviewed); and

d. Are relevant to the Industry Canada – Tourism Branch Statement of Work. 4. Identified common themes, seminal papers, key documents by:

a. Developing and populating a matrix based on core themes, allowing the review team to compare, contrast and analyze studies by topic in order to extract the most significant findings without duplication; and

b. Building high-level statements and observations, fully supported by the literature review.

Using the methodology described, we identified 150 papers that merited review. Of these, 20 articles were seminal or foundation documents in their expression of tourism definitions, roles, economic impacts, etc. and are used as exemplars in this document.1

1 Two of these papers covered multiple topics and therefore were repeated in different sections.


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3. Summary of Key Findings

This section provides an overview of the key findings in each area of investigation . Studies used in developing key findings are detailed in Section 4.

Overview of Findings

The research does indicate that strategically important tourism destinations and attractions are recognizably different from other tourism types, demonstrated in both qualitative and quantitative metrics.

The impact and role of strategically important tourism destinations and attractions can be grouped under a general rubric, with a series of common (or overlapping) characteristics. Essentially they are characterized as important catalysts that lever further tourism, economic and social opportunities, which:

Enable successful marketing and sustained visitation;

Contribute significantly to a regional or national tourism economy;

Enhance infrastructure and facilities;

Enhance prestige, well-being and quality of life; and

Must be managed in a balanced manner to avoid or mitigate negative socio-cultural or environmental impacts.

The review also identified ways that strategically important tourism destinations and attractions have been used to further stimulate economic and social benefits. The common themes are:

Offer a variety of experiences that meet the needs of a large and diverse visitor base;

Are located where there is an established cluster of activities and experiences that encourage longer stays and more spending;

Enhance their uniqueness with high quality interpretation, positioning and marketing;

Are developed via a disciplined and integrated plan; and

Have sufficient space to expand and to accommodate additional infrastructure development.

What are Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions? (Sub-section 4.1; Pages 12-19)

There is no commonly accepted term in the literature that is used to describe what is considered to be strategically important tourism destinations and attractions. However, there are a number of terms that are reasonably common in the literature, and these are included here with generalized definitions:


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Icons – landmarks, destinations and attractions “that are instantly recognizable."

Hallmark – usually major one-time or recurring attractions or events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance the awareness, appeal and profitability of a tourism destination in the short and/or long term. Such attractions or events rely on uniqueness, status or timely significance to create interest and generate attention.

Flagship attractions – describes their role as focal points and as catalysts for tourism development in a region or a tourism destination (e.g. national, regional or local).

Mega - frequently refers to a large-scale destination/attraction or international event. A mega-attraction or mega-event can be defined in terms of volume (number of visitors), value (revenue generated), or in psychological terms (e.g., worldwide reputation of the attraction or event generates "must see" feelings in potential tourists).

Strategically important tourism destinations and attractions can be more easily identified by some common characteristics and similar attributes than by the numerous terms used in the literature. They are the key draw to a destination and are frequently iconic. They attract a relatively broad spectrum of tourists. They can be natural (e.g., Banff National Park), built (e.g., the CN Tower), experiential (e.g., dining in Old Montreal) or a one-time or recurring event (e.g., the 2010 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games, Calgary Stampede, Toronto International Film Festival).

Strategically important destinations and attractions drive expenditures and activities well beyond their own domain (e.g., accommodation, shopping, transportation, meals, secondary tourism activities, etc.).

The literature suggests that an additional characteristic is scalability. In other words, local and regional strategically important tourism destinations and attractions exist, and provide the same type of benefits as those on a national level, but on a smaller scale (e.g., regional festivals/fairs/carnivals). Moreover, these smaller attractors have potential to grow and be scaled up to pan-national and international attractors of tourists in their own right if they offer unique and defining experiences.

While the literature recognizes strategically important tourism destinations and attractions which contribute to economic and tourism development, most of the indicators are anecdotal or highly specific to one location or tourism destination/attraction.

To date, the review suggests that there are no standard definitions, terminology or methodology to categorize strategically important tourism destinations and attractions.

Most significantly, there is a lack of information in the research that describes:

A clear “road map” or series of steps and actions that can be taken by “influencers”, such as governments and destination marketing organizations (DMOs), to enable destinations and attractions to become strategically important tourism destinations and attractions; or

A “tipping point” that determines when destinations and attractions become strategically important.

However, the literature review identified a number of case studies that are more definitive and suggest how government policies and DMO investment may influence the creation of strategically important tourism destinations and attractions.


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Strategically Important Destinations and Attractions Can Stimulate Economic Growth (Sub-section 4.2; Pages 19-22)

The literature strongly points to the role of strategically important tourism destinations and attractions in stimulating economic and societal benefits.

Tourism is increasingly seen as a catalyst for regional development. Some studies conclude that government policies have considerable influence on how tourism develops and how tourism stakeholders perceive growth.

Research suggests that positive impacts and benefits include:

New event facilities and infrastructure; Urban revival; Enhanced international reputation; Increased visitation and expenditures; Improved public welfare and additional employment; Local business opportunities; The potential to provide the growth and stability necessary to sustain the development of a

rural area (i.e. support economic development objectives); and Increased publicity and prestige.

However, the literature notes some negative impacts of attractions and events, for example:

High construction costs and related investments which could place a heavy burden on government budgets;

Temporary crowding problems; Loss or displacement of visitors; Property rental increases; and Environmental impacts.

A number of studies suggest the optimum conditions to develop and/or sustain strategically important tourism destinations and attractions to ensure that benefits are maximized. These studies are significant as there is a general commonality of approach, and they support the common sense contention that the successful development of strategically important tourism destinations and attractions requires a disciplined, detailed and thoughtful approach.

Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions Can Generate Repeat Visitation (Sub-section 4.3; Pages 22-25)

The literature suggests that strategically important destinations and attractions can encourage repeat visitation. The research forwards that two elements must be in place to stimulate repeat visits. The first element relates to the quality and type of the experience, also called the “pull” factor”, e.g. high quality, distinctiveness, as well as the range of experiences that can stimulate repeat visitation. In other words, it is the experience of the destination itself that is most likely to result in follow-on tourism or repeat visitation and positive word of mouth.


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The second element identified in the literature was the “push” factor, or the personal motivations of tourists. Some studies indicated that psychological attachment is important in understanding tourist behaviour, including repeat visitation. The literature supports the notion that a strong attachment to a place can increase the likelihood of intention to return and to recommend to others. Therefore, understanding and fostering attachment toward the destination or attraction may help enhance repeat visitation and tourism growth. However, there is limited research on how place attachment is formed and what aspects of a destination/attraction will lead to increased emotional attachment.

Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions Can Have a Positive Impact on a Tourism Brand (Sub-section 4.4; Pages 26-32)

There is evidence in the literature that demonstrates that key tourism destinations and attractions have a positive effect on a country’s tourism brand as well as its image. In particular, the literature confirmed that:

For branding purposes, it is more effective to focus on the most well-known and iconic tourism assets rather than to spread advertising funds across multiple attractions

Mega events and mega sports events (e.g. the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany) can provide organizers and other stakeholders with a unique opportunity to modify the international image of a host country, and that a host country’s image usually improves as a result of direct experience

However, the literature also cautions that general awareness can decay over time, and does not necessarily translate into increased visitation levels. Steps are required to counter this decay if a tourism destination is to remain visible and competitive in the international marketplace.

How Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions Are Measured (Sub-section 4.5; Pages 32-64)

The majority of the available worldwide literature on strategically important tourism destinations and attractions focuses on the discussion and measurement of economic impact or activity generated by destinations and/or attractions. Economic impact analysis is commonly used to determine the impacts of additional tourist spending primarily on employment, income (value-added) and government tax revenues in an economy. It provides a snapshot of the economy at a particular point in time based on initial spending. It operates on the premise that initial or direct impacts alone are incomplete measures of the total impact of tourism on the economy. Indirect and induced impacts can be as large, or greater, than direct impacts and frequently involve sectors and activities distantly, but importantly, connected to the initial activity.

A number of models are typically used to measure the economic impact of incremental investments, and are applied to a wide range of destinations, attractions and events. Differing methodological approaches and models were reviewed in the literature. The impact of incremental investments is generally measured by:

Demand vs. Supply perspective approaches;


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Ex-ante vs. Ex-post economic impact methods; and Forward vs. Backward vs. Parallel linkage models.

The most common approach found to date deploys a supply perspective, which collects direct tourism expenditure data from tourist surveys and applies input-output economic multipliers to produce the spin-off economic impacts.

Concluding Comments

In the cases where the majority of literature on a subject shared common themes and conclusions, we were able to confirm the following:

1. That strategically significant tourism destinations and attractions exist as a key sub-sector of tourism and that they have distinguishing characteristics that set them apart from other forms of tourism

2. That they can stimulate economic growth and this growth can be measured 3. Investments in these types of tourism can lead to positive economic and social benefits 4. That they can contribute to both a country or region’s tourism brand as well as its overall

image 5. That they can help lever repeat visitation to the same areas or other areas of the host

region or country.

Common themes found in the literature also supported the following inferences that are external to the specifics five areas of inquiry:

1. The quality and type of pre-planning and the involvement of communities of interest have a measurable effect on positive outcomes for destinations and attractions

2. That negative impacts are possible, but can be mitigated with appropriate planning 3. That a significantly important tourism attraction or event can be international, national or

regional in scope, and has the potential to provide benefits and opportunity commensurate with its scale.

However, the literature did not provide clear evidence to determine:

1. A generally-accepted term used universally to describe strategically important tourism destinations and attractions

2. A definitive formula or algorithm to suggest that X investment in a strategically important destination or attraction would lead to Y in economic outcome.

Limitations of the Literature Review

This project required InterVISTAS to scan, categorize and assess the available worldwide literature in five areas of inquiry. The efforts of the project team and its national and international network of academic and industry contacts produced a detailed review of a comprehensive and representative worldwide body of current and past literature.

However, the targeted topic areas for investigation have received widely different levels of coverage and treatment to date in academia and the public and private sector. While there is a large body of available work examining the economic impact of destinations and attractions for


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example, there is a much more limited collection of studies worldwide that define destinations and attractions, or investigate visitor patterns or branding implications relating to destinations and attractions. Therefore, the findings drawn are subject to the quantity and depth of research that has been produced on a specific topic area.

Additionally, the review was subject to a defined series of deadlines, and a specific project scope and budget. Naturally, as the project and review team’s efforts are not ongoing, key additions to the literature will always emerge and contribute new findings or increased understanding beyond what is currently reflected in this document.


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4. Detailed Key Findings and Sources

4.1 What Are Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions? Strategically important tourism destinations and attractions are often referred to as “mega”, “flagship”, “iconic”, or “hallmark” events and attractions, according to a wide range of literature published by government, private sector, and academia worldwide. This section explores key literature that defines or provides methodological approaches for identifying strategically important tourism destinations and attractions.

A total of 16 studies were identified on this topic and have been reviewed by InterVISTAS. Some are written in the Canadian context, while others more generally describe characteristics of a destination or attraction that constitutes “mega”, “flagship”, “iconic”, or “hallmark” events and attractions. Based on a curated review, key literature has been selected using the following criteria:

The literature is relevant to the area of discussion and applicable to Canada;

The literature is sizeable and scalable based on Industry Canada’s objectives in this study; and

The literature has practical application, rather than being purely based on academic theory.

The literature is divided into two areas below. The first area itemizes and provides abstracts for the exemplar literature selected by InterVISTAS, along with key findings related to Industry Canada’s objective of gaining a better understanding of how strategically important tourism destinations and attractions are defined. Based on these findings, some generic characteristics defining “mega”, “flagship”, “iconic”, or “hallmark” events and attractions are identified, although the literature reviewed does not reveal any standard methodologies for defining and categorizing strategically important tourism destinations and attractions. The second area contains some additional literature collected by InterVISTAS.

4.1.1 Selected Literature

1. Weidenfeld, A. (2010) “Iconicity and 'flagshipness' of tourist attractions.” Annals of Tourism Research, 37 (3) 851-854.

“This paper suggests that the various characteristics and criteria that endow tourist attractions with "iconicity" or "flagshipness" should be explored further. It also acknowledges that there is no strict dichotomy between them, and major attractions could have both high and low levels of "iconicity" and "flagshipness", and these may be lost or gained over time, depending on factors such as the quality of the tourism product, over-crowding, quality deterioration, and new competitors.”


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Key Findings:

Defines a flagship attraction as one whose appeal can be “attributed to distinct qualities, including uniqueness, location, international reputation, and outstanding media attention, making it a ‘must-see’ attraction and relatively large in size and economic impact...”

Defines an iconic attraction as one whose image is constructed by “elements of authenticity and mental perceptions…which serve as universally recognized symbols or representation of their location or culture/heritage and evoke a powerful positive image among both tourists and local residents’.”

2. Getz, D. (2008). “Event tourism: Definition, evolution, and research.” Tourism Management, 29(3), 403-428.

“This article reviews ‘event tourism’ as both professional practice and a field of academic study. The origins and evolution of research on event tourism are pinpointed through both chronological and thematic literature reviews. A conceptual model of the core phenomenon and key themes in event tourism studies is provided as a framework for spurring theoretical advancement, identifying research gaps, and assisting professional practice. Conclusions are in two parts: a discussion of implications for the practice of event management and tourism, and implications are drawn for advancing theory in event tourism.”

Key Findings:

Defines mega events as “global in their orientation and require a competitive bid to win them as a one-time event for a particular place.”

Defines hallmark events as “major one-time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance the awareness appeal and profitability of a tourism destination or describing an event that possesses such significance in terms of tradition, attractiveness, quality or publicity that the event provides the host venue, community or destination with a competitive advantage.”

3. Preuss, H. (2007). “The conceptualization and measurement of mega sport event legacies.” Journal of Sport & Tourism, 12(3-4), 207-228.

“This paper focuses on the legacy of mega sport events. First, the concept of legacy is defined before the problems of measuring and forecasting legacy are discussed. Benchmarking and the use of macro data do not correctly reveal legacy. Hence a bottom-up approach is introduced which identifies the event legacy by evaluation of ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ event-related changes in a host city. These changes are defined as ‘event-structures’ (infrastructure, knowledge, image, emotions, networks, culture). Many of them change the quality of location factors of the host city in the long-term. The benefits/costs through the transformation of the host city are the legacy of a mega sport event. Here a particular focus is put on tourism legacy.”


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Key Findings:

Identifies six types of event-structures preserved by mega-events and examines changes in these using a bottom-up approach for measuring event legacy:

- Knowledge (i.e., organizational, security, technological);

- Networks (i.e., political, sport federations, security);

- Cultural goods (i.e., cultural identity, cultural ideas, common memory);

- Primary infrastructure (i.e., sport infrastructure, training sites);

- Secondary structure (i.e., villages for athletes, technical officials and media);

- Tertiary structure (i.e., Security, power plants, telecommunication networks, cultural attractions);

- Emotions; and

- Image.

4. Sharpley, R. (2007) “Flagship Attractions and Sustainable Rural Tourism Development: The Case of the Alnwick Garden, England.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15 (2), 125-143.

“This paper proposes an alternative approach to rural tourism that returns to a more traditional model of development: large, flagship attractions that act as a ‘growth pole’ for the local economy and community. It questions some of the accepted beliefs about sustainable rural tourism development current in recent years. It is based on a case study of Alnwick Garden in Northumberland, England. It suggests that, under certain circumstances, flagship or mega-attractions can not only increase substantially the number of visitors to rural areas but also, through appropriate policies and processes, can underpin the longer-term, sustainable development of those areas.”

Key Findings:

Identifies the following key success factors for flagship or mega-attractions to provide the growth and stability necessary for sustaining a rural development:

- “the nature of the attraction is fundamental to long term success; it should have the potential to offer a variety of experiences to meet the needs of a broad visitor base and be attractive and have a marketable storyline”;

- “a flagship location should be developed in a location where it can contribute to a critical mass of attractions”;

- “the attraction should be developed within existing resource capability, whether in terms of tourist facilities and opportunities for local business development or the physical environment.”

- “there is a need for integrated planning and development.”; and

- “the potential for developing a regional tourism experience should be exploited and promoted at the regional level.”


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5. Roche, M. (1994). “Mega-events and urban policy.” Annals of Tourism Research, 21(1), 1-19.

“The paper argues that the search for explanation should guide mega-event research. The influence of planning, political, and urban contextual processes and factors on mega-event production is illustrated through a discussion of comparative event research and a case study of Sheffield's Universiade 1991.This research indicates the important influence of contextual societal change, urban leadership, and non-rational planning in event production processes. These factors are important for understanding both event causation and also the potentially rational character of event policymaking. The strengths and limitations of ‘planning’ and ‘political’ approaches to understanding events are considered. A relevant research agenda is briefly outlined.”

Key Findings:

Defines mega-events as “short-term events with long-term consequences for the cities that stage them.” Also discusses long-term positive consequences (i.e., tourism, industrial relocation, and inward investments) and long-term negative impacts (i.e., debt) of hosting a mega-event.

6. Hall, C. M. (1989). “The definition and analysis of hallmark tourist events.” GeoJournal, 19(3), 263-268.

“Hallmark tourist events are major fairs, expositions, cultural and sporting events of international status which are held on either a regular or a one-off basis. A primary function of the hallmark event is to provide the host community with an opportunity to secure high prominence in the tourism market place. However, international or regional prominence may be gained with significant social and environmental costs.

“Several important features emerge from an examination of the research on hallmark events. First, there is no agreed upon definition of events. Second, major methodological weaknesses emerge in the study of hallmark events. Third, the majority of research is economic in orientation with relatively little attention being paid to the important social and physical impacts of such events.

“The paper concludes by noting the general neglect of hallmark tourism events by researchers and the urgent need for further theoretical and empirical studies impact.”

Key Findings:

Defines hallmark events as “major one-time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance the awareness, appeal and profitability of a tourism destination in the short and/or long term. Such events rely for the success on uniqueness, status or timely significance to create interest and attract attention.”


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7. Marris, T. (1987). “The role and impact of mega-events and attractions on regional and national tourism development resolutions.” Tourism Review, 42(4), 3-12.

“Now that we have reviewed the basic reports, the published special reports and the discussions of the working groups let us see what can be high-lighted as a conclusion. How has this Congress advanced the science of tourism applied to mega-attractions and to mega-events?”

Key Findings:

Suggests that mega-events can be defined by volume, value, or psychological impact, or some suitable combination of these factors. Also discusses potential motives (i.e., harmony and progress, prestige, etc.), potential impacts (i.e., tourism, economics, technical, physical, social, cultural, psychological, and political), and measurement of impacts (i.e., attitude surveys, cost/benefit and multiplier techniques).

8. Ritchie, B. J. (1984). “Assessing the impact of hallmark events: Conceptual and research issues.” Journal of Travel Research, 23(1), 2-11.

“This article examines the numerous impacts of hallmark events on the destination area which has generated the event. These effects include not only the economic results but also the physical, socio-cultural, psychological, and political impacts such events have.”

Key Findings:

Defines hallmark events as “major one-time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance the awareness, appeal and profitability of a tourism destination in the short and/or long term.” Also specifies “the uniqueness of the event, the status of the event, and the extent to which it is successfully marketed within tourism-generating regions” as key success factors for stimulating destination appeal.

4.1.2 Additional Literature

9. Government of Canada. (2011). “Canada’s federal tourism strategy: Welcoming the world.”

“The Strategy describes how federal departments and agencies will work together and with the provinces and territories and the tourism industry to build on the country's numerous tourism advantages over the next five years.”

10. Crouch, G. (2011). “Destination Competitiveness: An Analysis of Determinant Attributes.” Journal of Travel Research, 50(1), 27-45.

“The aim of this study was to develop an insight into the importance and impact of attributes which affect the competitiveness of tourism destinations. Using a general conceptual model of destination competitiveness, 36 competitiveness attributes were evaluated by “expert” judgment in the form of an online survey of destination managers and tourism researchers. These judgments were integrated and analyzed using the


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analytic hierarchy process (AHP). In addition to estimating the importance of the attributes of competitiveness, the results of the AHP were further analyzed to produce measures of attribute determinance. These measures were then tested statistically to identify which attributes were judged to exert the greatest determinant impact on destination competitiveness. Ten of the 36 attributes were found to have determinance measures statistically significantly greater than average.”

11. Tang, L., Morrison, A., Lehto, X., Kline, S. & Pearce, P. (2009). “Effectiveness criteria for icons as tourist attractions: A comparative study between the United States and China.” Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 26(3), 284–302.

“As the application of human icons as tourist attractions continues to increase, there is a growing need to better understand how these famous individuals are used by destinations. Based on literature in several relevant fields, such as history, social science, and destination management, effectiveness criteria for icon attractions were analyzed in this study. Three ‘‘situational’’ factors influencing the operation of icon attractions (culture, history, and government involvement) were included in these criteria. It also suggested that icon attractions can be evaluated from three aspects: characteristics of icons, organization, and impacts. The applications of icon effectiveness criteria for tourist attractions in the United States and China were compared. The validity and practical value of the effectiveness criteria were demonstrated. Management implications in the utilization of icon attractions were derived.”

12. Becken, S. (2005). “The Role of Tourist Icons for Sustainable Tourism.” Journal of Vacation Marketing, 11(1), 21-80.

“This paper provides a discussion of tourist icons as pull factors of a destination and problems associated with icons. According to interviews held with major wholesalers in Australia and inbound tour operators in New Zealand, tourist icons vary in importance to different segments of the market, with coach tourists placing more importance on icons than free independent travellers. Moreover, the need to base overseas marketing on icons depends on the maturity of the targeted market. A tourist survey in New Zealand revealed that Milford Sound and Rotorua were indeed the most commonly known attractions, but that in addition to these two key icons, tourists were attracted to natural features in general, such as mountains and glaciers.

“This paper argues that an overemphasis on tourist icons potentially leads to unsustainable tourism development, for the following reasons tourists travel large distances to visit the spatially very dispersed tourist icons, and this results in considerable amounts of greenhouse gas emissions, even if they visit New Zealand for a short period of time; the high visitation levels at popular sites result in infrastructural bottlenecks, reaching carrying capacity, which results in potentially significant environmental and social impacts; and the uneven geographical distribution of tourism spending is a missed opportunity for much-needed regional development. The current ‘100% Pure’ campaign by Tourism New Zealand potentially contributes to a more holistic promotion of New Zealand as an attractive ‘natural landscape’ destination.”

13. Burbank. M. J., Andranovich, G. & Heying. C. H. (2002). “Mega-events, urban development, and public policy.” Review of Policy Research, 19(3), 179-202.


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“As cities compete for jobs and capital in the context of limited federal aid and increasing global economic competition, a new and potentially high-risk public policy strategy for stimulating local economic growth has emerged. This mega-event strategy entails the quest for a high-profile event to serve as a stimulus to, and justification for, local development. How and why do American cities commit their resources to seeking a mega-event? And, if a city lands a mega-event, how does that event affect local development policy? To address these questions, we examine the experiences of three American cities which have bid for and organized the Olympics in the contemporary era: Los Angeles, Atlanta, and Salt Lake City.”

14. Smith, S. L. (1999). “Toward a national tourism research agenda for Canada.” Tourism Management, 20(3), 297-304.

“Information based on credible research is increasingly important to decision-makers in tourism. Canada’s national tourism organization – first the Canadian Government Office of Tourism and then Tourism Canada – has long conducted research to support decision making. However, their research priorities were set without reference to externally validated industry needs. The recent creation of the industry-led Canadian Tourism Commission not only marked a shift from government-dominated decision-making to a true private–public sector partnership, but also opened the door to greater industry input into setting a national research agenda. Current research efforts continue to improve the quality of macro-economic data and analytic tools to monitor the performance of tourism industries as well as the quality of research on key markets. However, the CTC believes other information needs must also be met to support the decision-making efforts of owners and managers. Accordingly, the CTC requested the development of a national tourism research agenda to identify the highest priority information needs for tourism industries. This article describes the creation, purposes, and content of the agenda.”

15. Sternberg, E. (1997). “The iconography of the tourism experience.” Annals of Tourism Research, 24(4), 951-969

“This article argues that tourism planning has as its central challenge the design of effective touristic experiences, and can find conceptual sources for this task in iconography, the field that studies the meanings of images. In search of iconographic principles for tourism design, the article investigates Niagara Falls, still one of the foremost attractions in North America. At Niagara Falls, the article identifies two main compositional elements: staging, which situates a desirable motif (in this case a waterfall) in a stage setting; and thematizing, which links the motif to concepts (like terror or romance) that make it evocative.”

16. Smith, S. L. (1988). “Defining tourism: A supply-side view.” Annals of Tourism Research, 15(2), 179-190.

“A supply-side definition of the tourism industry is proposed. The definition is based on recognizing two tiers of tourism businesses: a tier composed of businesses that serve exclusively tourists and a tier composed of businesses that serve a mix of tourists and local residents. These tiers are operationally defined from several Statistics Canada data sources and the Standard Industrial Classification codes. A key strength of this definition is that it permits both conceptualization and measurement of tourism in a way that is


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consistent with other economic activity. Application of the definition to available 1981/82 data sources resulted in an estimate of the size of Canadian tourism, four times as large as forestry, slightly larger than agriculture, and just under automobile manufacturing.”

4.2 How Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions Stimulate Economic Growth Strategically important tourism destinations and attractions can contribute significantly to regional and national economies, and provide new opportunities for economic growth and diversification. Findings from the literature also indicate that economic growth can be further enhanced when strategically important destinations and attractions are developed through a disciplined and integrated plan, and are located where there is an established cluster of activities and experiences that encourage longer stays and incremental spending, with sufficient space for expansion and to accommodate additional infrastructure development. Additionally, greater levels of economic growth can be achieved by offering a variety of experiences that meet the needs of a large and diverse visitor base, and by enhancing the uniqueness of the destination or attraction with high quality interpretation, positioning and marketing.

This section identifies the key literature that substantiates these key findings. A total of 8 studies are identified on this topic and have been reviewed by InterVISTAS. Of the literature identified, three were selected as seminal or key works based on the criteria previously described. This is again supplemented with the abstracts from additional literature that were reviewed by InterVISTAS but were not selected for further interpretation based on the curated assessment.


17. Nissan, E., Galindo, M., & Mendez, M. (2010). “Relationship between tourism and economic growth.” The Services Industries Journal, 31(10), 1567-1572.

“The main goal of this paper is to determine whether tourism activity stimulates economic growth. The study indicates the main variables affecting tourism activity and shows a feedback effect between income and tourism. Findings indicate that tourism not only supplies necessary funds to finance firms’ activities, but also stimulates the local firms’ productivity and creates new job opportunities that increase the country’s welfare. Variables that have important effects on tourism activity, such as entrepreneurship and prices have also been considered.”

Key Findings:

Empirical analysis shows that “tourism has a positive impact on economic growth and entrepreneurship; prices and income also have significant effects on tourism.”

Suggests that “it is possible to design an adequate economic policy [(one that improves entrepreneurship, reduces prices and increases income)] that stimulates tourism activity and has a resultant positive indirect effect on economic growth.


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18. Lord Cultural Resources & Brain Trust. (2009). “Ontario cultural and heritage tourism product research paper.”

“This cultural and heritage tourism research paper is one of thirteen research papers commissioned to provide guidance to the Ontario Tourism Competitiveness Study. This study creates a framework for identifying, evaluating, promoting and supporting high yield cultural tourism opportunities in the province from the consumer perspective. Thus there is an emphasis on understanding the needs of the 21st-Century cultural tourist. The strategic recommendations in this paper have been developed to provide guidance to the Province of Ontario in how to invest in developing and positioning Ontario as a significant cultural tourism destination on the world stage.”

Key Findings:

Identifies three characteristics for maximizing the economic benefit of a major tourism project: “high quality, distinctiveness, and that have the space to expand to accommodate additional infrastructure development.”

Describes both “creative and ‘consumptive’ experiences” as key factors making a destination attractive to visitors that can stimulate repeat visitation.

19. Greffe, X. (2009). “The economic impact of the Louvre.”

“When we want to measure the economic benefit of a cultural institution, we generally choose between two main approaches: considering its significance from the perspective of demand, which implies an assessment of contingent values, or considering its significance from the perspective of supply, which implies carrying out an impact analysis.”

Key Findings:

Identifies two methods of assessing tourism economic impacts:

- Demand Perspective Impact Analysis or Contingent Value Method (i.e., surveys potential visitors to assess the value they place on gaining access to a tourism attraction or destination); and

- Supply Perspective Impact Analysis (i.e., uses input-output multipliers to transform tourism expenditure data into economic impacts and spin-off effects).

Identifies cultural activities as a key driver for economic growth, regardless of the current level of economic development.


20. Sequeria, T. & Nunes, P. (2010). “Does tourism influence economic growth? A dynamic panel data approach.” Applied Economics, 40(18), 2431-2441.

“On average, tourism-specialized countries grow more than others. This is not consistent with the core of modern economic growth theory that suggests that economic growth is linked to sectors with high-tech intensity and large scale. In this article, we use appropriate


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panel data methods to study the relationship between tourism and economic growth. In general, we show that tourism is a positive determinant of economic growth both in a broad sample of countries and in a sample of poor countries. However, contrary to previous contributions, tourism is not more relevant in small countries than in a general sample.”

21. Cortes-Jimenez & Pulina, M. (2010). “Inbound tourism and long-run economic growth.” Current Issues in Tourism, 13(1), 61-74.

“There is an upsurge of literature investigating the relationship between inbound tourism expansion and economic growth with special emphasis on developing countries. Some countries – such as Spain and Italy – can be taken as examples of demonstrating such a successful trajectory.This paper provides an empirical investigation of the evolution of the Spanish and Italian economies and their respective tourism sectors from the 1950s and 1960s, respectively. This research is theoretically based on the literature on demand-based growth and the methodology adopted is that of the integration, co-integration and multivariate Granger causality tests. The results show the influencing role of inbound tourism for both economies.”

22. Po, W. & Huang, B. (2008). “Tourism development and economic growth – a nonlinear approach.” Physica A, 387 (2008), 5535-5542.

“We use cross sectional data (1995–2005 yearly averages) for 88 countries to investigate the nonlinear relationship between tourism development and economic growth when a threshold variable is used. The degree of tourism specialization (qi, defined as receipts from international tourism as a percentage of GDP) is used as the threshold variable. The results of the tests for nonlinearity indicate that the 88 countries’ data should be separated into three different groups or regimes to analyze the tourism-growth nexus. The results of the threshold regression show that when the qi is below 4.0488% (regime 1, 57 countries) or above 4.7337% (regime 3, 23 countries), there exists a significantly positive relationship between tourism growth and economic growth. However, when the qi is above 4.0488% and below 4.7337% (regime 2, 8 countries), we are unable to find evidence of such a significant relationship. Further in-depth analysis reveals that relatively low ratios of the value added of the service industry to GDP, and the forested area per country area are able to explain why we are unable to find a significant relationship between these two variables in regime 2’s countries.”

23. Lee, C. & Chang, C. (2008). “Tourism development and economic growth: A closer look at panels.” Tourism Management, 29(1), 180-192.

“This paper applies the new heterogeneous panel co-integration technique to re-investigate the long-run co-movements and causal relationships between tourism development and economic growth for OECD and non-OECD countries (including those in Asia, Latin America and Sub-Sahara Africa) for the 1990–2002 period. On the global scale, after allowing for the heterogeneous country effect, a co-integrated relationship between GDP and tourism development is substantiated. It is also determined that tourism development has a greater impact on GDP in non-OECD countries than in OECD countries, and when the variable is tourism receipts, the greatest impact is in Sub-Sahara African countries. Additionally, the real effective exchange rate has significant effects on


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economic growth. Finally, in the long run, the panel causality test shows unidirectional causality relationships from tourism development to economic growth in OECD countries, bidirectional relationships in non-OECD countries, but only weak relationships in Asia. Our empirical findings have major policy implications.”

24. Hultkrantz, L. (1998). “Mega-Event Displacement of Visitors: The World Championship in Athletics, Göteborg 1995.” Festival Management & Event Tourism, 6(1), 1-8.

“This article questions the often used approach of assessing tourism impact of a mega-event from just attendance numbers. From guest nights data to the Göteborg region, we find that the short-term attraction effect on visitors from abroad of the World Championship in Athletics (WCA95) was neutralized, probably because domestic and foreign event attendants were "crowding out" regular foreign tourists to this region.

“A mega-event can be expected to act both as attractor and repellent to tourists."Regular" tourists can be deterred for several reasons: capacity limitations giving higher prices for travel, accommodation, and meals and/or shortage of available rooms and seats; increased traffic congestion; deterrence of tourists looking for peace and silence, etc.”

4.3 How Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions Influence Travellers’ Decisions to Make Return Visits This section discusses the role of strategically important tourism destinations and attractions in stimulating repeat visitation. Research conducted shows that it is “the experience of the destination itself” and “creative and ‘consumptive’ experiences” that stimulate repeat visitation.

InterVISTAS identified and reviewed a total of 7 studies on this subject area, primarily in the North American context. Again, this section distinguishes between key literature selected and additional literature, based on the selection criteria discussed in earlier sections.


25. Marijke Taks, Laurence Chalip, B. Christine Green, Stefan Kesenne & Scott Martyn (2009). “Factors Affecting Repeat Visitation and Flow-on Tourism as Sources of Event Strategy Sustainability.” Journal of Sport & Tourism, 14:2-3, 121-142.

“The sustainability of including medium sized one-time sport events in an event portfolio is examined with reference to the capacity of one such event to stimulate flow-on tourism (i.e. tourism activities beyond the event but around the time of the event), a desire to return to the destination, and positive word-of-mouth. Relationships among four motives (socialising, escape, learning about the destination, and learning about athletics), identification with the event (self and social identity), previous visitation to the host destination, information search, tourism activities, and likelihood of recommending and/or returning to the host destination were examined for four categories of attendees at the Pan American Junior Athletics Championships: primary purpose spectators, casual spectators, athletes, and non-athlete participants. All four categories of attendee engaged in some


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information search and participated in flow-on tourism, but to a low degree. Information search fostered flow-on tourism. Classic tourism activities (e.g. sightseeing, visiting museums) were motivated by a desire to learn about the destination, and encouraged future visitation and likelihood of recommendation. It is concluded that medium-sized one-time sport events can play a sustainable role in event portfolios, but their efficacy requires greater integration of destination experiences with the event. It is suggested that future work should examine the means to cultivate that integration, including creation of more effective alliances between destination marketers and event organizers.”

Key Findings:

Indicates that it is “the experience of the destination itself that is most likely to result in flow-on tourism or repeat visitation and positive word-of-mouth” suggesting that “destinations' attributes are "pull factors"; motives and identity are "push" factors.”

26. Lord Cultural Resources & Brain Trust. (2009). “Ontario cultural and heritage tourism product research paper.”

“This cultural and heritage tourism research paper is one of thirteen research papers commissioned to provide guidance to the Ontario Tourism Competitiveness Study. This study creates a framework for identifying, evaluating, promoting and supporting high yield cultural tourism opportunities in the province from the consumer perspective. Thus there is an emphasis on understanding the needs of the 21st-Century cultural tourist. The strategic recommendations in this paper have been developed to provide guidance to the Province of Ontario in how to invest in developing and positioning Ontario as a significant cultural tourism destination on the world stage.”

Key Findings:

Identifies three characteristics for maximizing the economic benefit of a major tourism project: “high quality, distinctiveness, and that have the space to expand to accommodate additional infrastructure development.”

Describes “creative and ‘consumptive’ experiences” as key factors making a destination attractive to visitors that can stimulate repeat visitation.


27. Dimanche, F. (2007). “Hosting signature events for anchoring destinations.” World Tourism Conference, Keynote Presentation.

“This presentation will present the benefits of a marketing strategy that gains increasing attention from destinations worldwide, as well as from businesses: special events. Indeed, events are not just products; they are marketing strategies that are increasingly used to position a destination, to anchor a destination in the minds of the customers.”


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28. Eastgate, A. & Funk, D. (2007). “Exploring the role of sport event in establishment of place attachment towards a sport event host destination.” European Association for Sport Management, 9, p. 76-78.

“The findings provide evidence that participants of a sporting event can form an attachment to the place where an event is held. Some level of meaning has been attributed to the place as a result of the sport event experience. If this is true, then using events to attract competitors to a destination should assist in the formation of attachment or a positive attitude to the destination through the event experience.

Destinations hold sport events to attract people to attend but also encourage repeat visitation. These data support the notion that formation of a strong attachment to the place has an effect on likelihood of intention to return and to recommend to others. The level of attachment with Port Macquarie after the event was significantly related to intention to return to Port Macquarie for a holiday in the future. The event experience leads to attachment to the destination which is likely to lead the sport event tourist to consider the destination in the future. It is also possible that the attitude toward the sport event creates a proximal effect for the destination so that even though the event is not on, the fact that the individual has attended the event and the destination changes the way the individual views the destination.

Understanding of the role of place attachment for special events will allow sport and destination marketers to attempt to change attitudes toward a destination by using a blend of events that may foster attachment toward the event host. However, further research is needed to discover the process by which place attachment, particularly place identification, is formed and what aspects of a destination coupled with an event will lead to the formation of an emotional bond.”

29. Boyd, S. (2002). “Cultural and heritage tourism in Canada: Opportunities, principles and challenges.” Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3(3), 211-233.

“Tourists today are increasingly seeking new and different experiences beyond those provided within 'three S' destinations and traditional holiday places. Heritage appeal within destinations is capturing the interest of a more mature and discerning market. Canada as a destination is well placed to benefit from this trend, marketing heritage over other forms of travel experience. This paper is in three parts. First, a discussion of heritage tourism in Canada is presented that stresses diversity over the myth of a product base that is limited around a few themes, namely Mounties, mountains and moose. Secondly, principles of sustainable heritage tourism are advanced that include authenticity and quality, conserving and protecting the resource base, provision of learning as integral to the experience, and the development of partnerships between hosts, guests and managers.Thirdly, based on field visits undertaken in 1998 to sites containing cultural and heritage tourism attractions within the provinces of Ontario (mainly the southwestern region) and Alberta, these principles are examined and discussion is provided on the challenges managers of sites face in implementing such principles.”2

2 ‘Three S’ destinations are characterized as having access to sun, sand and sea.


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30. Lee, C., (2001). “Predicting tourist attachment to destinations.” Annals of Tourism Research, 28(1), 229-232.

“People attach meaning to places such as homes, communities, and parks. It is widely accepted, for example, that national parks enjoy a special status in America (Brown 1990). Similarly, Disneyland, which is said to reflect modern American culture, has been treated as a modern utopia, a playground for adults and children (Maanen 1992). The implied symbolic meanings are part of what has been termed “place identity.” It is a construct used in environmental psychology which has been applied to the leisure field as well (Williams, Patterson and Roggenbuck 1992). Proshansky (1978) refers to it as a person's unique relationship to his physical surroundings, suggesting that the environment helps create and maintain one's self. In the field of tourism, this construct has found limited use when the attachment to a community was investigated in relation to residents’ as length of residence and perceived impact of tourism (McCool and Martin 1994). It identifies a destination as a collection of features appealing to tourists (Hu and Ritchie 1993). However, the attachment to a destination needs to be expanded to include not just an aggregate of attributes but its consideration as an entity that tourists experience. Williams et al (1992) suggest that place is probably best understood by focusing on its symbolic meaning rather than on the sum of its physical attributes. Similarly, Lee, Backman and Backman (1997) emphasize that the psychological attachment is important in understanding tourist behavior, including repeat visitation. As a consequence, the latter helps for example, increase tourist numbers to a destination through referrals and positive word-of-mouth. Likewise, an understanding of their preferences helps establish good business–customer relationships (Haywood, 1989). The purpose of the present exploratory study is to apply the concept of tourist attachment to a destination.”

31. Leiper, N. (1979). “The framework of tourism: Towards a definition of tourism, tourist, and the tourist industry.” Annals of Tourism Research, 6(4), 390-407.

“A framework for the general study of tourism is discussed. Three approaches to the topic: economic, technical, and holistic are identified and analysed; it is argued that its multi facets require a holistic definition. A systems methodology is used to develop a new definition of tourism. Five elements are isolated: tourists, three geographical elements (generating region, transit route, and destination region), and a tourist industry. The process of tourism is dissected to show that it is inherently a partially-industrialized one, and the tourist industry is shown to contain several sectors with functional and spatial connections across the system. Suggested applications of the framework are proposed, in academic research, education, business and government arenas of tourism. The main theme is that tourism's many facets are connected and that it is both possible and desirable to include an explicit recognition of those connections in general studies of the subject.”


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4.4 How Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions Affect a Tourism Brand This area of the document explores the effect of strategically important tourism destinations and attractions on a country’s tourism brand. Key findings from this literature review suggest that it is more effective for government to focus on the most well-known and iconic attractions for promoting tourism branding, rather than spread its advertising funds across multiple attractions. However, one study found that although mega or hallmark events can generate increased awareness and an enhanced image, these benefits may decay over time and does not necessarily translate to growth in visitors, tourism spending and economic impacts.

A total of 13 studies were identified on this topic, covering a number of jurisdictions including Canada and countries in Europe and Asia. Again, the literature is divided into two subsections based on the previously described selection criteria.


32. Litvin, S. & Mouri, N. (2009) “A Comparative Study of the Use of “Iconic” versus “Generic” Advertising Images for Destination Marketing.” Journal of Travel Research 48 (2) 152-161.

“This research reports the results of an empirical study that compared the effectiveness of two advertising approaches, “generic” versus “iconic,” in affecting a destination image. While politics may dictate that a state (as studied herein) or national tourism office may feel the need to spread advertising funds across a range of destinations, the experiment conducted for this study suggests that a focus on well-known iconic sites may well represent the more effective approach.”

Key Findings:

Indicates that “tourism offices interested in enhancing their image and thus promoting tourist visitation numbers are best served, from a strict marketing perspective, by promoting their destination’s well-known and dominant “iconic” tourism assets.”

33. Florek, M., Breitbarth, T. & Conejo, F. (2008). “Mega event = mega impact? Travelling fans' experience and perceptions of the 2006 FIFA World Cup host nation.” Journal of Sport & Tourism, 13(3), 199-219.

“Mega sports events provide organisers with a unique opportunity to modify the international image of the host country. The article tracks and analyses the destination image change of travelling New Zealand football fans as a result of having attended the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany. The event itself, rather than team support or destination attractiveness was the main motivation to travel. The article follows a longitudinal approach into the subject, methodologically distinct and advanced from previous studies due to its ‘pre-then-post’ approach. Findings from the surveys and interviews show a significant improvement of the host country's image as a result of respondents' direct experience. In particular, respondents thought of Germany as a less expensive, more friendly and multi-cultural place. Insights into the character and dimensions of this change are provided, reflecting on ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ factors of destination


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image. The analysis of results defines which aspects of sports supporters' perceptions go beyond the pure sports experience. This offers avenues for future research into the link between mega sports events, travelling fans' host country experience and tourism destination promotion.”

Key Findings:

Defines mega-events as “planned occurrences of limited duration which have an extraordinary impact on the host area in terms or one or more of the following: tourist volumes, visitor expenditures, publicity leading to a heightened awareness and a more positive image, related infrastructural and organizational developments which substantial increase the destination's capacity and attractiveness.

Indicates that “mega sports events provide organizers with a unique opportunity to modify the international image of the host country. Host country's image showed a significant improvement as a result of direct experience.”

34. Ritchie, J. R. & Smith, B. H. (1991). “The impact of a mega-event on host regional awareness: A longitudinal study.” Journal of Travel Research, 30(1), 3-10.

“Purpose – The purpose of this study is to examine the theoretical relationship between event quality perceptions of an international sport event and the host city's destination image.

“Design/methodology/approach – Reliability and validity of the measurement scale were established through a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), Cronbach's alpha analyses, and intercorrelation analyses. A structural equation model (SEM) test with maximum likelihood estimation was performed to test the relationship among the research variables using 451 participants.

“Findings – The results suggest that event quality perceptions, particularly intangible factors, positively influence the destination image. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

“Originality/value – To date, there have been few empirical studies examining the relationship between international sport event quality and destination image. Consequently, understanding the role of event quality of an international sport event and the destination image in a tourist's decision-making process, and their theoretical relationship, will make both scientific and practical contributions.”

Key Findings:

Defines hallmark and mega events as “events that reach such a size or attain such a stature that their impacts become quite substantial.”

Identifies increased awareness and an enhanced image as key factors sought by tourism organizers, which are assumed to “provide a stronger competitive position and greater benefits from tourism” over the long term. However, it is found that general awareness can decay over time, and does not necessarily “translate into increased visitation levels, tourism receipts and economic growth.”


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35. Lew, A. A. (1987). “A framework of tourist attraction research.” Annals of Tourism Research, 14(4), 553-575.

“Although tourist attractions are fundamental to the very existence of tourism, there have been few attempts to come to terms with the breadth of approaches that have been employed in their study. An examination of research methods used in the study of tourist attractions and the tourist attractiveness of places reveals that most studies can be classified into one or more of three general perspectives: the ideographic listing, the organization, and the tourist cognition of attractions. Each of these perspectives shares a distinct set of questions concerning the nature of the attractions, as expressed through the typologies used in their evaluation. At the same time, all three perspectives make comparisons based on the historical, locational, and various valuational aspects of attractions. This framework can be applied in the comparison and evaluation of tourist attraction related research.”

Key Findings:

States that “tourists primarily relate to the promoted or advertised image, rather than the direct experience of the site.”


36. Qu, H., Kim, L., & Im, H. (2011). “A model of destination branding: Integrating the concepts of the branding and destination image.” Tourism Management, 32(3), p. 465-476.

“Despite the significance of destination branding in both academia and industry, literature on its conceptual development is limited. The current study aims to develop and test a theoretical model of destination branding, which integrates the concepts of the branding and destination image. The study suggests unique image as a new component of destination brand associations. It is proposed that the overall image of the destination (i.e., brand image) is a mediator between its brand associations (i.e., cognitive, affective, and unique image components) and tourists’ future behaviors (i.e., intentions to revisit and recommend). The results confirmed that overall image is influenced by three types of brand associations and is a critical mediator between brand associations and tourists’ future behaviors. In addition, unique image had the second largest impact on the overall image formation, following the cognitive evaluations.”

37. Park, Y. & Njite, D. (2010). “Relationship between destination image and tourists’ future behavior: Observations from Jeju Island, Korea.” Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 15(1), p. 1-20.

“The objectives of this study were to examine the influence of destination image of Jeju Island on tourists’ satisfaction and future behavior as well as to suggest ideas Jeju Island should adopt to improve its current marketing strategy. The image of Jeju Island was assessed on four factors: “environment”, “attractions”, “value for money” and “climate.” Three factors, “environment”, “attractions” and “value for money”, have a significant effect on satisfaction and also influence future behavior. The structural equation model (SEM) was used to verify the relationship between image, satisfaction and future behavior. The


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SEMs were analyzed to find the differences between the four segments in relation to the perceived image of Jeju. Different segments have different image perceptions of Jeju Island. The different dimensions of Jeju Island image have different influences on the different segments of tourists. The findings of this study contribute to development of the marketing strategies to satisfy tourists’ needs on Jeju Island, Korea.”

38. Nicola Greaves, Heather Skinner, (2010). "The importance of destination image analysis to UK rural tourism.” Marketing Intelligence & Planning, Vol. 28 Iss. 4 pp. 486 – 507.

“Purpose – The Forest of Dean attracts relatively low numbers of staying visitors and low visitor spend. The paper aims to explore the image of this destination and identify the potential to visit along with any underlying factors that may deter visitors.

“Design/methodology/approach – A mix of qualitative and quantitative methods were used to gather and analyse responses to an online survey. Respondents offered a range of words and pictures from which they were asked to select those they felt best represented the destination, and also then asked to explain their selection. Quantitative data were also analysed for frequency of occurrence. A content analysis of qualitative data was conducted to generate destination image clusters of the Forest of Dean.

“Findings – The findings show there is a very positive and unique image associated with the Forest of Dean among previous visitors, with many expressing an intention to visiting the area again.

“Research limitations/implications – Although response rates are relatively low, and results are heavily concentrated on actual visitors, the research provides very broad ranging and meaningful data that have offered a deeper and richer insight into the image of the Forest of Dean.

“Practical implications – The paper has provided important data from which new competitive brand image strategies can be developed for the destination. The paper also provides a first step towards a comprehensive image analysis for the Forest of Dean, from which future promotional strategies can be developed.

“Originality/value – Many visitor guides promote UK rural destinations on their superb scenery, relaxation, outdoor leisure activities, quality accommodation, locally-sourced food, a range of attractions and a full calendar of events and festivals. To date there has been very little research carried out on UK rural destination brands and no academic research carried out on the image or branding of the Forest of Dean as a unique rural destination.”

39. Lee, Y., Lee, C. & Lee. B. (2005). “Korea’s Destination Image Formed by the 2002 World Cup.” Annals of Tourism Research, 32(4), p. 839-858.

“Mega events have many effects on host regions. Considering their influence on tourist behavior, image-related effects merit more attention. In spite of broad agreement among scholars regarding the influence of image on individual behavior, little empirical research has been conducted on this aspect. This study focuses on the influence of various dimensions of destination image on onsite experiences, of these on overall evaluation and behavioral intentions, and of the latter on behavioral intentions. The results show that the four dimensions of image have differential effects on these experiences, which in turn influence subsequent behavior.”


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40. Blain, C., Levy, S. & Ritchie, J. (2005). “Destination Branding: Insights and Practices from Destination Management Organizations.” Journal of Travel Research, 43(4) 328-338.

“Although the concept of branding has been applied extensively to products and services, tourism destination branding is a relatively recent phenomenon. In particular, destination branding remains narrowly defined to many practitioners in destination management organizations (DMOs) and is not well represented in the tourism literature. Consequently, this study has three goals. First, it attempts to review the conceptual and theoretical underpinnings of branding as conveyed by leading authors in the marketing field. Second, it seeks to refine and enhance the definition of destination branding (acceptable to and understood by tourism destination managers) to more fully represent the complexities of the tourism product. Third, and most importantly, it seeks to improve our understanding of current destination branding practices among DMOs. The findings indicate that although DMO executives generally understand the concept of destination branding, respondents are implementing only selective aspects of this concept, particularly logo design and development.”

41. Richards, G. & Wilson, J. (2004) “The Impact of Cultural Events on City Image: Rotterdam, Cultural Capital of Europe 2001.” Urban Studies 41 (10) 1931-1951.

“Cities are increasingly using cultural events to improve their image, stimulate urban development and attract visitors and investment. As part of its event-led regeneration strategy, Rotterdam staged the 'Cultural Capital of Europe' event in 2001. The aims were to attract visitors and to stimulate cultural consumption among residents, while positioning Rotterdam as a cultural destination. Over 2000 questionnaire responses by resident and non-resident visitors to the Cultural Capital event were used to evaluate the image effects of the event. In depth interviews were also undertaken with policy-makers and cultural managers, to permit evaluation of survey findings in the context of richer qualitative material. The image of the city as a cultural destination did improve in 2001, but the physical and tangible elements of the city's image (modern architecture, water) and its character as the working city of the Netherlands continued to dominate.”

42. Whitson, D. (2004). “Bringing the world to Canada: 'The periphery of the centre'.” Third World Quarterly, 25(7), 1215-1232.

“Canada is not a peripheral country by most standards. However, since the 1960s, Canadian cities have sought to change the somewhat provincial image they have historically had, and they have used mega-events such as Olympic Games, World Expositions and other 'second order' international sports events to try to reposition themselves on the world stage. This paper examines the place promotion agendas of the two Canadian cities that have hosted Olympic Games, and will also comment on the aspirations of Vancouver, which will host the Winter Olympics in 2010. The core of the paper will concentrate on different aspects of 're-imaging' the city: image building, signalling and identity transformation. Here I argue that an important but widely overlooked aspect of increasing the stature of a city involves changing the ways that citizens of that city think about themselves. The next section will examine whether the exposure and the opportunities for civic promotion afforded by a Games actually translate into economic growth. I will argue that the evidence for this is mixed at best. Finally, the paper argues


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that the public money spent on Olympics typically brings the greatest benefits to local and regional elites, despite popular rhetoric that such events are good for the 'community as a whole'.”

43. Jago, L. Chalip, L., Brown, G., Mules, T. & Ali, S. (2003). “Building Events Into Destination Branding: Insights From Experts.” Event Management 8 (1) 3-14.

“Events have become an increasingly significant component of destination branding. Although events are thought to be important contributors to their host destination's brand, the most effective means by which to leverage them in order to build that brand are poorly understood. To explore the potential uses for events in destination branding, workshops with leading event and destination marketers were conducted by the CRC for Sustainable Tourism throughout Australia. The workshops were designed to clarify what destination and event marketers do when using events in destination branding. The workshops then identified what the industry would like to know to make better use of events in this regard. Workshop participants identified community support and a good strategic and cultural fit with the destination as necessary bases for building events into destination branding. Other themes that emerged were: the need for an event to be differentiated from others, the longevity/tradition of the event at the destination, cooperative planning between key players, and media support of the event. Participants also recognized the need to consider the effects of events with reference to the overall portfolio of events at a destination. It was noted that event marketers and destination marketers have not yet learned how to synergize their efforts, and that there is a consequent need for further research into the best means to use events to build a destination's brand.

“The consensus of workshop participants was that it is appropriate to use events to change a destination’s brand, but only if the initiative is led by the community and is not something imposed upon it. Respondents added that, if planned well, and with the full backing of the community, an event may lead to new opportunities for the community and might help the community develop a greater appreciation of itself.

“Participants’ emphasis on community leadership when using events to change a destination brand is consistent with their view that there needs to be a cultural and strategic fit between the event and the destination. In fact, they felt that the same factors that were identified as requisites for events to contribute to a destination brand are also required when events are used to change a destination’s brand. They also suggested that an event’s role in changing a destination brand is facilitated when an event affects a community’s appreciation of itself. Events were also seen to be particularly beneficial if a destination seeks to develop infrastructure, enhance its saleability and “can do” image, or inject life back into itself.”

44. Moon, K., Kim, M., Ko, Y., Connaughton, D., & Lee, J. (1991). “The Influence of Consumer’s Event Quality Perception on Destination Image.” Managing Service Quality, 22(3), 287-303.

“A center or region which hosts a major event attracting global attention is affected in many positive and negative ways. From a tourism perspective, perhaps the major benefits sought by organizers are increased awareness and an enhanced image for the host region in the international marketplace. It is assumed that this increased awareness and


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enhanced image will, over the long term, provide a stronger competitive position and greater benefits from tourism. The present research reports the findings of a five year study to monitor and assess the extent to which one mega-event, the 1988 Calgary Olympic Winter Games, did impact on the international levels of awareness and the image of the host city. Data were collected annually from 1986 through 1989 in some 20 centers in the United States and Europe. The results indicate that, in this particular case, the event dramatically increased levels of awareness and substantially modified the image of the city of Calgary. However, there is also strong evidence that cities considering the staging of such a mega-event must anticipate a significant rate of awareness and image decay, and take steps to counter it, if they wish to remain visible and competitive in the international marketplace.”

4.5 How Strategically Important Tourism Destinations and Attractions are Measured 4.5.1 Selected Literature on the Economic Impact Assessment

Methodological Approach

This section discusses the various methodological approaches for assessing economic impacts identified from this literature review. Based on review of the following 3 studies, various types of economic impacts can be identified, as well as different approaches and methodologies for measuring these impacts. The key findings below highlight these differences.

45. Greffe, X. (2009). “The economic impact of the Louvre.”

“When we want to measure the economic benefit of a cultural institution, we generally choose between two main approaches: considering its significance from the perspective of demand, which implies an assessment of contingent values, or considering its significance from the perspective of supply, which implies carrying out an impact analysis.”

Key Findings:

Identifies two methods of assessing tourism economic impacts:

- Demand Perspective Impact Analysis or Contingent Value Method (i.e., surveys potential visitors to assess the value they place on gaining access to a tourism attraction or destination); and

- Supply Perspective Impact Analysis (i.e., uses input-output multipliers to transform tourism expenditure data into economic impacts and spin-off effects).

Identifies cultural activities as a key driver for economic growth, regardless of the current level of economic development.

46. Kasimati, E. (2003). “Economic aspects and the Summer Olympics: A review of related research.” International Journal of Tourism Research, 5(6), 433-444.

“As the Summer Olympics are growing with larger media coverage and sponsorship, host cities have started to attach great importance to the tourism and other likely economic


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effects that occur by staging such a special event. As a result, a number of studies have been conducted to consider the various economic implications on the hosts. This paper examines and evaluates methods and assumptions used by the economic studies. It also compares ex-ante models and forecasts with the ex-post approach. The aim is to improve the information available to policy makers and potential future hosts of Summer Olympics and other mega-events.”

Key Findings:

Identifies two main approaches for assessing economic impacts:

- The input-output (I/O) framework (i.e., uses input-output multipliers to produce economic impacts and spin-off effects, and assumes “particular proportions of consuming the inputs and used them intact, regardless of the scale of the injected funds and the surge in the economic activity. As a result, they failed to take into account economies of scale, production close to full capacity and price adaptations to demand changes.); and

- The computable general equilibrium (CGE) framework (i.e., uses input–output structure for the production side of the economy, but include sectoral-level production functions and disaggregated demand functions for consumption, imports, investments, etc., while accounting for behavioural functions and flexible prices).

Examines two different methodologies for assessing economic impacts:

- Ex-ante economic impact (i.e., forecasts the likely growth in tourism and economic impacts); and

- Ex-post economic impact (i.e., isolates the event from other factors and examines the economic situation before and after the event).

47. Hiller, H. H. (1998). “Assessing the impact of mega-events: A linkage model.” Current Issues in Tourism, 1(1), 47-57.

“Mega-events are usually assessed in terms of the economic impact of the event itself with little attention given to the event as part of a broader process that can be investigated longitudinally. An adapted political economy model is proposed (because the mega-event is seen as essentially an economic initiative) that distinguishes three kinds of linkages. Forward linkages refer to the effects caused by the event itself. Backward linkages refer to the powerful background objectives which justify or rationalise the event. Parallel linkages are side-effects which are residual to the event itself and not directly under the control of event organisers. This longitudinal approach also distinguishes between pre-event, event and post-event impacts so that unintended and unanticipated consequences can be identified. The model is applied to the issue of displacement as a parallel linkage and to other issues of housing and impacts on neighboring communities to the mega-event site. It is concluded that impact assessment ought to be part of every mega-event plan, and that impact equity and a mitigation plan to control adverse effects ought to be in place.”


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Key Findings:

Provides definition of mega-events and its effects.

Discusses the three possible linkages from the Linkages Model:

- Forward Linkage (i.e., assumes the event itself as the cause, and looks at positive direct effects);

- Backward Linkage (i.e., considers the background objectives for hosting the event); and

- Parallel Linkage (i.e., examines side effects of the event).

Discusses three types of tourism economic impacts:

- Pre-event impacts;

- Event impacts; and

- Post-event impacts.

4.5.2 Economic Impact Models and Related Studies

This section provides an inventory of 103 tourism economic impact models or related studies that have been completed in Canada and in other parts of the world. It is evident from this body of literature that input-output multipliers are among the most commonly used methods for estimating tourism economic impacts in practice.

The citations below are arranged by geographic location, starting with an extensive coverage of Canada as a whole and by select province (where relevant studies are readily available), and supplemented with studies from other jurisdictions including the United States, as well as countries within Latin America, Europe, Asia Pacific, and Africa.

Canada as a Whole

Regularly Updated Models/Accounts

48. Statistics Canada (2009). “User’s Guide to the Canadian Input-Output Interprovincial Model, June 2009.” http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/bsolc/olc-cel/olc-cel?catno=15F0009X&lang=eng

“The input-output (I-O) models are used to simulate the economic impact on the business sector of an expenditure on a given basket of goods and services or the output of one of several industries. The simulation results from a "shock" to an I-O model will show the direct and indirect impacts, which industries benefit the most, the number of jobs created, rough estimates of indirect taxes and subsidies generated, etc.”


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49. Statistics Canada. “International Travel Survey.” http://www23.statcan.gc.ca:81/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=getSurvey&SDDS=5005&lang=en&db=imdb&adm=8&dis=2

“The International Travel Survey (ITS) provides statistics on travellers, to and from Canada. The Frontier Counts component provides a full range of statistics on the number of international travellers by selected category and by type of transportation as well as the number of automobiles, trucks and other vehicles (motorcycles, snowmobiles, bicycles) entering Canada.

“The Frontier Counts survey is a component of the International Travel Survey Program (ITS), together with Mail-back Questionnaires and Air Exit Survey of Overseas Travellers. It is an ongoing survey conducted at all ports of entry into Canada. The Frontier Counts survey provides a full range of statistics on the number of international travellers by selected category and by type of transportation as well as the number of automobiles, trucks and other vehicles (motorcycles, snowmobiles, bicycles) entering Canada.

“The survey is currently administered as part of the International Travel Survey Program (ITS). The ITS provides a full range of statistics on the volume of international travellers and detailed characteristics of their trips such as expenditures, activities, places visited and length of stay.”

50. Statistics Canada. “Tourism Satellite Account.” http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/bsolc/olc-cel/olc-cel?lang=eng&catno=13-604-M1994031

“The Tourism Satellite Account (TSA) provides some answers to such questions as which industries constitute ‘the tourism industry’, what are the industry’s GDP and employment, and what is the extent of tourism-related expenditures. The purpose of the TSA is to measure the economic activity generated by tourism as defined, that is, the demand for commodities created by tourism and the production required to meet that demand. The demand for commodities created by tourism is referred to as ‘tourism demand’. It includes all travel related expenses made before and after the trip, such as purchases of luggage and film processing, as well as those incurred during a trip, such as purchases of accommodation and meals. In order to capture the interlocking flows of commodities as they relate to tourism, the TSA uses the framework of the input-output accounts. Not only does this framework show the relationships between the production of and the demand for tourism and non-tourism commodities, it also requires a balance between the supply and demand for a commodity and between the inputs and outputs of an industry. The total supply of each tourism or non-tourism commodity must equal the sum of its tourism and non-tourism demand. Similarly, for each tourism or non-tourism industry, gross output, which corresponds to the sum of all revenues, must equal the sum of all inputs or production costs, including returns to labour and capital.”

51. Canadian Tourism Commission. “Quarterly National Tourism Indicators.”

“A summary of bottom-line figures that measure the tourism industry’s progress. Includes: total tourism spending, total domestic spending, total foreign spending, and total tourism employment. A report is released every quarter.”


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52. Canadian Tourism Commission. “Quarterly International Travel Accounts.”

“Measures tourism deficit and offers economic highlights. The International Travel Account (ITA) measures the difference between what Canadians spend abroad and what foreigners spend in Canada. This international travel account analysis is based on preliminary quarterly data that is seasonally unadjusted. Amounts are in Canadian dollars and are not adjusted for inflation. A report is released every quarter.”

53. Canadian Tourism Commission. “Quarterly Travel Characteristics.” http://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/376079/publication.html

“This publication provides an in-depth overview of the travel characteristics of the Canadian Tourism Commission’s key international markets with, a focus on the average spend per night in Canada, CTC’s yield performance metric. The report is primarily based on data and figures from Statistics Canada’s International Travel Survey. A report is released every quarter.”

Publication Studies

54. Strategic Network Groups. (2009). “Economic Impact of Golf for Canada: Executive Summary and Findings Report.”

“Based on a nation-wide survey of more than 4,000 golfers and 350 golf courses in 10 provinces and three territories, the Economic impact study (EIS) of golf for Canada (“Measuring the game of golf in Canada”) provides the first comprehensive and independent assessment of the economic impact of the golf industry in Canada.

“This study provides new quantitative evidence of the economic significance of the sport to the Canadian, provincial and territorial economies, through primary research augmented by secondary information sources. The results demonstrate the substantial role golf has in the economy of Canada in terms of: Golf’s “Gross Domestic Product” in Canada – including all goods and services that are directly and indirectly related to the game, with analysis of who benefits from golf, and to what extent; and Other spin-off economic impacts such as employment and household income at the national, provincial and territorial scales.”

55. The Outspan Group. (2009). “The economic impacts of cultural and sport tourism in Canada 2007.”

“This study is to quantify the economic impacts of cultural and sport tourism in the 2007 calendar year using recently released Statistics Canada survey data. The economic impacts are derived from survey data that captured the spending by Canadian and foreign tourists to Canada. The purpose was to show the importance of culture and sport events as generators of tourism through an analysis of tourist spending and economic impacts.”

56. Canadian Tourism Commission. “Government Revenue Attributable to Tourism, 2007.”

“This publication presents estimates of government revenues attributable to tourism for the years 2000 to 2007. Estimates of the revenue attributable to tourism spending by non-residents (i.e. tourism exports) and by residents (i.e. tourism domestic demand) are also included for the first time. The main data sources are the Canadian Tourism Satellite


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Account, National Tourism Indicators, the Income and Expenditure Accounts, the Input-Output tables and T4 tax remittance files.

“Government revenue covers receipts from taxes on incomes (i.e., on employment earnings, corporate profits, net income of unincorporated business and government business enterprises), contributions to social insurance plans (i.e., premiums for Canada/Quebec Pension Plan, Employment Insurance and workers compensation), taxes on production and products (such as sales and property taxes), and from sales of government goods and services. These revenues are broken down into parts that can be attributed to tourism spending, tourism domestic demand and tourism exports for government as a whole and for the three levels of government (federal, provincial/territorial and municipal) separately. Estimates of the government revenue generated per $100 of tourism spending overall and by residents and non-residents are reported as well.”

57. Research Resolutions & Consulting Ltd. (2005). “Guidelines: Survey Procedures for Assessment of On-Site Spending at Gated Events and Festivals.”

“These guidelines are designed to enable organizers of small and medium sized fairs, festivals and events across North America to produce more credible and consistent inputs for estimating their tourism economic impact and/or estimates of on-site spending. A new level of consistency and professionalism will be brought to this important measurement task as event organizers adopt the guidelines as minimum standards.

“Events that elect to measure other characteristics such as attendee satisfaction and profile information will also benefit from the application of the procedures and minimum standards described in these guidelines. A further goal of the project was to explore alternative ways to estimate the value of an event or festival. To this end, a discussion paper on approaches to estimating non-market values was prepared (available under separate cover). This document covers topics such as willingness to pay (WTP), and other forms of revealed or stated preference in the context of events and festivals.”

58. Research Resolutions & Consulting Ltd. (2005). “Guidelines: Survey Procedures for Assessment of On-Site Spending at Ungated or Open Access Events and Festivals.”

“These guidelines are designed to enable organizers of small and medium sized fairs, festivals and events across North America to produce more credible and consistent inputs for estimating their tourism economic impact and/or estimates of on-site spending 3. A new level of consistency and professionalism will be brought to this important measurement task as event organizers adopt the guidelines as minimum standards.



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59. Research Resolutions & Consulting Ltd. (2005). “Guidelines: Survey Procedures for Assessment of On-Site Spending at Gated and Ungated or Open Access Events and Festivals. Appendices I – IV.”

60. Research Resolutions & Consulting Ltd. (2005). “Appendix V: Sample Tally Question List and Tally Form for Measuring On-Site Spending at Gated/Ungated Events and Festivals.”

61. Research Resolutions & Consulting Ltd. (2005). “Appendix VI: Sample Attendee Survey Questionnaire for Measuring On-Site Spending at Gated/Ungated Events and Festivals.”

62. Research Resolutions & Consulting Ltd. (2005). “Guidelines: Survey Procedures for Tourism Economic Impact Assessments of Gated Events and Festivals.”

“These guidelines are designed to enable organizers of small and medium sized fairs, festivals and events across North America to produce more credible and consistent inputs for estimating their tourism economic impact and/or estimates of on-site spending 3. A new level of consistency and professionalism will be brought to this important measurement task as event organizers adopt the guidelines as minimum standards.


63. Research Resolutions & Consulting Ltd. (2005). “Guidelines: Survey Procedures for Tourism Economic Impact Assessments of Ungated or Open Access Events and Festivals.”

“These guidelines are designed to enable organizers of small and medium sized fairs, festivals and events across North America to produce more credible and consistent inputs for estimating their tourism economic impact1. A new level of consistency and professionalism will be brought to this important measurement task as event organizers adopt the guidelines as minimum standards.

“Events that elect to measure other characteristics such as on-site spending and attendee satisfaction and profile information will also benefit from the application of the procedures and minimum standards described in these guidelines. A further goal of the project was to explore alternative ways to estimate the value of an event or festival. To this end, a discussion paper on approaches to estimating non-market values was prepared (available under separate cover). This document covers topics such as willingness to pay (WTP), and other forms of revealed or stated preference in the context of events and festivals.”

64. Research Resolutions & Consulting Ltd. (2005). “Guidelines: Survey Procedures for Tourism Economic Impact Assessments of Gated or Ungated Events and Festivals Appendices I – V.”

“These guidelines assume that on-site spending and “other spending” is calculated separately, as per the sample Attendee Survey Non-Local questionnaire included in these materials. The principles listed below would be applied separately for On-Site and Other


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Spending. (See Guidelines for Calculating Average Spending for Allocation/ Ascription for more details.)”

65. Research Resolutions & Consulting Ltd. (2005). “Appendix VII: Sample Attendee Survey Questionnaires (Non-Local & Local Versions).”

66. The Canadian Institute for Research on Regional Development. “The Culture Sector in Atlantic Canada: Its Economic Impact and Export Potential, 2004.”

“This study has a dual objective: to define the economic impact of the culture sector in Atlantic Canada, and to study more closely the export potential of our cultural industries. The objective of the economic impact analysis is to measure the unduplicated value of economic activity associated with culture activities. This is done by estimating the contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the number of jobs associated with the creation, production, manufacturing and distribution of cultural goods and services.”

British Columbia

67. Tourism British Columbia. (2011). “The Value of Tourism in British Columbia, Trends from 1999 to 2009, December 2011.”

“This document presents 10 years of data about the economic value of tourism to British Columbia. Strong tourism growth was demonstrated between 1999 and 2007, but was affected in 2008 and 2009 by the worldwide downturn in the economy. The tourism industry started its recovery in 2010, and is expected to continue to rebound in future years.

“The tourism industry plays a significant role in the BC economy in terms of revenue earned by tourism businesses, value added to the economy by tourism activities, and creation of employment opportunities.”

68. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2011). “The Games Effect. Report 7: Global Summary of the Impact of the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games on British Columbia and Canada 2003 to 2010.”

“The Government of British Columbia and the Government of Canada have made major commitments to the success of the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games (the 2010 Winter Games). These commitments have encompassed funding for 2010 Winter Games-related infrastructure and operations, together with a wide range of policy and funding initiatives aimed at using the 2010 Winter Games as a catalyst for implementing, enhancing and/or accelerating programs for individuals, organizations and communities.

“As a result, the Government of British Columbia through the BC Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games Secretariat (the BC Secretariat) and the Government of Canada through the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games Federal Secretariat (the Federal Secretariat) have identified the need to assess the economic and social impacts of the Winter Games before, during and after hosting the Games.

“PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP (PwC) has been engaged to conduct this series of impact assessments using a combination of research and benchmarking methods. The entire project will run from 2008 through 2013.


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The reports in this series are:

Report 1: Discusses the overall project methodology (the Framework Report)

Report 2: Summarises the impact of the 2010 Winter Games from 2003 to 2007

Report 3: Provides a detailed report of the impact of the 2010 Winter Games from 2003 to 2008

Report 4: Compares the estimated economic impacts from the time of awarding the Games in 2003 through to 2008 with the economic impacts projected prior to awarding the Games

Report 5: Provides a detailed report of the impacts of the 2010 Winter Games in 2009

Report 6: Provides a preliminary estimates of the economic impacts from the time of awarding the Games in 2003 through March 31, 2010

Report 7: Provides a detailed report of the impacts of the 2010 Winter Games from 2003 to 2010”

69. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2010). “The Games Effect. Report 6: Preliminary Economic Impact of the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games on British Columbia and Canada to March 31, 2010.”

See the description for Report 7.

70. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2010). “The Games Effect. Report 5: Impact of the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games on British Columbia and Canada: 2009.”


71. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2009). “The Games Effect. Report 4: Economic Impact of the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games on British Columbia and Canada: 2003-2008.”


72. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2009). “The Games Effect. Report 3: Impact of the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games on British Columbia and Canada: 2003-2008.”


73. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2009). “The Games Effect. Report 2: Impact of the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games on British Columbia and Canada: 2003-2007.”


74. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2009). “The Games Effect. Research and Benchmarking Services for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Games, Report 1: Framework Report, December 2008.”


75. Tourism British Columbia. (2009). “The Value of Tourism in British Columbia, Trends from 1998 to 2008.”


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“The tourism industry plays a significant role in the BC economy in terms of revenue earned by tourism businesses, value added to the economy by tourism activities and the creation of employment opportunities.

“Tourists or visitors in BC include BC residents, Canadian residents, and international visitors. Visitors may be travelling for pleasure, business/government, or educational purposes.”

76. Tourism British Columbia. (2008). “Value of the Powell River Visitor Centre – Summer 2007.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research and Planning, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Centres (VCs) can use to measure the impact of the VC on traveller behaviour and to determine the economic benefit of the VC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Powell River Visitor Centre. Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travellers who use the Powell River VC in terms of traveller and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Powell River VC has on the decision-making process of travellers in British Columbia: the influence the VC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

77. Tourism British Columbia. (2008). “Value of the Prince Rupert Visitor Centre – Summer 2007.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research and Planning, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Centres (VCs) can use to measure the impact of the VC on traveller behaviour and to determine the economic benefit of the VC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Prince Rupert VC. Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travellers who use the Prince Rupert VC in terms of traveller and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Prince Rupert VC has on the decision-making process of travellers in British Columbia: the influence the VC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

78. Tourism British Columbia. (2008). “Value of the British Columbia Visitor Centre at Golden – Summer 2007.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research and Planning, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Centres (VCs) can use to measure the impact of the VC on traveller behaviour and to determine the economic benefit of the VC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the British Columbia Visitor Centre at Golden (Golden VC).

Specifically, the study objectives were:


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1. To profile travellers who use the Golden VC in terms of traveller and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Golden VC has on the decision-making process of travellers in British Columbia: the influence the VC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

79. Tourism British Columbia. (2007). “Value of the Campbell River Visitor Centre – Summer 2006.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Centres (VCs) can use to measure the impact of the VC on traveller behaviour and to determine the economic benefit of the VC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Campbell River Visitor Centre. Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travellers who use the Campbell River VC in terms of traveller and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Campbell River VC has on the decision-making process of travellers in British Columbia: the influence the VC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

80. Tourism British Columbia. (2007). “Value of the Comox Valley Visitor Centre – Summer 2006.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Centres (VCs) can use to measure the impact of the VC on traveller behaviour and to determine the economic benefit of the VC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Comox Valley Visitor Centre (Comox Valley VC). Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travellers who use the Comox Valley VC in terms of traveller and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Comox Valley VC has on the decision-making process of travellers in British Columbia: the influence the VC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

81. Tourism British Columbia. (2007). “Value of the South Caribou Visitor Centre – Summer 2006.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Centres (VCs) can use to measure the impact of the VC on traveller behaviour and to determine the economic benefit of the VC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the South Caribou Visitor Centre. Specifically, the study objectives were:


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1. To profile travellers who use the South Caribou VC in terms of traveller and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the South Caribou VC has on the decision-making process of travellers in British Columbia: the influence the VC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

82. Tourism British Columbia. (2006). “Value of the Kamloops Visitor Centre – Summer 2005.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Info Centres (VICs) can use to measure the impact of the VIC on traveler behaviour and to determine the economic impact of the VIC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Kamloops Visitor Info Centre (Kamloops VIC).

Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travelers who use the Kamloops VIC in terms of traveler and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Kamloops VIC has on the decision-making process of travelers in British Columbia: the influence the VIC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

83. Tourism British Columbia. (2006). “Value of the Smithers Visitor Centre – Summer 2005.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Info Centres (VICs) can use to measure the impact of the VIC on traveler behaviour and to determine the economic impact of the VIC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Smithers Visitor Info Centre. Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travelers who use the Smithers VIC in terms of traveler and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Smithers VIC has on the decision-making process of travelers in British Columbia: the influence the VIC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

84. Tourism British Columbia. (2006). “Value of the Victoria Visitor Centre – Summer 2005.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Info Centres (VICs) can use to measure the impact of the VIC on traveler behaviour and to determine the economic impact of the VIC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Victoria Visitor Info Centre. Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travelers who use the Victoria VIC in terms of traveler and trip characteristics.


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2. To measure the influence the Victoria VIC has on the decision-making process of travelers in British Columbia: the influence the VIC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

85. Tourism British Columbia. (2005). “Value of the Chilliwack Visitor Centre – Summer 2004.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Info Centres (VICs) can use to measure the impact of the VIC on traveler behaviour and to determine the economic impact of the VIC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Chilliwack Visitor Info Centre. Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travelers who use the Chilliwack VIC in terms of traveler and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Chilliwack VIC has on the decision-making process of travelers in British Columbia: the influence the VIC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

86. Tourism British Columbia. (2005). “Value of the Prince George Visitor Centre – Summer 2004.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Info Centres (VICs) can use to measure the impact of the VIC on traveler behaviour and to determine the economic impact of the VIC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Prince George Visitor Info Centre (Prince George VIC). Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travelers who use the Prince George VIC in terms of traveler and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Prince George VIC has on the decision-making process of travelers in British Columbia: the influence the VIC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

87. Tourism British Columbia. (2004). “Value of the Pitt Meadows/Maple Ridge Visitor Centre – Summer 2003.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Info Centres (VIC) can use to measure the impact of the VIC on traveler behaviour and to determine the economic impact of the VIC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Pitt Meadows/Maple Ridge Visitor Info Centre (PM/MR VIC). Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travelers who use the PM/MR VIC in terms of traveler and trip characteristics.


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2. To measure the influence the PM/MR VIC has on the decision-making process of travelers in British Columbia: the influence the VIC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

88. Tourism British Columbia. (2004). “Value of the Grand Forks Visitor Centre – Summer 2003.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Info Centres (VICs) can use to measure the impact of the VIC on traveler behaviour and to determine the economic impact of the VIC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Grand Forks Visitor Info Centre (Grand Forks VIC). Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travelers who use the Grand Forks VIC in terms of traveler and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Grand Forks VIC has on the decision-making process of travelers in British Columbia: the influence the VIC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

89. Tourism British Columbia. (2004). “Value of the Salt Spring Island Visitor Centre – Summer 2003.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the Province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Info Centres (VICs) can use to measure the impact of the VIC on traveler behaviour and to determine the economic impact of the VIC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Salt Spring Island Visitor Info Centre (Salt Spring VIC). Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travelers who use the Salt Spring VIC in terms of traveler and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Salt Spring VIC has on the decision-making process of travelers in British Columbia: the influence the VIC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

90. Tourism British Columbia. (2004). “Value of the Mt. Robson Visitor Centre – Summer 2003.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the Province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Info Centres (VICs) can use to measure the impact of the VIC on traveler behaviour and to determine the economic impact of the VIC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Mt. Robson Visitor Info Centre. Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travelers who use the Mt. Robson VIC in terms of traveler and trip characteristics.


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2. To measure the influence the Mt. Robson VIC has on the decision-making process of travelers in British Columbia: the influence the VIC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

91. Tourism British Columbia. (2003). “Value of the Penticton Visitor Centre – Summer 2002.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Info Centres (VIC) can use to measure the impact of the VIC on traveler behaviour and to determine the economic impact of the VIC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Penticton Visitor Info Centre. Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travelers who use the Penticton VIC in terms of traveler and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Penticton VIC has on the decision-making process of travelers in British Columbia: the influence the VIC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

92. Tourism British Columbia. (2003). “Value of the Queen Charlotte City Visitor Centre – Summer 2002.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Info Centres (VIC) can use to measure the impact of the VIC on traveler behaviour and to determine the economic impact of the VIC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Queen Charlotte City Visitor Info Centre (QCC VIC). Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travelers who use the QCC VIC in terms of traveler and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the QCC VIC has on the decision-making process of travelers in British Columbia: the influence the VIC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

93. Tourism British Columbia. (2003). “Value of the Hope Visitor Centre – Summer 2002.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Info Centres can use to measure the impact of the VIC on traveler behaviour and to determine the economic impact of the VIC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Hope Visitor Info Centre. Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travelers who use the Hope VIC in terms of traveler and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Hope VIC has on the decision-making process of travelers in British Columbia: the influence the VIC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”


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94. Tourism British Columbia. (2003). “Value of the Kelowna Visitor Centre – Summer 2002.”

“Due to increasing needs in communities around the province, Research Services, Tourism British Columbia has developed a methodology that Visitor Info Centres (VIC) can use to measure the impact of the VIC on traveler behaviour and to determine the economic impact of the VIC. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of the Kelowna Visitor Info Centre. Specifically, the study objectives were:

1. To profile travelers who use the Kelowna VIC in terms of traveler and trip characteristics.

2. To measure the influence the Kelowna VIC has on the decision-making process of travelers in British Columbia: the influence the VIC has on the length of stay, expenditures, and selection of additional or alternative activities, attractions or destinations.”

95. InterVISTAS Consulting Inc. (2002). “The economic impact of the 2010 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games: An update.”

“In January 2002, the B.C. Ministry of Competition, Science and Enterprise completed a study of the economic impact of hosting the 2010 Winter Olympic Games. This update was commissioned to a) review that study and make adjustments when appropriate, and b) update the study with more recent information on expected spending and revenues. The study focused only on the impacts in B.C. from spending which is funded from outside B.C. This is referred to as the incremental economic Impact of hosting the Olympics. Economic impacts due to B.C. financed spending were excluded.”

96. Stanley, Rogers, Smeltzer, & Perron. (2000). “Win, Place or Show: Gauging the Economic Success of the Renoir and Barnes Art Exhibits.” Journal of Cultural Economics, 24(3), 243-255.

“Special art exhibits, sometimes known as “blockbusters”, are often thought of as tourism and business generators. This belief is fostered by economic impact studies that bravely estimate the total gross domestic product or total jobs “created” by such exhibits. Unfortunately, the enthusiasm of the exhibit promoters often leads them to the uncritical use of methodologies that exaggerate the size of the exhibit’s contribution to the local economy. Fortunately, such methodologies are well understood and corrective measures are available to make the estimates they produce more realistic and useful for advocacy purposes. This paper presents a comparison of two studies done in Canada to provide arts managers with a gauge for realistically forecasting the potential impact of planned “blockbusters.”

“Several Canadian art galleries have recently hosted special art exhibits, notably the Renoir Portraits at the National Gallery of Canada and the Barnes Exhibition at the Art Gallery of Ontario. They have surveyed the visitors to them using a corrective methodology that enables researchers to determine which visitors came to the region only because of the existence of the exhibit and which would have come to the region and spent money whether the exhibit existed or not. These data enable researchers to estimate quite accurately the amount of visitor spending that is actually due to the exhibit. This lower, but more credible, estimate is very useful in helping promoters obtain exhibit sponsorship from


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local tourism businesses who have become sceptical of the exaggerated claims of economic impact estimates based on standard survey approaches.”

Alberta

97. Econometric Research Limited. (2011). “The Economic Impact of the Big Valley Jamboree.”

“Econometric Research Limited was commissioned by ATPR to prepare this independent analysis of the economic contributions of the Festival to the Alberta economy, focusing particularly on the contributions of the tourism flows and new money to the region and Alberta. This contribution as assessed in terms of:

• Alberta’s Gross Provincial Product (GPP).

• Provincial employment.

• Wages and salaries supported by the Festival in the province.

• Tax base.

• Tourism base.

“Even though the focus of this Report is upon quantification of the economic impacts of the music festival, it is important to remember that economic impact indicators cannot measure in terms of economics alone the importance of the Festival to Camrose’s entertainment and cultural base. These contributions are substantial and substantive even when they cannot be assigned dollar values.”

98. Econometric Research Limited. (2011). “The Economic Impact of Snowmobiles in Alberta in 2009.”

“This study is commissioned by Alberta Tourism, Parks and Recreation in partnership with the Alberta Snowmobile Association and conducted by Econometric Research Limited to assess the impact of snowmobiles expenditures on the economy of Alberta in 2009.”

99. Government of Alberta. (2010). “The Economic Impact of Tourism in Alberta, 2010.”

”In this analysis, the objective is to estimate and analyze the ripple effect of tourism spending in each Tourism Destination Region (TDR) and understand tourism’s vital economic contribution to every region of the province.”

100. Government of Alberta. (2010). “The Economic Impact of Tourism in Alberta Central Tourism Destination Region, 2010.”


101. Government of Alberta. (2010). “The Economic Impact of Tourism in Alberta North Tourism Destination Region, 2010.”



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102. Government of Alberta. (2010). “The Economic Impact of Tourism in Alberta South Tourism Destination Region, 2010.”

“In this analysis, the objective is to estimate and analyze the ripple effect of tourism spending in each Tourism Destination Region (TDR) and understand tourism’s vital economic contribution to every region of the province.”

103. Government of Alberta. (2010). “The Economic Impact of Tourism in Calgary and Area Tourism Destination Region, 2010.”


104. Government of Alberta. (2010). “The Economic Impact of Tourism in the Canadian Rockies Tourism Destination Region, 2010.”


105. Government of Alberta. (2010). “The Economic Impact of Tourism in Edmonton and Area Tourism Destination Region, 2010.”


106. Alberta Tourism, Parks and Recreation (2009). “The economic impact of tourism in the Canadian Rockies Tourism Destination Region, 2009.”

“In this analysis, the objective is to estimate and analyze the ripple effect of tourism spending in in the Canadian Rockies Tourism Destination Region (TDR) and understand tourism’s vital economic contribution to the region of the province.”

107. Schollie Research & Consulting. “Town of Sylvan Lake: Economic Impact of Tourism Study (2006).”

“Sylvan Lake is one of Alberta’s most popular tourism destinations and the town is one of Canada’s fastest growing municipalities. To help manage continued growth in the tourism sector, The Town of Sylvan Lake commissioned an Economic Impact of Tourism Study to examine the economic role tourism plays, and the potential for further growth.”

108. Alberta Economic Development. (2000). “The economic impact of visitors to Alberta’s Rocky Mountain National Parks.”

“Expenditures in Alberta by visitors to Alberta’s Rocky Mountain National Parks (Banff, Jasper and Waterton) produce significant economic impacts on the Alberta economy. In this report Alberta Economic Development (AED) has attempted to provide an estimate of the economic impact of this spending. Visitor expenditure information was utilized from the 1998 Canadian Travel Survey and 1998 International Travel Survey. The expenditure data and subsequent impacts are presented in 1998 dollars. The Demand Economic Impact


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Model (DEIM), which utilizes sophisticated input/output technology, was used to estimate economic impact on a province-wide basis.”

109. PricewaterhouseCoopers. (2000). “The Economic Impact of Downhill Skiing at Alberta’s Rocky Mountain Ski Resorts.”

“PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP and Econometric Research Limited were retained in January 2000 by Alberta Economic Development to estimate and summarize the economic benefits associated with downhill skiing at Alberta’s Rocky Mountain Ski Resorts in 1999. The resorts included in our evaluations are:

• Ski Resorts in National Parks

• Lake Louise Ski Area;

• Sunshine Village Ski Area;

• Marmot Basin; and,

• Mount Norquay.

• Ski Resorts Not in National Parks

• Fortress Mountain; and

• Nakiska.”

110. Witt, S. F. (1988). “Mega-events and mega-attractions.” Tourism Management, 9(1), 76-77.

“Stephen F. Witt, Head of the Tourism Studies Unit at the University of Bradford Management Centre, UK, reports on the 37th Congress of the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism (AIEST), Calgary, Canada, 23–29 August 1987 - ‘The Role and Impact of Mega-Events and Attractions on Regional and National Tourism Development’.”

Saskatchewan

111. Prepared by Derek Murray Consulting Associates for Saskatchewan Environment (2006). “Economic Evaluation of Saskatchewan’s Commercial and Non-Outfitted Sport Fishing.”

“This study focuses on the primary theme of economic impact and secondarily on the social and environmental impacts of non-outfitted sport fishing and commercial fishing in the province. To determine the economic and social impacts of non-outfitted sport fishing in Saskatchewan, research was required to detail the types of expenditures made by fishers. A survey of individuals purchasing a fishing license in Saskatchewan was undertaken. Three populations were identified including Saskatchewan resident, Canadian resident and non-resident fishers. The economic impact model is based on Statistics Canada’s input-output tables. These tables look at the inter-relationships between Canada’s industries through the system of national accounts. The model projects the level of economic activity being stimulated in various parts of the economy based on the initial demand placed on the economy by the expenditures being analyzed.”


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112. Prepared by Derek Murray Consulting Associates for Saskatchewan Environment (2006). “Economic Evaluation of Saskatchewan’s Outfitted Hunting and Fishing Industry.”

“This study focuses on the primary theme of economic impact and secondarily on the social and environmental impacts of outfitted hunting and fishing in the province. To determine the economic and social impacts of outfitted hunting and fishing in Saskatchewan, data on outfitted client expenditures was required.A survey of outfitter clients was determined to be the optimal methodology for data gathering.The economic impact model is based on Statistics Canada’s input-output tables. These tables look at the inter-relationships between Canada’s industries through the system of national accounts. The model projects the level of economic activity being stimulated in various parts of the economy based on the initial demand placed on the economy by the expenditures being analyzed.”

113. Prepared by Derek Murray Consulting Associates for Saskatchewan Environment (2004). “Economic Evaluation of Saskatchewan’s Film and Video Industry.”

“Objectives

“Determine the Economic Impacts of the Film Industry in Saskatchewan including:

Direct and indirect expenditure impacts

Direct and indirect employment impacts

A year-by-year analysis of both

“Undertake a Cost Benefit Analysis of the Saskatchewan Government’s Investment in the Film Industry through the Film Employment Tax Credit (FETC) Program including:

A year-by-year and summary review of FETC investment

A year-by-year and summary review of the tax impacts of Saskatchewan’s film industry

Cost benefit analysis of Government investment

“Provide Other Industry Performance Data where Applicable”

Ontario

114. The Centre for Spatial Economics. (2009). “The Ontario Tourism Regional Economic Impact Model.”

“The Tourism Regional Economic Impact Model is a versatile tool capable of providing detailed economic impact analysis for various user-selected geographies. The TREIM can be used to distribute total direct tourist spending across Ontario Census Divisions (CDs), Census Metropolitan Areas (CMAs) or Ontario’s Tourism Regions. The TREIM can also be used to estimate the economic impact of specific tourism events or impacts on the supply side by tourism industry sector or type of capital project at the CD, CMA or Tourism Region level of geography.Finally, the application can be used to review the impact at the provincial level of supply or demand side tourism sector activity.”


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Note: A description of Ontario’s TREIM is available on the Tourism Ontario website: http://www.mtc.gov.on.ca/en/research/treim/treim.shtml

115. Research Resolutions and Burak Jacobson Research Partners Inc., “The Economic Impact of the Breeders' Cup at Woodbine Racetrack: Final Report and Technical Appendices” prepared for the Ontario Jockey Club, 1997.

“Using a large sporting event, the 2002 Breeders’ Cup, this paper reports the economic impact of such an event. The methodology provides a standard of comparison for other studies and begins a line of research that, over time, will develop into a body of research that will have academic importance as well as practical application when large events are considered under the criteria of economic justification.

“Large events have always taken place. In recent times, those that fund these events have tried to determine the economic impact of these events. While not an exact science, methods have evolved to do just that. This paper explores the impact that a one time, annual event in horse racing, the Breeders’ Cup Thoroughbred Racing Championship (hereafter referred to as Breeders’ Cup), has on the host locations.”

Quebec

116. Quebec Portal. (2009). “L’impact économique du tourisme au Québec en 2010.” <http://www.tourisme.gouv.qc.ca/publications/media/document/etudes-statistiques/Impacts-economiques-2010.pdf>

Note: Abstract and report available in French only. For a summary of the economic impact of tourism in Quebec in English, the following weblink was provided: http://www.gouv.qc.ca/portail/quebec/pgs/commun/portrait/tourisme/retombees-economiques/?lang=en.

Nova Scotia

117. Prepared by TMSOLUTIONSinc & Kelso Consulting Limited for Tall Ships Nova Scotia & Waterfront Development Corporation Limited (2009). “Tall Ships 2009 Economic Impact Study Final Report.”

“The focus of the study is to determine the economic impact of non-Nova Scotian visitors who were motivated to come to the province by Tall Ships 2009. An intercept survey was used to collect information from visitors attending Tall Ships events at all ports in Nova Scotia. The Nova Scotia Department of Finance used its Input-Output (NSIO) model to assess the Tall Ships attributed spending by Non-Nova Scotian visitors.”

118. Tompkins Institute, Cape Breton University (2005). “Cape Breton Pathways Economic Impact Analysis, December 2005.”

“The economic impact of trails and waterways is broad and diverse. As such, the study had to encompass the geographic area of the island to the extent that was possible given the time frame and resources available. The study included the following components:


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a) Market Profile:

· How many people visit the trails annually? · What portion of them are tourists from outside Cape Breton? · How long do they stay? How much do they spend on Cape Breton Island? · What are the visitor demographics?

b) Economic Impact:

i. Direct trails tourism related revenue and employment Local businesses in the vicinity of trails were the focus of our survey. Types of business included the following: · lodging, private rentals, and camping · hiking guides, charter services · restaurant and beverage · souvenirs, cultural/folk performances · gasoline sales, marinas, docking · sporting goods, hunting supplies, fishing supplies ii. Indirect trails tourism related revenue and employment · General retail sales related to tourism · Revenues and employment generated by trails/waterways-related

development · Secondary and multiplier effects of trails/waterways related development iii. Induced effects of trails tourism related activity · The “ripple” or spin-off effects on the economy created by the spending of the

income earned in the trails tourism and supporting industries.”

New Brunswick

119. New Brunswick Department of Tourism and Parks (2010). “Economic Impact of Visitors’ Tourism Expenditures in New Brunswick in 2008.”

“The economic impact analysis contained in this report, based on Statistics Canada data for tourism expenditures in New Brunswick for 2008, provides detailed insights into the economic activity generated in the province by tourism demand. The impact model used is a special application of the most recent Demand Economic Impact Model for New Brunswick (DEIM: New Brunswick) developed by Econometric Research Limited for New Brunswick Tourism and Parks. DEIM is a unique model that captures the economic impact of tourism expenditures at the provincial level. The model is based on a novel technology that integrates input-output analysis and location theory. The model utilizes a large set of economic and technical databases that are regularly published by Statistics Canada. A short list includes the inter-provincial input-output tables, employment by sector, taxes by type of tax and the level of government collecting it, prices of products, etc.”


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Prince Edward Island

120. Prepared by Marketquest Research Group Inc. For Tourism PEI (2004). “Economic Impact Tourism 2004.”

“Tourism PEI’s annual report on visitations, visitor profiles and visitor expenditures for the May to October tourism season. In order to ensure comprehensive information on expenditures and visitor demographics for the Island, a number of different data collection methods were utilized to gather data for this annual study. Tourism PEI’s annual visitor and expenditure analysis is based on data collected through: exit point intercepts of non-resident visitors; telephone interviews with non-resident visitors; self-administered surveys with motor coach visitors; and self-administered surveys with Japanese visitors.”

Yukon

121. Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society Yukon Chapter (2006). “Economic Impacts of National Parks: Yukon Territory & Northern BC.”

“Two recent independent studies commissioned by CPAWS-Yukon, in co-operation with supporting partners, concluded that a new national park in the southern Yukon or northern British Columbia would add to the significant positive economic impacts of existing national parks on adjacent communities, the region and the Yukon Territory as a whole. The first CPAWS research project focussed on the economic impacts resulting from Kluane National Park during a 5-year period, 1999-2004. The second study projected potential economic impacts if a new national park is established in the southern Yukon and/or northern British Columbia, within Parks Canada’s Natural Region #7. This region in northern British Columbia and southern Yukon is a leading candidate for a new park to help complete the national park system.

“The two studies summarized here looked primarily at existing and projected direct and indirect economic impacts of national parks. The substantial economic value of ecosystem services and social benefits provided by national parks were beyond the scope of this work. Recent international studies show that long term economic and social benefits of national parks and other protected areas derived from ecosystem services such as fresh water and wildlife, are likely much greater than the sum of direct economic impacts measured in these two studies. Health and recreation benefits and the existence value of national parks as ecological benchmarks and reservoirs of wilderness were not assessed in this work, but also have social and economic value.”

This summary report was prepared by CPAWS-Yukon. The content is adapted from the two independent studies described in the paper. For the complete report, visit: www.yukonomics.ca/reports/kluane/index.html

122. Luigi Zanasi Economist, The Outspan Group, Research Northwest, and Inukshuk Planning & Development (2005). “Kluane National Park and Reserve Economic Impact Analysis, Summary Report.”

“The overall purpose of this project is stated in the Request for Proposals as:


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“To consider how Kluane National Park and Reserve affects the community and economy of Haines Junction, the Champagne Aishihik First Nations, the Kluane First Nation and the Kluane region.”

“The project has a number of specific objectives (and many related sub-objectives) with the focus of these being to produce a standard and rigorous economic impact assessment of KNPR and to provide a form of “case study” to draw useful lessons for future development plans for Haines Junction, other communities and First Nations adjacent to parks and protected areas. But the objectives and goals of the project are broad and ambitious and its challenges numerous. From the beginning it was clear that, although a rigorous technical economic impact assessment was the central component, this was not to be strictly a technical, numbers-based report.

“To determine the impact of the establishment of KNPR on Kluane’s regional economy and Haines Junction in particular, two models were used. First, we applied a standard, rigorous economic impact assessment model to measure the current annual economic impact of KNPR on Haines Junction, the Kluane region, and the Yukon. Second, we developed a community comparison base-case model based on a composite of five other Yukon communities to assess how much of the economic development of Haines Junction since the establishment of KNPR is attributable to the park and how much is due to other factors.

“In addition to the two economic analysis models, the project has also involved the following:

· A considerable amount of research into the economic history of the region,

· The construction of a baseline economic profile of the region,

· A series of interviews with Kluane region residents including the owner/operators of local businesses, and

· A detailed discussion of economic and other benefits of KNPR that are difficult to capture using a traditional economic impact assessment model.”

United States

123. HR&A. (2007). “Valuing Times Square: The world’s window to New York City.”

“In March 2007, The Times Square Alliance commissioned a study to comprehensively analyze the contribution of Times Square to the economy of New York City. This is the first such analysis since the revitalization of Times Square. HR&A, Inc., an economic development and real estate advisory firm based in New York City, conducted the study by applying standard fiscal and economic impact methodologies using available data, and information gathered through a set of interviews conducted in Spring 2007.”

124. The Center for Ecotourism and Sustainable Development (CESD). “Global Trends in Coastal Tourism, 2007.”

“The Center for Ecotourism and Sustainable Development (CESD), a policy oriented research institute committed to providing analysis and tools for sustainable tourism development, was commissioned by the Marine Program of World Wildlife Fund (WWF) in


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Washington DC to analyze the current trends and to test WWF’s working hypothesis about the main drivers behind coastal and marine tourism, and then to propose what interventions would be most useful should WWF develop a new tourism program. This study examines the structure of the tourism industry, the main types of tourism, the impacts (economic, environmental, and social) of marine and coastal tourism and the global trends in tourism development, financing and marketing. It also analyzes coastal and marine tourism in several key regions identified by WWF as being of the highest priority because of the diversity of life they support, the potential destruction they face, and WWF’s ability to impact them over the next decade. This report of CESD’s findings concludes with recommended interventions that WWF could take as a way to begin addressing the threats that coastal tourism development poses to biodiversity conservation and the well being of destination communities.”

125. Liu, J. C. (2006). “The economic impact of Hawai‘i museums and cultural attractions in a tourism economy.”

“This purpose of this study is to estimate the economic impact of museums and other cultural attractions in terms of income and employment generation. Additional information on attendance, museum programs, marketing and promotional efforts, and ranking of strategies for future viability were solicited in order to examine linkages with the visitor industry. While previous museum studies examined the educational contributions to the community, the focus of the Hawai`i study was to ascertain the contribution and potential of museums with respect to cultural tourism.”

126. Connecticut Center for Economic Analysis. “Economic Impact of the Arts, Film, History and Tourism Industries in Connecticut, December 2006.”

“This report contains four economic impact studies corresponding to the four divisions (arts, film, historic preservation, and tourism) of the Connecticut Commission on Culture & Tourism that commissioned them. The tourism study represents an update and expansion of the May 2003 tourism study, while the others are new. Each study is self-contained. Following the Executive Summary is an introduction to the four industry studies summarizing their major findings. Following that is a methodological overview that includes a discussion of the overall approach, economic impact multipliers, data sources and an explanation of the conservative nature of the studies. Lastly, the four, complete, individual studies appear.”

127. Stynes, D. J. & Sun, Y. (2005). “Economic impacts of Grand Canyon National Park visitor spending on the local economy, 2003.”

“The purpose of this study is to document the local economic impacts of Grand Canyon National Park visitor spending in 2003. Economic impacts are measured as the direct and secondary sales, income, jobs, and value added in the local area resulting from spending by park visitors in the region. The local region is defined to encompass Coconino County, Arizona, including gateway communities of Tusayan, Williams, Flagstaff and Cameron on the South Rim and Jacob Lake, Kanab, and Fredonia on the North Rim. The economic estimates are produced using the Money Generation Model 2 (MGM2) (Stynes and Propst, 2000).”


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128. Mondello, M. & Rishe, P. (2004). “Comparative Economic Impact Analyses - Differences Across Cities, Events, and Demographics.” Economic Development Quarterly, 18(4),331-342.

“Numerous amateur sporting events have grown significantly in stature and interest in the past several years. Moreover, these events have realized significant economic benefits for their respective communities. In an attempt to identify the key determinants of economic impact, this article offers numerous comparative economic impact data for amateur sporting events. The comparisons are across various categories, including the same event in different cities, the same city but different events, women’s versus men’s events, and events involving junior athletes compared to those involving senior athletes. Collectively, these comparisons demonstrate that the number and origin of nonlocal visitors, the proximity of teams involved, visitor spending patterns, length of stay, and operational and organizational expenditures by nonlocal entities affiliated with events are the largest determinants of economic impact for a given event.”

129. Chhabra, D. (2003) “The Significance of Festivals to Rural Economies: Estimating the Economic Impacts of Scottish Highland Games in North Carolina.” Journal of Travel Research, 41 (4) 421-427.

“Festivals are often part of the economic development strategy of rural areas. This study estimates the economic impacts of visitor expenditures at two Scottish festivals in rural North Carolina, using tourist survey data and an input-output model. While local restaurants and lodging and festival vendors and sponsors benefit from substantial visitor expenditures, the multipliers are relatively small, and hence the total economic impact of the festivals represents only a small percentage of economic activity in the two regions considered. Lodging expenditures have the greatest impact on the region with a multiple-day festival, while expenditures on food and beverage have the greatest impact on the region with a single-day festival. The magnitude of the economic impact depends on characteristics of both the festival (number of days) and the local economy (other attractions and linkages).”

130. Hefner, F. (1990). “Using Economic Models to Measure the Impact of Sports on Local Economies.” Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 14(1), 1-13.

“Economic impact studies have been applied to a wide range of sporting and recreational events, which are increasingly viewed as an economic development tool besides their recreation benefits. Impact studies rely on the multiplier concept to determine total impacts. This paper addresses the issue of how to estimate correctly the multiplier and thus the total economic impact. The theoretical framework of impact analysis is presented. Examples of correct interpretations of data and modeling procedures are provided.”

Latin America

131. Seidl, A., Guiliano, F. & Pratt, L. “Cruise Tourism and Community Economic Development in Central America and the Caribbean: The Case of Costa Rica.” Pasos, 4(2), 213-224, 2006.


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“This paper illustrates an economic approach to understanding the cruise tourism industry as a driver of economic development in Costa Rica. The objective is to describe the role and activities of the cruise ship industry and identify sources of economic benefit and cost such that more informed local policy decisions about the cruise ship tourism might be made. For example, our analysis indicates: the cruise tourism industry competes with the cargo shipping industry for port space at a significant cost to Costa Rican ports; the amount of money injected into the local economy per cruise tourist is substantially lower than for other types of tourism; cruise ships purchase relatively few supplies in Costa Rica; cruise ships generate a great deal of human waste, water and air pollution, which can create a serious health hazard, cleanup costs, and which are not commensurate with other types of tourism development available to Costa Rica; decision makers may want to consider that investment in cruise tourism friendly ports may be less efficient from a national perspective than investment in infrastructure (e.g., airports) to increase more profitable types of tourism; and leaders may want to consider the encouragement of smaller “pocket” cruises over the current cruise version of mass tourism. This approach should be applicable to communities wherever cruise tourism currently exists or is under consideration to be included in the portfolio of community economic activities.”

Europe

132. Young, R. Fernandez, Y, & Divers. (2010). “Assessing the Economic Impact of Culture in English Market Towns: A Causal Chain Approach.” Tourism Economics, the Business and Finance of Tourism and Recreation, 16(4), p. 925-951.

“In assessing the economic impact of a cultural event or attraction, the number of visits caused by the event or attraction is the pivotal variable. In the instance of many visitors, the causal impact is neither absent nor complete, but partial. The authors develop a method of assessing directly the aggregate causal impact of a cultural event or attraction and apply this in four case studies of culture in market towns.

“The project on which this paper was based ran from October 2007 until March 2008. It included empirical investigation of three cultural events and one cultural attraction, all in the East Midlands region of England, based on surveys involving over 2,000 visitors. Its purpose was to apply a formal method of assessment based soundly in economic theory and, through the experience gained, to develop and refine guidelines to assist in the conduct of future economic impact assessments by market towns themselves. In each case, the purpose was to gather evidence for use in quantifying the contribution of the cultural event or asset to expenditure in the local economy.”

133. Ummuhan Gokovali (2010). “Contribution of Tourism to Economic Growth in Turkey.” Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 21:1, 139-153.

“During the last three decades, tourism in Turkey has become a growing sector and hence has growth promoting effects. In this respect, this study empirically investigates the contribution of tourism to GNP for Turkey by utilizing OLS procedure for the period between 1985 and 2005. The empirical findings show that the elasticity of output with respect to Capital (investment) and Tourism Revenues is found to be around 0.47 and 0.53, respectively, from which the study conduces that Capital and Tourism Revenues is


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one of the important factors conducive to GNP in Turkey for the period considered, with a final discussion about the importance of a carefully design of the tourism related policies, especially in developing countries like Turkey.”

134. Deloitte. “The economic case for the Visitor Economy, September 2008.”

“VisitBritain (“VB”) and the Tourism Alliance commissioned Deloitte, with Oxford Economics as sub-contractors, in March 2008 to assess the ‘Economic Case for the Visitor Economy’ in Britain. The objective of the study is to provide an in-depth quantitative and qualitative analysis of the contribution of the Visitor Economy to Britain.”

135. East of England Development Agency (2006). “Economic impact study of the London 2012 Olympic Games and Paralympic Games.”

“This report provides a basis for forward action so that the East of England may maximise the potential benefits and minimise the potential costs. The report is the culmination of an analysis of the various opportunities presented by the 2012 Games, mapped against the likely economic and social impacts and regional and sub-regional synergies. This report was prepared by Grant Thornton, Torkildsen Barclay and the Christel DeHaan Tourism and Travel Research Institute during the period of March 2006 to July 2006.”

136. Tosun, C., Dallen, T. J. & Ozturk, Y. (2003). “Tourism growth, national development and regional inequality in Turkey.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 11(2-3), 133-161.

“The introduction of international tourism as an economic growth strategy in Turkey is relatively recent, and Turkey has experienced rapid tourism growth in terms of volume and value. Despite the significant progress in these respects, tourism has contributed little to development. Instead, it has increased the rate of economic growth at the expense of equality among regions and classes. This paper examines the impacts of intensive coastal tourism growth on the development of rural regions in particular and national development in general. It concludes that spatial concentrations of mass tourism investment induced by tourism incentive policies in relatively developed coastal regions have increased disparities among regions and classes.”

137. Balaguer, J. & Cantavella-Jorda, M. (2002). “Tourism as a long-run economic growth factor: The Spanish case.” Applied Economics, 34(7), 877-884.

“This paper examines the role of tourism in the Spanish long-run economic development. The tourism-led growth hypothesis is confirmed through co-integration and causality testing. The results indicate that, at least, during the last three decades, economic growth in Spain has been sensible to persistent expansion of international tourism. The increase of this activity has produced multiplier effects over time. External competitivity has also been proved in the model to be a fundamental variable for Spanish economic growth. From the empirical analysis it can be inferred the positive effects on income that government policy, in the adequacy of supply as well as in the promotion of tourist activity, may bring about.”

138. Jones, C. (2001). “Mega-events and host-region impacts: determining the true worth of the 1999 Rugby World Cup.” International Journal of Tourism Research 3 (3) 241-251.


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“An increasing interest in the impact of sporting mega-events on host regions has sparked discussion on the most appropriate approaches in determining both benefits and costs. The paper defines the nature of the impact on Wales of the 1999 Rugby World Cup (RWC99), both economic and social, and qualitatively assesses the extent and nature of the impact of RWC99 in a number of areas. It concludes that there were considerable benefits for the region, although many areas of potential benefit were not maximised. This was due in large part to the structure of the bidding process and organisational inadequacies, which in turn led to relatively low spectator spending and mixed press coverage.”

139. Dybedal, P. (1998). “Theme Parks as Flagship Attractions in Peripheral Areas.” Unit of Tourism Research at Research Centre of Bornholm, 1998.

“The Research Centre of Bornholm has established a five-year (1995-99) research programme labelled Tourism in Peripheral Areas of Europe. Tourist attractions are fundamental to the existence of tourism, and studies that shed light on the role and importance of tourist attractions find their inevitable place within this research programme.

“Major attractions are often labelled flagship attractions, referring to their role as focal points and as catalysts for tourism development in a region or a tourism destination. Establishment of new attractions – particularly potential flagships - has in many countries been considered as a tool for economic development in peripheral areas. Considerable public funding has been made available, often without sufficient background knowledge on potential visitor markets and how attractions function (individually and collectively) within the tourism context.

“Such knowledge is essential in any assessment of the tourism development potential of an area, and in any assessment of public financial support for a particular attraction. The various types of evaluation, feasibility studies or other analyses require firstly a theoretical understanding of the mechanisms that influence the market demand and the local and regional effects. Secondly, they require specific knowledge and experience from studies of particular attractions.

“This study focuses on the theme park sector. Although theme parks are usually found in densely populated areas, some parks are also found in peripheral areas. On the European theme park scene there are for instance several parks in the Scandinavian countries that may be classified as peripheral. Data from previous studies on four Norwegian theme parks, undertaken by the author and colleagues at the Institute of Transport Economics in Oslo, have been utilised in this report. These parks constitute the study’s flagship attraction cases.”

Asia Pacific

140. Jin, J. (2011). “The Effects of Tourism on Economic Growth in Hong Kong.” Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 52(3), 333-340.


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“Hong Kong’s economic growth. The five variables are real output, real capital, labor, openness, and tourism. Among other findings, the analysis supports the commonly held notion that tourism promotes economic growth. However, the analysis could not confirm a long-term effect of tourism on economic growth. The analysis also shows that Hong Kong’s economy is capital-driven, while labor is not a significant economic driver.”

141. Market Economics Ltd. “New Zealand Cruise Industry Study, 2010.”

“The economic impact of the New Zealand cruise ship season has been assessed every year or every second year since its inception in 1997. The first study involved in-depth investigation of the structure of the industry and the expenditure in the New Zealand economy resulting from the cruise ship activity. This enabled the development of a set of spend ratios and economic multipliers that reflected the nature of the industry at that time. These ratios and multipliers were subsequently applied each year since 1997 – inflation adjusted – to new cruise and passenger numbers.

“In 2003, the ratios and multipliers were updated to reflect changes in the global cruise industry (namely advancements in ship operation, ship capacity, ship technology and how ships are serviced locally and globally), changes in the scale of the industry in New Zealand (over time the number of cruises have increased but also the number and variety of businesses involved with and servicing the cruise ships whilst in New Zealand ports has increased), and because more up to date economic input-output tables became available from Statistics New Zealand. This 2003 base model (with inflation adjustments) has been applied up until the 2007/08.

“This study updates the core data to 2009/2010 season data. The study involved in-depth investigation of the structure of the industry and the expenditure in the New Zealand economy resulting from the cruise ship activity. We have talked to many of the key players in the industry, including providores, ground handlers, air services (airport and airlines), marine engineers and shipping agents.These companies provided both financial (actual) and anecdotal (based on experience) data for the 2009/10 cruise season. This data has been used in the economic modelling and to add real world context to the results of the modelling. As no robust survey of passenger spend for New Zealand cruises is available, this study has relied on international literature to update passenger expenditure estimates. This report also differs from previous reports as it does not present detailed regional or port level data. However, the scope of this assessment is essentially unchanged from earlier studies; the more detailed results are still calculated in the course of the assessment.“

142. Oh, C. (2005). “The contribution of tourism development to economic growth in the Korean economy.” Tourism Management, 26(1), 39-44.

“This study investigates the causal relations between tourism growth and economic expansion for the Korean economy by using an Engle and Granger two-stage approach and a bivariate Vector Autoregression (VAR) model. Two principle results emerge from this study. First, the results of a co-integration test indicate that there is no long-run equilibrium relation between two series. Second, the outcomes of the Granger causality test imply the one-way causal relationship of economic-driven tourism growth. The hypothesis of tourism-led economic growth is not held in the Korean economy. This consequence is supported by


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testing the sensitivity of causality tests under different lag selections along with the optimal lag.”

143. Lee, C. & Taylor, T. (2005). “Critical reflections on the economic impact assessment of a mega-event:The case of 2002 FIFA World Cup.” Tourism Management, 26(4), 595-603.

“Sport tourism has received growing attention as a source of generating significant revenue and contributing major economic benefits to host cities, regions, and countries. However, current methods for assessing economic impact have had variable success in estimating tourist numbers and expenditure directly attributable to a sport tourism mega event.This paper reports on the assessment of one such event, the 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea, using an estimation method that excluded tourists whose travel was non-event related. The survey research conducted during the event established that 57.7% of total tourist arrivals during the period of the event could be classified as either directly and indirectly attracted by the World Cup. Using this data, it was calculated that the World Cup generated an economic impact of US$1.35 billion of output (sales), US$307 million of income, and US$713 million of value added for South Korea.The results also showed that foreign World Cup tourists provided a much higher yield compared with foreign leisure tourists, spending an estimated 1.8 times as much. Inclusion of the expenditure by non-World Cup tourists (42.3%) in the calculations of impact would have resulted in a significant overestimation due to the further multiplication of the expanded figures by an input–output model, misleading the net economic impact of the event. The use of survey data to distinguish event from non-event tourists, and their respective expenditure, clearly illustrates some of the methodological pitfalls associated with forecasting that is simply based on generic tourist data. Furthermore, the data generated by this assessment of net direct expenditure and economic impact using the input–output analysis can be used as a comparison point for other mega sport events. In terms of further research, it is evident that existing models of impact assessment have not adequately conceptualized aversion and diversion effects and this begs the future inclusion of these concepts in economic impact forecasting for mega-events.”

144. Waitt, G. (2003). “Social impacts of the Sydney Olympics.” Annals of Tourism Research, 30(1), 194-215.

“This paper, drawing on social exchange theory, examines the changes in enthusiasm between 1998 and 2000 towards Sydney’s Olympics among a socially diverse sample of host city residents. In particular, it studies variables that differentiate respondents’ altering attitude. Results suggest that for the majority, the reaction to Sydney’s Olympics intensified from 1998, reaching euphoria in September 2000. Elation was particularly evident among those living in the city’s western suburbs, those with dependent children, those from non-English backgrounds, or who perceived the event’s wider economic benefits as outweighing personal costs. Implications arising from this project are considered for future researchers and organizers of hallmark events.”

145. Madden, J. R. (2002). “The economic consequences of the Sydney Olympics: The CREA/Arthur Andersen study.” Current Issues in Tourism, 5(1), 7-21.

“This paper assesses the economic impact of the 2000 Olympics. It draws on economic modelling I undertook for Arthur Andersen (financial adviser to the Sydney Organising


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Committee for the Olympic Games). The analysis is undertaken with a large-scale multiregional computable general equilibrium model, so as to take into account both the positive and negative flow-on effects of Sydney staging the Games. The effects of Olympics construction and operating expenditure and of spending by Games visitors and additional tourists are modelled over a 12-year period, under specific assumptions regarding the Australian labour market, capital supply constraints and Australian government policy on foreign debt. Olympics expenditure not funded by Games revenues is modelled as being met by an increase in New South Wales state tax revenues (via a larger revenue base and slightly higher tax rates than would otherwise be the case) and a substantial diversion of government expenditure from non-Olympic to Olympic items. Simulation results indicate that NSW activity is 0.3% higher over the 12-year period due to the Games, but there is little effect on the other states. However, the final outcome is sensitive to the degree the Olympics promotes tourism from overseas and the labour market reaction.”

146. West, G. & Bayne, B. (2002). “The economic impacts of tourism on the Gold Coast.”

“The Gold Coast City Council commissioned the Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism, as part of its strategic planning priorities, to produce an economic impact study of the Gold Coast. The Centre for Economic Policy Modelling at the University of Queensland, one of 17 Australian University members of the CRC for Sustainable Tourism, was engaged to undertake the study based on the most current official statistics from Commonwealth and State Government sources, i.e. from the Australian Bureau of Statistics 1996/97 census. This report, The Economic Impacts of Tourism on the Gold Coast, focuses on the significance of tourism in the region, and is part of the core research undertaken for the Gold Coast Tourism Visioning project.”

147. Mules, T. & Faulkner, B. (1996). “An economic perspective on special events.” Tourism Economics, 2 (2) 107-117.

“Special events are widely recognized as having a tourism impact and frequently form part of the tourism strategy of a country, or a destination region within a country. Governments in Australia and elsewhere have, since the 1980s, increasingly taken to funding such events as deliberate policies of tourism promotion and economic development. Australian examples of events, including the Melbourne Cup, the Australian Football League Grand Final and the Formula One Grand Prix, are used to frame an approach to the economic evaluation of such policies. The analysis of economic impact of an event needs to identify clearly the region of interest, and the expenditure that is new to the region because of the event. A full evaluation should encompass social, industrial and promotional impacts. These are identifiable, but they are difficult to quantify.”

148. Burgan, B. & Mules, T. (1992) “Economic impact of sporting events.” Annals of Tourism Research 19 (4) 700-710.

“Major sporting events have their main economic impact via the direct expenditure of tourists associated with the event. Care is needed to count only that expenditure that would not have occurred in the absence of the event. This means avoiding expenditure by tourists who would have visited regardless, but who timed their visit to coincide with the event. When all such expenditure has been avoided, the net remaining expenditure can be


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assessed using an input-output model of the host economy. It is argued that, because of its climatic and cultural advantages, Australia may be able to capitalize on the economic benefits of tourism resulting from major sporting events.”

149. Hall, C. M. (1987). “The effects of hallmark events on cities.” Journal of Travel Research, 26(2), 44-45.

“The 1987 People and Physical Environment Research Conference, 1987, under the theme of the Effects of Hallmark Events on Cities was held in Perth, Western Australia, between June 15-19, 1987. Academics, government officials, recreation and tourism planners and members of private industry from around the Pacific basin gathered at the Observation City Resort Hotel to discuss the nature and impacts of hallmark events. The Conference was organized by the Centre for Urban Research, University of Western Australia. The Conference was opened by the West Australian Minister of Planning, Hon. R. Pearce MLA, who highlighted the importance of hallmark events in tourism and regional planning. The conference was organized around four main areas: (1) sporting events, (2) cultural events/economic studies, (3) urban events/studies, and (4) general theoretical studies. Supplementary to these areas were workshops on hallmark events held along disciplinary lines.”

Africa

150. Saayman, M. & Saayman, A. (2006). “Creating a framework to determine the socio-economic impact of national parks in South Africa: a case study of the Addo Elephant National Park.” Tourism Economics, 12 (4) 619-633.

“National parks in South Africa are seen as major tourism assets, since wildlife is the biggest draw-card for international visitors to the country. Yet little is known of the socio-economic contribution of these parks to their respective local economies. The purpose of this research is to develop a framework for assessing the socio-economic impact of the Addo Elephant National Park in South Africa. The results show that the park has a significant impact in terms of production, income generation and employment in the area. Key results include a proposed framework for assessing the socio-economic impact of national parks in a developing country.”

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