LITERATURE REVIEW ON COMMUNITY RESILIENCE IN REMOTE NORTH AUSTRALIA

Christine Michaels, Matalena Tofa and Glenn James North Australian Indigenous Land and Sea Management Alliance

    

LITERATURE REVIEW ON COMMUNITY RESILIENCE IN REMOTE NORTH AUSTRALIA | REPORT NO. 2016.161

 

   

Version Release history Date

1.0 Initial release of document 24/10/2016

 

© North Australian Indigenous Land and Sea Management Alliance Limited 2016

Disclaimer: The North Australian Indigenous Land and Sea Management Alliance and theBushfire and Natural Hazards CRC advise that the information contained in thispublication comprises general statements based on scientific research. The reader is advised and needs to be aware that such information may beincomplete or unable to be used in any specific situation. No reliance or actionsmust therefore be made on that information without seeking prior expertprofessional, scientific and technical advice. To the extent permitted by law, the North Australian Indigenous Land and Sea Management Alliance and the Bushfireand Natural Hazards CRC (including its employees and consultants) exclude allliability to any person for any consequences, including but not limited to all losses,damages, costs, expenses and any other compensation, arising directly orindirectly from using this publication (in part or in whole) and any information ormaterial contained in it.

Publisher: North Australian Indigenous Land and Sea Management Alliance Limited

October 2016

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry:

Title: Literature Review on Community Resilience in Remote North Australia

Authors: NAILSMA Contributors: Christine Michaels, Matalena Tofa and Glenn James Edition: First edition ISSN: 1837-4166 ISBN: 978-0-9874264-6-8

Subjects: Indigenous natural and cultural resource management, north Australialand and sea management, respecting Indigenous and traditional knowledge and culture, community resilience, governance models

Citation: NAILSMA 2016, Literature Review on Indigenous community resilience in remote north Australia.  Cover: A workshop on community resilience in remote northern Australia takes place near Ngukurr in the Northern Territory. Photo by Nathan Maddock, Bushfire and Natural Hazards CRC 

AboutNAILSMALimited

TheNorthAustralianIndigenousLandandSeaManagementAllianceLimited(NAILSMA)deliverslarge-scaleinitiativesacrossnorthAustraliaandiscommittedtofindingpracticalsolutionsthatsupportIndigenouspeopleandthemanagementoftheirlandsforfuturegenerations.Itsculture-basedeconomyapproachaimstoassistIndigenouspeoplethroughlivelihoodsandemploymentontheircountry.NAILSMAisanIndigenouslednot-for-profitcompany.Ithasastrongtrackrecordofdeliveringaward-winningprogramsinchallengingandcomplexsettings.

AbouttheNAILSMAKnowledgeSeries

TheNAILSMAKnowledgeSeriesrecognisesandprovidesaforumforIndigenousandnon-IndigenouspeopleresponsibleforlandandseamanagementacrossnorthAustralia.ItisaninformationpointforthedisseminationofknowledgefrombothIndigenousandnon-Indigenousperspectivesonabroadrangeofissuesrelevanttolandandseamanagement.Theseriesencompassesabroadrangeofpublicationtypesincludingdiscussionandpolicypapers,researchreports,workshopandconferencereports,opinionpieces,andIndigenousKnowledgepublications.

PublicationsintheNAILSMAKnowledgeSeriesareavailableelectronicallyand,inlimitedcases,inhardcopy.KnowledgeSeriespublicationsandotherpublicationsbyNAILSMAanditspartnersorcollaboratorsareavailablefromtheNAILSMAwebsitewww.nailsma.org.au

Disclaimer

TheviewsandopinionsexpressedintheNAILSMAKnowledgeSeriesarenotnecessarilythoseofNAILSMA.NAILSMAshallnotberesponsibleinanywaywhatsoevertoanypersonrelyinginwholeorpartonthecontentsofthispublication.Totheextentpermittedbylaw,NAILSMAexcludesallliabilitytoanypersonforanyconsequences,including,butnotlimitedtoalllosses,damages,costs,expenses,andanyothercompensation,arisingdirectlyorindirectlyfromusingthispublication(inpartorinwhole)andanyinformationormaterialcontainedinit.

LiteratureReviewonCommunityResilienceinRemoteNorthAustralia

PreparedbyChristineMichaels,MatalenaTofaandGlennJamesfortheNorthAustralianIndigenousLandandSeaManagementAllianceLtd

October2016

.

AcknowledgementNAILSMAgratefullyacknowledgestheBushfireandNaturalHazardsCooperativeResearchCentre,theDarwinCentre forBushfireResearch,and theResearch Institute forEnvironmentandLivelihoodsatCharlesDarwinUniversity.

CopyrightCopyright©2016:NorthAustralianIndigenousLandandSeaManagementAllianceLimited(NAILSMA)

Thispublicationiscopyright.Apartfromanyfairdealingforthepurposeofprivatestudy,research,criticismorreview as permitted under the Copyright Act, no partmay be reproduced by any process, withoutwrittenpermissionfromthepublisher.

Forrequestsandenquiriesconcerningreproductionandrights,contact:

NorthAustralianIndigenousLandandSeaManagementAllianceLtd.POBox486CharlesDarwinUniversityNT0815Australiawww.nailsma.org.aucontact@nailsma.org.au

NationalLibraryofAustraliaCataloguing-in-Publicationentry:

Title:LiteratureReviewonCommunityResilienceinRemoteNorthAustralia

Authors:NAILSMAContributors:ChristineMichaels,MatalenaTofaandGlennJamesEdition:FirsteditionISSN:1837-4166ISBN:978-0-9874264-6-8

Subjects: Indigenousnatural and cultural resourcemanagement,northAustralia landand seamanagement,respectingIndigenousandtraditionalknowledgeandculture,communityresilience,governancemodels

Suggested citation: NAILSMA 2016 Literature Review on Indigenous community resilience in remote northAustralia

ContentsBackgroundandcontext........................................................................................................................1

Introduction...........................................................................................................................................2

Definingvulnerabilityandresilience......................................................................................................3

Measuringresilience..........................................................................................................................4

Indigenousperspectivesonvulnerabilityandrisk.............................................................................6

Indigenousperspectivesonresilience...............................................................................................7

Enhancingcommunityresilience...........................................................................................................9

Socialcapital.......................................................................................................................................9

Local/Indigenousknowledges..........................................................................................................11

LocalgovernanceandGovernments................................................................................................13

TherelationshipbetweenemergencymanagementservicesandIndigenouscommunities..........14

Conclusion............................................................................................................................................16

References............................................................................................................................................17

1

BackgroundandcontextTheNorthAustralianIndigenousLandandSeaManagementAllianceLtd(NAILSMA)isworkingwith

the Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods (RIEL) and the Aboriginal Research

Practitioners Network (ARPNet) at Charles Darwin University (CDU), together with community

membersfromNgukurrandGunbalanyacommunitiesinArnhemLand,onaresearchprojecttitled

‘Building Community Resilience in Northern Australia’. The project is funded by the Bushfire and

NaturalHazardsCooperativeResearchCentre.

Theaimof theproject is touseaction research tounderstand, identifyand trialopportunities for

promoting resilience in remote north Australian Indigenous communities. There are two key

componentprojects:

1. ScopingremotenorthAustraliancommunityresilience;and2. Developingopportunitiesforbuildingmoreresilientremotecommunitiesinnorthern

Australiaincludingeffectivegovernancemodels.

Theaimofthisliteraturereviewistoprovidebackgroundinformationforthescopingstudyandgovernancemodellingproject,andtoidentifygapsintheliteraturewhichtheseprojectsmayseektoaddress.

2

Introduction

Thepurposeof this literature review is toprovideanoverviewof current researchoncommunity

resilienceinrelationtonaturalhazards.Itexaminestheconceptsofvulnerabilityandresilienceinthe

northAustraliancontextand, inparticular, inremoteIndigenouscommunities. Inremotenorthern

Australia thereareparticular issues thatmustbeconsidered forpreparing for, responding to,and

recoveringfromnaturalhazards.DesertKnowledgeAustralia,forinstance,highlights‘thedifficulties

facedbygovernmentsinprovidingbasiccommunityservicesandinfrastructure,thelackofanyreal

localauthorityoverdecisionmakingorallocationofresources,theseverestressonIndigenousculture

andsocietalstructures,andtheriskofcollapsingfragileecosystemsinthecontextofoutmodedland

management regimes’ (Desert Knowledge Australia 2009, p.3). In contrast, many highlight the

strength and resilience of remote Indigenous communities, despite the hardships produced by

colonisation, failed policies andpoor governance. This is exemplified bymany successful practical

projectsinlandandseamanagement,suchastheWestArnhemLandFireAbatementProject(Bessen

ConsultingServices&NAILSMA2009,Garnett&Sithole2007).Thisliteraturereviewconsiderswhat

communityresiliencemeansinthecontextofremoteIndigenouscommunitiesinnorthernAustralia

and how this concept might relate to natural disaster preparedness, mitigation, response and

recovery.

ThescopeofthereviewincludesbothAustralianandinternationalliterature,drawnfromanumber

ofdisciplinesincludinghealth,psychology,anthropology,environmentalmanagementandemergency

management.Insystematicorder,thefollowingtopicswillbediscussed:definitionsofvulnerability

and resilience; conceptual frameworks for measuring resilience; Indigenous perspectives on

resilience;Indigenousperspectiveonriskandexistingcapacity;andfactorsthatenhancecommunity

resilienceincludingsocialcapital,local/traditionalknowledge,localgovernance,andtherelationship

betweenemergencymanagementservicesandIndigenouscommunities.Whilstthereviewfocuses

oncommunityresilienceto‘naturalhazards,’suchasbushfires,cyclonesandfloods,italsoconsiders

thenotionofcommunityresiliencewithinthebroadercontextof livelihoodsecurity,sustainability

andwell-being.

3

Definingvulnerabilityandresilience

There is an extensive body of international literature, and to a lesser extentAustralian literature,

which seeks to define and develop conceptual frameworks for understanding and measuring

community ‘vulnerability’ (Cutteretal.2008,King2001)andcommunity ‘resilience’,particularly in

relation to natural disasters. There have also been a number of critiques surrounding notions of

‘vulnerability’inIndigenouscommunities,particularlyinrelationtoclimatechangeriskassessments

(Bankoff2001,Howittetal.2012,Petherametal.2010).Howittetal. (2012,p.56)argue that the

characterisationofIndigenouscommunitiesasparticularlyvulnerable‘assignsIndigenouspeoplesthe

roleofvictimsofclimaterisk…[and]marginaliseslocalknowledgeanddefinesthecriticalcapacityto

identifyandtreatvulnerabilitiesasresidingwiththeexpertsandagenciesratherthantheaffected

communitiesthemselves.’

Morerecentliteraturefromvariousdisciplines(includingdisastermanagement,sustainability,climate

change)focusesinsteadon‘resilience’(Comfortetal.2010,Wildavsky1988).Drawnprimarilyfrom

ecological research, resilience describes the ability of a system to ‘bounce back’ or ‘return to

equilibrium’followingashock,ortotransformandestablishnewequilibriainresponsetostressors

ordisturbances(Cutteretal.2008,Gawithetal.2016,Leykinetal.2016).Therearediversedefinitions

of‘resilience,’whichreflectsbothitsinnatecomplexityandthediversityofitsapplication(Cutteret

al.2008).Social-ecological resilience, for instance, tendstoconceptualiseresilienceasanadaptive

cycleortheabilitytransforminresponsetochangingconditionsordisturbances(e.g.,climatechange)

(Berkes&Ross2013,Brown&Williams2015).Incontrast,disasterresiliencefocusesonresilienceas

the ability to return to a pre-existing status quo or to ‘normal function’ after a disturbance (e.g.,

flooding,eruption)(Brown&Williams2015,Cutter2016).Policydefinitionsofsocialorcommunity

resilienceoftenfocusontheabilityofcommunitiestoadapt,prepare,respondto,andrecoverfrom

natural disasters (ISDR 2005, Teo et al. 2013). For instance, the National Strategy for Disaster

Resilienceidentifiesthefollowingindicatorsofcommunityresilience:‘functioningwellwhileunder

stress,successfuladaptation,self-reliance,andsocialcapacity’(COAG2009,p.4).

Resilience has become popular in both academic and policy discourses, and forms an important

frameworkthroughwhichemergencyandhazardmanagementareundertaken(Cox&Hamlen2015).

This is in part because resilience provides a conceptual mechanism for linking social and

environmentalsystems,consideringcomplexandnon-linearprocesses,andforpositioningadaptation

andchangeasnecessaryandimportant(Darnhoferetal.2016,Hooli2015).Notably,‘resilience’also

directsattentiontocommunities’strengthsandcapabilitieswhenfacingchallenges,andemphasises

empowermentandagency,ratherthanvictimhood(Hooli2015).IntheAustraliancontext,resilience

4

andtheaccompanyingnarrativeof‘sharedresponsibility’alsoworktoredistributeresponsibilityfor

communitysafetyfromsolelygovernmentagenciestoacombinationofcommunitiesandindividuals

alongsidegovernmentagencies(Singh-Petersonetal.2015).

Critical analyses of resilience in disaster and hazard management highlight the complexity of

‘resilience’insocialcontexts,andhowthismayproblematizegovernmentorinstitutionaleffortsto

developandfosterresilientcommunities.Theorisationofresilienceinhazardsmanagementcontexts

initiallyfocusedonresilienceasan‘outcome’andthussoughttoidentifyresourcesorcapitals–social,

economic,environmental,infrastructuralinteralia–thatcommunitiesneedtoberesilient(Kirmayer

etal.2009,Madsen&O'Mullan2016).Inthiswork,socialcapital,orthenetworksandrelationships

withincommunitiesthatcanbedrawnuponduringemergencies,isfrequentlyemphasisedaskeyto

community resilience as it fosters such qualities as ‘connectedness,’ ‘engaged governance,’ and

‘communityparticipation’(Madsen&O'Mullan2016).Morerecenttheorisationsofresilienceoften

emphasisethedynamic,fluid, interactiveandrelationalnatureofresilience(Darnhoferetal.2016,

Hooli 2015, Pauwelussen 2016). Rather than identifying the range, quality or quantity of capitals

communitiesneed,thisresearchfocussesondiverseprocessesandrelationshipsbetweenpeopleand

environmentsthatenablecommunitiesto‘bounceback’andadapt(Darnhoferetal.2016,Kirmayer

etal.2009).Criticshavealsonotedtheproblematicnatureof‘community’astheassumedholderor

enactor of ‘resilience’ (Barrios 2014). Pauwelussen (2016), for instance, argues that the literature

oftenassumesconsensusandhomogeneitywithincommunities,andHooli(2015)observesthatissues

ofpowerandinequalitywithincommunitiesareseldomadequatelyaddressed.Barrios(2014)further

arguesthatcommunitiesarenotstableandfixedentities,rathercommunitiesareidentifiedandtake

onvaryingshapesandformsthroughtheirrelationshipswithgovernmentagenciesandNGOs.Finally,

MadsenandO’Muller(2016,p.286)highlightthatresilience–whetheritisseenasaprocessorasan

effectofresourcesandcapitals–‘isclearlynotsomethingthatcanbeimposedonacommunityfrom

a distant bureaucracy.’ This suggests that alongside attention to relationships, processes and

communityabilities,buildingcommunityresiliencedemandslong-termandongoingeffort.

MeasuringresilienceResilience is difficult to measure in part because of the diverse range of definitions and

interpretations, but also because of ‘the multifaceted nature of resilience including the physical,

social, institutional, economic and ecological dimensions’ (Cutter et al. 2008, p.603). Measuring

resiliencehasbeenamajorresearchfocus,reflectingtheimportanceofresilienceinpublicpolicy,and

theneedtoprovideguidanceanddirectionforgovernmentagenciesandcommunities.Awiderange

ofmeasureshavebeendeveloped,yet there isnoonemeasurementthat fitsallcircumstancesor

5

contexts (Cutter 2016, Hegney et al. 2008,Maguire& Cartwright 2008, Resilience Alliance 2007).

Measuresofcommunityresiliencefrequentlyincludeacombinationfactors,suchas:

• Localinfrastructureandbuildings;

• Emergency/disasterpolicesandplans,andmitigationactivities;

• Emergencymanagementservices,healthservices,andotherrelatedservices;

• Socialfactors,suchaseducationlevels,healthcareaccess,economicstatus;

• Social connectedness; for instance, social capital, community cohesion, civic or non-profit

organisations,communityleadership;and

• Local knowledge and experiences of emergencies anddisasters, andpreparedness (Cutter

2016,McAslan2011)

In essence, measurements seek to consider ‘the complex interplay of environmental, social,

governance,infrastructureandeconomicattributesassociatedwithcommunityresilience’(Teoetal.

2013,p.9).

Cutter(2016)identifiestwomainmethodologicalapproachestomeasuringresilience.Thefirstisthe

top-downapproachwhichmayusearangeofindicatorsorscorecardstoevaluatetheresilienceof

communitiesanddirectgovernment(orcommunity)policiesandinvestments.Thisapproachallows

ready comparisons between locations, can easily be operationalised at scale, and facilitates

monitoringprogressovertime.Yetbecausetop-downmeasurements inherentlyrequire ‘reducing,

simplifying,andquantifyingcomplex,dynamicprocessesandconstructs…’ (Cox&Hamlen2015,p.

222),theyriskprivilegingquantifiableanduniversallyapplicablevariablesoverthetricky,butcrucial,

socialandculturalaspectsofcommunityresilience.Incontrast,bottom-upapproachesprivilegelocal

and contextual understandings of community (and) resilience and typically employ qualitative

methodstogeneraterichordeepanalysesofspecificlocations(Cutter2016).Whilstthisapproach

maynotallowforeasycomparisonsbetweensites,itlikelyfacilitatesgreatercommunityparticipation

andeducation.Indeed,forCoxandHamlen(2015),bottom-upapproachesrepositionmeasurement

asaprocessofdialogue,communityengagementandempowerment.Recentworkoftendrawson

bothquantitativeandqualitativemethodsseeking toprovidemeasurementsof resilience thatare

both locallymeaningful and understandable, and useful formanagerial purposes. In Australia, for

instance, The Torrens Resilience Institute has developed a tool tomeasure community resilience

(Torrens Resilience Institute 2012). It draws on a model of resilience that identifies community

connectedness,riskandvulnerability,planningandproceduresandavailableresourcesastheykey

aspectsthatneedtobeconsidered.Italsoenablescommunitiestoassesstheirowndisasterresilience

using a scorecard, and is intended to both measure and improve community resilience through

6

strengthening community understanding of risks and emergency/government services, and

encouragingasenseofcommunityandcollectiveresponsibility(TorrensResilienceInstitute2012).In

sum,measuringresilienceremainscomplex,reflectingboththediversityofinterpretationsoftheterm

‘resilience,’andthevaryingapproachesandpurposesofmeasurement.

IndigenousperspectivesonvulnerabilityandriskMaruetal.(2014)discerntwokeynarrativesabout(remote)Indigenouscommunitiesinrelationto

vulnerability and resilience: (1) Indigenous communities are more vulnerable to environmental

hazardsandchangebecauseofentrenched inequalities,marginalisationanddisadvantage;and(2)

Indigenouscommunitiesaremoreresilientbecauseoftheirhistoricalexperiences,knowledgesand

community relationships/networks. Both narratives generate deficient and problematic

understandingsofbothIndigenouscommunitiesandenvironmentalhazardsandchanges,andcanbe

usedto justify top-down interventions,aswellas reducedgovernmental responsibility (Maruetal

2014). In this context, it is particularly important to engage with Indigenous perspectives of

vulnerabilityandrisk.

Anemergingbodyof literaturehighlights twokey issues in regard to Indigenousperspectivesand

understandingsofvulnerabilityandrisk(Howitt2012,Miller&Davidson-Hunt2013,Petherametal.

2010).Firstly,authorsargueformorenuancedunderstandingsofthecurrentstatusquoinIndigenous

communities.Thisincludesanunderstandingofcontemporarygovernancesystemswherebyremote

Indigenouscommunitiesaresubjecttocentralisedpolicy-making(Maruetal2014),andperhapsmore

importantly,ofhistoricalcontextsthatmeanthat‘inmanyIndigenoussettings,everydaylifeproceeds

in a constant state of emergency’ (Howitt et al 2012, p. 55) and that contemporary ‘local socio-

ecosystemsarenot inequilibrium’ (Bardsley&Wiseman2012,p.721).This is significantasmuch

theoretical work on vulnerability and resilience problematically treats current norms as the

equilibriumtobemaintained.Ellemor(2005,p.5),thus,callsforcriticalreflectionon‘howmuchwe

reallyunderstandaboutwhatis“normal”’inremoteIndigenouscontextstobetterunderstandrisks,

vulnerabilitiesandappropriateinterventions.Inaddition,theproblematicnatureofthecurrentstatus

quomaydirectlocalconcerntocontemporaryissues,ratherthanfutureecologicalchangesorrisks.

Forinstance,inarecentcasestudyexaminingYolŋuperspectivesofclimatechangeandadaptationin

northeastArnhemLand,participantshighlightedthatdespitetheirconcernaboutecologicalchanges,

they were primarily worried about other issues affecting their community's general welfare. The

authors stressed that ‘the results suggest that strategies and policies are needed to strengthen

adaptivecapacityofcommunitiestomitigateover-archingpovertyandwell-beingissues,aswellas

respond to changes in climate’ (Petheram et al. 2010, p.682). Academic formulations of risk,

7

vulnerability,andresilience, thereforeneedtobeappropriatelycontextualised, rather thansimply

applied,tobemeaningfulinremoteIndigenouscommunities.

Secondly,authorshavehighlighteddifferingworldviewsandconceptionsof‘risks’and‘hazards.’For

instance,intheAustraliancontextHowittetal.(2012,p.55)notethat;

FormanyIndigenouspeople,naturalphenomenasuchasstormsandcyclonesareseasonal events and are regarded asmanifestations of a cosmological order inwhich such events are anticipated and not reducible to external risks in anysimplisticway…

Thus,developing locally-meaningfuldefinitionsof,andresponsesto,vulnerabilityandriskrequires

engagingwithIndigenousworldviewsandontologies,andbeingparticularlyattentivetoIndigenous

conceptionsofnonhumanagency(Miller&Davidson-Hunt2013).

IndigenousperspectivesonresilienceThe conceptual frameworks and indicators developed for understanding andmeasuring resilience

largelyformpartofa‘western’discoursewhichmaynotnecessarilyapplyincross-culturalsettings

suchasremotenorthernAustralia(Pretty2011).Kirmayeretal.(2009,p.63)furthernotethat:

Unlikeadisasterthatdisruptsordestroysexistinginfrastructure,manyAboriginalcommunitieshaveundergoneradicalchanges,displacementsandreconfigurationsinresponsetocolonizationandhavehadtoimprovisewaystocopewithcontinuingmarginalization and external control. As a result, rather than focusing on crisisresponsestocatastrophes,Aboriginalresiliencemustbeconsideredintermsoftheimpactofstructuralviolence,andinterventionsmusttakealong-termapproachtorebuild,repairandrevitalizecommunitystrengthsandinstitutions.

Indigenousperspectivesoncommunity resilience (though this terminologymaynotnecessarilybe

used), therefore, include a range of programs and issues outside the field of natural hazards. For

instance, discussions of resilience can be found in a number of reports about successful practical

projectssuchastheWestArnhemLandFireAbatementProjectandmusicandsportsprograms in

Indigenouscommunities(e.g.VallanceandCooke(2011)andKennettandKitchens(2009)).

There is also a growing body of literature relating to Indigenous livelihoods that supports the

importanceofdiversifiedandlocaleconomiesinaidingcommunityresilience(Altman&Jordan2008,

Smyth 2012). A number of reports over the last ten years have highlighted the links between

environmentalhealthandhumanhealth(Berry2009,Burgessetal.2009,Campbelletal.2011,Dekens

2007,Garnettetal.2009,Price-Robertson&Knight2012).Inparticular,theroleoflandmanagement

(andfiremanagement)inbuildingcommunityresiliencehasbeenconsidered(Whiteheadetal.2008).

8

According to Burgess et al. (2009, p.567) ‘greater Indigenous participation in caring for country

activities is associated with significantly better health.’ Campbell et al. (2011, p.87) identified

‘substantialsavingsinthecostofprimaryhealthcareofchronicdisease.’Theseestimatedsavingsare

in addition to the market and non-market economic benefits of a healthier population and

environmentalbenefits.

TheHealthyCountry,HealthyPeopleproject(Garnett&Sithole2007)hasexploredtherelationship

betweenlandscapehealthandAboriginalhealthinnorthernAustralia.Accordingtothereport;

People taking part in customary and contemporary land and sea managementpractices,particularlythoselivingintraditionalhomelands,weremuchhealthier,including lower rates of diabetes and lower risks of cardiovascular disease. ThelandscapewhereICNRM[IndigenousCulturalandNaturalResourceManagement]ispractisedwasalsoinbetterconditionaccordingtoseveralmeasuresoflandscapehealth(Garnett&Sithole2007,p.iv).

ArecentreportoftheCultureisLifecampaignentitledTheElders’ReportintoPreventingIndigenous

Self-harm&YouthSuicideconsiderstheimportanceofyoungpeoplelearninghowtoliveoncountry

andhavingaccesstotraditionalknowledgeandculturetostrengthenandreinforceapositivesense

of identity. Themes such as community empowerment, the strengthening of cultural identity,

maintenanceofIndigenouslanguages,culturallyappropriateemployment,bi-culturaleducationand

returning tocountrywerehighlightedby thecontributorsof theabove report (Gooda&Dudgeon

2014).

Ascanbeseenfromtheaboveexamples,theseperspectivesonIndigenouscommunityresiliencedo

notconsiderthenotionofcommunityresilienceto‘natural’hazardsperse,butconsidercommunity

resilience to hazards more broadly and focus on existing strengths and capabilities. This aligns

somewhatwith research on resilience in relation to natural hazardswhich highlights the value of

existing capabilities of Indigenous communities, such as knowledge of the environment and local

hazards,theabilitytocopeandabilitytoaccesshelpfromoutside,inadditiontotheimportanceof

local/traditionalknowledge(intermsofunderstandingsofrisk,hazards,andcopingstrategies)(e.g.,

Leonardetal.2013,McLachlan2003,Petherametal.2010).Authorshavealsonotedtheimportance

of engagingwith local Indigenousunderstandings of resilience to achieve commongoals, develop

safercommunities,andappropriateemergencymanagementpoliciesandpractices (Ellemor2005,

Miller&Davidson-Hunt2013,Petherametal.2014).

9

EnhancingcommunityresilienceAlthoughcommunityresilience–particularlythesocialaspectsofthisconcept–cannotbeimposed

orachievedsolelythroughgovernmentpoliciesandinterventions,Cutteretal.(2010,p.2)dosuggest

thataspectsofcommunity resilience ‘canbe fosteredthrough interventionsandpolicies,which in

turnhelpbuildandenhanceacommunity’sabilitytorespondandrecoverfromdisasters.’Workatan

internationalscalehighlightsthe importanceof ‘ownership,capacityandconnection’toenhancing

community resilience (World Resources Institute 2008), and the role of local knowledges in

responding tonaturalhazards (International Strategy forDisasterReduction (UN/ISDR)2008). The

InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureandNaturalResources(Macchi2008)suggeststhat

improving Indigenous resilience (in relation to climate change) should involve recognition of

Indigenous adaptation strategies and knowledges, and collaboration between scientists and

Indigenouspeoples,alongsidepoliciesthatsecure Indigenousrights, infrastructural improvements,

and support for livelihood diversification. Thus, enhancing community resilience involves a

combinationofpracticalpolicyandinvestmentmeasureswithrecognitionandacknowledgementof

Indigenousknowledges,perspectivesandrelationshipswithparticularplaces.Recentresearchfurther

emphasisestheimportanceofsocialnetworksandpeople-placeconnections,collaborativeandsocial

learningalongsiderecognitionof local/traditionalknowledges,stronglocal leadershipandengaged

governance, and relationships between emergency services and communities (Lopez-Marrero &

Tschakert2011,Rossetal.2010,Whiteetal.2014).Notably,eachofthesethemesdirectsattention

and efforts to the local scale, to extant local strengths and capacities, and to collaborative and

participatory approaches. The following sections will explore each of these topics in turn with

particularattentiontoresearchwithIndigenouscommunitiesinnorthernAustralia.

SocialcapitalSocialcapital iswidelyandfrequently identifiedasan importantaspectofcommunityresilience in

disaster recovery more broadly (Marín et al. 2015). The concept was developed primarily by

sociologistsand,likeresilience,isvariouslyinterpreted.Itsuseinstudiesofcommunityresilienceand

hazardmanagementoftendrawsheavilyonPutnam’swork,throughwhichsocialcapitalispositioned

asacollectiveratherthanapersonalgood(Koniordos2008).Recentinterestinsocialcapitalreflects

ashiftinnaturalhazardsanddisasterresearchfromfocusingonbuildingsandphysicalinfrastructure

tosocialinfrastructure(Pfefferbaumetal.2015),andfromriskperceptiontosocialconnectionsand

collectiveinterests(Loetal.2015).Inessence,itshows‘anacknowledgementonthepartofdisaster

10

researchersoftheimportanceofsocialrelationsamongpeopleintheweatheringandmitigationof

disasters’(Barrios2014,p.332).

Inresilienceresearch,threemaintypesofsocialcapitalareidentified:(i)bondingsocialcapitalamong

communitymemberswhichisbasedonsuchqualitiesastrustandsharedvalues;(ii)bridgingsocial

capital that links different groupswithin communities, and different communities; and (iii) linking

social capital through which communities access formal or higher-level organisations (e.g.,

governmentagenciesorNGOs)(Bihari&Ryan2012,Marínetal.2015,Petzold2015,Pfefferbaumet

al.2015).Itisarguedthatthesesocialrelationshipsandnetworksenablecollectiveaction,knowledge

sharing,learningandadaptation,andconsequentlyenablecommunitiestobemoreresilient(Petzold

2015).Authorscaution,though,thatstrongsocialcapital isnotinherentlypositiveandhelpful.For

instance,highlevelsofbondingsocialcapitalamongparticulargroupsincommunitiesmaymaskthe

socialexclusionofothers,andcommunitiesmayhavestrongbondingandbridgingsocialcapital,but

couldstillbeisolatedfromorganisationswhoseresourcesandsupportisneededinadisaster(Loet

al.2015,Marínetal.2015,Petzold2015).

Recentinterestintheroleofsocialcapitalincommunityresiliencebothreflectsandfurthersashift

fromtop-downmanagementofnaturalhazardstowardscollaborativeandparticipatoryapproaches

todisastermanagementandadaptation(Bihari&Ryan2012,Loetal.2015,Pfefferbaumetal.2015).

Italsodirectsattentiontothelocalscale,withanincreasingnumberofpolicymeasuresthatseekto

enhance and enable social capital through active participation and community-level interaction

(Pfefferbaum et al. 2015). In this way, communities are increasingly being repositioned as key

resourcesoragentsinrespondingnaturalhazards,ratherthanaspassiverecipientsofgovernment

services(Murphy2007).

TheimportanceandstrengthofsocialcapitalinIndigenouscommunitieshasbeenwidelydiscussed,

particularlyinrelationtoissuesthatstemfromcolonialdispossessionandviolence,andcontemporary

povertyandmarginalisation(see,forexample,Kirmayeretal.2009,Tousignant&Sioui2009).Indeed,

thestrengthofthesesocial tiesandbondsof Indigenouscommunitiescontributestonarrativesof

Indigenous resilience to natural hazards (Maru et al. 2014). Yet asHunter (2004) notes, uncritical

application of ‘social capital’ to Indigenous contexts risks cross-cultural misinterpretation and

ahistorical analyses. In particular, colonial and contemporary government policies often work to

underminetheverykinship,familyandculturaltiesthatmanypositasintegraltostrongsocialcapital

inIndigenouscommunities(Howittetal.2012,Hunter2004).InAustralia,theseincludepreviouseras

offorceddislocationsofpeoplefromtheirlandsandfamilies,andcontemporarygovernmentpolicies

11

thatcompelrelocationfromhomelandstotownshipsandregionalcentresforfinancialefficiencyand

servicedelivery(Howittetal.2012),aswellasthepervasiveroleofthestateandmarketinshaping

contemporary Indigenous life (Hunter 2004). In addition,while such factors as shared values and

beliefs, kinship and reciprocity may promote strong (bonding) social capital within Indigenous

communities, this networkmay not link (well) with ‘mainstream’ or formal organisations (Hunter

2004).Suchdisconnectsperhapsevincethecontinuedproblematicrelationshipbetweengovernment

policyinitiativesandIndigenousculturalvalues,yetalsolikelyreflecthistoricalmistrust.

In summary, recent research indicates the importance of social relationships and networks to

communityresilience,andgeneratespolicyattentiontoensuringactive,local-levelparticipationand

interaction. Although many authors have noted ‘bonding’ social capital that stems from kinship,

sharedvalues,andreciprocityasakeystrengthofIndigenouscommunities,‘linking’socialcapitalthat

connects communities with external organisations and resources is arguably more problematic.

Further,marketorstate incursionsthatreorganisedaily lifeandrelationshipsmay impede/disrupt

activitiesandrelationshipsthatsustainstrongsocialcapitalinIndigenouscommunities.Thissuggests

thepotentialutilityofresearchandactivitiesthatsupportandenhancesocialcapitalintownshipsor

regional centres, alongside the strengthening of links between Indigenous communities and

governmentagencies.

Local/IndigenousknowledgesIn Australia and other nations, scientists and government agencies have typically determined

strategiesforandresponsestorisksandnaturalhazards.Thisemphasisonscientificknowledgeand

government-ledactionpositionscommunitiesasclientsorpassiverecipientsofaid,andmarginalises

localandtraditionalknowledgeofnaturalhazards(Dekens2007,Hilhorstetal.2015,Merceretal.

2007,Pretty2011).Recentworkhighlightstheimportanceandvalueoflocal/traditionalknowledges;

this could include such aspects as local knowledge of preparing for disasters, observing changing

environmentalconditions,communicatingaboutrisksandhazards,communicatingduringdisasters,

andadaptinginresponsetohazards(Dekens2007).Thisrecognitionemphasisesthreekeyaspectsof

local and traditional knowledges. Firstly, Indigenous knowledges are widely recognised as long-

standing, time-tested strategies that stem from place-based knowledge and cultures, and close

relationshipsbetweenIndigenoussocietiesandtheirenvironments(Hilhorstetal.2015,Pretty2011).

Indeed, many authors have described rich and long-standing strategies for natural hazards in

Indigenous communities (Ellemor2005). Yet celebrating Indigenous knowledges as traditional and

ecologicallywiseriskstreatingtheseknowledgesasastaticbodyofknowledge(unlikesciencewhich

12

iscontinuallyupdated),andmayinviteproblematicnarrativesthatvariouslyromanticiseIndigenous

knowledgeswithoutregardforhistoricalcontexts,colonialdisruptions,orcontemporaryambitions,

orthatpositionIndigenousknowledgesasvulnerableandinneedofprotection(Haughtonetal.2015,

Hilhorstetal.2015).

Secondly,localandIndigenousknowledgesareoftenrecognisedasunderpinningandstrengthening

extantcommunityresilience.For instance, inresearchwithremote Indigenouscommunities inthe

GulfofCarpentaria,McLachlan(2003,p.12)notesthat

...despite having the basic structure of their traditional culture dismantled by aforeignreligiousinfluence,thepeoplehavemanagedtomaintainimportanttraitsoforiginalLardilculture.Thestrategytosurviveinacyclonepronearea,isonesuchabilitythathasbeenpasseddownthroughgenerations.Avitalpartoftheirnaturalhazardmanagementprocess, is thepeople’sresilience.Thecapacitytoadapttotheisland’snaturalenvironmentandtheclimaticconditionshasbeeninstilledintheLardillifestyleandmaybeseenasanimportantfactorintheirabilitytoadapttowesternculture.Theskillusedtoestablishanenvironmentalhazardstrategy,and incorporating it into helping their traditional culture survive westerninfluences,indicatesLardilresilience,whichisoneofmanyissuesrequiringfurtherinvestigation.

Many authors, therefore, suggest that the marginalisation of local knowledges in disaster

management both demonstrates the failure of state agencies to recognise local capacities and

strengthsandincreasesIndigenousvulnerability(Ellemor2005,Hilhorstetal.2015,Rumbach&Foley

2014).DrawingonresearchinAmericanSamoa,RumbachandFoley(2014)observethatmostfunding

fortsunamipreparationandhazardmanagementgoestoformalinstitutions,butduringandafterthe

tsunami in 2009 the disaster response and recovery in villages was effectively led by Indigenous

institutions using Indigenous knowledges precisely because these institutions and knowledges are

embedded in daily life. They argue that community resilience could be strengthened through

recognising and supporting Indigenous strategies, rather than excluding them from disaster

management.

Thirdly,authorshaveemphasisedthatlocalworldviewsandknowledgesinfluencehowcommunities

understandandrespondtohazards,andconsequentlywhatkindsof interventionsandadaptation

strategiesareculturallyappropriateandlocallyrelevant(Roderetal.2015).Leonardetal.(2013),for

instance,exploredtheissueofclimatechangeadaptationwiththeMiriwoongpeoplefromtheeast

Kimberleyregion,andfoundthatperceptionsandexplanationsofenvironmentalchangesareoften

drivenbyknowledgeoftheirtraditionallandsandlocaldevelopments,andthatIndigenousknowledge

‘serves toprovidestandards thatguide individuals’decisions,choicesandattitudes’ (p.630).They

furthernotethatIndigenousworldviewsandvalueswillshapeclimatechangeadaptationstrategies

andtheacceptabilityof,andresponsesto,anyexternally-determinedadaptationefforts(Leonardet

13

al.2013).DrawingonresearchwithanIndigenouscommunityonSouthGoulburnIsland,Petheramet

al. (2014) emphasise the importance of involving people in decision-making for climate change

adaptation,andsuggestthatanystrategies‘willneedtoseriouslytakeintoaccounthowIndigenous

voicecanbeintegratedintodecision-making–inwaysthatacknowledgeoftenunrecognizedthreats

toremotecommunities,suchasexternalpoliticalandeconomicfactors’(p.349).Theyalsofoundthat

participantsemphasisedrespectforbothscientificandIndigenousknowledgesandtheimportanceof

engagingwithbothknowledgesets.

Takentogether,thesethreenarrativesaboutIndigenous/localknowledgesputforwardastrongcase

forgreaterrecognitionandsupportforIndigenousknowledgesinnaturalhazardsmanagement,and

thereareincreasingeffortstointegratescientificandlocalknowledgesandco-produceknowledgeto

designculturallyandlocallyappropriateresponsesthatstrengthen,ratherthanundermine,resilience

inIndigenouscommunities.

LocalgovernanceandGovernmentsGovernanceisoftenhighlightedasakeyaspectofcommunityresilience.IndiscussionsofIndigenous

community resilience, the presence of local, culturally-embedded institutions and governance

structuresisoftencitedasakeyaspectofextantIndigenousresilience(Hunter2004,Maruetal.2014,

Rumbach & Foley 2014). This acknowledgement of the value and importance of Indigenous

governance,alongsiderecognitionofsocialcapitalandIndigenousknowledges,furtherstherecent

interestinlocalcapacitiesandstrengthsofIndigenouscommunities.

Notably,inAustralia,recentworksuggeststhatformanyIndigenouscommunitiesvulnerabilityisan

effectofbeinggoverned(Maruetal.2014).AlthoughIndigenousgovernancesystemsinAustraliaare

typicallygroundedinlocalnetworksofkinship,formalgovernmentcanimposepoliciesandstrategies

fromafar,andbysodoing,entrenchnarrativesofIndigenousvulnerabilityanddisadvantage(Howitt

etal.2012).Forexample,arecentcasestudybyPetherametal.(2010)inNortheastArnhemLand

consideredIndigenousperspectivesonclimatechangeandadaptation.Itfoundthat:

Participantsbelievedthatmajorconstraintstostrengtheningadaptivecapacityhadexternal origins, at regional, state and federal levels. Examples are poorcommunicationandengagement,top-downinstitutionalprocessesthatallowlittleIndigenous voice, and lack of recognition of Indigenous culture and practices(Petherametal.2010,p.681).

ThissuggeststheimportanceofrelationshipbuildingbetweenIndigenousgovernancestructuresand

formalgovernmentbodies,andefforts tomovebeyond top-down,prescriptiveapproaches to risk

14

managementandadaptation(Howittetal.2012).Indeed,Velandetal.(2013)examinethesuccessful

evacuation of the remote Indigenous community ofWarruwi (Goulbourn Island) in the Northern

Territory during cyclone Monica, and argue that recognising and respecting local Indigenous

governance needs to be prioritised so that formal government agencies strengthen and support

Indigenous institutions. This aligns well with Rumbach and Foley (2014), who use the tsunami in

AmericanSamoatopointoutthat locallyandculturallyembeddedinstitutionsarebothactiveand

effectiveduringdisasters,andthereforeformalinstitutionsshouldbealignedwithIndigenousones.

Inessence,thisbodyofresearchhighlightslocalIndigenousgovernanceasanintegralandinterlinking

aspectof Indigenouscommunityresilience,andtheneedfor formalgovernmentagencies towork

with,notover,Indigenousgovernancestructures.

TherelationshipbetweenemergencymanagementservicesandIndigenouscommunitiesIntraditionalemergencyanddisastermanagement,governmentsarepositionedashavingaleadand

activeroleinmitigatingandrespondingtonaturalhazards.Currentemphasisoncommunityresilience

calls for a shift towards governments taking a ‘facilitative role…in aiding and building resilient

communities’ (Teo et al. 2013, p.5). Consequently, the importance of relationships between

emergencymanagement services and Indigenous communities iswidely recognised inbothpublic

policy documents and academic literature. For instance, in a review of the National Strategy for

Disaster Resilience, the Council of Australian Governments states that for remote Indigenous

communities:

[Disaster management] needs to recognise and address the gaps and culturaldifferences between systems and structures predicated on an assumed level ofcommunity capacity that does not necessarily exist within remote Indigenouscommunities,outstationsorhomelands,particularlyinrelationto:

• criticalpopulationmass;• basicandserviceablecommunityinfrastructure;• accessibleandbasiccommunityservices;• sustainablemarketeconomies;• levelsofliteracyandnumeracy;and• communitygovernancearrangements.

Italsoneedstoberecognisedthat improveddisastermanagementoutcomes inremoteIndigenouscommunitieswillonlybeachievediftheassociatedsystemsandstructures are informed by the cultural needs and perspectives of thosecommunities. Systems and structures must be flexible, responsive to andaccommodate the values, priorities and practices of Indigenous Australians andtheircommunities.Theprovisionofongoingeducationandsupporttomembersof

15

thesecommunitiesisnecessarytoensuresuccessfulachievementofthisoutcome(COAG2011,p.1).

Suchpolicydirectivesrevealanawarenessoftheneedforattentiontolocalculturalperspectivesfor

effectivedisastermanagementinremoteIndigenoussettings,andalsostresstheradicaldifferences

(or gaps) with mainstream Australia. Recent research evokes the complexity of bridging these

differences to build relationships between emergency services and Indigenous communities and

deviseappropriateprocedures.Authorshavenotedthatcontemporaryeffortsatrelationshipbuilding

between governments and Indigenous communities confront historical legacies from colonisation,

entrenchedmistrust,andtheeffectsofcurrentinterventionsandpolicies(Ellemor2005,Howitt2012,

Howittetal.2012,Velandetal.2013).Howittetal.(2012,p.55),therefore,suggestthat:

There is a deeper challenge for service agencies to engage with indigenousworldviews and negotiate what is appropriate and effective in building localcapacity to respond and building resilience to support recovery in emergencysettings.Itisalsoessentialtorecognisethatinmanyindigenoussettings,everydaylifeproceedsinaconstantstateofemergencybecauseofthehistoricalcontextinwhichpeoplefindthemselves.

Arguably, such an approach requires genuine recognition and engagement with local capacities,

knowledges,andunderstandingsofrisksandresilience,alongsideacommitmentto long-termand

respectfulpartnershipswithIndigenouscommunities,ratherthanareproductionormodificationof

mainstreamserviceprovision(Ellemor2005,Howittetal.2012,Miller&Davidson-Hunt2013).

16

Conclusion

This review has explored research on community resilience in relation to natural hazards with a

particularfocusonremoteandIndigenouscommunitiesinnorthernAustralia.Communityresilience

is a complex concept that is variously defined and applied, but typically integrates social,

environmental, economic, governance and infrastructural aspects. Recentwork onmeasuring and

enhancingcommunityresiliencetendstodirectattentiontothelocalscaleinordertobetterrecognise

andutiliselocalknowledges,governancesystems,andcapacities.Thisisalignedwithashifttowards

participatory and collaborative approaches to defining, measuring and enhancing community

resilience.

RecentworkinremoteIndigenouscommunitiesinnorthernAustraliahighlightstheimportanceofan

in-depthunderstandingoflocal,historicalcontexts,andtheongoingimpactsofstateinterventions.

Researchalsohighlights thecriticalnatureof Indigenousknowledges, cultures,andgovernance to

community resilience during natural hazards, and therefore, the importance of ensuring that

government/mainstream services recognise, support, and complement Indigenous structures and

approaches.Thisworkalsopointstowardsaneedforculturallyandlocallyappropriatemeasuresand

strategiesforcommunityresilienceandnaturalhazardsmanagement,andforrelationshipsbetween

formal/mainstream services and Indigenous communities that engendermutual understanding of

risksandhazards,expectations,andcapacities.

17

References

Altman,J.andK.Jordan(2008).ImpactofClimateChangeonIndigenousAustralians:SubmissiontotheGarnautClimateChangeReview.CAEPRTopicalIssue3/2008.Canberra,CAEPR.

Bankoff,G.(2001)."Renderingtheworldunsafe:'Vulnerability'aswesterndiscourse."Disasters25(1):19-35.

Bardsley,D.K.andN.D.Wiseman(2012)."ClimatechangevulnerabilityandsocialdevelopmentforremoteindigenouscommunitiesofSouthAustralia."GlobalEnvironmentalChange22(3):713-723.

Barrios,R.E.(2014)."'Here,I'mnotatease':anthropologicalperspectivesoncommunityresilience."Disasters38(2):329-350.

Berkes,F.andH.Ross(2013)."CommunityResilience:TowardanIntegratedApproach."SocietyandNaturalResources26(1):5-20.

Berry,H.(2009)."Pearlintheoyster:Climatechangeasamentalhealthopportunity."AustralasianPsychiatry17(6):453-456.

BessenConsultingServicesandNAILSMA(2009).PerformanceStoryReportEvaluationofInvestmentintheDugongandMarineTurtleProject.NAILSMAKnowledgeSeries.Darwin,NAILSMA.

Bihari,M.andR.Ryan(2012)."Influenceofsocialcapitaloncommunitypreparednessforwildfires."LandscapeandUrbanPlanning106(3):253-261.

Brown,E.D.andB.K.Williams(2015)."ResilienceandResourceManagement."EnvironManage56(6):1416-1427.

Burgess,C.P.,F.H.Johnston,H.L.Berry,J.McDonnell,D.Yibarbuk,C.Gunabarra,A.MileranandR.S.Bailie(2009)."Healthycountry,healthypeople:TherelationshipbetweenIndigenoushealthstatusand"caringforcountry"."MedicalJournalofAustralia190(10):567-572.

Campbell,D.,C.P.Burgess,S.T.GarnettandJ.Wakerman(2011)."PotentialprimaryhealthcaresavingsforchronicdiseasecareassociatedwithAustralianAboriginalinvolvementinlandmanagement."HealthPolicy99(1):83-89.

COAG(2009).NationalStrategyforDisasterResilience:Buildingournation’sresiliencetodisasters,COAG.

COAG(2011).ReviewofNaturalDisasterReliefandMitigationArrangements:ImprovingEmergencyManagementOutcomesforRemoteIndigenousCommunitiesinNorthernAustralia.

Comfort,L.K.,A.BoinandC.C.Demchak,Eds.(2010).DesigningResilience:PreparingforExtremeEvents.Pittsburgh,UniversityofPittsburghPress.

Cox,R.S.andM.Hamlen(2015)."CommunityDisasterResilienceandtheRuralResilienceIndex."AmericanBehavioralScientist59(2):220-237.

Cutter,S.,L.(2016)."ThelandscapeofdisasterresilienceindicatorsintheUSA."NaturalHazards80(2):741-758.

18

Cutter,S.,L.,L.Barnes,M.Berry,C.Burton,E.Evans,E.TateandJ.Webb(2008)."Aplace-basedmodelforunderstandingcommunityresiliencetonaturaldisasters."GlobalEnvironmentalChange18(4):598-606.

Cutter,S.,L.,C.Burton,G.andC.Emrich,T.(2010)."DisasterResilienceIndicatorsforBenchmarkingBaselineConditions."JournalofHomelandSecurityandEmergencyManagement7(1).

Darnhofer,I.,C.Lamine,A.StraussandM.Navarrete(2016)."Theresilienceoffamilyfarms:Towardsarelationalapproach."JournalofRuralStudies44:111-122.

Dekens,J.(2007).Localknowledgefordisasterpreparedness:Aliteraturereview.Kathmandu,InternationalCentreforIntegratedMountainDevelopment.

DesertKnowledgeAustralia.(2009)."RevitalisingRemoteAustralia:RemoteFocusProspectus."Retrieved26.04.16,fromhttp://www.desertknowledge.com.au/getattachment/781f75f9-2dfb-4a1d-bcee-abd6392b9baa/remoteFOCUS-prospectus.aspx.

Ellemor,H.(2005)."ReconsideringemergencymanagementandindigenouscommunitiesinAustralia."EnvironmentalHazards6(1):1-7.

Garnett,S.T.andB.Sithole(2007).SustainableNorthernLandscapesandtheNexuswithIndigenousHealth:HealthyCountry,HealthyPeople.Canberra,Land&WaterAustralia.

Garnett,S.T.,B.Sithole,P.J.Whitehead,C.P.Burgess,F.H.JohnstonandT.Lea(2009)."Healthycountry,healthypeople:PolicyimplicationsoflinksbetweenindigenoushumanhealthandenvironmentalconditionintropicalAustralia."AustralianJournalofPublicAdministration68(1):53-66.

Gawith,D.,A.DaigneaultandP.Brown(2016)."Doescommunityresiliencemitigatelossanddamagefromclimaterelateddisasters?Evidencebasedonsurveydata."JournalofEnvironmentalPlanningandManagement:1-22.

Gooda,M.andP.Dudgeon(2014).TheElders’reportintopreventingIndigenousself-harmandyouthsuicide,People,Culture,Environment.

Haughton,G.,G.BankoffandT.JCoulthard(2015)."Insearchof‘lost’knowledgeandoutsourcedexpertiseinfloodriskmanagement."TransactionsoftheInstituteofBritishGeographers40(3):375-386.

Hegney,D.,H.Ross,P.Baker,C.Rogers-Clark,C.King,E.Buikstra,A.Watson-Luke,K.McLachlanandL.Stallard(2008).BuildingResilienceinRuralCommunitiesToolkit.Toowoomba,Queensland,TheUniversityofQueensland,UniversityofSouthernQueensland,.

Hilhorst,D.,J.Baart,G.vanderHaarandF.M.Leeftink(2015)."Isdisaster“normal”forindigenouspeople?Indigenousknowledgeandcopingpractices."DisasterPreventionandManagement:AnInternationalJournal24(4):506-522.

Hooli,L.J.(2015)."Resilienceofthepoorest:copingstrategiesandindigenousknowledgeoflivingwiththefloodsinNorthernNamibia."RegionalEnvironmentalChange16(3):695-707.

Howitt,R.(2012)."SustainableIndigenousfuturesinremoteIndigenousareas:Relationships,processesandfailedStateapproaches."GeoJournal77(6):817-828.

19

Howitt,R.,O.HavnenandS.Veland(2012)."NaturalandUnnaturalDisasters:RespondingwithRespectforIndigenousRightsandKnowledges."GeographicalResearch50(1):47-59.

Hunter,B.(2004).<2004_DP261.pdf>.

InternationalStrategyforDisasterReduction(UN/ISDR)(2008).IndigenousKnowledgeforDisasterRiskReduction:GoodPracticesandLessonsLearnedfromExperiencesintheAsia-PacificRegion.

ISDR.(2005)."TheHyogoFrameworkforAction."Retrieved26.04.16,fromhttp://www.unisdr.org/2005/wcdr/intergover/official-doc/L-docs/Hyogo-framework-for-action-english.pdf.

Kennett,R.andJ.Kitchens(2009).DugongandMarineTurtleProject;ProjectFinalReporttoNationalHeritageTrustRegionalCompetitiveComponent.Darwin,NorthAustraliaIndigenousLandandSeaManagementAlliance.

King,D.(2001)."Usesandlimitationsofsocioeconomicindicatorsofcommunityvulnerabilitytonaturalhazards:DataanddisastersinNorthernAustralia."NaturalHazards24(2):147-156.

Kirmayer,L.J.,M.Sehdev,R.Whitley,S.F.DandeneauandC.Isaac(2009)."CommunityResilience:Models,MetaphorsandMeasures."JournalofAboriginalHealth5(1):62-117.

Koniordos,S.M.(2008)."Socialcapitalcontested."InternationalReviewofSociology18(2):317-337.

Leonard,S.,M.Parsons,K.OlawskyandF.Kofod(2013)."Theroleofcultureandtraditionalknowledgeinclimatechangeadaptation:InsightsfromEastKimberley,Australia."GlobalEnvironmentalChange23(3):623-632.

Leykin,D.,M.Lahad,R.Cohen,A.GoldbergandL.Aharonson-Daniel(2016)."Thedynamicsofcommunityresiliencebetweenroutineandemergencysituations."InternationalJournalofDisasterRiskReduction15:125-131.

Lo,A.Y.,B.Xu,F.K.S.ChanandR.Su(2015)."SocialcapitalandcommunitypreparationforurbanfloodinginChina."AppliedGeography64:1-11.

Lopez-Marrero,T.andP.Tschakert(2011)."Fromtheorytopractice:buildingmoreresilientcommunitiesinflood-proneareas."EnvironmentandUrbanization23(1):229-249.

Macchi,M.(2008).IndigenousandTraditionalPeoplesandClimateChange:IssuesPaperInternationalUnionfortheConservationofNature.

Madsen,W.andC.O'Mullan(2016)."PerceptionsofCommunityResilienceafterNaturalDisasterinaRuralAustralianTown."JournalofCommunityPsychology44(3):277-292.

Maguire,B.andS.Cartwright(2008).Assessingacommunity'scapacitytomanagechange:Aresilienceapproachtosocialassessment.Canberra,BureauofRuralSciences.

Marín,A.,Ö.Bodin,S.GelcichandB.Crona(2015)."Socialcapitalinpost-disasterrecoverytrajectories:Insightsfromalongitudinalstudyoftsunami-impactedsmall-scalefisherorganizationsinChile."GlobalEnvironmentalChange35:450-462.

20

Maru,Y.T.,M.StaffordSmith,A.Sparrow,P.F.PinhoandO.P.Dube(2014)."Alinkedvulnerabilityandresilienceframeworkforadaptationpathwaysinremotedisadvantagedcommunities."GlobalEnvironmentalChange28:337-350.

McAslan,A.(2011)."Communityresilience:Understandingtheconceptanditsapplication."Retrieved03.05.16,fromhttps://www.flinders.edu.au/centres-files/TRI/pdfs/understanding%20community%20resilience.pdf.

McLachlan,E.(2003)."SeagullsontheAirstrip:IndigenousPerspectivesonCycloneVulnerabilityAwarenessandMitigationStrategiesforRemoteCommunitiesintheGulfofCarpentaria."AustralianJournalofEmergencyManagement18(1):4-13.

Mercer,J.,D.Domineyhowes,I.KelmanandK.Lloyd(2007)."Thepotentialforcombiningindigenousandwesternknowledgeinreducingvulnerabilitytoenvironmentalhazardsinsmallislanddevelopingstates."EnvironmentalHazards7(4):245-256.

Miller,A.M.andI.Davidson-Hunt(2013)."AgencyandResilience:TeachingsofPikangikumFirstNationElders,NorthwesternOntario."EcologyandSociety18(3).

Murphy,B.L.(2007)."Locatingsocialcapitalinresilientcommunity-levelemergencymanagement."NaturalHazards41(2):297-315.

Pauwelussen,A.(2016)."Communityasnetwork:exploringarelationalapproachtosocialresilienceincoastalIndonesia."MaritimeStudies15(1).

Petheram,L.,N.StaceyandA.Fleming(2014)."Futureseachanges:Indigenouswomen'spreferencesforadaptationtoclimatechangeonSouthGoulburnIsland,NorthernTerritory(Australia)."ClimateandDevelopment7(4):339-352.

Petheram,L.,K.K.Zander,B.M.Campbell,C.HighandN.Stacey(2010)."‘Strangechanges’:IndigenousperspectivesofclimatechangeandadaptationinNEArnhemLand(Australia)."GlobalEnvironmentalChange20(4):681-692.

Petzold,J.(2015)."Limitationsandopportunitiesofsocialcapitalforadaptationtoclimatechange:acasestudyontheIslesofScilly."TheGeographicalJournal:n/a-n/a.

Pfefferbaum,B.,R.L.VanHornandR.L.Pfefferbaum(2015)."AConceptualFrameworktoEnhanceCommunityResilienceUsingSocialCapital."ClinicalSocialWorkJournal.

Pretty,J.(2011)."Interdisciplinaryprogressinapproachestoaddresssocial-ecologicalandecoculturalsystems."EnvironmentalConservation38(02):127-139.

Price-Robertson,R.andK.Knight(2012).Naturaldisastersandcommunityresilience:Aframeworkforsupport.Melbourne,AustralianInstituteofFamilyStudies.

ResilienceAlliance.(2007)."Assessingandmanagingresilienceinsocial-ecologicalsystems:Apractitionersworkbook."Retrieved03.05.16,fromhttp://www.sustentabilidad.uai.edu.ar/pdf/cs/practitioner_workbook_1.pdf.

Roder,G.,T.Ruljigaljig,C.-W.LinandP.Tarolli(2015)."NaturalhazardsknowledgeandriskperceptionofWujieindigenouscommunityinTaiwan."NaturalHazards81(1):641-662.

Ross,H.,M.Cuthill,K.Maclean,D.JansenandB.Witt(2010).Understanding,EnhancingandManagingforSocialResilienceattheRegionalScale:OpportunitiesinNorth

21

Queensland.Cairns,MarineandTropicalSciencesResearchFacility,ReefandRainforestResearchCentreLimited.

Rumbach,A.andD.Foley(2014)."IndigenousInstitutionsandTheirRoleinDisasterRiskReductionandResilience:Evidencefromthe2009TsunamiinAmericanSamoa."EcologyandSociety19(1).

Singh-Peterson,L.,P.Salmon,C.BaldwinandN.Goode(2015)."Deconstructingtheconceptofsharedresponsibilityfordisasterresilience:aSunshineCoastcasestudy,Australia."NaturalHazards79(2):755-774.

Smyth,D.(2012).BestpracticerecognitionandengagementofAboriginalTraditionalOwnersandotherIndigenouspeopleintheuseandmanagementofVictoria'smarineprotectedareas:ADiscussionPaperfortheVictorianEnvironmentAssessmentCouncil.Queensland,SmythandBahrdtConsultants.

Teo,M.,A.GoonetillekeandA.M.Ziyanth(2013).Anintegratedframeworkforassessingcommunityresilienceindisastermanagement.Proceedingsofthe9thAnnualInternationalConferenceoftheInternationalInstituteforInfrastructureRenewalandReconstruction,Risk-informedDisasterManagement:PlanningforResponse,RecoveryandResilience,Brisbane,QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,.

TorrensResilienceInstitute(2012).Developingamodelandtooltomeasurecommunitydisasterresilience.Adelaide,FlindersUniversity,.

Tousignant,M.andN.Sioui(2009)."ResilienceandAboriginalCommunitiesinCrisis:TheoryandInterventions."JournalofAboriginalHealthNovember:43-61.

Vallance,G.andP.Cooke(2011).WarddekenLandManagementLimited:AnnualReport2010-2011,CAEPR.

Veland,S.,R.Howitt,D.Dominey-Howes,F.ThomallaandD.Houston(2013)."Proceduralvulnerability:Understandingenvironmentalchangeinaremoteindigenouscommunity."GlobalEnvironmentalChange23(1):314-326.

White,R.K.,W.C.Edwards,A.FarrarandM.J.Plodinec(2014)."APracticalApproachtoBuildingResilienceinAmerica'sCommunities."AmericanBehavioralScientist59(2):200-219.

Whitehead,P.J.,P.Purdon,J.Russell-Smith,P.M.CookeandS.Sutton(2008)."ThemanagementofclimatechangethroughprescribedSavannaburning:EmergingcontributionsofindigenouspeopleinNorthernAustralia."PublicAdministrationandDevelopment28(5):374-385.

Wildavsky,A.(1988).SearchingforSafety.NewJersey,TransactionPress.

WorldResourcesInstitute(2008).RootsofResilience–GrowingtheWealthofthePoor.WashingtonDC,UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme,UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme.