Linguistic Analyses: The Non-Bantu Languages of North-Eastern Africa

LINGUISTICSURVEYSOFAFRICA

Volume18

LINGUISTICANALYSESTHENON-BANTULANGUAGESOFNORTH-

EASTERNAFRICA


EASTERNAFRICA

HandbookofAfricanLanguages

ANTUCKERANDMABRYAN

Firstpublishedin1966byOxfordUniversityPress

Thiseditionfirstpublishedin2018byRoutledge2ParkSquareMiltonParkAbingdonOxonOX144RN

andbyRoutledge711ThirdAvenueNewYorkNY10017

RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylorampFrancisGroupaninformabusiness

copy1966InternationalAfricanInstitute

AllrightsreservedNopartofthisbookmaybereprintedorreproducedorutilisedinanyformorbyanyelectronicmechanicalorothermeansnowknownorhereafterinventedincludingphotocopyingandrecordingorinanyinformationstorageorretrievalsystemwithoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublishers

TrademarknoticeProductorcorporatenamesmaybetrademarksorregisteredtrademarksandareusedonlyforidentificationandexplanationwithoutintenttoinfringe

BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationDataAcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary

ISBN978-1-138-08975-4(Set)ISBN978-1-315-10381-5(Set)(ebk)ISBNISBN978-1-138-09793-3(Volume18)(hbk)ISBN978-1-315-10464-5(Volume18)(ebk)

PublisherrsquosNoteThepublisherhasgonetogreatlengthstoensurethequalityofthisreprintbutpointsoutthatsomeimperfectionsintheoriginalcopiesmaybeapparent

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EASTERNAFRICA

BY

ANTUCKERANDMABRYAN

Withasupplementon

THEETHIOPICLANGUAGESBY

WOLFLESLAU

PublishedfortheTHEINTERNATIONALAFRICANINSTITUTE

bythe

OXFORDUNIVERSITYPRESSLONDONNEWYORKTORONTO

1953

OxfordUniversityPressElyHouseLondonWIGLASGOWNEWYORKTORONTOMELBOURNEWELLINGTON

CAPETOWNSALISBURYIBADANNAIROBILUSAKAADDISABABABOMBAYCALCUTTAMADRASKARACHILAHOREDACCA

KUALALUMPURHONGKONG

copyInternationalAfricanInstitute1966

ThisstudyhasbeenpreparedandpublishedinconnexionwiththeHandbookofAfricanLanguagesandwiththeaidofgrantsfromtheBritishColonial

DevelopmentandWelfareFundandlatertheDepartmentofTechnicalCooperationandtheInternational

AfricanInstitute

CONTENTS

Introduction1MORU-MANGBETU2BONGO-BAGIRMI3and6SERE-MUNDUandBANDA-GBAYA-NGBANDI4MBA5ZANDE7BUA8SOMRAI9EASTSAHARAN10MIMI11MABA12TAMA13FUR14DAJU15NYIMANG16TEMEIN17KATLA18aKOALIB-MOROampc18bTEGALI-TAGOI19KADUGLI-KRONGO20NUBIAN21BARYA22KUNAMA23BERTA24TAB125GULE26KOMA27DIDINGA-MURLE

28BAKO29TEUSO30NILOTIC31PARANILOTIC32aCUSHITIC32bOMETO32cGELEBA34IRAQW35MBUGU36SANYESupplement33ETHOPICINDEXESMAPTHENON-BANTULANGUAGESOFNORTH-EASTERNAFRICALanguagesnottreatedinthisvolume

INTRODUCTION

THEaimofthisbookistopresentthelinguisticmaterialmuchofitatfirsthandassembledbytheauthors in thecourseof theirclassificationof theNon-BantulanguagesofNorth-EasternAfricaThisbookdealsmainlywithmorphemesandwithgrammaticalandsyntactic

behaviour Though some Vocabulary material is to be found here and somemore in vol iv of the Linguistic Survey of the Northern BantuBorderlandl1(hereafter referred toasLSNBB)Vocabularycomparison itselfplays littlepartWithineachLanguageGroupand indeedwithinmostLargerUnitscorrespondenceinvocabularyissostrongastobeselfevidentwhilethediscussionoflexicalaffinitiesatahigherlevelisoutsidethescopeofthepresentworkTheSectionshere followthoseof theHandbookofAfricanLanguagesPart

III2(hereafterreferredtoastheHandbook)Sinceitspublicationnewdatahavecome to lightaffecting thepreviousclassificationTheseWillbementioned insituandthereaderisreferredtoSections345and67and812and271832The Sections on SANDAWE-HOTTENTOT (37) andBUSHMAN-HADZA

(38)arenot representedherehavingalreadyhadgrammatical treatment in theHandbook byDr EO JWestphal3while the Section onMBUGU (35) hasalreadybeendealtwithinLSNBBGrammaticaldataonSOMRAI(8)MIMI(10) lsquoGULEI (25) BAKO (28) and SANYE (36) are so inadequate that notreatmenthasbeenpossibleProfessor Wolf Leslau has kindly contributed the Section on ETHIOPIC

(AFRI-CANSEMITIC33)

CHANGESINNOMENCLATURE

Thefollowingnewnomenclatureisbeingusedhere

It has been the practice of the authors not to classify languages above theLarger Unit level4 In dealing with CUSHITIC however it has been foundnecessary to lay stress upon certain phenomena that underlie not onlyCUSHITICbutBERBERandSEMITICaswellAll these languages togetherwithAncientEGYPTIANhave longbeen recognizedasaunity towhich the

term lsquoHamito-Semiticrsquo has often been applied Since it has by now beenestablished1thatlsquothenon-SemiticlanguagesoftheHamito-SemiticfamilydonotformalinguisticunityasagainstSemiticrsquo2theauthorsareagreedthatthetermlsquoHamiticrsquo should be discarded They venture to propose in place of lsquoHamito-SemiticrsquothetermERYTHRAIC3sincetheRedSeacanberegardedasacentralpointorhingebetweenthetwoareasofAfricaandAsiainvolvedGreenbergrsquostermlsquoAfroasiaticrsquoisconsideredtoowidewhileMurdockrsquosuseoflsquoHamiticrsquoastheoverallterm4isliabletomisinterpretation

SOURCESSources of information are listed at the head of each Section Since a full

bibligraphyhasalreadyappearedintheHandbookonlysuchpublishedworksashaveactuallybeendrawnuponaregivenherethosewhichhaveappearedsincethepublicationoftheHandbookareCitedwithfullbibliographicaldetailSomeofthematerialpresentedhereistheresultoffieldworkintheSouthern

SudanCongoUgandaandKenyabyANTuckersupplementedbyworkwithexpatriate informants at the School of Oriental and African Studies whosenamesarelistedinsituOther investigatorshavealsohelpedbycontributingtheirownfieldnotesor

manuscriptgrammaticalsketchesOutstandingamongtheseareBWAndrzejewskiwhosuppliedourinformationonSOMALIandGALLAobtainedinthefieldandfrominformantsatSOAS

RCStevensonwhowroteupmanuscriptBAGIRMIandSARAMBAIgrammarsespeciallyfortheHandbookbesidescontributingothernotesalsomuchsupplementarypersonalinformationespeciallyontheNubaHillslanguages

PEHackettwhocontributedthefieldnotescollectedbyhimintheCongoasamemberoftheLSNBBteamSSantandreawhocontributedgrammaticalsketchesofNDOGO-SEREandtheSudanmembersoftheBONGO-BAGIRMIlanguages

The authors are also deeply grateful for the information and help from allthoseotherswhosenamesarementionedinthevariousSectionsunderlsquoSourcesrsquoandinfootnotesOriginalmaterial from the fivemain contributors above is printed in heavy

typeasisquotedmaterialwheninasystemoftranscriptioncomparabletothatused by the authors Where however quoted material is in a systemphonemically divergent (eg a different allocation of vowel symbols) orphoneticallyinadequate(egnon-distinctionoflsquoopenrsquoandlsquoclosersquovowels)itis

reproducedhereinitalicssometimeswithminormodifications

THECRITERIA

Inmaking the following analyses the authors have selected certain specificcriteriatoinvestigateandconcentrateonThesecriteriahavebeenchosenwithtwoaimsinview(a) To present in as short a space as possible an overall picture of the

workingofrepresentativelanguagesfromeachsectionoftheHandbook(b)Togivesuchgrammaticalmaterialaswillbehelpfultofuturestudentsin

classifying the languages according to their typological as apart from theirlexicalfeaturesThecriteriaarearrangedunderthefollowingfifteenheads

1Phonetics

Where transcriptionoforiginalmaterial isconcerned theprinciple followedby the authors is towrite phonemicallywherepossibleThismeans that somesymbolsmayhave averywide connotation thevaluesof the symbols lsquoirsquo andlsquoursquo for instance may vary from very close to very open according to thelanguageunderreviewsimilarlythesymbolslsquocrsquoandlsquojrsquomayrepresentanythingfrompurepalatalexplosivestothepost-alveolaraffricatestʃanddȝWhere phonemes have not been satisfactorily isolated the transcription is

morenarrowlyphoneticThe authors have tried to follow faithfully the phonemic systems of the

variousauthorities fromwhichsourcematerialhasbeen takenFor thesakeofuniformity however there has been from time to time a certain amount ofadaptationintheuseofsymbols

1aVowels(i) The following is a complete list of vowel symbols used (apart from

material in italics) in a narrow transcription they would have the followingvalues

As said before the values given to each vowel symbol must needs varyconsiderablyfromlanguagetolanguageThusinafivevowellanguageiandurepresenttheclosestvowelsofthatlanguageandeandosoundswhichmaylieanywherebetweenCardinalVowels2and3and6and7respectivelyandwhichinanarrowertranscriptionmightneedsymbolssuchasẹandọorεandɔThesymbols and areusedonlyinseventotenvowelsystemstorepresentveryclose vowels which in addition exercise strong influence over neighbouringsoundsegMORUZANDEInsuchlanguagesthesymbolsiandustandforclose soundswhich do not exercise this inffuence or for cases of uncertainty-undeniablyopensoundsbeingrepresentedbyIandUinsuchlanguages

Semi-mutevowelsIn some languagesegBAGIRMITESOGALLA final vowels in certain

words are barely articulated on certain occasions though fully pronounced onothers (This apart from the common tendency of final vowels to be elidedbeforefollowingwordsbeginningwithavowel)Such barely articulated vowels are called here Semi-mute vowels1 and are

representedbyitalicsegGALLAnaacutemagraveman(Acc)cfnamaacute(Gen)

VoicequalityIn some languages notably the NILOTIC languages vowels may be

pronouncedwithtwotypesofvoice(a)lsquobreathyrsquoorinthecaseofSLWOlsquohollowrsquovoice(b)lsquohardrsquoandsometimeslsquocreakyrsquovoice2Thesemi-vowelswandymayalsohavethesetwowaysofarticulationIn ZANDE and the PARANILOTIC3 languages voice quality is associated

withvowelqualityallclosevowelsbeinglsquohollowrsquoandallopenvowelslsquohardrsquo(seeiibelow)

InNorthernNILOTIC languageshowever nearly all vowels are capableofeither articulation In these languages therefore lsquobreathyrsquo or lsquohollowrsquo vowelsandsemi-vowelswillbeprintedinromanwhilelsquohardrsquovowelsandsemi-vowels(aswellasallconsonants)willbeprintedinboldface

NasalizedvowelsThetilde()isusedtorepresentnasalityexceptwhensuchnasalityisadirect

andinevitableresultofaneighbouringnasalconsonant

DiphthongsDiphthongsarevariouslyrendered-au-or-aw--ai-or-ay--ua-or-wa--ia-

or -ya- according to the word structure of the language under discussion oraccordingtothesourcematerial

VowelanddiphthonglengthVowellengthisnormallyshownbydoublingthevowelletterinthecaseof

diphthongs themore importantvowel letter (seeNUER)Where it ismerelyasporadicaccompanimentofStressaraiseddotmaybeusedIn some languages (notably KALENIIN) where more than two degrees of

vowel lengthhavebeennoted ithasbeen foundmoreconvenient to representhalflongvowelsbyaraiseddot(˙)andfullylongvowelsbyacolon()eg

Themacron(ˉ)isusedonlyinquotedmaterial

AnaptycticvowelsThese are vowelswhich only occur as a glide element at certain consonant

junctions(asbetweenlandkinDutchlsquomelkrsquo)

(ii)Vowelrelationshipsandvowelchangearediscussedunder

VowelCategoriesandCategoryHarmonyInsomelanguagesvowelsmaybegroupedintoCloseandOpenCategories

ForinstanceinACOLI-LANGOandinsomeofthePARANILOTIClanguagestherearefiveClosevowelsieaumlouandfiveOpenvowelsiεaɔU(intheseparticularlanguagestheClosevowelshavelsquohollowrsquovoicequalityandtheOpenvowels lsquohardrsquo voice quality) In the build-up of words Close vowels tend toassociatewithClosevowelsandOpenwithOpenThisisverynoticeableintheallocation of Affixes to words as words with Close Stem vowels will take a

differentseriesofAffixesfromwordswithOpenStemvowelsAffixesinwhichthevowelalternatesaccordingtotheStemvowelarecalledlsquoWeakAffixesrsquoFor examples of this type of Vowel Harmony (called here lsquoCategory

Harmonyrsquo) see thePARANILOTIC languages sect4a andACOLI-LANGO (butnotSHILLUK)CasesofFullHarmonyalsooccurSeeZANDEsect1a

UmlautAblautandCategoryChangeUmlautisnearlyalwayscausedbyaClosevowel or exercisinginffuence

onaneighbouringOpenvowelInnearlyallcasesCategorychangeisinvolvedastheOpenvowelisreplacedbyitscorrespondingClosevowelForexamplesofthistypeofvowelchangeseeMORUZANDEsect1aalsoACOLI-LANGOUmlautmaybeexertedeitherbyCloseStemvowelsorbyClosevowels in

AffixesAffixeswhich exert this inffuenceonStemvowels are called lsquoStrongAffixesrsquoA few instances havebeen recordedwhereUmlaut ofCloseStemvowel to

OpenhasbeencausedbyanOpenvowelSuffix(seePAumlKOTsect1a)AblautmaybedefinedassoundchangewithnoapparentphoneticreasonIt

mayoccurwithintheVowelCategoryorbetweenCategoriesinthelattercaseitisknownasCategoryShiftSeeDINKAsect1aforbothtypesofAblautTheFrontingofvowels inSOMALI isagoodexampleofbothUmlautand

Ablaut at work in one language-both involving Category change Other goodexamplesaretobefoundinKALENJIN

IbConsonantsThe following is a complete table of consonant symbols used with their

narrowrealization

ThelsquoAfricaAlphabetrsquoconvention isemployedhereofwritingny insteadofthe IPA symbolɲ alsoy for the palatal semi-vowel andẅ for a frontedwapproachingthesoundinFrenchlsquoluirsquoThebilabialrolledsoundsarewrittenpẉto avoid new symbols1 but Dokersquos symbol is adopted to represent a ffappedsound in which the lower lip is drawn into the mouth and ffapped outwardsagainst the upper teeth2R represents lsquouvular rrsquo (in ZANDE) represents anasalizedvarietyof thesoundwhichvariesbetweenr landr thesymbolsṛand ẓ (in LENDU) denote lsquodarkrsquo r and z pronounced with the back of thetongueraisedthesesoundsaresyllabicInsomelanguagesnotablyBAGIRMIaslightlyretroffexandveryunstable

pairofsoundsisoftenheardrecordedhereṭandḍInotherlanguagesthereare

affricates tr and dr pronounced with the tip of the tongue slightly retroffexImplosive ɗ is also somewhat retroffex as is SOMALI ɗ which is eitherimplosive or explosive according to context The strongly retroflex ʈ andɖsoundsofIndianlanguagesarenotheardhoweverCrazzolarahaspopularizedthesymbolʈtorepresentalsquofricativetrsquosound(acousticallysimilarto butwithnorolling) inNUERandACOLI3 thissymbol italicizedwillbeusedhere inNUERandDINKAonlyTheauthorsalsofollowtheconventionofLarochette(forMANGBETU)and

Muratori (for LOTUHO) of using lsquot lsquok ampc to indicate strongly articulatedsoundswhicharehowevernotquitedoubledTherearevoicednasalcompoundsmbndnj(ndȝ)ŋgŋgb4mvnzina

greatmanylanguages unvoicednasalcompoundsmpntampcarehowevernotsocommonTherearecompoundswithwandyegkwkyampc(orkwkyampcwherethe

semi-vowelelementisslight)ItshouldbenotedthatinsomelanguagesawordlikelsquokwalrsquorepresentsaW-compoundofkfollowedbythevowelainothersitrepresents a simple k followed by the diphthong -wa- In some cases eitherinterpretationisfeasibleAswiththevowelsymbolsabovethevaluesgiventotheconsonantsymbols

whenemployedphonemicallywillvaryfromlanguage to languageThus tdandn can represent eitherdentalor alveolar sounds in anygiven language Inthose languages howeverwhere the two sorts of consonant are phonemicallydistinct the symbols and areused for thedental varietyeg inNILOTICand some of the Nuba Hills languages Similarly the symbols c and j arepreferred to tʃanddȝunless there isaphonemic reasonfordistinguishing thepalatalexplosivescandjfromthepost-alveolaraffricatestʃanddȝTheaboveconventionsapplyalsotomaterialquotedfromothersources(see

p2)exceptthatinmaterialquotedinitalicsthefollowingconventionsusuallyapply th and dh stand for either the dental explosives and or the dentalfricativesθandethnhforthedentalnasal khandghforthevelarfricativesxand ɣ sh and zh for the post-alveolar fricatives ʃ and ȝ lsquob and lsquod for theimplosivesoundsɓandɗrsquongforeitherŋorŋggThefollowingphoneticprocessesareimportantinsomelanguagesassimilation (including palatalization velarization labialization)

dissimilationslurringelisioncontractionlsquoGandaLawrsquoaprocesswherebyavoicednasalcompoundlosesitsnon-nasal

elementwhenthenextsyllablecontainsanasalseeZANDEsectIbConsonantalAblaut ie sound changewithout apparent phonetic cause see

NILOTICsectIb

AnaptycticconsonantsareoccasionallyfoundeginUDUK

TheglottalstopandglottalizationTheglottalstophasbeenrecordedinitiallymediallyandfinallyIthasthree

functions(i)ItisaconsonantinEFEwhereitcorrespondstohorkelsewhere

ItisalsoaconsonantinBARIwhereitreplaceslinfinalposition

(ii) Itservesasoneformofhiatus toprevent twoelementsfrommerging inthechainofspeechHereitmaybecomparedtoGermanfesterEinsatzeg

(iii) It occurs at the end ofwords as a prosody of vowel closure (GALLATESOPAumlKOT)orconsonantclosure(SOMALI)thesoundsbeingsaidthentobelsquoglottalizedrsquoInPAumlKOTGlottalizationisintimatelylinkedwithintonation

InTESOGALLAandSOMALIithasgrammaticalassociations

2ToneandStress

2aToneThefollowingtonemarksareused

The Mid-tone mark is used sparingly and only in isolated words whereotherwiseitmightbeassumedthatthetoneisunknownThus

Whereotherpartsof thewordor sentencearemarked for tonehoweverMidtoneisleftunmarkedThus

Themark before a word or syllable indicates that all subsequent High orFallingtonesareinalowerkey(lsquoDownSteprsquo)

Languages occur in which certain words demand a particular tone onpreceding or following words Thus in MORUm-ˊ indicates that the Stemvowelfollowingthem-PrefixmusthaveHightoneWhereithasbeenfoundimpossibleorinconvenienttousetheabovesystem

oftonemarkingthisisindicatedintherelevantSectionInmanySectionshowevertonemarkingiseithersporadicorabsentowing

todeficienciesinthesourcematerial

2bStressStressisindicatedwhereconsiderednecessarybytheuprightmarklsquobefore

therelevantsyllable

In certain circumstances and in order not to depart too much from theorthographyof the sourcematerial the acute accent has been used to indicateStress accompanied by High tone eg lsquoProminencersquo in BILIN p 500(lsquoProminencersquo in NUBIAN however is indicated by a stress mark as abovebecauseofthenecessityofmarkingtoneinHILLNUBIANp315)In the great majority of languages Stress is unmarked and only the most

generalcommentscanbemadeonthistopic

3WordShape

lsquoShapersquoherereferstothepatternofvowelsandconsonantsfoundinaWordorStemorAffixorParticle lsquoFormrsquo refers toanyShapewhen itsgrammaticalpotentialityisdiscussed

In some languages words exist without Prefixes and Suffixes in othersPrefixesandorSuffixesareanessentialpartofthewordInthelattercaseforpurposesofanalysisandcomparisonitisoftenconvenienttodiscusstheshapeof theWord Stem shorn of its Affixes The term lsquoStemrsquo is preferred here tolsquoRootrsquoowingtoourinsufficientetymologicalknowledgeoftheselanguagesWords or Word Stems or Affixes are regarded as being built up of the

followingcomponents

4StructuralElements

4aVerbs(i)Verbs inmany languages fall intoMorphologicalClasses (similar to the

ConjugationsofLatin) theseClassesmaydifferaccording to the shapeof theVerb Stem andor its behaviour in conjugation In some languages amultipleclassification of Verbs is possible according to different criteria See forexampleFUR(p220)andAGAU(pp502-3)lsquoBehaviourrsquo as criterion for classification includes choice of Subject

PronounseriesTenseorAspectAffixseriesorderofSubjectVerbandObjectin the Sentence (MORU-MArsquoDI) or of SubjectAffixVerb Stem andObjectAffixintheVerbComplexSAHARAN)(ii) Inmany languages too thereareToneClassesofVerbs In somecases

(egZANDEKALENIIN)thesecoincidewithMorphologicalClassesinothers(egMORU-MArsquoDIAGAU)theycutacrossthem(iii)InmostlanguagesthereareDerivativeVerbsformedinmanywayseg

by changes within the Stem by Prefixes by Suffixes by Stem Extensions(usually Suffixes attached to the Stemwhichmay themselves be followed byConjugational Suffixes similar to those which can be attached to the SimpleStem)MostDerivativeVerbsareDeverbativeafewDenominativeMany concepts are implied some of the most common being Causative

NeuterMotiontowardsspeakerMotionawayfromspeakerDative(actiononbehalf of or at) Intensive Frequentative Plural Action (or Plural Subject orPlural Object) Inceptive Intransitive forms of otherwise Transitive VerbsQualitative ie similar to Intransitive except that a Qualitative Verb maysometimestakeanObjectinageneralasopposedtoaspecificsense-theSimpleVerb being then known as Applicative In languageswhere this distinction ismade it is important torealize thatwhen theSimpleStemof theVerb isusedwithoutexpressedObjectanObjectisalwaystobelsquounderstoodrsquo

It is to be noted that the Passive is a Derivative Verb in relatively fewlanguages (eg BARI) In most languages there is a lsquoPassive Equivalentrsquoconsistingofvariousconstructionsincluding

3rdPersonPluralActive(correspondingtotheuseoflsquotheyrsquoinEnglish)egBAGIRMI

3rdPersonSingularActivewithImpersonalSubjectPronoun(correspondingtotheuseoflsquoonrsquoinFrench)egMORU3rdPersonSingularorPluralActivewithaspecificSuffixtotheVerbegMAASAI

InsomefewlanguagesthePassiveisaVoice(iv) Compound Verbs are an important feature of some languages where

these occur it is usually found that only one element of the Compound isconjugatedtheotherbeingconstantNote that the expression lsquoVerbComplexrsquo is used here to describe theVerb

Stem complete with Subject- Object- and Tense-Affixes sometimes it isnecessarytoincludeNounSubjectandObjectwithintheterm

4bNouns(i)MorphologicalClassesare rareNounClassesof theBANTUtypebeing

found only in the twoGroups ofClass Languages-MBAGroup (bymeans ofSuffixes) and KOALIB-TAGOI (by means of Prefixes) In these languagesClassesaremostlypairedforNumber inaddition theClassAffixesmayoftenactasNounFormativesandachangeofAffixmayradicallyalterthemeaningofaNounItisdoubtfulwhetherKADUGLI-KRONGOcanbeconsideredastrueClass

Languages (seep 303)Here as in theother lsquoTKrsquo languages (seep 22) themultiplicity of Singular and Plural Affixes gives the impression of a Classsystemlongsincebrokendown

Morphological Classes of a totally different type have been established inKALENJINSeep457(ii)InmanylanguagesthereareToneClassesandintheMBAGroupthese

cutacrossMorphologicalClassesItshouldbefurthernotedthatwhereasintheMBAGroup the Singular and the Plural of a Noun belong to the same ToneClassinMANGBETUDIDINGAandthePARANILOTICLanguagesatleasttheSingularandPluralofNounsmayoftenbeindifferentToneClasses(iii)InmostlanguagesNounsmaybeformedfromVerbsAdjectivesorother

Nouns in various ways by changes within the Stem or byAffixes producingVerbal Noun Gerund (often to be distinguished from the Infinitive) NounAgentNounInstrumentPlaceofactionampcIn some languages there are Affixes with no apparent function and only

deducible as such by comparativemethods egMORU-MANGBETU p 37andBONGO-BAGIRMIp68(iv)InMANGBETUandsomeofthePARANILOTICLanguages(LOTHUO

TESO MAASAI) there is in addition an Article-like Prefix1 which may beomitted in certain specified contexts--usuallywhen theNoun is qualified by aDemonstrativeorisusedinanadverbialorverygeneralsenseInKALENIINmuchthesamefunctionisperformedbySecondarySuffixes

eachNoun thushaving aBasic formwithorwithout aPrimarySuffix and aSecondary form with additional Secondary Suffix 2(Primary Suffixes in theselanguagesareNounFormativesandNumberSuffixes)(v)CompoundNounsareusuallydiscussedunderIntimateGenitive(sect13a)

but the term lsquoNoun Grouprsquo is used to describe a Noun with its attendantQualifier (Adjective Possessive Demonstrative Relative) when forgrammaticalpurposesitisimportanttodiscussthewholephraseasaunit

4cAdjectives

In some languages there are no such things as Adjectives only AdjectivalVerbs and they are associated attributively with their Nouns by means ofParticipialorRelativeconstructionsInotherlanguagesthoughAdjectiveshaveVerbalbehaviourinthattheymay

beconjugatedtheymayalsodistinguishNumberGenderorCaselikeNounsIn many other languages there are Adjectives in their own right with or

withoutspecificFormativeAffixesandsometimesfallingintoToneClasses

5Number

5aNouns

In most languages Number is indicated usually by Affixes though StemvowelqualityandTonearenoticeablefeaturesintheNILOTICLanguagesInsomelanguagesNumberisneverindicatedinothersitisindicatedonlyin

thecaseofanimateobjectsDual forms Singulative forms (eg a drop of water) and Collective forms

(egmanyherdsofcattle)aretobenotedinsomelanguages

SpecialCategory

There is also inmany languages aSpecialCategory towhich relationshipterms(andoftenthePersonalInterrogativePronounlsquowhorsquoandsometimesevenPersonalPronouns)belongWordsinthisCategoryoftenformtheirPluralsinawaytotallyatvariancewithallotherNounsinthelanguageconcernedinsomelanguagestheirbehaviourmaybeconsideredaspronominal

5bAdjectives

InsomelanguagesAdjectiveshavetheirownPluralformswhichmaydifferfrom those of the Nouns Reduplication is a common feature in AdjectivePluralsIn some languagesAdjectivesnever showNumber In some languagesboth

NounandAdjectiveshowNumberinothersonlyoneofthemdoesdependingonthewordorder

5cPronouns

Here only significant or outstanding Plural phenomena are discussedPronounsingeneralaresetoutundersect8

5dVerbs

ApartfromlsquoPluralActionrsquoDerivativeVerbsdiscussedundersect4atheSimpleVerb in some languages has a special form of the Stem or takes a specificAffix in thePluralConjugation thismayapply toall threePersonsor toonlyoneofthemandmayimplyPluralObjectorPluralActionaswellasorinsteadofPluralSubjectNote in many languages a Verb such as lsquoto gorsquo or lsquoto comersquo will have a

differentStemaltogetherinthePluralegMArsquoDI

Thisphenomenonis toowidespreadtomeritdiscussionexcept in thosefew

languageswhereanoticeablenumberofVerbsbehaveinthiswayegUDUK

6Gender(andConcordAgreement)

6aNominalGender(ieGenderofNounsandGenderAgreement)

(i) Gender is only recognized here if it is accompanied by some form ofgrammaticalagreementThuswhereastheɔl-andεn-PrefixesofMAASAIareregardedasGenderPrefixestheklp-andcεp-PrefixesofNANDIthoughalsosex-distinguishingarenotregardedastrueGenderPrefixes

ThefollowingCategoriesofGenderinNounshavebeennoted

MasculineandFeminineCUSHITICBARI-LOTUHOMBAMasculineFeminineandNeuterKADUGLI-KRONGOMasculineFeminineandCommon(inclDiminutivePejorative)TESOMasculineFeminineandPlace(onewordonly)MAASAIAnimateandInanimateMA

In some languagesGender isdistinguished in theSingular and in thePlural(PARANILOTIC) in other languages in the Singular only in still otherlanguagesthePluralistoberegardedasathirdGender(BILIN)InsomelanguagesNounsmayhaveoneGenderintheSingularandanotherin

thePlural(SOMALIIRAQW)ThisphenomenonisknownaslsquoPolarityrsquoGendermayberevealedintheNounStemintheAffixintheArticle-Prefix

oronlyintheagreement(iewithDemonstrativesPossessivesAdjectivesorintheVerbalconjugation)(ii) Gender allocation may follow general sex lines (lsquoprojectedrsquo in some

languages to inanimate objects-PARANILOTIC) or be attached primarily tocertaintypesofAffix(SOMALI)In IRAQW there are three Genders but the allocation of Nouns to these

GendersissovaguethatnolabelscanbeattachedtothemandtheyarereferredtoasGendersiiiandiii

6bPronominalGender(ieinPersonalPronounsandorVerbConjugation)

This usually applies to the Self-standing Subject Object and PossessiveformsofthePersonalPronouns(i)PersonalPronounsmayshowGendersignsofatotallydifferentkindfrom

NounsSeeCUSHITICInZANDEGenderdistinguishingMasculineFeminineAnimal Inanimate

orImpersonalisfoundonlyinthePronouns

InMAASAIontheotherhandwhichhasthreeGendersinitsNounsthereisnoGenderinthePersonalPronouns(ii) Conjugation of Verbs for Person also has its own ways of Gender

realization sometimes differing from that of the Personal Pronouns SeeCUSHITIC

6cConcordAgreementIn theClassLanguages there isConcordAgreement in thatDemonstratives

ampc assume Affixes related to the Noun Class Affixes when qualifying theirNounsInsomelanguagesnotablytheMBAGroupthereareseveralkindsofGender

andConcordagreementoperativeatonce

7Case

CaseisonlyrecognizedhereifitisindicatedbysomechangeintheformofthewordshapeorStemchange in tonepresenceorabsenceofAffixesMerepositioninthesentenceisnotacriterionforCaseIn many languages it is difficult to distinguish Case Affixes from

Postpositions which can also express different kinds of relationships InBEDAUYE for instance there is a Genitive Case but innumerablePostpositionsattached to theGenitiveCase InMORU-MArsquoDI therearemanyPostpositionsbutnoCaseformsTonalcriteriacanalsobemisleadinghereWhereas inMAASAIthere isno

doubt about the way Case is indicated by tone in BARI tonal ffuctuation isbrought about by other factors such as tonal assimilation exerted byneighbouringwordsInmanylanguagesnotenoughresearchhasbeendoneforanauthoritativestatementtobemadePronounsandAdjectivesmayalsoshowCaseandinNUBIANandinsome

CUSHITIClanguagesVerbsinDependentclausesmayalsotakeCaseendingsThefollowingCasetermsareusedNominativeAccusativeGenitiveDative

Ablative1The term lsquoAbsolutersquo refers to the form of the Noun or Pronounampc used

whencited Insome languages this is in theNominativeCase inothers in theAccusativeCaseSeeCUSHITIC

StatusconstructusInNDUNGADINKALUOandIRAQWthePossessedNounhasaspecial

formbefore thePossessorwhich somegrammarians like to comparewith theStatusconstructus(ConstructState)ofEthiopiclanguagesSincehoweverthisformcanoccurbeforeotherQualifiersaswellitmightequallywellberegardedasoneoftherealizationsofaNouninJunction1

8Pronouns

8aPersonal

Herearedistinguished(i)theSelf-standing

PersonalPronouns(ii)theSubjectforms(includingVerbConjugationAffixes)(iii)theObjectforms(iv)thePossessive

forms(v)ReferringPronoun-SubjectObjectorPossessivethisisfoundin

indirectspeechinsomelanguagesandrefersbacktothespeakeregMORU

(vi)ImpersonalPronounthisisoftentobefoundinoneformofthePassiveEquivalentandcorrespondstotheFrenchuseoflsquoonrsquoegMORULUO

Personal Pronouns are an important item inVocabulary comparison but incertain languages theactual formsof thePronounsareof less importance thantheiroverallpatternThreesuchoverallpatternsneedspecialattentionBlockPatternThePluralPronounsare thesameas theSingularwithsome

tonaloraffixalmodification

InterlockingPattern(realizedpredominantlyinthepronominalelementinVerbconjugation)

Combined Block and Interlocking Pattern (if the 3rd Person SingularFeminineisleftoutofaccountthepatternisaBlockpattern)1

OtherpronominalfeaturesfoundimportantincludeDifferentseriesofPronounsorPronominalAffixesfordifferentAspectsMoodsTensesorMorphologicalClassesofVerbs

InclusiveExclusiveandorDualformsof1stPersonPlural(egNDOGO)GenderorAnimateInanimatedistinctionSeesect6bPositionofthePronominalcomponentinVerbconjugation(prefixedorsuffixedtoVerbStemor-asinDINKA-realizedassoundchangeintheVerbStemitself)Subject-ObjectComplexegMAASAIMABAKUNAMAIRAQW

8bInterrogativeIn some languages there is a general Interrogativemorpheme onwhich the

InterrogativePronounsAdjectivesAdverbsarebuiltegNGBAKAGBAYAInmostlanguagestheWordscorrespondingtolsquowhoPrsquoandlsquowhatPrsquoareseparateentitiesInsomelanguageslsquowhorsquobelongstotheSpecialCategoryseesect5a

8cDemonstrativeandDeterminative

(i)Insomelanguages(egBAGIRMIandsomeCUSHITIClanguages)thereisaDeterminativeParticleattachedtotheNounorNounGroupThisParticleisoften(thoughnotalways)relatedtoaDemonstrative

InCUSHITICtheDeterminativesareoftwokinds(α)DeicticieequivalenttotheDefiniteArticlelsquothersquoinEnglish(β) Singulative or Particularizing (Reinisch individualis) ie selecting one

individualoutofacrowdoroneitemoutofthemassInmostotherlanguageshowevertheDeterminativeisusuallyDeictic(ii)DemonstrativesaretobedistinguishedaccordingtowhethertheyarelsquoSpatialrsquoorlsquoReferencersquo

thedegreeofdistancefromthespeakerwhethertheyindicatepostureorpositionaswellasdistance(egSARAMBAIandKATCHA)

whethertheycanindicateTimeaswellasPlace(egPARANILOTIC)Note that in many languages the Determinative andor Demonstrative may

alsohaveRelativefunctionormayintroduceAdjectives

8dRelative

Only specific Relative Pronouns or Particles are mentioned here (In somelanguagestheRelativeisindicatedbyaDeterminativeoraDemonstrativeseesect8eaboveinothersbyaformofVerbconjugation)In many languages the Relative is also to be found in the Genitive and

Adjectivalconstructions

8eReflexiveandReciprocal

SpecificReffexiveampcPronounsoccurinrelativelyfewlanguagesInmanyothersthePersonalPronounsareusedinareflexivesenseorelsethewordforlsquobodyrsquo with or without a Possessive Suffix In some languages there areReffexiveorReciprocalDerivativeVerbs

8fIndefinite

Indefinite Pronouns (lsquosomersquo lsquootherrsquo) occur very infrequently See SERE-MUNDUampcandKADUGLI-KRONGO(NotethatinmostlanguageslsquosomersquolsquootherrsquoampcarerepresentedbynormalAdjectivesandneednodiscussionhere)

9VerbConjugation

9aAspectMoodVoice

Thissectionattemptstoclassifymodesofconjugationchoiceofterminologycannotbutbearbitraryandtentative(i)InsomelanguagesonecaneasilydistinguishbetweenanIndicativeanda

Dependent(Subjunctive)MoodInsomelanguagesthereisalsoanInterrogativeMoodInotherlanguagesthedistinctionseemstoliemorewithAspectDefinite completemomentaryperfectactionegIseeyouIhaveseen

youIsawyouIndefiniteincompleteprogressiveimperfect(sometimesfuture)actionegI

amwasseeingyouIshallseeyou

SubjunctiveorDependentthatIseeyouIn some languages the terms lsquoPerfectrsquo and lsquoImperfectrsquo are more applicable

thanlsquoDefinitersquoandlsquoIndefinitersquoinotherslsquoMomentaryrsquoandlsquoContinuousrsquoInTESOandKALENIINeven theAspects are subdividedaccording as the

action of the Verb has Present or Past Implication (TESO)-Single Action orRepeated Action Implication (PAumlKOT) Here the term lsquoTensersquo would beinapplicableTenses(seesect9c)maybegroupedunderMoodsorAspectsas thecasemay

bebutsomelanguageshavenoTensesassuchInstillothersonefindsoneselfdealingwithtypesofconjugationwhichcouldbecalledlsquoTensesrsquoprovideditisfirst understood that one particularAffix serieswill give aTime significationanother a Subjunctive signification and another aRelative signification1 (SeeBILINp531)(ii)SomelanguagueshavethreeVoicesApplicativeiewherethereisanObjectexpressedorunderstoodQualitativeiewherethereisnoObjectoranObjectinonlyaverygeneral

sensePassiveSHILLUK and UDUK on the other hand have two Voices-Active and

PassivetheApplicativeandQualitativeherearebestregardedasAspectsofthetwoVoicesIn BARI the Qualitative and Passive are more conveniently regarded as

DerivativeVerbs(seesect4a(iii))

9bConjugationforPerson

(i)Here themainparadigms foreach representativeClassMoodorAspectaresetoutwithdueregardtoGenderdistinctionandInclusiveExclusiveDualdistinctionwherepresentandtothefunctionofalternativeAffixalseries(seesect8a)(ii)Imperativeformsaresetoutseparately

9cTensesAs said earlier (sect 9a) lsquoTensesrsquo may be indistinguishable from lsquoMoodsrsquo or

lsquoAspectsrsquowhererecognizedhowevertheyarediscussedaccordingto(i) Tense Prefixes andor Suffixes and their position as regards Personal

Affixes(ii) Tense Postpositions which may follow the Verb Stem or the whole

sentence(iii) Auxiliary Verbs and the form taken by theMain Verb in conjunction

withthemsomeAuxiliaryVerbsareNegative

Somelanguageshoweverdonotlendthemselvestotreatmentunder9aorborcassetoutabovenotablyIRAQWAGAUTAMA

9dIndicators(SOMALI)orSelectors(IRAQW)

These are Particles which precede the conjugated Verb Stem and arethemselvesconjugatedforPersonandcarrywiththemsignificanceofTimeorAspect or Mood or Interrogation or Negation or Relative or Subject-Objectrelationship

10Non-verbalPredicationandtheVerbslsquotobersquoandlsquotohaversquoFromtheformalpointofviewaretobenoted(i)ZeroCopulaiethewordinisolationorinsimplejuxtaposition(ii)CopulaalinkingParticleconjugatedornotwhichisnotaVerb(iii)VerborVerbslsquotobersquo(lsquotobecomersquolsquotostayrsquoampc)(iv)VerborVerbslsquotohaversquo(lsquotogetrsquoampc)Correspondingveryoftenwiththeseformalcriteriaaretheconcepts(i)Identity(ii)DescriptionespeciallyAdjectival(iii)Existenceingeneralorinaparticularplace

(iv)Possession

ThereisagreatdealofoverlappinghoweverandPossessionismostusuallyexpressed by means of (i) (ii) or (iii) combined with a Preposition orPostpositionWhere there are Adjectival Verbs Predication is Verbal with or without

indicationofGenderandorNumber

11Negation(andInterrogation)11aVerbal

(i) Sometimes Negation is conveyed bymeans of an Auxiliary Verb (sect 9c(iii))butmoreusuallybyaprecedingorfollowingParticle-eitheraSuffixoraPostpositionNotethatinBANDAitisexpressedbyreduplication(ii)NegativeImperativeformsaresetoutseparatelyTheysometimesinvolve

ParticlesnotfoundintheotherNegativeforms

11bNon-verbal

ThecorrespondingNegativeformsofthosetreatedundersectIoaregivenhere

InterrogationInterrogationneedsspecialtreatmentinonlyafewlanguagesegTAMA

KUNAMANote that in a great many languages there is a special Interrogative

Postposition

12WordOrderintheFiniteSentenceNotethat thetermlsquoWordGrouprsquoisusedforanypartof thechainofspeech

selected for syntactical discussion as a unit (Compare lsquoVerbComplexrsquo sect 4aandlsquoNounGrouprsquosect4b)Thefollowingconventionsareused(nottobeconfusedwiththeconventions

undersect3)S=SubjectV=VerbO=Object

Aux=AuxiliaryVerb

12aNounSubjectThefollowingconstructionshavebeennoted insomecasestheycanactas

classifyingcriteria

Where there is an Auxiliary Verb the situation is more complex but animportantfactoristhepositionoftheObjectinrelationtotheMainVerb

12bPronounorPronominalSubjectIn many languages theWord Order is as in sect 12a Where the Pronoun is

realized as anAffix however and especiallywhere there is a Subject-ObjectComplexadifferentpicturemaybepresentedTheorderofthecomponentsoftheVerbComplex for instance is of great importance in E SAHARAN andKUNAMA

13TheGenitiveConstruction

13aNounPossessor1

Thefollowingconstructionshavebeennoted

(i)PossessorPossessed(insomelanguagesthePossessorisintheGenitiveCase)PossessorLinkingParticlePossessedParticlePossessorPossessed

(ii)PossessedPossessor(insomelanguagesthePossessorisintheGenitiveCaseinsomelanguagesthePossessedisinStatusconstructus)PossessedLinkingParticlePossessorPossessedPossessorPostposition

WhetherthePossessorprecedesorfollowsthePossessedhaslessimportancethan some scholars have thought More important is the variation of patternwithin the Word Group in any language and whether such variation issemantically significant or not Some languages for instance distinguishbetweenIntimateGenitivePossessedasanintimatepartofthePossessorlikeapartofthebody

Non-intimateGenitive-PossessedintemporarypossessionofPossessorordes-tinedforthePossessorrsquosuse

In most languages where this distinction is made the Intimate Genitive isformedbysimplejuxtapositionofthetwoitems-sometimeswithsoundchangeThisisalsothecasewithCompoundNounswhicharetobefoundinalmostalllanguages

13bPronounorPronominalPossessorWhere Self-standing Pronouns are used the situation is much as in sect 13a

thoughtherearesomelanguageswherefullcorrespondenceisabsenteg

WherethePronominalcomponentisanAffixadifferentsituationmayariseeg

SometimesthereisacombinationofaandbeglsquothechiefhisspearrsquoorlsquothechiefspearhisrsquoCrossreferenceastotheoccurrenceofArticle-prefix(asne-inMANGBETU

above)NumberAffix andCase signwhen theWordGroup is regarded as aunitisalsomade

14ConstructionswithQualifiers

Here againwhetherQualifiers in general precede or follow theirNoun haslittle classifying value but it is important in some languages eg SERE-MUNDUampctoknowwhichQualifiersprecedewhichfollowandwhichmayeither precede or follow In this respect Numerals and the words for lsquoallrsquolsquomanyrsquo lsquohow manyrsquo lsquootherrsquo lsquoeveryrsquo are often found to be in a differentbehaviourcategoryfromthatofotherAdjectivesAdjectives are introduced by Relative Particles in some languages in

DINKALUO and IRAQW theNoun undergoes sound change before certainAdjectivesCross reference as to theoccurrenceofNumberGender andCaseagreement in Qualifiers is made (this to include Adjectives ParticiplesDemonstrativesPossessivesandRelatives)

15Miscellaneous

IncertainlanguagesspecificParticlesneedtobesingledoutbecauseoftheirspecialbehaviourSuchforinstanceare

si(FUR)gi(UDUK)ga(GELEBA)

Occasionally Prepositions and Postpositions need extra discussion Forinstance the Prepositions of BONGO-BAGIRMI have possible etymologicalrelationshipwiththePostpositionsofMORU-MANGBETU

SUPPLEMENTTOINTRODUCTION

ElementsdistinguishingNumberinNominalsPronominalsandVerbalsSince the publication of theHandbook (Part III) researches byBryan have

revealed the remarkably widespread occurrence of similar elementsdistinguishing Number in many of the languages dealt with here These aresummarized below and will be found in detail by reference to the relevantSectionsinthetext

INumberinNominalsTKoppositionIn an article in Afriacuteca1 Bryan suggests the possibility of a substratum

underlyinganumberoflanguagessomeofwhichdifferveryconsiderablyfromeach other in their present state and which she calls lsquothe TK Substratumrsquonamed after the two most outstanding morphemes observed The underlyingrelationship between all these languages is thus morphological though somelexicalaffinitieshavealsobeenfoundThe outstanding features which they have in common and which are

remarkablyconstantthroughoutare1theuseoftheelementt(also crarelyd)asaParticularizerieaSingularSingulativeDefinite

Affix(beitPrefixorSuffix)toNouns2theuseoftheelementk(alsorarelyghampc)todenotetheoppositeoftiegenerallyaPlural

AffixtoNouns3theuseofanasalelementN(iennyŋ)asaPluralAffixtoNounsThedistributionoftheseelementsinNounsisasfollows

It isalsonoticeablethat inthelanguageslistedabove(withtheexceptionofTEPETH and IRAQW) there is amultiplicity of Singular and PluralAffixeswhich occur inmany different combinations to distinguishNumber inNounsTheseincludenotonlySingtPlurkandNasabovebutalsovariousvowelAffixeszeroAffixandinsomelanguagesSingkandPlurtFurtherinmostof these languages thismultiplicity ofAffixes occurswithAdjectives also (sect5b)5Whether thePluralSuffix ink org found inmanyEasternmembers of the

BONGO-BAGIRMIGroupcanbeconsideredasrelevantisdoubtful

IINumberinPronominalsandVerbalsAlveolarVelar(NK)oppositionAnevenmorewidespreadphenomenonthanthetkoppositioninNominalsis

the opposition between a Singular alveolar element (generally n) and a Pluralvelar element (generallyk g or ŋ) in Pronominals andVerbals the alveolarSingularelementoccurringlessfrequentlythanitsvelarPluralcounterpartThisphenomenonoccursnotonly inall the lsquoTK languagesrsquo1 but ina large

numberofotherlanguagesaswellascanbeseeninthefollowingtableItmightbearguedthatsincetisalveolarandkvelarthetwophenomenaare

one and the sameThe following outstanding differences have however beenfound

(a)WhereasthetkoppositionoccursinNominalsonly(butseeCUSHITICbelow) theNKoppositionneveroccurs inNominalsexcept incertainSpecialCategoryNounswhichmaybeconsideredasPronominalinbehavior2

(b)ConcerningtheTKelements

tandkarealwaysvoicelessexceptwhenphoneticallyassimilatedNinPluralAffixesincludesnandnyaswellasŋ(c)ConcerningtheNKelements

thealveolarelementisalwaysvoiced3andisnormallynthoughoccasionallydor r the velar element isk g orŋ in Pronominalsk g (occasionallyŋ) inVerbalsPalatalizedandorvelarizedformsofbothelementsoccursporadicallyThus

thesymbolsNKareusedinthiscontextasconvenientformulaeasagainstthemorespecificallyphoneticconnotationofTK(d) TheTK elements are or form part ofAffixes only theNK elements

frequentlyconstituteaninseparablepartoftheStemthoughtheymaylikewisebeorformpartofAffixesThus

Actually the Singular alveolar element is more common in Stems than inAffixeswherethenormaloppositioniszeroVelareg

DISTRUBTIONOFNKELEMENTS

ANOTEONCUSHITIC

TheCUSHITIClanguagesappearatfirsttobebasedonthelsquoTKSubstratumrsquobut the situation is bedevilled by the fact that in CUSHITIC there are twoseparatetelementsthetdiscussedonp22(t)andtheERYTHRAICFeminineelement t (ER t)1 These two elements are sometimes distinct sometimesmergedThusinGALLAandSIDAMOt(gtc)existsalongsideERtbutbecausethe

latterisFeminineaswellasParticularizingcisrelegatedtotheMasculinekinvirtue of its essential opposition to t appears here not as Plural but asMasculineFurther theassociationof theelements tandkwithGender ratherthanprimarilywithNumberhasledtotheirbeingusedinPronominalaswellasinNominalformsThustgtcParticularizer(Masc)usedwithNominals

ERtFeminineParticularizerusedwithNominalsandPronominals

kMasculineusedwithPronominals

Seeespeciallypp525-9(sectsect8c(i)(ii)(iii))InSOMALIbothtandERtarerepresentedbyt(withvariants)andk(with

variants)istheoppositeoftinbothitsfunctionsThiscanbeclearlyseeninthephenomenonknownasPolaritykisMascinitsoppositiontotheFemfunctionoftPluralinitsoppositiontotheSingularfunctionoftandsincekisthePluralofFemttislikewisethePluralofMasckThus

ItisimportanttonotethatwhereasERtoccursthroughouttheERYTHRAIClanguagesanoppositionoftkoccursonlyintheCUSHITIClanguagesIt isalsoworthnoting that inKALENJIN(PARANILOTIC) theSecondary

Suffixes ofNouns show t andk in theirTK functions (Sing Suffix -t PlurSuffix-k)butthePrefixesMasckip-andFemcep-arereminiscentratheroftheCUSHITICGendersystem(Seepp456511)

1OxfordUniversityPressforInternationalAfricanInstitute1957TheabbreviationLSNBBisusedheretorefertothepublishedreportalso(whennotitalicized)totheresearchexpeditionthatprecededit

2TheNon-BantuLanguagesofNorth-EasternAfricabyANTuckerandMABryanOUP1956FrequentreferenceisalsomadetotheclassificationsmadebyProfessorJosephHGreenbergTheLanguagesofAfrica1963

3SincethattimedetailedlinguisticmaterialonHADZAcollectedbyJamesWoodburnarguesstronglyagainsttheclassificationofHADZAwithBUSHMANinoneGroup

4HandbookIntroductionpviii1CoheninMeilletetCohenLesLanguesdumonde1924andinmanysubsequentworksGreenberg

opcit2Greenbergopcitp503From theGreeknameforRedSea4AfricaitsPeoplesandtheirCultureHistoryNewYork19591TermtakenfromDelafosseothertermsarelsquoshadowvowelrdquo(HildersandLawrance)lsquovowel-coloured

breathrsquo(Andrzejewski)2SeeANTuckerlsquoThefunctionofvoicequalityintheNiloticLanguagesrsquoProceedoftheIIIntern

CongrofPhonSciCambridge19363Forthistermseep4431CfDokePhoneticsoftheZuluLanguagepp52-532SeeDokeAComparativeStudyinShonaPhoneticspp2242983PCrazzolaraOutlinesofaNuerGrammarp5AStudyoftheAcooliLanguagep74Thesymbolsŋgbindicatethelabio-velarcompoundforwhichthesymbolsmgbwouldbeequally

validŋgbispreferredhereasbeingnearertheofficialorthographicrenderingngbintribalnameslikeMangbetuNgbayaNgbandiampcSamarin(inlsquoTheGbayaLanguagersquoAfrica1958)recom-mendsthe

spellingmgbforofficialuse1NotusedforaPrefixstandingbetweenanotherPrefixandtheStem1ThisParticlehasoftenbeencomparedwiththeDefiniteArticlelsquotheinEnglishthisanalogyisfalse2ThesetwoformsoftheNounarealsoknownasIndefiniteandDefinite1ButseeBILINp514forfurtherlesscommonterms1InLUOitoccursEvenbeforeNounPluralSuffixes1ThispatternalsooccursinBERBERandistypicalforERYTHRAICandconstitutesanadditional

argumentinfavourofGreenbergrsquosclassifyingofIRAQWinwithCUSHITICSeealsoHand-bookp14o1ThusinsomelanguagestheSubjunctiveistobetreatedasaMoodinothersitismoreconveniently

treatedasanAspectandinsomeasaTenseNormalEuropeangrammaticalcategoriescannotbeappliedherewithcompleteconsistency(ForinstancethereareParticipialTensesinEASTSAHARANandaconjugatedGerundinAMHARIC)

1ThetermslsquoPossessorrsquoandlsquoPossessedrsquoaretoberegardedinastrictlygrammaticalsensehereequivalenttonomenrectumandnomenregensastheGenitiveconstructioncoverssuchexpressionsaslsquobowlofwaterrsquoandlsquoroofofgrassrsquoaswellasactualpossession

1MargaretABryanlsquoTheTKlanguagesanewsubstratumrsquo(Africa1959)SeealsothesameauthorrsquoslsquoTheNKlanguagesrsquowhichisincourseofpreparation

2ButprobablyNKseep2213AlthoughbothSingtandPlurkarecommonoppositionoftkhasnotbeenfoundinanyoneword4ThereisalsoaCUSHITIC-likeuseofttodenoteGender(seep577)5OnlyPluralNhassofarbeenrecordedwithAdjectivesinFURInKADUGLI-KRONGOall

lsquoAdjectivesrsquoareVerbs1ButnotTEPETHinIRAQWinthe2ndPersonPluralPronounonly2ButseeNumberinFURp2213ExceptforthevariablealveolarelementoftheDAIUDeterminativeseepp238-91InsofarastheelementsNKdistinguishNumberofPronounPossessor5HereaSubject-Object

ComplextheelementKshowspluralityofObject

2InsofarastheelementsNKdistinguishNumberofNounPossessed6Oneofmanywaysof

distinguishingNumberintheVerbStem3WherenotsimplyacontractedformoftheSelf-standingPronoun7ButnototherNUBIANlanguages4InKRESI-IonlyintheotherlanguagesPersonalPronounsaswellasthePersonalInterrogativetake

theNounPluralSuffix-ge1AswellastheERYTHRAIC2ndPersonelementtwhichisnotrelevanttothisdiscussion

1THEMORU-MANGBETULANGUAGES

IT has been found convenient to discuss these languages under four headsMORU-MArsquoDI(LUGBARAischosenhereasmainexponent)1MANGBUTU-EFE(MAMVUischosenhereasmainexponent)MANGBETULENDU(examplesfromNLENDUunlessotherwiseindicated)

SourcesANTuckerfieldnotessupplementedbyworkinLondonwithinformantsEBLawiriMORUMIZA

GaspariOdaLUGBARATheEastemSudanicLanguagesvoliLondon1940(citedhereasESL)PEHackettfieldnotes--LSNBBLIBarrACourseinLugbaraJPCrazzolaraAStudyoftheLogbara(Marsquod1I)LanguageGrammarandVocabularyOUPforIntAfrInst1960pp373

AVekensLaLanguedesMakeredesMedjeetdesMangbetuGhentandBrussels1928TLarochetteGrammairedesdialectesmangbetuetmedjeTervuren1958pp232LMolinaroAppuntidigrammaticadellalinguaMadiVerona1925

1Phonetics1aVowelsAtfirstsightMORU-MArsquoDIwouldseemtohaveabalancedsystemofseven

vowelphonemescoveringtenvowelqualitiesfallingintotwocategoriesOpenandClose(The vowels in brackets represent the close varieties of ε a ɔ under the

inffuenceofiandu)

Therearehoweverafewwordsinwhicheaumlooccurintheirownright

TheClosevowels and haveanUmlauteffectonneighbouringvowels(seebelow) where this effect is not found or where there is some doubt as towhetherthevowelinquestionisCloseorOpenthesymbolsianduareusedThere is a tendency for Close vowels to be pronounced with a somewhat

lsquohollowrsquo voice quality whereas with Open Vowels the voice is harder ThistendencyhoweverisnotsostrongasinforexampleLUOThe vowel systems of the other languages have been less intensely studied

butwouldappeartobeofthesamenature1LarochetterecordsaninevowelsystemforMANGBETU-MEIEbutwithno

centralvowel

Diphthongs of the type -ia- -ua- have been recorded by Larochette otherinvestigatorsprefertorecordthemas-ya-and-wa-ampc

Longvowelsarefoundastheresultofjunctionherecontractionandelision

mayalsooccur

SeealsounderStresssect2b

Vowel Category Harmony is very common the tendency being for Closevowels to associate with Close vowels and Open with Open within words orwordgroups

ThereismuchUmlautofOpenvowelsbeforeianduespeciallyinMORU-

MArsquoDI

1bConsonants

(i)InMORUthereisoftenatendencyforoverroundingwithkandgbeforebackvowels

ky and gy are separate phonemes in MORU MIZA only where thepronunciationapproachespurepalatalcandjotherMORUdialectshavetsanddz (or tʃanddʒ)here InMAMVUandMANGBETUkandg are somewhatfrontedbeforeiNote that Hackett records neacutegyoacute house in MANGBETU and MEJE as

opposedtoLarochettersquosnedjoacutealsokpandgbwhereLarochettehearskpwandgbw t and d are dental (except in combination with s r ampc) r and l areseparatephonemesɽseemstobelongtothel-phonemeFlapped labio-dental has been noted outsideMORU-MArsquoDI and a bilabial

roll pw and bw in the MANGBETU2 Group Compare

Larochette further distinguishes lsquop lsquot lsquok and lsquokp fromp tkkp the formerbeing pronounced almost doubled these distinctions have occasionally beenobservedbyHackettwhoalsorecordslsquoƥ(unvoicedimplosive)

Comparealso

VoicednasalcompoundsarecommonthroughoutincludingndrnotethatndisalveolarordentalaccordingtolanguageCompoundswithwarecommonbutnotwithyLENDUisunlikealltheotherlanguagesinhavingvariouskindsofsyllabicZ

and r corresponding to vowels in the other languages Compare

( and hereindicatelsquodarkrsquoasopposedtolsquoclearrsquoarticulation)

LENDUisalsotheonlylanguagetohavedentalfricatives

(ii)ConsonantassimilationisconsiderablesomeofthemainprocessesbeingpandbgtfandvbeforebackvowelsinMORUsandzgtʃandʒbeforefrontvowelsinLUGBARA

Labialization before back vowels and palatalization before front vowels isvery common In some cases it is responsible for sound change between

languagesanddialects

ConsonantelisionevenwithinonelanguageisalsocommonCompareinMANGBETUtheformsasheardby

2ToneandStress2aToneToneisbothlexicalandgrammaticalIntheMORU-MArsquoDIlanguagessofar

investigated(MORUMArsquoDILOGOLUGBARA)andinLENDUthreetonelevels have been established and the same would seem to be the case withMANGBUTU-EFEAccording to Larochette however there are only two tonemes in

MANGBETU-MEJEI1FallingandRising tonesarefoundonly inMANGBETU-MEJEwhere they

occurinlongsyllableswhicharevirtuallydisyllabicInalllanguagesthereareToneClassesinNounsandVerbs

2bStressLarochettereportsatendencytowardsstressonthepenultimatesyllableofa

wordorphraseinMANGBETUaccompaniedsometimesbyextrahightoneasinnεkacirc-lsquokiacutedriɔheadacheNo such uniformity of stress pattern however has been found in the other

LanguageGroupsEvensuchintimatelycloselyalliedlanguagesasMORUandMArsquoDI have quite different stress behaviour InMORU stress is on the firstsyllableofdisyllabicwordsevenwhenitisavowelPrefixeglsquoizameatafteraconsonant there isa tendency to lengthen thevoweleg tongue

blood insomefewwords the finalsyllable isvirtuallynotpronounced1 person shadowInMArsquoDIhoweverstressisonthefinalvowel

Inbothlanguageswordswithinaphraseretaintheiroriginalstress

3WordShapeThesimplest formof theword ismonosyllabicCVThe formVCV isalso

very common especially in the MANGBUTU-EFE Group Where the formCVCV occurs the first elementmay usually be regarded etymologically as aPrefix(exceptincasesofreduplication)InMANGBETU-MEIE there is an additional anddetachablePrefix inmost

words indicated below by a hyphen (In ASUA the detachable element is aSuffix)ExamplesofNouns

ExamplesofVerbs(notedetachablePrefixinsomeVerbs)

StemsinVonlyhavebeenrecordedinrareinstancesLarochetterecordso-uacutespitograve-ugravebeabundantagraveaacute-ogiveinMANGBETUWordswithdetachablePrefixes lose thesePrefixesonly tootherPrefixesor

com-parableParticlesitisrarefortheStemofsuchwordstostandalone(Butseesect4b)

LarochettenoticesmanyCVCVStemswithrepeatedvowelandwith-r--l-or-ɗ-assecondconsonantinMANGBETU1

ThedetachablePrefix inMANGBETU-MEIEmaybe longor short and anexaminationofVerbStemsinMEIEseemstoindicatetwotypesoffundamental

WordStemintheselanguages

Forexamplesseesectsect4aand4b

4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i) Verbs fall into three (in some languages two) Morphological Classes

according to the shape of their Stems and their conjugational behaviour(includinginsomelanguageschoiceofSubjectPronounseriesSeesectsect8aand9)

LENDUapparentlyhasonlymonosyllabicVerbs

InmostlanguagesClassIVerbstakeaPrefixusuallyɔ-(o-)invariousanddifferingcontextsThisPrefixhasbeencalledlsquoCharacteristicVowelrsquobyTucker(ESL) and Larochette (op cit) in MORU it is found in the Infinitive inOKErsquoBU and MAMVU it seems to occur in most Tenses in MArsquoDI andMANGBETU-MEJE it is found in some Tenses but in the 3rd Person only(whereitevenfollowsaNounSubject)ItishowevernotaPronounTheinitialelementinClassIIandClassIIIVerbsmayoftenbeshowntobea

FormativePrefix(seeDerivativeVerbssect4a(iii))

AssaidbeforeVerbsinMANGBETU-MEIEfallintotwotypesTypeIwithshortPrefixes(bothlanguages)

(NoteCharacteristicVowelPrefixinClassI3rdPerson)

(NoteCharacteristicVowelPrefixinClassIinMEJE3rdPerson)

LarochettersquosCVCVStemswouldseemtobelongtoClassIITypeI(withshortPrefixes) sneezeTypeII(with longPrefixes)begin (ii) InMORU-MArsquoDI there are threeToneClasses ofVerbswhich cutacrosstheMorphologicalClasses

(tε isaPostpositionSeesectgcNoteCharacteristicVowelPrefixtoClassIII

Verbsinthistense)

(dreisaPostposition)

InLENDUonlytwoToneClasseshaveasyetbeenfound

Tone Classes in MANGBUTU-EFE have yet to be worked out inMANGBETU Larochette combining Morphological and Tone Classespostulates six Verb Classes His numbering is given below probablecorrespondingnumbersintheotherlanguagesaregiveninbrackets

MANGBETU(bothStemandInfinitiveformsgiven)

TypeIwithshortPrefixes

TypeIIwithlongPrefixes

Longer Stems would seem to have inseparable vowel Prefixes εɓaacuteraacute belargeediacuteliacuterespect loosen praise

(iii)DerivativeVerbsare formedbymeansofvowelPrefixes (a- e-o-)orconsonantPrefixes(withl-ort-forthemostpart)convertingtheVerbstoClassIIandClassIIIrespectively

Causative

IntensiveRepetitive

PluralActionorPluralObject

Neuter-passive

FormativeSuffixesarevirtuallyabsentbutnote

ThereisalsoaSuffix-ainsomelanguageswithnoapparentsignificance1

4bNouns(i)ThereisanArticle-likePrefix1nε-ne-na-n-Plε-e-a-(zerobefore

vowel) in theMANGBETU-MEIE Groupexcept in ASUA and AKA whichtake a Suffix instead The vowel element of this Prefix is elided beforeVCVStems

ThisPrefixisomittedincertaingrammaticalcontext2Seealsosect13a

(ii) There is also a Prefix in ama- or m- with unknown function

ElsewherethisPrefixisfoundonlybeforetribalnames3

The tribal names MANGBETU MEJE MAMVU MArsquoDI never lose the

ma-PrefixNotehoweverinLESE

NotethattheLENDUSuffix-lεasinɓa-lε(=Lendu)aswellasthePrefixlε- to thenamesof all parts of the body is probably theword for lsquopersonrsquo orlsquobeingrsquo It occurs as an optional Suffix to words for parts of the body inLUGBARAbutapparentlynowhereelseinMORU-MANGBETU4

(iii) There are also Noun Formative Prefixes Note that the Verbal NounPrefixandtheInfinitivePrefixdonotoftencoincide

NotevowelPrefixin

NotefrequentreduplicationintheInfinitivein

(iv) Certain Formative Suffixes are characteristic of the MORU-MArsquoDIGroup but do not seem to occur outside it some of them occur in Relativesentences the Verb however being in its Infinitive form and unconjugated

Seealsosect4candcompare

AswithVerbstherearealsovowelSuffixeswithuncertainmeaning1

ThisisnottobeconfusedwiththeDiminutiveSuffixin

(v)ThreeToneClasses inmonosyllabicNounshavebeennoted inMORU-

MArsquoDIandinLENDU

IndisyllabicNounsnineToneClasseshavebeennotedinMORUandeight

inLUGBARAThere are four main Tone Classes in MANGBETU according to the tone

patternsofdisyllabicStemsThesehoweverhavetobesubdividedaccordingtothetoneoftheArticle-likePrefix(seeabove)ExamplesfromLarochette(rearranged)1

HighToneonPrefix(shortandlong)

ToneClassesintheotherlanguageshaveyettobeworkedout

There is a fair degree of consistency in tone pattern between languagesCompare the following LUGBARA words with their MAMVU andMANGBETUequivalents

4cAdjectivesInMORU-MArsquoDI there is a common Suffix -rɔ -rU tomanyAdjectives

including those derived from Nouns

OtherSuffixesareParticipialorRelativetheVerbbeinginitsInfinitiveform

InMANGBETU-MEJE thereareAdjective-formingPrefixesk- andm- thelatter often being Participial or Relative Larochette gives

5NumberSomeoftheselanguagesexhibitNKcharacteristicsSeep23

5aNouns

InMANGBETU-MEIENumberisdistinguishedinthedetachablearticle-likePrefixes(seesect4b(i)ThePluralPrefixε-(e-)a-ishoweverabsorbedbythefirstvowelinVCVStemsInASUA-AKAtherearePrefixesfoundmostlywithpersonsInsomeNounsthereisalsoachangeintonepattern

IntheotherLanguageGroupsthePluralisnotusuallyindicatedthoughthereis an optional Suffix -(y)i in some languages and in MORU an occasionalchangeintone

SpecialCategoryInMArsquoDIandLENDUcertainNounshaveaPluralSuffixin-nz-

InMORUsomeNounstakeaPrefixɗI-

InMANGBETU-MEIEthereisaPluralPrefixma-forcertainNouns(mostlykinshiporstatusterms)andthePersonalInterrogativePronoun1

5bAdjectivesPluralityisnotshowninAdjectivesexceptintheMANGBETUGroupwhere

thereissometimestonaldistinctionandinMAMVUwherethereisoccasional

reduplicationaswell

InMORUtheoptionalPluralSuffixfollowstheNounGroup

5cPronounsAn alveolar Singular element (n) and a Velar Plural element (k) occur in

Demonstratives in some languages sect8c) inMORU -ka is suffixed in the 3rdPersonPluraloftheSelf-standingPronoun8aPossessivePronounsmaytaketheoptional Plural Suffix -(y)i

5dVerbsNotetheprevalenceofthevelarelement-k-PluralSubjectisindicatedinsomeoftheMORU-MArsquoDIlanguagesbymeans

ofaSuffix-ki1or-(r)iattachedtotheMainVerbortotheAuxiliaryinthe3rd

Person

InLESE-ka-standsbetweenthePronounPrefixandtheVerbinthe1stand2ndPersonPluralSeesect9bInMANGBETUthereisaPluralPrefixk-forthe3rdPersoninmostVerbs

Seesect9bInLUGBARAtheSuffix-kialternateswithalengtheningoftheStemvowel

accordingtodialect

6GenderThereisnogrammaticalGender

7CaseThereisnoinffectionforCase

8Pronouns8aPersonal

InnearlyalllanguagesthePersonalPronounsformaBlockPatternofsortsinthatthePluralformsofthe1stand2ndPerson(andinsomelanguagesthe3rdPersonalso)arerelatedtotheSingularformsbeingdistinguishedfromtheminsomecasesbytonealoneorbytheadditionofavowelPrefixa-(i)Self-standing

LENDUisexceptionalinhavingadifferentseriesinthePlural(exceptinthe2nd Person) and in having ExclusiveInclusive distinction in the 1st PersonPlural

(ii)SubjectofVerb

InmostlanguagestherearetwoseriesofPronounSubjectPrefixaccordingtotheMorphologicalClassoftheVerb(andinMORUMIZAaccordingtoAspect

alsoSeesect9)

InMArsquoDItheVerbtakesSuffix-kiinP3inLUGBARAittakes-kiinsomedialectsandalongStemvowelinothersNoteo- inthe3rdPersoninMArsquoDIwhichisretainedwhenthereisaNounSubject2InbothlanguagestheSelf-standingformsareusedintheIndefiniteAspectin

MORUandMArsquoDIthereisa3rdPersonParticlekaaswellInMAMVUampcthiskaseemstobeusedinbothAspectsNotealsoitsuse

inthePluralinLESE

InMANGBETU-MEJEthek-onlyappearsinthe3rdPersonPluralando-in3rdPersonSingular2

(InMANGBETU owing to vowel assimilation the forms are not so easy toisolateSeesect4a(i))(iii)ObjectofVerb

ThePronounObjectoftheVerbdifferslittlefromtheSelf-standingform

(iv)PossessiveIn all languages outside theMANGBETU Group the Possessive forms are

also similar to the Self-standing forms In theMANGBETUGroup there is adifferent series used in Possessive Referring and Reffexive-Reciprocalconstructions built up on

Comparethus

(v)ReferringPronoun

ThereisaReferringPronouniinMORU-MArsquoDIInLUGBARAitoccursinthe3rdPersononlybutinMORUitisfoundinthe2ndPersonaswell

IntheMANGBETUGroupthePronounseriesasundersect8a(iv)isusedhereMANGBETU

(vi)ImpersonalPronounInMORUthereisanImpersonalSubjectPronouna-2usedwithClassIVerbs

in the Passive Equivalent Class II and Class III Verbs use the CharacteristicVowel

Inmostotherlanguagesthe3rdPersonPluralisusedinthissense

In theMANGBETUGroup thePronounseriesas insect8a (iv) isusedhere

8bInterrogativeThe Interrogatives lsquowhorsquo and lsquowhatrsquo are virtually constant throughout

OtherInterrogativesvary4

In most languages though not in MANGBETU-MEJE there is also anInterrogativePostpositionagraveoryagrave5(seesect15)

8cDeterminativeandDemonstrative(i)InsomelanguagesthereisaDeterminativeParticlenanεorniwhichcan

follow a Noun Pronoun or Noun Group to give it precisionl1

(ii) Inmost languages there are twoDistanceDemonstratives (distinguishedbytheirvowels)andoneReferenceDemonstrativeTheelementsnandd(Sing)andk(Pl)aremuchinevidence

In MANGBETU the Demonstratives and Determinatives are used as

RelativesLarochetterecords8dRelativeIt would appear that MORU is the only language to have a true Relative

Pronounsε

OtherMORU-MArsquoDI languages use Participial forms of theVerb (see sect 4c)MANGBETU-MEJE uses Demonstratives ampc (see above) LENDU uses theLinkingParticlesnaorcu(seesectsect13and14)theotherlanguageshavenotbeeninvestigatedinthismatter

8eReffexiveandReciprocalMORUhasawordagravendiacutevUgravecorrespondingtolsquoselfrsquoinbothitsReffexiveand

EmphasizingsenseegagravendiacutevUgravemaacute-rɔmyselfThewordslɔmvcandrUgravebothmeaninglsquobodyrsquomaybeusedinthesamewayandalsoinaReciprocalsenserUrorɔiscommontoallMORU-MArsquoDIlanguages1Similarly

ForMANGBETUhoweverseesect8a(iv)

9VerbConjugation9aAspectInalllanguagesexceptthoseoftheMANGBETU-MEJEGroupDefiniteand

Indefinite Aspect2 are to be distinguished principally by means of the wordorder though in some languages there is also a distinction in the SubjectPronoun series (see sect 8a (ii) In some languages the Subjunctive-Imperativeconstitutes a separate Aspect (see sect 9b (ii)

MORU(TC2Verbschosenhere)

InOKErsquoBUMAMVUampcallVerbStemsapparentlytakeaCharacteristicVowel Prefix for all Persons

In MAMVU further the word order O S V is preferable to S V O thisvariationhoweverseemstobeamatterofemphasisMAMVU

ThiswordorderreversalisalsopossibleinLENDU

NotealsotheIndefiniteAspectintheInfinitive

There isnoAspectdistinction in theMANGBETU-MEJEGroupwhere thebehaviouroftheVerbisasintheDefiniteAspect

9bConjugationforPerson(i)TheVerbStemisinvariableforPerson(exceptforthe3rdPersonPlural)

the Pronoun Subject often shortened is prefixed to the Verb Stem in theDefiniteAspectbutstandsapartintheIndefiniteAspectNote3rdPersonPrefixɔ- in MArsquoDI the 3rd Person Pronoun may be omitted in MORU andLUGBARATheBlockPatternbehaviourofthePronounsisnoticeablehere

ClassIVerbsaregivenbelow

(Notepresenceofk- element inS3 aswell as in allPlural forms in last twoparadigmsSeesect5d)InMAMVUthewordorderOSV(Definite)andOVSAux (Indefinite) seems to be preferred inmost cases Two alternative sets ofSubjectPronounsarealsorecorded(perhapsdialectal)

NoIndefiniteAspecthasbeenrecordedinMANGBUTUorEFE1

ThereisnoIndefiniteAspectinMANGBETU-MEJE

Subjunctive-ImperativeAspect(ii)ThisAspectisliketheDefiniteAspectinWordorderbuthasPrefixesand

ParticlesofitsownNotek-in3rdPersoninMORUandMArsquoDI

9cTenses(i)ThereisaTensePrefix-a-inafewlanguages

(TheexactdifferenceinmeaningisnotclearSeealsoLESEabove)(ii) In all languages much use is made of Postpositions These are found

usually in theDefiniteAspectandcovermore thanmere timesignificance Inmostlanguagestheystandattheendofthesentence

InMANGBETU-MEJEtheyaresuffixedtotheVerb

(iii)AuxiliaryVerbs(tobetodo)arealsomuchusedusuallytoextendtheIndefinite Aspect (where there is one) though themselves conjugated in theDefiniteAspectSeesect12

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerbslsquotobersquo10a In all languages Zero Copula is much used to express Predication ofIdentityorDescriptionInMORU-MArsquoDIthereisanoptionalPostpositioniIeandanAdjectivalSuffix-ra-ro-rU-runotfoundelsewherePossessionisusuallyindicatedbymeansofaPostposition

I0bTherearealsoVerbslsquotobersquoandCopularParticles(someofwhicharehardto distinguish from Verbs lsquoto bersquo) they are usually found in sentences

expressing Place Predication or in sentences introducing past or future timeThereishoweversomeoverlappingwith10aabove

LENDUandMANGBETUseem todemandaCopulaorVerb lsquotobersquo inallformsofPredication

Note that inMANGBETU the Plural Particleka is found in all three PersonsWith the Copula (Compare its use with Verbs sect 5d)

11Negation11aVerbal(i) Inmost languagesNegation isexpressedbyaNegativeParticlewhich is

postpositionaltotheVerbortothewholesentenceintheDefiniteAspectandtotheSubjectintheIndefiniteAspect(unlessthereisanAuxiliary)

In MANGBETU and S LENDU the Negative Particle is postpositional incertain contexts but precedes the whole sentence in others

InMAMVUtheNegativeParticlelinkstheSubjectPronountotheVerbortotheAuxiliary

(ii)NegativeImperativeforms(insomelanguagestheseareidenticalwiththeDefinite Negative in others different Negative Particles are used)

11bNon-verbalHeredistinctionisusuallymadebetweenlsquonotbeingrsquoandlsquobeingabsentrsquofor

which a different Particle is used

1WordOrderWhere there isAspect distinction theword order in the finite sentence is

ThereisalwaysanAuxiliaryintheIndefiniteAspectinMAMVU)InMANGBETU-MEIEwherethereisnoAspectdistinctionthewordorder

isForexamplesseesect9b

13TheGenitiveConstruction13aNounPossessorInmostlanguagestherearetwotypesofGenitiveconstruction(i) Possessor (nomen rectum) Linking Particle (if any Possessed (nomen

regens)(ii)PossessedPossessorPostpositionInsomelanguagesTypeiisusedforIntimatepossessiononlysuchasparts

of the body and Type ii for non-intimate possessionsuch as objects intemporary possession In other languages the two constructions areinterchangeable

Type iwithoutLinkingParticle is used in all languages in the formationof

CompoundNouns

13bPronominalPossessorThesameconstructionsaretobeseenwithPronominalPossessors(exceptin

MANGBETU see sect 8a (iv))

14ConstructionswithQualifiersAll Qualifiers (see sectsect 4c and 8c) follow their Nouns except in LENDU

where they normally precede

15MiscellaneousPostpositionsTheselanguagesaretobenotedfortheirgreatnumberofPostpositionsmany

ofwhichcorrespondinmeaningtoPrepositionsinEnglish1SomeofthemalsooccurasNounsorVerbsothersexistonlyasPostpositionsTheyare attached toNounsandPronouns in the samewayasNouns in the

GenitiveconstructionTypei

TheymaybeattachedtoVerbseitherdirecttotheVerbStemorattheendofthesentencetoindicatedifferencesusuallycorrespondingtoTensedistinctionsinotherlanguages(seesect9c)

1LUGBARAwaspoorlyrepresentedinTheEasternSudanicLanguagesvoliandhasbeeninvestigatedmoreintenselysinceitisfeltpreferabletousethisnewmaterialratherthanquotetheMORUandMArsquoDImaterialalreadypublishedthoughnewmaterialonMORUisalsogivenhere

1Thesymbols and willnotbeusedintherecordingoftheseotherlanguages1ieslightlyretroffexSeeIntroductionsect1b2NotedbyHackettonlySeealsoBAKAp631HethusmarksHightoneonlyleavingbothMidandLowtoneunmarkedasbelongingtoonetoneme

InthepresentworkhoweveramorenarrowtranscriptionisusedandthematerialborrowedfromLarochetteisadaptedtoconformtoit

1Thesemi-mutevowelsofBONGO~BAGIRMIhowever(seep60)cannotbesaidtobeafeatureoftheMORU-MANGBETUlanguages

1HeregardsthesefinalsyllablesasSuffixesnotehoweversimilarformsinSERE-MUNDUp86andZANDEp143

1InMANGBETUthevowelPrefixesandthePronounPrefixesareinextricablyfusedandthetwoClassesaccordinglymerged

1CfBONGO-BAGIRMIp671CalledlsquoarticlersquobyVekensandlsquodeacuteterminateurrsquobyLarochette2ComparethePrefixa-(dialU-)ofMAp113andtheGender-PrefixesofMAASAIp4913SeealsoNGBANDIp884ButseeMBAGroupNounClass3p1111CfBONGO-BAGIRMIp682VuraCountypronunciation1PrefixesnotseparatedbyhyphensherebecauseofvowelassimilationLarochettersquosownclassification

isaccordingtodifferentcriteriavizaccordingtowhetheraNounchangesitstoneinthePluralornotSeesect5a

2ExamplesfrombothHackettandLarochette1Compareasimilaruseofma-inMBAp1131CfBONGO-BAGIRMIp701ThisformisprobablyanAuxiliary-awithClassIIseriesofPrefixesthecorrespondingAuxiliaryin

MORU-A NDRIis-rɔwithClassIseriesofPrefixes2CfNILOTICpp4254271LitI-sayingampc

2CfNGBAKAMArsquoBOBANDAp92NZAKARAp1493Saidbywifeonly4ThereishoweveranoverallresemblancetotheInterrogativesofSERE-MUNDUampcp92MBAp

118andZANDEp1495CfBONGO-BAGIRMIp731CfBONGO-BAGIRMIp732TakenfromHackettLarochetterecognizesonlytwoDemonstratives

1AndtoBONGO-BAGIRMIp74KANURIp183andNILOTICp4232ThetermslsquoDefinitersquoandlsquoIndefinitersquoAspect(seeESLp180)arepracticallysynonymouswiththe

termslsquoMomentaryrsquoandlsquoContinuousrsquousedonp17hereIntranslationthevernacularcouldberenderedbyphrasessuchasDEFINITEIbitesomethingIbitsomethingINDEFINITEIambitingsomethingIwasbitingsomething

lProbablyowingtoinsufficientresearchthetonesrecordedherearenotreliable2BothLarochettersquosandHackettrsquosrenderingsgivenhereMEJEaacute-nyɔuacute-nyɔampc1ThisprobablyexplainsoldspellingslikelsquoLogwarersquo2NotePostpositionusuallyfoundafterVerbs1yagraveisanInterrogativePostpositiontobedistinguishedfromya=bellyin1ThispatternholdsforOKErsquoBUalso1AndinbothshapeandmeaningtomanyPrepositionsinBONGO-BAGIRMISeep83

THEBONGO-BAGIRMILANGUAGES

IT has been found convenient to discuss these languages under three headsWesternlanguagesBAGIRMIGroupSARAGroup

CentrallanguagesKRESHGroup(includingYULU-BINGA)KARAEasternlanguagesBONGOGroup

SourcesANTuckerfieldnotesinSudanandworkwithSARAMBAIinformantsinParis1TheEasternSudanicLanguagesvolii(MS)SSantandreagrammaticalsketchesofBONGOlsquoBELI2YULUBINGAKARA(MSS)SSantandreaAConciseGrammarOutlineoftheBongoLanguageSocofStPeterClaverRome1963Pp157

RCStevensonBagirmiGrammar3(MS)SaraMbaiGrammar4(MS)MSnotesonBAGIRMIGroupYULU-BINGA

JLukasfieldnotesonBAGIRML5HGadenEssaidegrammairedelalanguebaguirmienneParis1909MDelafosseEssaisurlepeupleetlalangueSaraParis1897HBarthSammlungundBearbeitungCentral-AfrikanischerSprachenGotha1862JHallaireandIRobinneDictionnaireSara-Franccedilais6Koumra-Fourviegravere1955-9398pp

1PhoneticsIaVowelsBAKA has a clear-cut balanced seven-vowel system like that of MORU-

MArsquoDIwiththesameUmlautprocessesThe Vowels of the other Eastern languages are far less distinct and the

phonemesmoredifficulttodelineateSantandreareortsanindistinctoenformofianduinmostofhismaterialwhichherecordsiumlanduumlBothheandTuckeremploythesymbolsεandɔaswellaseandobuttheirexamplesdonotalwaystally7BAGIRMI and SARA MBAI according to Stevenson have five vowel

phonemes i e a o u but there are also open varieties I eɔ U conditionedlargely by neighbouring consonants or by stress Lukas reports only fiveperipheral vowels i e a o u for BAGIRMI Tucker reports nine for SARAMBAI i I e ε aɔ oUu but his examples do not always tallywith those ofStevenson8Allthreeinvestigatorsrecordatleasttwocentralvowelsaumlandə(orouml) the latterconsiderablycloser thantheformerStevensonandTuckerrecordcentralizediumlaswellTheDictionnaireSara-Franccedilaisusessevenvowelsymbolswiththefollowing

values1

(oandɔthoughoftendistinguishedinfinalpositionandoccasionallyininitialpositionarehardtodistinguishinmedialpositioninwordsaccordingtoDictSara)Thegeneral impression isof avowel systemsimilar to thatofMORU-MANGBETUbutlesspreciseExamplesofcentralvowel

Stevenson adds however that he had heard pronunciations varying betweenkrjga(withnointerveningvowel)andkInjgainlsquoaxersquoaboveVowel length is indeterminate and rarely significant (but see sect7) In the

WesternlanguagesitisfoundmostlyinmonosyllabicwordsandisindicatedbyaraiseddotDiphthongs ending in -i or -u (sometimes -o) occur sporadically in the

Western languages where it is sometimes difficult to distinguish them fromdisyllablesCompare

Nasalizedvowelsoccur inBONGOandBAGIRMI incertaincircumstances(egintheneighbourhoodofhinBONGO)theyaresignificantonlyinSARA

MBAIAnoutstandingcharacteristicofrsquotheBONGO-BAGIRMIlanguagesisthatthe

final vowel of certain words is semi-mute ie pronounced so softly as to behardlyaudibleandreadilyelidedbeforefollowingsounds2Semi-mutevowelsarehererepresentedbyitalictype

In some languages andor dialects no semi-mute vowels occur in final

position-the word ending in either a full vowel or no vowel Such wordshowever behave in context as if ending in a semi-mute vowel Thus

Noaccountistakenofsemi-mutevowelsintheDictSaraadtogivegεrtoknowcfStevensonadigeɽiSemi-mutevowelsoftenundergoassimilation

1bConsonants

(i)ConsonantsarelessclearlyarticulatedherethaninMORU-MANGBETUand free variants (Variphones) are commonwithin certain languagesThere isalsomuchslurringeg

In most languages t and d are either dental or alveolar according to thespeakerortheoccasionandevenoverlapwithretroffexṭandḍinsomewordswhereasinotherwordstheretroffexsoundscanbeprovedtobeetymologicallyseparateThe latter soundsarenot strongly retroffexbutapproximatemore tothe Southern English pronunciation of lsquotrainrsquo and lsquodrainrsquo Implosive ɗ isconstant throughout Compare

NotethattheDietSararegardsɗasanimplosiverthoughrecognizingɓ

indicatingprobablyanasalized asinZANDEitdoesnotrecordɽIntheDictSara there is no ny but nasalized occurs instead1eg ng lsquomarcherdoucementrsquob lsquoodeurrsquo aacute thingbi goat Cf Stevensonny b nya Thedictionaryrsquoslsquongrsquo(retainedhere)isapparentlytobeinterpretedasŋginitiallyandŋfinallyStevensonoccasionallyrecordsafaintimplosivejinBAGIRMIwhereLukas

hearsaglottalstopornothingandGadenldquouneaccentuationspeacutecialequinrsquoestpasuneaspirationrsquo

TheDiet Sara notes thatwords such as iacutem tohate igraved tobe cooked arepronounced(thoughnotwritten)YiacutemandYigraved theyaretobedistinguishedfromwordssuchasyib oil

ThefollowingsoundsaretypicalofEasternlanguagesonlythelabio-velarskpandgbflapped -verycommoninKRESHandoccurringsporadicallyinBAKAand

MOROKODO bilabial roll in which both lips are vibrated occurring bothunvoicedandvoicedinBAKA1eg

Nasalcompoundsarecommonthroughout(ii) Consonant assimilation as such is negligible but owing to the great

instabilitywithinandbetweenthephonemesthemselvesrulesforregularsoundchangeareverydifficulttoworkoutNotehoweverinBAGIRMI(Lukas)theeffectofginStevensonrecordslabializationbeforebackvowelsinBAGIRMIandSARA

MBAIandvoicingoffinalStemconsonantsbeforeaSuffixcontaininggintheBAGIRMIGroupeg

TheDictSaraalsonotes thatwordssuchasg ypestlek lsquoproprieacutetairersquouacutelrsquopoisrsquoarepronounced(thoughnotwritten)gw ykwoacutewuacutelanddistinguishesthelastfromwollsquopoilrsquoThedroppingofsemi-mutevowelsoftengivesrisetoconsonantjunctionsof

variouskindsToavoid these junctions thesemi-mutevowel isoftenreplacedbyahomorganicnasalconsonantinSARAMBAIandKENGA

2ToneandStress2aToneToneisbothlexicalandgrammatical(seesectsect489)Inthelanguagessofar

analysed for tone (BONGOBAKAMOROKODOKRESHYULUKARASARAMBAIandtosomeextentBAGIRMI)threelevelshavebeennotedbutitisnotcertainthatalllanguageshavethreetonemes(Butseesect4a)NotethattheDiet Sara in which all entries (but not the examples) are tone marked alsorecognizesthreetonelevelsThereareToneClassesinNounsandVerbs

ThereisgreatvariationbetweendialectsandevenbetweenindividualsinthetonepatternsofWordsespeciallywhenspokeninisolation1

2bStressStress isnormallyonthefirstsyllableofdisyllabicwordsandinvariablyso

when the second syllable contains a semi-mute vowel Occasionally stress isheard on the second syllable when the first one contains a central vowelStevenson records stresson the second syllable inBAGIRMIk laacute snake forinstance

3WordShapeThesimplestformoftheWordismonosyllabicCVTheformVCVisvery

commonespeciallyinKRESHandYULUwherethesimpleformisrareTheformCVCVismorecommonthaninMORU-MANGBETUthoughhereagainthefirstelementmayoftenbe regardedetymologicallyasaPrefix InKRESHCVCVisoftenamerereduplicationofCVIntheWesternlanguagescertainwordsendinsemi-mutevowelswhileothers

donotandtheirbehaviouratjunctionsisdifferent(NotethatinSARAMBAIsemi-mutevowelsareneverheardafter-l--r-or thenasalconsonants thoughtheydooccurafter-ɽ-)IntheEasternlanguagessemi-mutevowelsarerareandseemtobeconfinedtoBONGOandBAKAExamplesofNouns

InKRESHsincethefinalvowelsofwordsarealwayselidedbeforetheinitialvowelsoffollowingwordstheamountofvowelelisionintheaveragesentence

isverygreat4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i)VerbsfallintothreeMorphologicalClassesaccordingtotheshapeoftheir

Stems and their conjugational behaviour (see sect 9)

In SARAMBAI and BONGO Verbs consisting of V or VV are Class IIVerbsTherearenoClassIVerbsinKRESHorYULU-BINGA(ii) Tone Classes cut across Morphological Classes There are three Tone

Classes in SARA MBAI and two in BAKA and KRESH The number inBAGIRMIisuncertainSARAMBAI(Tucker1)

(iii)DerivativeVerbsareformedmostlybymeansofPrefixesofwhichl-t-andnd-are themostcommonsuchVerbsare thus for themostpartClass IIIVerbs The following categories have been noted

SuffixesarenotsocommonBAGIRMIhasaPluralActionorPluralObjectSuffix-tieg

andSuffixes-laand-seinafewwords

KRESHhasanIntransitiveSuffix-ineeg

oftenattachedtoAdjectivalVerbseg

ThereisalsoanoccasionalSuffix-a insomelanguageswithnodiscerniblefunction1

4bNouns(i)Noun Formatives are few TheDict Sara givesk- beforeClass IIVerb

StemsExamplesfromotherlanguages(notethattheInfinitivePrefixandtheVerbal

Noun Prefix do not always coincide)

ManyVerbStemsfunctionasNounswithoutaPrefix

Notelengtheningoffinalsemi-mutevowelin

(ii)NumerousToneClassesofNounshavebeenobserved

NotethefollowingtonaldoubletsintheDictSara

4cAdjectivesThe Prefixesm- k- and g- occur occasionally as Adjective Formatives

In predicative constructions however Adjectives are in most languagesindistinguishablefromVerbsSeesect10


5aNounsIntheWesternlanguagesthereisaregularPluralSuffix-ge(dialectally-ke)

attachedtotheNounortheNounGroup1InsomelanguagesitmaybeattachedtopersonalnamesSelf-standingPronounsorInterrogatives(seesect5e)AdoubleSuffixhasbeennotedinSARAMBAI(seebelow)Semi-mute vowels are elided before this Suffix and final Stem consonants

occasionally voiced (see sect 1b (ii))

(InthedialectstudiedbyLukasthePluralisrarelyusedhowever)

KRESH occasionally suffixes the Plural Pronoun igi but usually does notdistinguishNumberSantandrea reports aPluralSuffix -n inOldYULUmessen chiefsmodern

YULUmessSgandPlIn the Eastern languages the Plural is hardly ever distinguished but the

followinghasbeenheardinBAKA5bAdjectivesTheAdjectivemayalsoshowPluralityintheWesternlanguagessometimes

insteadofsometimesaswellastheNoun

ThereisanoccasionalPluralPrefixwithprecedingAdjectivesinKRESH

5cPronounsIn the Western languages the Personal Pronouns and the Personal

InterrogativetakethesamePluralSuffixasNounsie-geItWouldthusappearthatthisSuffixmustberegardedasnominalratherthanpronominalInKRESHhowever -g- is itself an element in theStemofPluralPersonal

Pronouns(seesect8a(i))

5dVerbsPluralSubjectisindicatedinsomeWesternandCentrallanguagesbymeans

ofaSuffix-ki(-ke-ka)attachedtotheMainVerborAuxiliaryinconjugation

2

IntheImperativethereislikewiseaPluralSuffix-kiSeesect9b(ii))InotherWesternlanguagesthePluralSuffixis-nor-ni3

TheDictSararecordsoptionalPluralSuffix-iin1stand2ndPersonand-n

or-anin3rdPersonegForPluralActionandPluralObjectVerbsseesect4c

6GenderThereisnogrammaticalGenderwiththesoleexceptionoftheBONGOS3

PronounSeesect8a

7CaseThereisaLocativeSuffix-kior-tiintheWesternbutnotintheCentralor

EasternlanguagesInBAGIRMIandSARAMBAIcertainNounshavespecificLocativeforms

obtained largely by lengthening or reinforcing the final vowel

8Pronouns8aPersonal(i) Inmost languages theSelf-standingPronouns forS1andS2 resemble

thoseofMORU-MANGBETU1PluralformshoweveraretotallydifferentanddonotformaBlockPatternwiththeSingularforms

BONGOalonehasGenderdifferentiationinS3(alsoinSubjectObjectandPossessive forms)

(ii) The Pronoun Subject of a Verb is a Prefix consisting usually of ashortened form of the Self-standing Pronoun though the Dict Sara gives adistinctSubjectseriesmagraveinigravejigravesinigravenAccording to Lukas S 1 is frequently omitted in the Definite Aspect in

BAGIRMIS 2 and S 3 are omitted in the Definite Aspect of BAKA distinction for

PersonbeingshownherebythetoneoftheVerbStem(seesect9b)TheSubjectPronoun is suffixed to theVerbStem in theDefiniteAspect of

BONGO(P1and2)andBAKA(P12and3)Seesect9b(iiiandiv)TheObjectandPossessivePronounisaSuffixconsistingusually

ofashortenedformoftheSelf-standingPronounexceptinS3whereitis-ainSARAMBAIandBAKA-nyainBAGIRMIintheotherlanguagesitisoften

notexpressed(v)ThereisaReferringPronouninsomeofthelanguages

ItisnotfoundinBAGIRMIwhichusesneinbothcontexts

8bInterrogativeThePersonalInterrogativelsquowhorsquovariesconsiderablybetweenlanguages

OtherInterrogativesarevirtuallyconstantthroughout

InmostlanguagesthereisalsoanInterrogativePostpositionayawa1

8cDeterminativeandDemonstrative(i)InmanylanguagesthereisaDeterminativeParticlenani2whichfollows

theNounorNounGroupandisusedtogiveprecision(Insomelanguagesitisidentical with the lsquonearrsquo Demonstrative)

CfBONGObuḍunathispersonorthepersoninquestionStevensondoesnotmentionDeterminativesinSARAMBAInotehowever

in the Diet Sara yatilde-n ndam isa ni thing (which) squirrel ate in which aDeterminativeoccurstwice(ii) In most languages there are two degrees of Demonstrative in some

languages the Demonstrative is built up on the Determinative

BAGIRMIDemonstrativesareinvariableforNumberinformationislackingconcerningtheotherlanguagesabove

SARAMBAIhasthreedegreesofdistanceeachwiththreepostures4

Demonstratives follow the Noun in all languages (Note in BONGO apreceding Particle ba-apparently optional)

8dRelativeMost languages have an invariable Relative Pronoun in BAGIRMI the

Determinative follows the Relative phrase

InsomelanguagesCompoundNounsarepreferredSeesect13a

8eReflexiveandReciprocalTherearenoReflexiveorReciprocalPronounsintheselanguagesFromthe

comparativepointofviewhoweveritisusefultonotethattheuseofthesameword for lsquobodyrsquorUro as found inMORU-MArsquoDI isalmostuniversalhereSeep46andnote

9VerbGonjugation9aAspectInmostlanguagesDefiniteandIndefiniteAspectaretobedistinguishedThe

Imperative seems to belong to theDefiniteAspect and the Subjunctive to theIndefiniteAspect for themost partTheAspects are distinguished formally asfollows

(Lukas-noteelisionofsemi-mutevowelsbeforePostpositionga)

Examplesofreversedwordorder

SARAMBAIhasnoAspectdistinctionthebehaviouroftheVerbresembles

thatoftheDefiniteAspectinotherlanguagesButseeAuxiliariessect9c(iii)

9bConjugationforPerson(i) In conjugation the Verb Stem is invariable for Person in shape but not

always in tone (see especially BAKA and KRESH below) the pronominalSubject or a contracted form of it is usually prefixed to the Verb Stem andsometimes reduplicated In some languages it is omitted in the 2nd and 3rdPersoninsomelanguagesfurtherthePluralformsfollowtheVerbStemintheDefiniteAspectNotethePluralSuffixinsomelanguages(seesect5c)

(ii)Imperativeforms

BAGIRMI(Lukas1noteelisionofsemi-mutevowelsbefore-ki)

9cTenses(i)TenseParticlesareveryrarebutnoteinBAKA

(ii)PostpositionsaremuchusedintheDefiniteAspectusuallytoindicatethattheactionisinthepastCfMORU-MANGBETUp50

Inmost languages there isan InterrogativePostpositionayawaNegativePostpositionsarealsocommon(seesect11a)

(iii)AuxiliaryVerbsAuxiliaryVerbsareconjugatedintheDefiniteAspectfollowedbytheMain

Verb in the IndefiniteAspect and their function is to stress theprogressiveor

futurenatureofthisAspectThePluralSuffixisusuallyontheMainVerbbutmay sometimes be on the Auxiliary as Well

In SARAMBAIWhere there is noAspect distinction both Auxiliary andMainVerbareconjugatedIn some languagesNegation is also expressed by anAuxiliaryVerb (see sect

11a)

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerbslsquotobersquo10a In most languages Non-verbal Predication (whether of identity or of

place) may be expressed by mere juxtaposition (Zero Copula)

10bInBAGIRMIandKRESHthereisaVerblsquotobersquoindicatingexistenceinaplaceInmanylanguagestherearesporadicParticles(suchasinina)whichmightbecopulativeormightevenbedeterminative

10cAdjectivesmaybehaveeitherlikeVerbsorlikeNounsinthelattercasethey take their Formative elements ( see sect 4c)

WithIntransitiveSuffix(sect4a(iii))lit-aacutemogravezograve(orogravez-igravenegrave)Myboyisgood

11Negation11aVerbal(i)InmostlanguagestheNegativeisexpressedbymeansofaPostposition-in

some languages in the Definite Aspect only

(ii)TheNegativeImperativeisintheDefiniteAspectexceptinBONGOandBAKANotethePluralSuffixesinBAGIRMIandSARAMBAI

InBONGOandBAKAtheNegativeAuxiliaryisused

NotealsoinSARAMBAI(Tucker1-alternative)

11bNon-verbalWhereas theWestern languages merely employ the Postposition BONGO

BAKA and KRESH use the Auxiliary (with or without Postposition)

NotetheuseoftheVerbgwototobeabsentinBAGIRMI

12WordOrderThewordorderinfinitesentencesisS(+Auxiliary)+V+1+O(+Postposition)

the Postposition may sometimes follow the Verb

SomeSubjectPronounssometimesfollowtheVerb inBONGOandBAKASeesectsect8a(ii)and9b

13TheGenitiveConstruction13aNounPossessorThewordorderisPossessed+PossessorthroughoutWherePossessionisNon-

intimatethereisusuallyaLinkingParticle

Where Possession is Intimate it is expressed by direct juxtaposition thisconstruction is identical with that for forming Compound Nouns

InmanylanguagestheNoun+VerbCompoundactsasaSubjectRelative(seesect8d)1

13bPronominalPossessorThecontractedPronounfollowstheNounandinmanylanguagestheLinking

Particle of the Non-intimate Genitive is optional or absent

Asalreadymentionedthe3rdPersonPossessiveSuffixisinsomelanguagesdiffeentfromtheSubjectPrefixSeesect8a(iii-iv)

14ConstructionwithQualifiers(i)ItwouldseemthatAdjectiveswhetherintheirverbaloradjectival(seesect

4c) formmay either precede or follow theNoun in theEastern languages inmany of these languages the predicative and attributive constructions areidentical(seesect10(iii))InmostWesternlanguagesAdjectivesalwaysfollow

(ii)Demonstratives (sect 8c) andRelative constructions (sect 8d) always followNumerals vary their position in KRESH but follow elsewhere

15MiscellaneousTheselanguagesarecharacterizedbyagreatnumberofwordsandorParticles

whichareprepositionaltoNounsandpostpositionaltoVerbs1ThePrepositionsareattached toNounsandPronouns in thesamewayas in

the IntimateGenitiveConstruction (ie there is no Linking Particle) there is

howeveraLocativeSuffixinsomeWesternlanguageswhichcomesattheendoftheNounGroup

LARGERUNITS3456ANDISOLATEDUNIT7THE languages of these sections have much Vocabulary in common1 thoughfromthegrammaticalpointofviewtheyarebestdiscussedunderthefollowingheads3and6SERE-MUNDUandBANDA-GBAYA-NGBANDI

TheselanguagesarenowbeingtreatedasbelongingtooneLargerUnit

4MBAGroupofClassLanguagesGrammaticallythisGroupisanIsolatedLanguageGroup

5ZANDEGROUPGrammatically these languageshavemuchincommonwithSERE-MUNDU

and BANDA-GBAYA-NGBANDI but there is enough divergence to warrantseparatetreatment

7BUAGroupFortherealignmentofthelanguageswithinthisGroupseep161

1Fromtwodifferentvillagesandhencenumbered1and22BothSantandreaandTuckerworkedinthesameareashereoftenwiththesameinformantsNoattempt

ismadeinthetexttosortouttheirdata3TakenlargelyfromoneexpatriateinKordofan4TakenlargelyfromoneexpatriateinKordofanspeakeroflsquoMAJINGAIrsquo(litlsquoverygoodrsquo)dialecton

whichtheNewTestamentisbased5Fromtwoinformantsfromdifferentvillagesnumberedhere1and26BasedonSARAMAIINGAYofBeacutedayaandhereinafterreferredtoasDictSara7NoteveninlsquoBELIwherebothinvestigatorsusedthesameinformantatdifferenttimesButitwasalso

discoveredthatinbothBONGOandlsquoBELItheinformantsthemselveswouldgivedifferentpronunciationsondifferentdays

8TuckerrsquostwolsquoSARAMBAIrsquoinformantsdifferedstronglyfromStevensonandfromeachotheritwouldappearthateachvillagehasitsowndialecthere

1InordertoavoidconfusionofsystemsmaterialquotedfromtheDictionnairehasbeenrewritteninthe

presentphoneticsystem2ThisphenomenonwasfirstobservedbyGadeninhisEssaidegrammairedelalanguebaguirmienne

itwasalsonotedbyDelafosse(opcit)whofirstusedthetermlsquosemi-mutersquo1ieslightlyretroffexSeeIntroductionsect1b2ieimplosiveʋandy1FoundalsowithTuckerrsquosinformantNo22CfBarthgela1SeealsoMANGBETUGroupp291LukasrsquostwoinformantsoftendifferintonepatternwhilethereistonaldifferenceinBONGOand

lsquoBELIinthematerialcollectedbySantandreaandTuckerinthelatterlanguagethesameinformantwaslargelyusedConsequentlymuchofthematerialhasnotbeenmarkedfortone(Stevensonrsquosmaterialismostlyunmarked)1ProbablypronouncedgaacuteŋSeesect1b(i)

1CfMORU-MANGBETUp351CfMORU-MANGBETUp371ComparealsowesternDAJUp2351-naisaDeterminativeSeesect8b2CfMORU-MArsquoDIp413CfNounPluralsinOldYULUsect5a1ButcompareKRESHS12and3withMABApzoo2SeealsoReferringPronoun1CfMORU-MANGBETUp442CfMORU-MANGBETUp453Fromdebεtna=person(who)istheone4CfthePositionalDemonstrativesinKATCHA(KADUGLI-KRONGO)p3071NotethatParticlesing-occurinRelativeconstructionsinZANDE(p150)MABA(p202)

RASHAD(p295)BARYA(p332)UDUK(p362)andGELEBA(p566)1OrIshalleatmeat2m-ɔʃ y-ɔʃ ampcifnootherwordfollows1ProbablypronounceddiŋamcfStevensoninsect5a1NoteasimilarParticleinLENDUp541SeealsoNDOGO-SEREp1031Manyofthese(bothPrepositionsandPostpositions)correspondtothePostpositionsofMORU-

MANGBETUSeep58(84)1GreenbergplacestheminthelsquoAdamawa-EasternSubfamilyrsquoofhislsquoNiger-CongoFamilyrsquoOpcitp9

3THESERE-MUNDULANGUAGES6THEBANDA-GBAYA-NGBANDILANGUAGES

SourcesPEHackettandANTuckerfieldnotesonmostofthelanguages-LSNBBSSantandreaAcomparativegrammarofNdogoSereBaiandBoiriCatholicMissionWau1934ComparativelinguisticsIndri-Togoyo-Feroge-Ndogo-Mangaya-MonduMuseumCom-binianum1950PRiberoElementidilinguaNdogoVerona1922CTisserantEssaisurlagrammairebandaParis1931RMortierlsquoWoorclvorminginhetMbanzarsquoAequatoria1940alsoMSnotesJHilberthNatesurlalanguegbaya(MS)PLekensDictionnaireFranccedilais-NgbandiNgbandi-FranccedilaisTervuren1952Ngbandi-IdioticonTervuren1955pp1091Ngbandi-IdioticonIITervuren1958pp1072JMCThomasLeparlerngbakadeBokangaParis1963pp307

1Phonetics

Santandrearecords fivevowelphonemesforNDOGOSERE iεaɔuwithsub-sidiaryvalues I eoU inunstressedsyllablesHacketthowever recordsatleast seven vowel phonemes for Congo SERE Lekens records seven vowelphonemesforNGBANDIieaaɔouInMUNDUNGBAKAMArsquoBOBANDAandGBAYAthesituationisnot

atallclearanditisveryoftendifficulttoisolatethephonemesInMUNDUforinstance theword for lsquoeatrsquo hasbeen recordedzU zo andzɔThere is also acentralvowelauml(orouml)sometimesalternatingwithabackunroundedvowel(ɯ)ThetribalnamesMUNDUMAYOGONGBUGUandNGBAKAforinstancehavebeenheardvariouslyas

UmlautiscommoninNGBANDIelsewhereitissporadic

Long vowels and diphthongs are absent Nasalized vowels are common inBANDA GBAYA and NGBANDI absent in NDOGOSERE and sporadicelsewhere(Insomelanguagesit isdifficulttosortouttheinherentlynasalized

vowels from those nasalized by proximity to a nasal consonant)

pfandbvarecommonalternantsofpandbinNDOGOSEREImplosiveɓandɗ do not occur in MUNDU BANDA and NGBANDI but are commonelsewhere(wheretheycorrespondtogbanddinMUNDU)Flapped ismostcommoninNDOGOSERE(cfSERE uMUNDUwwgrindstone)l-r-ɽareonephonemeSlurringoccursoutsideNDOGOSEREkoftenbeingslurredtoXorɣVoicednasalcompoundsarecommonthroughout

2ToneandStress2aThereappeartobethreemaintonelevelsintheselanguagesHighMidandLow1 Rising and Falling tones are common outsideNDOGOSERE but seemfor the most part to be the result of assimilation Tone classes in Nouns andVerbshavebeennotedtonealsoplaysagrammaticalroleinVerbconjugation(See sectsect 9a andb)Lekens further records a vowel-less tone (lsquodoffe bijtoonrsquo)beginningsomesyllablesinNGBANDIMortierreportsthesamephenomenoninMBANJA`taacute(withhim)

2bStressisoftenresponsibleforchangesinvowelqualityandvowellengthInMAYOGOthereisatendencytowardsvowellengthonthepenultimatesyllableIn NGBAKAGBAYA and BANDA on the other hand there is a tendencytowardsextrashortnesshereCompareEboueacutersquosBANDAspellingsyaʋra(dog)2yabru (goat) akblo (child) With Hackettrsquos TOGBO renderings

3WordShapeThe simplest form of the word is monosyllabic CV (but VCV in some

languages)TheformCVCVisalsoverycommoninwhichthevowelsareoftenidentical and the second consonant a liquid3 Reduplication of CV is alsocommon especially in BANDA (CVC is found in some Verbs in GBAYAKAKAwhereitwouldappearthatafinalvowelhasbeenlostSee4aand9a)

4StructuralElements4aVerbs

(i) Verbs in GBAYA KAKA seem to fall into two Classes according towhether their Infinitive Stems end in -i or not

buttheirconjugationforPersonisuniformThereseemtobenoMorphologicalVerbClasseselsewhere

(ii)Lekens records threeToneClasses ofVerbs inNGBANDI exemplified

by

WhetherVerbssuchasvicirctoopenbelonginwithTC3isnotmadeclearThereseemtobenoToneClasseselsewhere

(iii)DerivativeVerbshavenotbeen recorded in these languages except forthefollowingdoubtfulexampleinGBAYAKAKAhasitohurrypresscfhatogive

4bNouns

(i) An apparent Sufiix -sα1 with no discernible function is found in somelanguages of the SERE-MUNDU Group

NGBANDIhasanoptionalPrefixmu-beforesometribalnames2

But note in GBAYAKAKAmᴐ-nᴐ lsquoboissonrsquo lt nᴐ-a to drink In NGBAKAMArsquoBOandNBGAKAGBAYANounsdenotingpartsofthebodyarefollowedby -vo and -wi respectively unless followed by a Possessor

There is an Infinitive-VerbalNoun Prefix in some of the languages and inNGBANDI an Infinitive Suffix

OtherwiseNounFormativesarelacking(ii) Nouns may bedivided into Tone Classes though these have not been

workedoutButnote

4cAdjectivesAdjectivalVerbsasWellastrueAdjectivesoccurinmostlanguagesbutthere

arenospecificAdjectiveFormativeelementsapartfromanoptionalPrefixme-inNDOGOSEREeggbolograveorme-gbologravebig

5Number5aNounsIn all these languages (except NGBAKA MArsquoBO and neighbouring

languages) the Plural is formed bymeans of a Prefix In some languages thisAffixisusedonlywithNounsindicatingAnimatesIn NDOGOSERE the Prefix is nda- (ka- in BVIRI)

InMUNDUMAYOGOandBANGBAthePrefix isᴐ-oro-oru-1but inNGBAKAMArsquoBOBURAKAandMONZOMBO the -o issuffixedNotealsoanadditionalsuffixinlsquoMAYOGO2

In the GBAYA Group too the Prefix is ᴐ- or o- (or hio-) and confinedusually to Nouns indicating Animates

The Prefix hiu- is reported in YANGELE and ye- in BANGANDO (bothGBAYAdialects)InBANDAandNGBANDIhoweverthePrefixisa-3

Note also the following use of the Plural Prefix in NDOGO ndaacute-duu taŋgagravembv theTortoiseandtheFox4

SpecialCategory

In some of the BANDA dialects kinship terms have extra Prefixes in the

Plural

5bAdjectives

InmostlanguagesthoseAdjectivesthatprecedeNouns(seesect14(i))takethePluralAffixaswellas(sometimesinsteadof)theNounInmanylanguagesthePlural Adjective is reduplicated

Inthoselanguageswhichemploy-oasaPluralSuffixthisisattachedtotheNounonly1

In the BANDA Group the Prefix a- is attached only to the Noun

5cPronouns

InsomelanguagesthePersonalInterrogativetakesthenominalPluralPrefix(seesect8b)

5dVerbs

PluralityisnotindicatedinVerbs


7CaseThereisnoinffexionforCase

8Pronouns8aPersonal(i)AccordingtotheSelf-standingPersonalPronounstheselanguagescanbe

grouped into three types NDOGOSERE (an outstanding feature is theExclusiveInclusiveDual distinction in the Ist Person Plural)

MUNDUNGBAKAMArsquoBOalsoBANDA

NGBAKA GBAYA and NGBANDI (here there is no ExclusiveInclusive or

Dualdistinction)

(ii) The Pronoun Subject of a Verb is a Prefix consisting usually of ashortened form of the Self Standing Pronoun but there is an alternative 3rdPersonSingularPrefixa-inMUNDUandGBAYAKAKA(seesect9b)

(iii) and (iv) The Pronoun Object and Pronoun Possessor are likewiseshortened forms used as Suffixes in some languages however there aredifferentformsinsomePersons(seesect13b)

(v)ReferringPronounsarecommon

(vi) Insome languages there isan ImpersonalSubjectPrefixconsistingofa

Vowela-1ore-

8bInterrogative2

The Interrogatives lsquowhorsquo and lsquowhatrsquo are fairly consistent

In NGBAKA GBAYA many Interrogatives are built up on -nde

CfGBAYAKAKA

ongege-ndehando(-nde)

CompareTOGBOabove

8cDemonstrative

In most languages there are three degrees of Demonstrative but inNDOGOSERE there are only two There is little correspondence in formbetweenthelanguagesSeparatePluralFormsarerareDemonstrativesfollowtheNouninalllanguages

TheselanguagesseemtolackaDeterminativeParticle

8dRelativeNodataonRelativePronounsistohandbutseesect13a(i)foroneuseofthe

CompoundNountoindicateSubjectRelativeinNDOGOSERE

8eReflexiveandReciprocalSome languages have a word for lsquoself in both Reflexive and Emphasizing

sense

A more common construction is Preposition ti followed by the ObjectPronounSuffix2

Alsocontainedin

mɛ-mɛpaacutet -mɛagravenjaacutepaacutet -njaImyselftheythemselves8fIndefinite

GBAYAKAKAmasomehio-mangoyahio-mangoyna

Somearewillingsomearenot

mbwa-kiawenhiacuteo-ma-e Theyquarrelledamongthemselves(littheirsome)

9VerbConjugation9aAspect(i)TherearetwoAspectsinGBAYAKAKAImperfect (including Infinitive andNegative)WithSuffix -i orZeroSuffixPerfect(actioncompleted)withSuffix-aor-oThus the Perfect forms of the Verbs listed in sect 4a are

Nosuchformaldistinctionhasbeenrecordedinanyotherlanguage(ii)InNGBANDIhowevertherearethreeAspectsdistinguishedentirelyby

Tone (example from Tone Class 3)

9bConjugationforPerson(i)InalllanguagestheVerbStemisinvariableforPersoninsomelanguages

absence of an Object is compensated for by a Particle

9cTenses(i) Most languages have Tense Particles standing between the Subject

PronounandtheVerbNDOGOSEREhasthegreatestnumber

(ii) Postpositions (or Suffixes P) are also found but are often difficult todistinguish from Adverbs

(iii) Auxiliary Verbs are common usually followed by the Verb in the

Infinitive

hia-gbabafa-obatɔ-yoOurfathers(longago)saiditAuxiliaryVerbshavenotbeenfoundinNDOGOSERENGBAKAMArsquoBOorNGBAKAGBAYA(iv)RepetitionandreduplicationNotethefollowingconjugationaluses

SeealsounderImperativesect9b(ii)andNegationsectIIa

(v) Tonal variation plays an important part in most languages (outsideNDOGOSERE) butwhether to distinguishAspect or Tense cannot be said atthisstage

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerblsquotobersquo10aZeroCopulaistobefoundoccasionally

A Preposition may be used to indicate possession

GBAYAKAKAmԑnede-demɔnedɔgahakɔmYouhavemanygoodthingsinstorelityouwithgoodthingmanyinstoreNotealsohere

ԑngԑneyangaThisisahorselingmԑneoWhatisyournamelitnamethywithwho

VerbalAdjectivesmaytakeneoromititmɔԑngԑde-apenmɔԑngilitthingthisis-goodmorethanthingthatfopomnebe-be-apenfopԑm(ԑ)Myplantationisbetterthanyourplantation10bThereisaVerblsquotobersquoinalllanguagesusuallydudadaumlordԑ2InsomelanguagesitisalwaysusedinothersonlytoindicatePastorFuturetimeInsomelanguagesitisidenticalWiththeVerblsquotohaversquo

There seems to be noVerb lsquoto bersquo inNDOGOSERE SERE yԑɽɔkɔlɔ amvԑtɔIwasonceachieflitIonce(Copula)chief11Negation11aVerbalInalltheselanguagesNegationisexpressedbymeansofaPostpositionsome

languages havemore than one according toAspect or Tense In the BANDAGrouptheVerbStemisusuallyrepeated-especiallyintheNegativeImperative

GBAYAKAKA(VerbalwaysinImperfectAspect)

mi-zɔkwindɔngnaIdonotsee(havenotseen)thosepeopleReinforcedbyAuxiliarytԑorParticlemami-tԑzakwԑnenaIhavenotseenhim

mi-benԑmahapԑ-mԑnaIshallnevergolsquocheztoirsquoFollowedbyInterrogativePostposition

ԑne-betԑnandeWillyou(Pl)notcome

11bNon-verbalThe Postpositions here are virtually the same as with Verbs in some

languageshoweverthereisaNegativeCopulaaswellNotethatinthephraselsquoitisnotIrsquothereisoftenanImpersonalSubjectPrefixa-Whilethe1stPersonPronounisinitsObjectform(Whereithasone)Seesect8a(vi)

GBAYAKAKAtwaԑngigasinaThathouseisnotbigReinforcedbybobonewԑnenaItisnothebomԑginaThatisnotsobonedalonaThatissolitnotWithlienotmobofinhatwanaThereisnothingmoreinthehouselitthingnotmoreinhousenothakombɔsariboangnaThereisnogameintheforestlitinforestgamenotexistsnot12WordOrderThewordorderinthefinitesentenceisS(+Aux)+V+OGBAYAKAKAkologdangsaliwarrainhasspoiledtheroadWhentheVerb

StemisrepeateditusuallyfollowstheObject(seesect9abcd)

TheonlyexampleofareversedconstructioncomesfromBVIRIwhereit isoccasionallyused foremphasisgbi-ninɔawiɗiacuteWhichboybeathimP litbeat-himthisisboywhat

13TheGenitiveConstruction13aNounPossessor(i) Theword order is Possessed+Possessor throughoutWhere possession is

Intimate there is noLinkingParticle InCompoundNouns the construction issimilarbutStemsareoftenreducedtomonosyllables

Note the use of the Noun+Verb Compound to indicate Subject Relative inNDOGOSERE1 (see sect 8d)

(ii)WherepossessionisNon-intimatethereisusuallyaLinkingParticle(kainmostlanguages)

NGBAKA MArsquoBO (note difference in Plural forms between Animate andInanimate Possessed)

13bPronounPossessorNotethatinsomelanguagesthePossessiveformofthePronoundiffersfrom

the Self-standing or Subject form in the Singular1 (see sect 8a (iv)) (i) Intimatepossession

(ii)Non-intimatepossession

14ConstructionswithQualifiers2

CertainAdjectivesalwaysprecedetheirNounwhileothersalwaysfollowitInsomelanguages(notablyinSERE-MUNDU)therearealsoAdjectiveswhichmay either precede or follow in the latter case they usually take AffixesAdjectivesareoftenreduplicatedinthePlural

(a)PrecedingAdjectives

(b)FollowingAdjectives

AlsoDemonstratives(seesect8c)

(c) Adjectives which may precede or follow

(MostAdjectiveshoweverseemtofollowinNGBANDI)

1SeeLekenspixSantandreap25Riberop7NotealsothatthehuntingwhistleogindaacuteoftheBVIRIhasthreenotesonwhichspeciacuteficmessagesaresignalled

2agravevrointheSudan3CfMANGBETUp32ZANDEp1431CfZANDEp1452CfMANGBETUampcp363NotinMUNDUhowever1InthoselanguagesinwhichtheSingularNounhastheformVCVthePluralPrefixsometimestakes

theplaceofthefirstvoweloftenwithchangeintone2CfPluralClassSuffix-sԑinMBAGroupp1113CfZANDEp1454CfZANDEp1461ButseeDemonstrativessect8c1ProbablyborrowedfromBONGO-BAGIRMISeep712CfZANDES1and2p1471CfMORUp44NZAKARAp1492Seefootnoteonp441ReferringPronounseeabove2AlsofoundintheMBAGroupp123andZANDEp1501Or ŋgu-1Molegbevariantcitedheretonepatternsvarywithlocality2CflsquoDONGOp117SeealsoNILOTICp4251CfZANDEImperativep1521tɛ=Verbŋgɔ=InfinitiveSuffix2yeisaddedtoaTransitiveVerbwhenthereisnoexpressedobject1CfsimilarconstructioninZANDEp154andSLWOp431

1ProbablyborrowedfromZANDESeep1541Litit-to-mewithdogCfBANGBAma-nigravebuacuteruka-ma2CfZANDEp155andMBAGroupp1283ImpersonalSubjectPrefixSeesect8a(vi)1TheNounObjectislsquothingrsquointheSEREexamplelsquomeatrsquo=s inMUNDUandNGBAKAMArsquoBO=

ԑnUinMAYOGO1CfBONGO-BAGIRMIp821ThisdistinctionhasbeennotedinNDOGOSEREMUNDUandsomeoftheMAYOGOandBANGBA

dialectsalsoinTOGBOcfZANDEpp1481581TheLinkingParticlesherebearastrongresemblancetotheMBAformsndIandɓ(i)Seep1342SeealsoMBAGroupp137andZANDEp159

4THEMBA(CLASS)LANGUAGES

THE four languages of this Group MBA (lsquoKimangarsquo) NDUNGA(lsquoMondungarsquo)rsquoDONGO andMA (lsquoAmadirsquo) appear to be the only non-Bantulanguages in the Congo to employ a system of Noun Classes and Concordagreements-usuallybymeansofSuffixesSourcesANTuckerandPEHackettfieldnotes-LSNBBJCarringtonlsquoEsquissedelalanguemba(Kimanga)rsquoKongo-Overzee1949LBdeBoeckGrammairedumondunga(LisalaCongoBelge)Bruxelles1952

1Phonetics

Both Carrington and de Boeck record a seven-vowel system to Which thepresentauthorsaddIandUWhichappear tobeunstressedformsofɛandɔ)(andwhichare includedundereandobyCarringtonandundereandobydeBoeck)andanoccasionalcentralvowelaumlLong vowels have occasionally been heard in all languages but no

diphthongsNasalizedvowelsoccurinMBASporadicUmlautɛampgteɔampgtoaampgtaumloccursintheneighbourhoodof

i andu InNDUNGAthere isvowelchangeaampgtɛore inconnexionwithClass2Suffix-y-(seesect4b)There isCategoryHarmony in theSuffixesofClasses Iand2 inMBA(see

noteonsect4b)

Voicednasalcompoundsarecommonŋisrareoutsidethecompoundŋg1-r-ɽareonephoneme

2ToneandStress2aThereappear tobeonly twotone levels lexically-HighandLowMid toneandFalling toneoccurgrammaticallyToneClasses inNouns andVerbshavebeennoted

2bStresssometimesaccompaniedbyaslightdegreeoflengthseemstofallonthefirstsyllableofawordStemTheNounClassSuffixisneverstressed

3WordShapeThesimplestformofwordStemwhenshornofitsAffixes(ClassSuffixesin

the case of Nouns) is CV The form CVCV is also very common oftenconsisting of the reduplication of CV or else where the second consonant isdifferentarepetitionofthefirstvowel1Forexamplesseeespeciallysect4

4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i)VerbStemshavetheformCVorCVCVwithreduplicatedvowelbutthere

donotappeartobeanyMorphologicalClasses(ii) Two Tone Classes have been distinguished giving rise to two tone

conjugations2

(iii)DerivativeVerbsareformedbymeansofSuffixes

Causative

FrequentativeIntensive

Directional

NeuterThere is a Particle -la or -le (-ta in lsquoDONGO) indicating Neuter

PassiveReflexive or Reciprocal action This Particle appears to be aPostpositioninMAbutaSuffixelsewhereInNDUNGAit isevenconjugatedforPerson(seesect9c(ii))

4bNouns(i)AlltheselanguageshaveNounClassesshownbySuffixesandaConcord

systemindicatedbyPrefixesandorSuffixes(seesect6)TheallocationofspecificNounstoClassesisfairlyconsistentbetweenthelanguagesbutlittlecorrelationbetweenClassandmeaningcanbeestablishedbeyondthefact that theNounsindicatinghumanbeingsoccurinClasses12and7andmanypartsofthebodyinClasses3 and4TheClassSuffixes themselves are closely related and thepairing of Singular Class With Plural Class also shows a high degree ofconsistencythroughouttheGroup1TheClassSuffixesandConcordelementsaresetouthereinthesameorderas

inCarrington(opcit)butwithdifferentnumbering

Theformssetoutaboverepresent themainphoneticvariantsothervariantswillbefoundintheexamplesbelow

Examples

TheClassSuffixesmayalsohaveaFormativefunction

OntheotherhandthereisoftenvariationofSuffixwithoutapparentvariation

inmeaningIn lsquoDONGO and MA the final vowel itself appears to be a Suffix and

alternativeformswithoutthisvowelareoccasionallyheardThusa-maacute-ɗiacuteora-maacute-ɗyoacute(tribalnameofMA)AllnounsinMAbeginWithanInitialVowela-(U-inthevariantspokenat

Niangara)whichmaybeomittedincertaingrammaticalcontexts1InNDUNGAmanyNounsinClasses3and4takeaSingularPrefix(l)i-anda

PluralPrefixma-2inadditiontotheSuffixes

Notealso

(ii)Nounsalso fall intoToneClassesand tonaldoubletsareverycommonNotethatthePluralofaNounisusuallyinthesameToneClassastheSingular

4cAdjectivesInNDUNGAsomeAdjectiveshaveaPrefixe-othersaSuffixndashme3 Inall

languages except MA most Adjectives take the same Class Suffixes as theNounstowhichtheyreferSeesectsect6and14

5Number

5aNounsAs already shown each Singular Noun Class has its corresponding Plural

NounClass occasionally there is a choice of Plural forms and inNDUNGAsomeNounshaveSingularandPluralPrefixesasWell(seesect4b(i))DeBoeckalso notes in NDUNGA suumaahԑ un cheveu suumaazԑ des cheveuxsuumԑԑyelescheveuxtouslescheveuxSpecialcategoryPlural Prefixes have been found in some kinship terms in the Personal

Interrogative and in NDUNGA in the 3rd Person Pronoun

5bAdjectivesApart from the various types of Concordial agreement (see sect 6) in the

Adjectives of all languages only NDUNGA Adjectives have specified Plural

forms5cPronounsSeesect5aaboveandsect8c

5dVerbsInMBA3rdPersonPlural(DefiniteAspect)isindicatedbyHightoneonthe

Verb Stem-only apparent however in TC 2 Thus from Carrington

InNDUNGA3rdPersonPlural is indicatedbyvowelor tonechange in theVerbStemandorSuffix-ugraveSeealsosect9b

InlsquoDONGO3rdPersonSingularandPluralaredistinguishedbytonealone

InMA plurality of Subject is indicated for all Persons by various kinds of

inffectionoftheVerbStem

DeBoeck further notes that inNDUNGA a FrequentativeVerb Stem oftendenotesPluralSubjectObjectoraction(seesect4a(iii))1

nɛgwagwaacutehaacutejesuiscasseacutenugwagwaacutehaacute-kaacutenoussommesbriseacutes6GenderandConcordingElements

(i)Gender ismostmarked in the Pronouns InMA there are fourGenders-Masculine FeminineAnimal and Inanimate2 InMBAFeminine andAnimalfalltogetherInlsquoDONGOallAnimatesfalltogetherandaredistinguishedfromInanimates (see sect 8a) There would seem to be no Grammatical Gender inNDUNGA(ii) Both Gender Agreement and Concordia] Agreement With the Noun

Classes exist in fact four types of Agreement are to be distinguished (notcommontoalllanguageshowever)(a)GenderConcord(MBA)

bymeans ofMasculine Feminine (andAnimal) or Plural Pronoun-usedwithAnimatesonly

(b)Animateamp124InanimateGenderConcords(lsquoDONGOMA)

bymeans of Particles bearing no resemblance to Pronouns but distinguishing

AnimatesfromInanimates

(c)NounClassConcords(MBANDUNGAlsquoDONGO)

by means of Particles bearing a strong phonetic relation to the ClassSuffixes

(d)NounStem()Concords(lsquoDONGO)

by means of Particles often (but by no means always) bearing somephoneticrelationtotheNounStem

Theirdistributionisasfollows

7Case(i)CarringtonnotescertainLocativeSuffixesinMBA

(LSNBB recordings laacutegyigrave house laacutegyiacute in the house) (ii) InMBA aNounwhichistheSubjectofanon-verbalsentenceorVerbldquotobersquotakesaSuffiixndasha

Class 1 Nouns take -wa and Class 2 Nouns take -ya here

Adjectivesadd-ga(Sg)and-ya(Pl)insuchcontexts

Seefurthersect10a

Statusconstructus1

(iii) In NDUNGA a Noun When qualified by an Adjective (sect14b) or aPossessive (sectI3a b) takes a Suffix -aacute which often replaces the vowel of the

ClassSuffix

ThisSuffixalsooccursinRelativeconstructions

ItmayevenbeattachedtoClassConcordsthusfromlɛ(Class3)andkɛ(Class5) de Boeck gives

This Suffix is also to be found with the first component of the Intimate

GenitiveinMASeealsosect13a

8Pronouns8aPersonal(i) The Self-standing Pronouns of MBA and NDUNGA have much in

common except that NDUNGA does not showGenderMBA andMA showGender in varying degrees lsquoDONGO shows AnimateInanimate distinctiononly lsquoDONGO alone shows ExclusiveInclusive distinction in the Ist PersonPlural

(ii)ThePronounSubject of aVerb is either theSelf-standingPronounor ashortenedformofitusedasaPrefixInMBAtheformsareidenticalexceptintheIstPersonPluraliacute-intheotherlanguagesdifferentseriesofPrefixesarealsotobefoundWithsomeAspectsandorTenses(seesect9b)

InlsquoDONGOwhenaNounisSubjecttheVerbtakestheAnimateInanimateConcordPrefix(seesect6b)viz

When however theNoun is the Subject of a Passive Equivalent theVerbPrefixisthatofthe3rdPersonSingular

(iii) The Self-standing Pronoun may also act as Pronoun Object inMBANDUNGAandMAexceptthattheIstPersonPluralinMBAisiagainandthe3rdPersonPluralinMAisiacutepograveonlyFor NDUNGA de Boeck gives in addition a contracted series of Object

SuffixesusuallyfoundWithNegativeVerbs

InlsquoDONGOthereisadistinctseriesofObjectSufiixes1

(iv) The Pronoun Subject acts as Possessive Prefix inMBA except in theNon-intimateformsoftheIstand2ndPersonsSingularwherethereareSuffixes-agraveand-(w)acirc(seesect13b)In NDUNGA the Object forms are used as Possessive Suffixes and after

Prepositionstothesemaybeadded-liacute-lo-oloPl-leacutereferringtoAnimalsor

InanimatesDeBoeckgives

lsquoDONGOandMAhaveadistinctseriesofPossessiveSuffixes

(v) There is a Referring Pronoun in MA Which may also be used in aReflexive sense

(vi)DeBoeckrecordsanImpersonalPronounmi(=Frlsquoonrsquo)forNDUNGAbutgivesnoexamples

8bInterrogative2Pronominalforms

SometimesConcordSuffixesareattached

In NDUNGA the Interrogative sentence may begin with a Particle du (de

Boeckrsquodo)

Adjectivalforms

InMBANDUNGAandDONGOtheseareformedontheClassConcordsinMBA and NDUNGA the Noun loses its Class Suffix

In MA the Interrogative Adjective which here precedes the Noun showsAnimate Inanimate agreement the particle is -gɔ in the Amadi and Dakwavariants-gɔinNiangaraAnimate

Inanimate

8cDemonstrativeInMBAtherearetwodegreesofDemonstrativeassociatedWiththevowel-I

(Carrington -e) for lsquonearrsquo and -U (Carrington -o) for lsquofarrsquo distance1 The

DemonstrativeQualifiersareSuffixesbuiltontheClassConcordsInthelsquonearrsquoformtheDemonstrativeSuffixfollowstheNounClassSuffixoftengivingtheimpressionofreduplicationinthelsquofarrsquoformtheDemonstrativeSuffixreplacestheNounClassSuffixIftheNounreferstoanAnimateitmaytaketheGenderConcordinaddition

Carringtongivesthefollowingpronominalforms

InNDUNGAthereare threedegreesofdistanceDemonstrativeending in -t(this) -e (that) -ola (yonder) there is also a Reference form -o6a (the one inquestion)The formsmayprecede theNoun follow it ormergewith it in theformofaSuffixAsinMBAtheyarebuiltupontheClassConcords

ExamplesfromdeBoeck

Precedingforms

(DeBoecksayshowever that it is rarefor the last formtoprecedeitsNoun)Followingforms

ThelsquoDONGOformsaresimilartotheuncontractedNDUNGAformsexceptthat the vowels are -e (this) -gt (that) -i (yonder) the Reference formBe isusually incapsulated between the Noun and its Class Suffix

In MA the Demonstratives are based on AnimateInanimate ConcordialdistinctionThere are twodegrees of distance shownby vowel quality andortoneAsinNDUNGADemonstrativesmayprecedeorfollowtheNoun

In NDUNGA one tentative division may be made into Indicative andSubjunctiveMoodaccordingtotheSubjectPronounseriestheIndicativeMoodmay be further divided intoTenseswithout Suffixes (Present Perfect Future)andTenseswithSuffixes(Past)(Seesect9bandc)9bConjugationforPerson

(i)ApartfromsometonalfluctuationtheVerbStemisinvariableforPersoninMBANDUNGAandlsquoDONGO(thoughNDUNGAshowschangeinthe3rd

PersonPlural) inMAthePluralVerb forall threePersonsdiffersappreciablyfromtheSingularVerb

When a Noun is Subject the 3rd Person Pronouns are omitted lsquoDONGOhoweveremploystheAnimateInanimateGenderConcord(seesect8a(ii))1(ii)Imperativeforms(noterepetitionofVerbinlsquoDONGO)

NDUNGA(examplesrearrangedfromdeBoeckretaininghisterminology)

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerblsquotobersquo10aZeroCopulaisfoundinsentenceslikethefollowing

In MBA the leading Noun or Pronoun in Non-verbal Predication takes aSuffix-aPronounsandAdjectivesWhenreferringtopersonstaketheConcordSuffixes of Class 7 (Sg) and Class 2 (Pl) as well as this Suffix SubjectPronounsfollowtheseforms

In lsquoDONGO a Suffix -na is added to Adjectives in such constructions

10bTheVerblsquotobersquoisɗuiɗoɗaaccordingtolanguage2InMBAitisusedforexistenceinaplacemostly

11Negation

11aVerbalIn MBA the Postposition ɓԑ is used in all Tenses except the Negative

ImperativeWithintroductoryParticleta

12WordOrder12aVerbalS ( +Aux)+Verb ( +Postposition)+OWhen theVerbStem is repeated it

usuallyfollowstheObjectInDONGOthereisreversedwordorderintheDefiniteAspectS(+Aux)+

O+VSeesect9aReversedword order also occurs inMBA and rsquoDONGO inNomino-verbal

constructions112bNon-verbal

S+ComplementinalllanguagesexceptMBAinMBAapronominalSubjectfollowsaNounorAdjectivewhichhasaSuffiix-aSeesect10a

13TheGenitiveConstruction13aNounPossessorIn MBA the order is Possessor-l-Possessed in lsquoDONGO and MA it is

Possessed+Possessor inNDUNGA both constructions are found according asthe possession is Intimate orNon-intimateMBA (Intimate andNon-intimateOptional Particle formed from the Class Concord of the Possessed+I2)

Non-intimate-Possessed (with -aacute Suffix see sect 7 (iii))+Linking Particle

ta1+PossessorDe Boeck records an alternative Non-intimate form built on the Class

ConcordthePossessedstillwithSuffix-aacute2

Non-intimate-Possessed+LinkingParticle+PossessorthelatterlosesitsInitialVowel Linking Particle varies in shape but there is as yet no clue to its

composition13bPronounPossessorHere in MBA Intimate and Non-intimate possession are usually

distinguished in that the Intimate form cannot be used for Non-intimatepossessionthoughtheNon-intimateformmaybeusedforbothNotethatinthelatter form the Pronoun follows the Class Concord for 1st and 2nd PersonSingularbutprecedesitforallotherPersons

(NotethatlsquochildrsquonormallytakesClass7ConcordlsquochildrenClass2)Otherexamples

InNDUNGAand DONGO theNon-intimate construction is used for bothIntimateandNon-intimatepossession(NotendashaacuteSuffixinNDUNGAandlsquoNounStemrsquo as well as Class Concords in lsquoDONGO)

14ConstructionswithQualifiersInMBAandNDUNGAallAdjectivesfollowtheirNounswiththeexception

of the Adjective for lsquootherrsquo in lsquoDONGO this Adjective also follows and noAdjectiveprecedesInMAallAdjectivesprecedetheirNounswiththeexceptionoftheNumerals

andtheformsforldquohowmanyrsquoandlsquoallrsquo1As regards concordial behaviour Adjectives may be subdivided into (a)

precedingAdjectives

(b)followinginflectedAdjectives(c)followinguninflectedandNumeralAdjectives

(a)PrecedingAdjectivesInMBAandNDUNGAthewordforlsquootherrsquoprecedestheNounandis itself

preceded by the Class Concord

ThewordforlsquomanyrsquoneedsnoLinkingParticlelsquootherrsquoisrepresentedbytheAnimateInanimateConcordwithSuffix-gtinbothinstancestheNounlosesitsInitialVowel

InNDUNGAtherearefouralternativeconstructions(i)Noun+AdjectivewithorwithoutPrefixe-(dependingonAdj)(ii)Noun+AdjectivewithSuffix-lԑ

or-mԑ1(dependingonAdj)(iii)NounwithSuffixndashaacute+AdjectivewithClassConcord(iv)NounwithSuffiix-agrave+LinkingParticle+Adjective(cfGenitive)Examples

In lsquoDONGO there are two constructions apparently depending on theAdjective(i)Noun--Adjective-bothwithClassSuffixesParticle-bԑ-maybeincapsulatedintheAdjective-ɓԑisusedwiththeSingularAdjectiveinsteadofthe Class Suffix when referring to Animates (ii) Noun (with ClassSuffix)+ClassConcordParticleinndashaacute+Adjective(withoutSuffix)Examples

1WrittenlsquobandlsquodandlsquobyCarringtonanddeBoeck1Owingtothegreatnumberofcompoundwordsinthelanguagesitisoftenimpossibleatthepresent

stateofourknowledgetodeterminewhetheragivendisyllabicStemisoriginalorcomposedoftwomonosyllabicStems

2SetoutveryclearlyforMBAbyCarringtonandforNDUNGAbydeBoeck1ThereisalsoacertainamountofcorrespondencebetweensomeoftheseSuffixesandsomeoftheClass

PrefixesandConcordsofBANTUSeealsoKOALIB-MOROp2742TherearenoClassConcordsinMA3InMBA-VofCl2isalwaysafrontvowelitsrelationtothe-VofClIaccordingtoHackettis

1CftheArticle-likePrefixne-Ple-inMANGBETUp362CfBANTU3SeealsoBARAMBU-PAMBIAp1454ComparesimilarPrefixinMANGBETUp401ThisistheonlyexampleofVelarPluralelementinthelanguagesofSections345and62CfZANDEp146

1Seep152NotechangeinVerbStemwhenObjectisPlural3NiangaravariantintheAmadiandDakwavariantsofMAthewordisaacutewu`lɔPlagraveyaso1CfZANDEp1482Seefootnoteonp441CfZANDEGroupp149andSLWOp4211SeealsoSERE-MUNDU(p93)ZANDE(p150)2Carringtonregardsthe-a-PrefixasanAspectcharacteristicvowelhereitwouldratherseemhowever

tobeaTensePrefix1CfNGBANDIp951NotetonalchangeinAntecedentbefore3rdPersonSingFemand3rdPersonPluralPronoun2CfSERE-MUNDUamp38cp100andZANDEp1551CfMORU-MArsquoDIp472-eaccordingtoCarrington1DeBoeckrecordsotherLinkingParticleslaaikiwithslightlydifferentimplications-rsquoanimalofthe

forestrsquolsquofoodforthedogrsquoamp38camp38c2ThewordorderissimilartothatinZANDESeep1581AsinSERE-MUNDUampcp105andZANDEp1591DeBoeckregardsthisasanabstractNouninapposition1BilabialrolledsoundCfBAKAp63

5THEZANDEGROUP

RECENT research Would seem to point to regarding these languages asconstituting a Language Group consisting of ZANDE with its main dialectNZAKARA

theBARAMBUDialectClusterwithcloselyrelatedlanguagePAMBIAandrelatingittotheLargerUnitalreadydiscussedunderSections3and6above

Certain divergent aspects of their grammatical behaviour however justifyindividualtreatmenthere

SourcesANTuckerfieldnotesinSudanandCongo(includingmarkingofGorersquosDictionaryforvowelqualityandtone)workinPariswithinformantHilaireMrsquoBaryNZAKARAofReacutepubliqueCentrafricaine

mdashmdashLegroupelinguistiquezandeTervuren1959286ppPEHackettfieldn0tes_LSNBBEdeDampierreMSnotesonNZAKARAofReacutepubliqueCentrafricaineECGoreAZandeGrammarLondon1931mdashmdashandMrsAZandeandEnglishDictionaryLondon1931CRLagaeLalanguedesAzandeGent1921-5

1Phonetics(i) Ten vowels have been recorded five Close and five Open the Close

vowelsbeingaccompaniedby lsquohollowrdquovoicequality and theOpenvowelsbyldquohardrdquoorlsquocreakyrsquovoicequalityThere are however only eight vowel phonemes (see below) Thus in

ZANDE1

The letters i and u are written when it is uncertain whether the vowel inquestionisCloseorOpenorwhenithasnoUmlauteffectThissamesystemwouldseemtoholdinBARAMBU-PAMBIAbuttimefor

researchinthoselanguageswaslimitedconsequentlythematerialderivedfromthose languages is not marked so accurately for pronunciation (nor forintonation)astheZANDEmaterial

Diphthongs and long vowels occur in final position in many words egZANDEbaacutea fatherɽԑbowelsmaacutel rainŋguacutea treecfbaacuteplaceɽ tobe

worthyIt may be argued however that such words are actually disyllabic on the

otherhand spellings such asmay andngwa have alsobeen recordedSee alsoStresssect2b

Nasalizedvowelsarecommon

(ii) Umlaut of Open vowels in the neighbourhood of j and u is regular

Thus Thevowelseand0thereforedonotexistasseparatephonemesbutaumlexistsasaseparatephonemeinafewwordseg

rhinoceros

InBARAMBUaumlalsoexistsasanon-stressedvarietyofa

FullVowelHarmonyistobenotedinthePerfectStemofmanyVerbs

t and d are usually alveolar and sometimes sound like ts and dz inBARAMBUzalternateswithdzɽ-l-rareonephoneme(withfurtheralternativeyinPAMBIA)inNZAKARAthervariantisneverheardandinZANDEonlybefore ndashu occasionally h and are very unstable sounds varying with eachother andwith zero There are no implosive sounds except in a fewwords inPAMBIA1Velarandlabio-velarsoundsareoftenfrontedbeforefrontvowelsthusw

(fire)isoftenpronouncedwAcircumlg(todig)asgyorevenj

Thesemi-vowelswandycanhavelsquohardrsquoorlsquohollowrsquovoiceaccordingastheaccompanyingvowelsareOpenorCloseInadditionhowevercloseyhasbeenestablished as a separate phoneme in

whereitcausesUmlautoftheaccompanyingvowel1CfyɽatochooseyɽatocutVoicednasalcompoundsarecommonincludingnɽusuallypronouncedr~

(See P 7-) Voiced nasal compounds often lose their explosive element whenfollowedbyanothernasalcompound2

In PAMBIA alternation betweenVoiced explosive and corresponding nasalseems to be optional and unregulated

2ToneandStress2aToneToneisbothlexicalandgrammaticalInZANDEtwomaintonelevels3have

beenestablishedbutthreetonemesHigh(Mid=loweredHighorraisedLow)

LowandFalling

There are ToneClasses inNouns andAdjectives inVerbsToneClass andMorphologicalClasscoincide

2bStressInZANDEstressusuallyfallsonthefirstsyllableofdisyllabicortrisyllabic

wordscombinedinsomedialects(andinBARAMBU)withslightlengtheningIn some words in BARAMBU however it falls on the final syllable seebacircfrac12brvbarx027DaacuteaboveStressneverfallsonPrefixes

3WordShapeMost words in their simplest form are disyllabic CVCV the second

consonantisoftenaliquid4InNounsthetwovowelsareoftenidenticalintheInfinitiveStemsofZANDEVerbs however the final vowel is always -a5 (-aumlafter Close Stem vowel)Monosyllables of the types CV and CVV are alsofrequent (more frequent in BARAMBU and PAMBIA than in ZANDE) hereanyvowelmaybefinal

4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i ii) Disyllabic Verbs in ZANDE fall into two Morphological Classes

distinguishedbytoneintheInfinitive(IndefiniteAspect)StemandbyaVowelSuffix1 in the Perfect (Definite Aspect) Stem of Class II Verbs

MonosyllabicVerbsdonotchangetheirvowelqualitybuttoneticallyseemtobehavelikeClassIVerbsVerb Classes in NZAKARA are much as in ZANDE but most Verbs in

BARAMBU-PAMBIAaremonosyllabic(iii)DerivativeVerbsareformedbymeansofStem-extendingSuffixes2which

themselves are capable of Perfect forms ZANDE provides the most material(note that Verbs derived from Monosyllabic Verbs are in Class II)

Note that the Suffix -mԑ in BARAMBU has both Passive and Neuter

function

4bNouns(i)ZANDE(butnotNZAKARAnorBARAMBU-PAMBIA)hasanoptional

Suffix -sԑ or -ԑ especially to Nouns describing parts of the body1-droppedhowever before Possessive Suffixes

OtherSuffixesaremostlyDeverbative

(ii)InZANDEsixToneClassesofdisyllabicNounshavebeenobserved

ToneClasses 4 and 5 fall together in someZANDE dialects ToneClasseshavealsobeennotedinBARAMBU-PAMBIA

4cAdjectivesAdjectivesfallintoToneClasseslikethoseofNounsinZANDEsothatitis

quite a common thing for a Noun in one Tone Class to be qualified by anAdjectiveinadifferentToneClassAdjectivesderivedfromVerbsareoftenformedfromthePerfectStem

In BARAMBU-PAMBIA the Suffix -me is used with some Adjectives inNonverbalPredication3Seesect10

5Number5aNounsThere is aPluralPrefix a-in all languages4 InZANDE it is attached to all

Nouns in NZAKARA and BARAMBU-PAMBIA it is normally confined toNounsdenotingAnimatesNotethefollowinguseinZANDE1

5bAdjectivesInZANDE (but not inBARAMBU-PAMBIA) a-is occasionally attached to

Adjectives as Well as to Nouns Plurality is often shown in BARAMBU byreduplicating the Adjective and sometimes by a different word altogetherReduplicationmayoccurinZANDEalsobutisnotsocommon

5cPronounsThe a- Prefix is also found with the Personal Interrogative and the

Demonstrativesseesect8bc

6GenderGenderisshowninthePronounsonlyIt isatitsfullestinZANDE2Which

distinguishes

In NZAKARA Masculine and Feminine fall together in BARAMBU-PAMBIAAnimalandInanimatefalltogetherSeesect8a

7Case(i)ThereareLocativeSuffixes (Postpositions) -nɔ -yɔ inZANDE -zɔ in

NZAKARA -ya in PAMBIA

(ii)InBARAMBU-PAMBIAandoccasionallyinZANDEaPronounorevenaNounindicatingahumanbeingtakesaSuffix-guwhenitistheSubjectofaPredicative sentence

ButseeDemonstrativessect8c1

8Pronouns8aPersonalTherearetwodistinctseriesofPersonalPronouns

Self-standingandSubjectPrefixorSuffixObjectandPossessiveSuffixGender (Masculine Feminine Animal and Inanimate) is distinguished in

bothseriesthemaximumdistinctionbeinginZANDESeesect6

(i)and(ii)Self-standingandSubjectforms

The Self-standing form when used as Subject is normally prefixed to theVerbinZANDEandNZAKARAthoughinsomefewTensesitmaybesuffixed(seep151)ItmaybeeitherprefixedorsuffixedtotheCopula(seesectIoItisalsosuffixedincertainformsofpersonalrelationship(seesectI3b)andinZANDEtotheGenitiveParticle(seesect13b)ItalsofollowscertainPrepositionsnotablyna==with

InBARAMBU-PAMBIAitisprefixedtoVerbsinthe1stAspectandsuffixedtotheminthe2ndAspect(seesect9b)

(iii)and(iv)ObjectandPossessiveSuffix

This Suffix occurs after a Verb as Object after a Noun as Possessor (forexceptionsseeabove)aftermostPrepositions(V)ReferringInalllanguagestheReferringPronounsareidenticalwithorsimilartothose

representingAnimalGenderinZANDE1

(vi)ImpersonalNZAKARA employs an Impersonal Pronoun Prefix a- (= Fr lsquoonrsquo) in the

PassiveEquivalent1ZANDEandPAMBIAemploythe3rdPersonPluralPrefixhere (For BARAMBU see sect 4a (iii))

8bInterrogative2

Pronominalforms

8cDemonstrativeTherearetwomaindegreesofDemonstrativeinalltheselanguagesindicated

byParticlescontainingthevowel-I(near)and-U(far)3In ZANDE the Noun or Pronoun is preceded by gl (near) or gU (far) and

followed by the Particle ɽԑ In NZAKARA and BARAMBU-PAMBIA theDemonstrativefollowstheNoun

Demonstratives aswell asNouns take the Plural Prefix in ZANDE but not

else-where

TheSelf-standingformsare

DemonstrativesmaybereinforcedbymeansoftheVerblsquotobersquoandLocative

Postpositions great distance may be shown by vowel length

8dRelativeInformationonRelativeconstructionsinBARAMBU-PAMBIAislackingIn

ZANDEandNZAKARADemonstrativesareused1

8eReffexiveandReciprocalHere the construction is2Preposition (ti inZANDEandNZAKARAka in

BARAMBU) With ObjectPossessive Pronoun Suffix

9VerbConjugation9aAspectTherearetwoAspectsinZANDEandNZAKARAtheymaybeconveniently

labelledldquoIndefiniteorImperfectrsquoandlsquoDefiniteorPerfectrsquo inBARAMBUandPAMBIAhoweversuchconvenientlabelscannotbefoundFormal distinctions1

The Subjunctive and Imperative belong to the 2nd Aspect in ZANDE andNZAKARA but to the Ist Aspect in BARAMBU and PAMBIA where inadditionallNegativeforms(excepttheNegativeSubjunctive)belongtothe2ndAspect

9bConjugationforPerson(i)TheVerbStemisinvariableforPersonthroughoutInsomeZANDETensesonly3rdPersonPronounshaveHightone inother

TensesallPersonshaveHightoneirrespectiveofAspectThisisapparentlynotthe case in NZAKARA except in the Imperative-Subjunctive

In BARAMBU-PAMBIA the Subject Pronouns are prefixed or suffixed

accordingtoAspect

TheVerbWithoutpronominalAffixisusedinall languageswhenthereisaNounSubjectSeesect12

(ii)Imperativeforms(PluralPronounprecedesVerbexceptinBARAMBU)

DisyllabicStems

9cTenses(i) ZANDE has a greatmany Tense Particles standing between the Subject

Prefix andVerb Stem in bothAspects1 The following are typical (though notexhaustiveterminologyasinGore)Larochette2listsmanymore

InBARAMBU-PAMBIAthereareonlyafewTenseParticlesconfinedtothe

1stAspect

(ii) Postpositions (Suffixes )-apart from Negative Postpositions-are foundonly in BARAMBU-PAMBIA

(iii)AuxiliaryVerbsareoftenusedandtheMainVerbStemoftenhasPrefixin t- in BARAMBU-PAMBIA

(iv)RepetitionandreduplicationTheZANDEVerb isoften repeatedat theendofaphrasewhere itusually

hasaPrefixa-1

10NonverbalPredicationandVerblsquotobersquo10aZeroCopulaiscommontheNounorPronounSubjectoftenhasaSuffix

ndashgu (see sect 7 (ii)) Adjectives behave like Verbs in that they may follow orprecedetheNoun(andmaybereduplicatedasinsect9c(iv)above)

Copular Particles ni ka wa ŋga have been noted In ZANDE andNZAKARA a reversed construction is common Adjectives in NZAKARABARAMBUandPAMBIAneedaCopula inBARAMBUandPAMBIAtheyoften take a Suffix also (either -me or an Object Pronoun Suffix) ZANDEAdjectivesalsotakeaPronominalSuffixwhenfollowingaCopula

10b There is a Verb lsquoto bersquo in all languages (ZANDE and NZAKARAdUBARAMBU-PAMBIA dU or dl or dԑ1) with full Tense conjugation thereversed construction is common with this Verb

In NZAKARA dU occasionally alternates with sԑ or sU when indicating

existenceinaplace

11Negation11aVerbal(i)IntheNegativestatementinZANDEtheVerbisfollowedbyŋgaandthe

wholesentencebythePostpositiontԑInNZAKARAthePostpositionisdUIn BARAMBU-PAMBIA the sentence (expressed in the 2nd Aspect) is

preceded by the Particle a- (The occasional Postposition te in PAMBIA isprobably a borrowing from ZANDE)

(ii)IntheNegativeImperativeinZANDEtheSubjectisprecededbykaandthePostpositionisya1InNZAKARAthePostpositioniskaIn BARAMBU-PAMBIA the sentence (expressed in the 1st Aspect) is

precededbyaParticle(ormaybeaNegativeAuxiliary)

11bNonverbalInZANDEtheNegativeCopulaa-ŋgaisoptionalthePostpositionistԑ2InNZAKARAthePostpositioniskUInBARAMBU-PAMBIAtheNegativePrefixisagaina-andtheVerblsquotobersquo

ismuchused

12WordOrder12aVerbal

12bNonverbalS+Complement in all languages Alternative reversed construction with

Copula in ZANDE and NZAKARA (see sect 10 (i)) and with Verb lsquoto bersquothroughout(seesect10(ii))13TheGenitiveConstruction

I3aNounPossessor(i) In the IntimateGenitive (includingCompoundNouns) thewordorder is

Possessed-sect-PossessorthroughoutThePluralPrefixisnotusedwithpartsofthebody

(ii)IntheNon-intimateGenitivethefollowingConstructionshavebeennoted

Plural Prefixes are attached to both Nouns if the names of Animates in alllanguagesexceptZANDEthereisatendencytoomitthePluralSuffixbeforethenamesofInanimates

13bPronounPossessor(i) Intimate Genitive Possessed-[-Object Pronoun Suffix 8a (iii-iv))

CertaintermsofrelationshipdemandtheSubjectformasSuffix

(ii)Non-intimateGenitive


MostAdjectives precede theirNoun but there are certainAdjectiveswhichfollowitAdjectivesdonotnormallytakeaPluralPrefixbutanAdjectiveStemcanbereduplicatedinthePluralespeciallyinBARAMBUSeesect5c(a) PrecedingAdjectives (inBARAMBU -mԑ is sometimes attached to the

Noun)

1ThissystemisverysimilartothatofMORU-MArsquoDIp271ProbablyundertheinfluenceoftheneighbouringBANTUlanguageBUGURU1NospecialsymbolhoweverisusedhereContrastNILOTICp4062NoteanalmostparallelsituationinGANDAandmanyotherBANTUlanguages-oftenreferredtoasthe

lsquoGandaLawrsquo3AsmaybeheardontheZANDEslit-drum usedforsignallingSeealsoTuckerLegroupe

linguistiquezandeforafulldescriptionoffailledeton(loweredHighorDownStep)4CfMANGBETUp32SERE-MUNDUp865CfBANTU1CfPerfectSuffixinBANTU2CfcorrespondingStemextensionsinBANTU1

2CfMA(a)ma-ra(theMALanguage)3CfsimilarSuffixinNDUNGAp1134CfBANDAandNGBANDIp891CfNDOGOp892CfMAp1141ComparealsothePersonalNounSuffixes-gl-gԑ-gɔintheMBAGroupp1121ThusinBARAMBUtheReferringPronounisnotliketheAnimal-InanimatePronouninthatlanguage

butliketheAnimalPronouninZANDE2HeretheresemblanceistotheZANDEObjectform1CfMORUp44andNGBAKAMArsquoBOamp38cp922Seefootnoteonp443CfMBAp119SLWOp4211NotethatParticlesing-occurinRelativeconstructionsinBONGO-BAGIRMI(p74)MABA(p

202)RASHAD(p295)BARYA(p332)UDUK(p362)GELEBA(p565)2CfNDOGO-SEREamp38cp93MBAGroupp1231Goreopcitp52distinguishesfourlsquoformsrsquoofconjugationwhichhecallslsquoordinaryrsquolsquohabitualrsquo

lsquorelativersquoandlsquohabitualrelativersquowhicharereminiscentofDokersquoslsquoimplicationsrsquoinBANTU(SeeTextbookofZuluGrammarp150)InfactofalltheselanguagesZANDEisnearestBANTUinverbalbehaviourthoughGorersquoslsquoformsrsquoaremorenotionalthanformal

2ClassIVerbsdonotchangethefinalvowelSeesect4b3Reversedconstruction(seep157)1SeeNegationfor2ndAspectinPAMBIAsect111AnotherBANTU-liketrait2Personalcommunication

3ActuallyEmphaticratherthanRelativeegItisIwho1CfMAYOGOp98sLWOp4311CfSERE-MUNDUhellipcp100andMBAGroupp1281AlsoaftertheNegativeConditional2CfLINGALA(BANTU)1CompareoneoftheconstructionsinNDUNGAp1321CfSERE-MUNDUhellipcp105andMBAGroupp137

7THEBUAGROUP

NEWallocation BUA LanguageNIELIM LanguageKOKE LanguageMANA LanguageTUNYA LanguageBUSO Language(probablyaplace-name)DAI Language

SourcesRCStevensonMSnotesonDAIMGaudefroy-DemombynesDocumentssurleslanguesdelrsquoOubangui-ChariParis1907JLukasZentralsudanischeStudiacuteenHamburg1937

ThisGroupWas given toowide a coverage in theHandbook the languageSARWAandprobablyMILTUaswellshouldhavebeenlistedintheSOMRAIGroupontheVocabularyevidence1Greenberg2hasalreadyplacedthethreelanguagesBUANIELIMandKOKE

in the lsquoAdamawa-Eastern Subfamilyrsquo of his lsquoNiger-Congo Familyrsquo and aVocabulary check of available material from Lukas and Demombynes withmaterial assembledby theLSNBBTeam inthe languages alreadydiscussedWould seem to indicate closest affinity with BANDA andor NGBAKAMArsquoBO3FurtherVocabularycomparisonwithTUNYA(lsquoTouniarsquo)andMANAfromDemombynes justify his inclusion of these languages too in his lsquoGroupeBoarsquo4NothingisavailableonBUSOTherewould thus seem to be enoughVocabulary evidence to associate the

BUAGroupwithSections345and6oftheHandbookontheotherhandtheBUA languages contain a considerable number of words not found in thelanguages of these Sections The following grammatical points have beendeduced fromDemombynesrsquos examples (spelling as in the original except forthe tentative use of hyphens) and would seem to support the VocabularyevidenceofclosestrelationshipwiththelanguagesofSections3and68Pronouns8aPersonal(i) Self Standing (note that in BUA the ist Person form is like that in

NGBANDIandthatthentildei-inNIELIMisprobablyaPrefix)BUA TUNYA NIELIM

S 1 bi ntildee ntildeimman2

2bwomboacutemdo5 unagen ntildeimhedao

3 bwamdobordo5 lahi ntildeimulile

(ii)Subjectforms(inBUAandTUNIAtheIstandzndPersonformsaremostlikethoseinBARAMBU1but theabsenceof2ndPersonPrefixinNIELIMismore reminiscent of lsquoDONGO2)

(iv)PossessiveformsNotethatthePossessorprecedes

Possessive Pronouns () (note Prefixes and Suffixes here)

8bInterrogative

8cDemonstrative

Seealsounder8band13a

9VerbConjugation9b (ii) Imperative forms (Verb Stems underlined)

11Negation11aVerbaland11bNon-verbalBUA uses a Postposition kaeli1 TUNYA a Particle ka the construction in

NIELIM is uncertain but Demombynes gives lo as the sign

12WordOrderS+V+Oseems thenorm In the Infinitivehowever theObjectmayprecede

theVerbinBUAandTUNYA2butnotinNIELIM

NotealsoinBUA

13TheGenitiveConstruction13aNounPossessorNon-intimate (Possessed+ Particle-l-Possessor)

ForIntimateGenitiveseelsquoWhosespearicircrsquoabove(sect8b)

ANOTEONDAI

ThelanguageDAI(alsoknownaslsquoSaraDairsquo) isverydifiicult toplaceasitwouldseemtobeamixedlanguageastoVocabularyOutofI67itemscollectedby Stevenson 35 showed affinities with BONGO-BAGIRMI (thus justifyingprevious allocations to the lsquoSARArsquo languages) and30withBANDAamp38cThe restcannotasyetbeassociatedwithanyparticular languageorLanguageGroup It isperhaps significant that in thosecasesWhere theBUAGrouphasformsuniquetoitselftheseformsfindnocounterpartinDAIIn the following Vocabulary of 61 items1 the DAI material collected by

StevensoniscomparedwithcorrespondingformsinthelanguagesofHandbook

SectionsWordsapparentlybearingnorelationshipwhatsoevertoDAIareomittedall

other discernible or remotely possible affinities are included

Insomeof theabovecases theaffinity isbeyonddoubtandthequestionofborrowingmighthavetobeconsideredeglsquocowrsquoIn most other cases however affinity is possible but not yet capable of

etymologicalproofegldquobellyrsquoIn some cases the reader has a choice of correspondences Thus lsquofiversquo sari

maybecomparedon theonehand tobiacutesweon the strengthof theelement -s-butontheotherhandtolaronthestrengthoftheelement-arsincebiacutesweandlarshownoobviousaffinitiesoneofthesecomparisonsatleastmusteventuallybeprovedfalse

GrammaticalcomparisonTheveryfewgrammaticalnotestakenbyStevensongiverisetothefollowing

points5aPluralSuffix-getoNounsandAdjectives1

8a(i)Self-standingPronouns3mdashBlockpattern(ii)SubjectPrefix

(iv)PossessiveSuffix

On balance the grammatical material would seem to associate DAI mostclosely with Handbook Section 3 especially with MUNDU and NGBAKAMArsquoBO

1AsdonebyGreenbergopcitp46Grammaticalevidenceislacking2Opcitp93GeographicallyNGBAKAGBAYAstandsnearesttotheselanguagesthenBANDANGBAKA

MArsquoBOisrelativelyfaraway4Demombynesopcitp1075Lukasopcitp531m-forthe2ndPersonalsooccursinZANDENGBANDIandMUNDU-NGBAKAMArsquoBO2ButseealsoBAKAp723CfMANGBETUpp43574Demombynesrsquostranslation1CfBAGIRMIelip802CfMORU-MArsquoDIp47MBAp1311ConsistingofsuchitemsinGreenbergrsquoslsquoNiger-Congorsquowordlistopcitpp13-24andourownword

list(seeLSNBBvolivpp75etseq)asarefoundinStevensonrsquosmaterial2GreenbergdoesnotincludeBONGO-BAGIRMInorSQMRAIinhislsquoNiger-Congorsquo1lsquothrsquoprobablyrepresentsdentalthere1lsquothrsquoprobablyrepresentsdentalthere1CfBAGIRMI(butthisSuffixhasalsobeenrecordedinDAJUperhapsitisborrowed)2ye=comeinZANDE3CfMUNDU-NGBAKAMArsquoBO4-a-isacommonTenseParticleinZANDE

8SOMRAIGROUP

Nogrammaticaldataavailable

9THEEASTSAHARANLANGUAGES

SourcesCandMLeCœurGrammaireettextesTeda-Daza(MernlFAN)Dakar1956Pp394JLukasDieSprachederTubuinderzentralenSahara(DtschAkadWissBerlin)1953Ppxix206----AStudyoftheKanuriLanguageLondon1937RCStevensonMSnotesonZAGHAWAHAMacmichaellsquoNotesontheZaghaacutewarsquo RAnthropSoc1912CaptChalmellsquoNoticesurlesBideyatrsquoBullSocRechcongolaises1931

Thefollowinglanguagenamesareusedhere

TEDA-TUBUTEDA(TUDA)ienortherndialects(examplesfromLeCœuritalicized)TUBUiesoutherndialects(examplesfromLukas)ExamplesheadedlsquoTUBUrsquomaybetakenasrepresentativeforatleastseveraldialects

TUBUincludesDAZAanameusedbyseveralTUBUtribes(examplesfromLeCœuritalicized)KASHIRDAdialectfromwhichmostofLukasrsquosexamplesaretakenKREDAanon-DAZATUBUdialect(examplesfromLukas)

KANURI(examplesfromLukas)ZAGHAWA(examplesfromStevensonandMacmichaelthelatteritalicized)BIDEYAT(almostunknownafewexamplesfromChalmelitalicized)

1Phonetics

1aVowels

BothLeCœurandLukasrecordabalancedvowelsystemofnineVowelsin

TEDA-TUBUplusoneortwocentralVowelsKANURI has six vowel phonemes i e a o u andә (Lukas records two

varietiesofawhichhoweverarenon-phonemic)1InZAGHAWAStevensonrecordsieԑaooualsoIandUwhichare

perhapsvariantsofianduVowel length does not seem to be significant arising out of vowel

juxtaposition(egPluralSuffix-afollowingafinalaintheStern)orelisionofan intervocalic consonant In TEDA-TUBU length is perhaps associated with

stressDiphthongsappeartobeabsentinTEDA-TUBUinKANURILukasrecords

diphthongsendinginiandualsoeaoaioNasalization occurs in TEDA-TUBU as the result of the elision of a nasal

consonantFinalvowelstendtobesemi-muteinTEDA-TUBUbutthisdoesnotseemto

besignificantIntheKREDAdialectfinalvowelsareoftenlacking

In all these languages vowels are extremely fluid andLeCœur points outthatthesamewordisoftenpronouncedWithdifferentvowelsevenbythesamespeakerInfactitwouldappearthattheonlyvowelsinTEDA-TUBUwhichare

significantinVerbconjugationareForthisreasoncertainAffixes(PersonSubjectandObjectDerivativeandotherelements)arecitedinthetextWithconsonantsonlyIt is clear that Vowel Harmony operates in some cases but the principles

governingitarenotknown

1bConsonants

Thesymbolsusedhereare

cisusedtorepresentkytytintinTEDAtintinKANURIjisusedtorepresentgyjyinTEDAdӠinKANURIfandfareseparatephonemesinKANURIperhapsalsoinTEDAthoughinthelatterfisalsosometimesanoptionalvariantofbfandharealsorecordedasoptionalvariantsinTEDAasaresandh

visamemberoftheb-phonemeoccurringintervocalicallyinKANURL2landrareseparatephonemesɽisaseparatephonemeinKANURIStevensonrecordsdentaltanddaswellasalveolartanddinZAGHAWALabializationofkandgisrecordedbyLukas

The voiced Nasal Compounds exist but many heterosyllabic consonantcombinationsoccurDoublingofconsonantsoccursastheresultofassimilationAssimilation dissimilation elision voicing devoicing palatalization

amp38careallhighlycharacteristicoftheselanguagestosuchanextentthatitisoftendifficulttodeterminethebasicconsonantsofanyRootorAffixwithoutextensivecomparisons1

2ToneandStress

LeCœurexpresslystatesthatTEDAdiffersfromKANURIinnothavinganelaboratetonalsystemhedoesnotmarktoneIn TUBU tone is important but tonal patterns apparently fluctuate and are

difficult to follow Tone can however have both lexical and grammaticalsignificance

Lukas records High and Low tone also Rising tone Which may be acombinationofLow+High

ormayalternatewithHightone

OnlyHightoneisconsistentlymarkedinhisexamplesIn KANURI however tone is of great importance both lexically and

grammaticallyandallexamplesaremarkedfortoneTherearetwomainleveltonemesHighandLowMidtonerepresentsraised

Low or lowered High tone Many of the Rising and Falling tones can beexplainedascompoundtonesThereareToneClassesinVerbs(sect4a(ii))SomeSuffixeshaveinherenttonewhichaffectsprecedingtonesthetoneof

othersisaffectedbyprecedingtonesTonaldissimilationisfrequentIn ZAGHAWA Stevenson records three level tones Lexical tone doublets

havebeenrecorded(Verbs)Toneisalsogrammatical

(Toneishowevernotmarkedonallhisexamples)Nothing is known about Stress inKANURI Lukasmentions (but does not

illustrate) a strongrsquo Akzent (Druck)rsquo in TUBU which may apparently affecttones

3WordShape

ManyNoun andVerb Stems aremonosyllabicCV orCVC though longerformsalsooccurespeciallyinNouns

4StructuralElements

4aVerbs

The Morphological Classes are distinguished in both Simple and DerivedVerbs(sect4a(iii))andinVerbswithObject(sect8a(iii))alsointheVerbalNoun(sect4b)Examples aregivenhere in theAorist (Perfect) inTEDA-TUBUand in the

lsquoConjunctiversquo2inKANURItheseTenseshavenoTenseSuffixesSingularonlyisgivenforfullparadigmsseesect9b(i)

IIIVerbsofthisClassareformedbytheadditionoftheClassIIVerbnsaythinkconjugatedforPersontotheMainVerb3thiselementnisabsentinS3in TEDA-TUBU in S 3 and P 3 in KANURI

ItwouldappearfromtheorderofthecomponentsoftheVerbComplexthattherearelikewisethreeMorphologicalClassesinZAGHAWAbuttheelementn is not discernible in Class III Verbs

Tonaldissimilationoperatesinconjugation(seealsosect9)

InClass IIVerbs tonal conjugation appears to behighly complex themainvariation being in the tone of S 3 It has not proved possible to work out asystemofToneClassesbutthefollowingexamplesshowtwoofthemaintypes

oftonalconjugationIn ZAGHAWA there appear to be Tone Classes but they have not been

studied

(iii)DerivativeVerbsDerivativeVerbsareformedbytheadditiontotheVerbComplexofelements

whichbehavelikeVerbsandareheretermedDerivativeelementsPassive-Reflexive-Reciprocal The Derivative element is t d with Class I

Behaviour1 (only discernible in the 3rd Person in KANURI) it precedes theVerbSteminClassIIVerbsfollowsitinClassIIIVerbs2

INoexamplesavailable(mostClassIVerbsareIntransitive)

I(TheincapsulatedDerivativeelementisshownincapitalsinthestarredforms

givenhere)

IIIInTUBUtheCausativeoftheClassIIVerbrug(seeabove)followstheMainVerbwhentheObjectisSingulartheSimpleVerbhԑtbringoutfollowsthe Main Verb When the Object is Plural

DenominativeMany Class III Verbs are made by the addition of the element n with

Conjugation Affixes to a Stem which is basically nominal

4bNouns

VerbalNouns

InTUBUVerbalNounsare formedby theaddition to theVerbStemof the

followingelementsOwingtosound-changetherelationshipbetweentheNounandtheVerbStem

isobscureinClassIVerbsExamplesarethereforegivenofS1S3andP3of the Verb for comparison

Note that inVerbalNounsfromAppliedVerbs incapsulationof theDerivativeelementtakesplace(cfsect4a(iii)) thestandingon

II (Note that before certain consonants the Prefix t-is elided)

VerbalNounsofClassIIIVerbsconsistoftheStemwithDeterminativendasht(sect8d) (also -tagravewith lowToneonStem)This suffixedDeterminative should

not be equated with TUBU -t-iacute

In KANURI -ma can also be Suffixed to other Nouns

Tribal names have the Suffix -de -dԑ Pl -da in TUBU

Tone is also used in Noun Formation in KANURI sometimes with

reduplicationLittleisknownofNoun-FormativesinZAGHAWAthefollowinghavebeen

recordedNote in the above examples that the Infinitive element l is a Prefix before

Verb Stems beginning with a vowel a Suffix after Stems beginning with aconsonantOn theotherhand it ispossible that thepositionof thiselement isdeterminedbyVerbClass

4cAdjectivesAdjectivesareofthreetypes

5Number

5aNouns

ThePluralismostoftenformedfromtheSingularbytheadditionofSuffix-aor by change of the final vowel to a

Notetonaldissimilation-aacuteisalwaysprecededbyLowToneInTEDAageneral tendency towardsamoreopenfinalvowelalsodenotes

thePluralThesamePluralSuffixisalsotobeseenin

KANURIalsohasaCollectiveSuffix-socirc1whichisfinalintheNounGroup(butprecedesCaseendingssect7)ItmaybeaddedtoaSingularorPluralNoun

WithQualifier

5bAdjectives

SimpleandderivedAdjectivesformthePlurallikeNounsinTUBU

OthertypesofAdjectivedonotdistinguishNumber

5cPronominalandconjugational

In TEDA the Self-standing Personal Pronouns (sect Sa and someDemonstratives (sect 8c) distinguish Number in the same way as Nouns by aPlural Suffix -a Number of the Possessed Noun is similarly distinguished inPossessives(sect8a(iv))InVerbConjugationbothPluralSubjectandObjectaredistinguishedbyaPluralelementintheVerbComplexinTEDA-TUBUthisist d or sound-change in the preceding consonant also in some contexts 0 inKANURIitisa(sectsect8a(iii)9b)Number of the pronominal Possessor (all Persons in TEDA-TUBU 3rd

PersononlyinKANURI)issimilarlydistinguished(sect8a(iv))

5dVerbsInKASHIRDA a number ofVerbs have distinct Singular and Plural Stems

(usuallydenotingNumberofObject)(about30examplesaregiven)InKANURIPluralActionorObjectisindicatedbyreduplicationoftheStem

wuacutelookatwugravewucirc-ŋinIlookat(manythings)lookoften6GenderThereisnogrammaticalGender

7Case

In all these languages there are Postpositions or Suffixes some of Whichmight be considered as Case endings In TEDA-TUBU they are very looselyusedandtheirfunctionsappeartovaryasbetweendialectsoreventooverlap

within any one dialect They include

8Pronouns

8aPersonal

(ii)SubjectofVerbInTEDA-TUBUtherearetwoseriesofPronounSubjectAffixesThesearein

strict Block Pattern Number being distinguished in Conjugation by Pluralelements(sectsect5c9)andthereforeonlyPersonandnotNumberisshownbelow

vowelsbeinghighlyvariableareomitted

InKANURIthereareseparateAffixesforallPersons

Ir ZAGHAWA there are perhaps two series as in TEDA-TUBU The

followinghavebeenrecorded(iii)ObjectofVerbInTEDA-TUBU thePronounObjectAffixes resembleSeriesAofPronoun

SubjectAffixes1td2n3zero(sect8a(ii))3InKANURItheyare1s2nz3zero(SgandPl)Thepositionof theObjectAffixes in theVerbComplexvariesaccording to

MorphologicalVerbClassinalllanguagesNotethat thePluralelement(sect5c)ispresentwheneverSubjectorObjector

botharePluralinTEDA-TUBUandinsomePersonsinKANURI_NoexampleswithClassIVerbshavebeenrecorded

TEDA

The3rdPersonObjectelementbeingzero there isnodifferencebetweenlsquoIshowedrsquoandlsquoIshowedhimthemrsquoamp38c

KASHIRDA

KANURI

(iv)PossessivePossessivesaresuffixedtotheNouninalllanguages1

A Self-standing Possessive has been recorded in some Persons in TEDA-TUBUwhich is clearly related to the Self-standing Pronoun (sect 8a (i) )

InZAGHAWAStevensonrecordsthefollowing

8bInterrogative

Thefollowinghavebeenrecorded

8cdDemonstrativeDeterminativeRelativeThefollowinghavebeenrecorded

The lsquonearrsquo Demonstrative is clearly related to the Determinative or DeicticSuffix-tThisSuffixhasthefollowingfunctionsDeterminativesuffixedtoNounorlastwordinNounGroup

Relative

8eReflexive

Note that in KANURI rocirc life with Possessive Suffix can be used in anEmphasizing sense1 (for Reflexive see Derivative Verbs

9VerbConjugation

9aTheredoesnotappeartobedistinctionofAspectMoodamp38c


(i)TheVerbComplex contains aminimumof two componentsVerbStem(V) andSubjectAffix (S)WithPluralSubject aPlural element (P) is addedThis Plural element is TEDA-TUBU often obscured by soundchangeinKANURIitisa(sect5c)OthercomponentswhichcanformpartoftheVerbComplex areDerivative (sect4a(iii) )Object (sect8a (iii)) andTense (sect9c)elementsalsoinClassIIIVerbstheverbalelementn(seesect4a(i))TheorderofthecomponentsvariesaccordingtoMorphologicalClassClassITEDA-TUBUTheorderofthecomponentsisS+V(+P)WithPronounSubjectAffixesofSeriesA(sect8a(ii))ExamplesinAoristTenseWithnoTenseSuffix

InKANURI Class I Verbs differ from those of Class II in the 3rd Persononly The 3rd Person Subject Prefix is zero and the Plural element Whichnormallyfollowsthe3rdPersonSubjectAffiixisheretransferredtothesyllablefollowingzeroPrefix3rdPersonformsonlyaregivenhereintheConjunctiveTense1withnoTenseSuffix

In ZAGHAWA the following would appear to be a Class I Verb

ClassIITEDA-TUBUTheorderofthecomponentsisV(+P)+Sin1stand2ndPersons S-I-V(+P) in 3rd Personwith Pronoun SubjectAffixes of SeriesB

In KANURI there are separate Pronoun Subject Affixes for Singular andPluralof1stand2ndPersonsinthe3rdPersonthePluralelementafollowsthePronoun Subject Affix The order of the components is V-I-S in Ist and 2ndPersonsS(+P)+Vin3rdPerson

TheVerbnsaythinkisaClassIIVerbNotetheabsenceoftheSteminS3inTUBUand inbothS3 andP3 inKANURIThisverb isnot recorded inTEDA

Class IIIVerbsare formedby theadditionof theClass IIVerbn to theMainVerb InTEDA-TUBU the order of the components isV+n(+P)+S in 1st and2nd Persons V+S(+n)(-1-P) in 3rd Person with Pronoun Subject Affixes ofseriesBSound-changeof three typesoccurs in the3rdPersoncausedby thePronounSubjectelementinPluralPersonscausedbythePluralelementintheStemncausedbyprecedingconsonantinMainVerb

Furtherexamplesshowingsound-change


In KANURI the order of the components is V+n+S in Ist and 2ndPersonsV+S(--P) in 3rd Person Here again there is much sound-change


InZAGHAWAtheelementnappearstobeabsentthroughout

(ii)ImperativeformsInTEDA-TUBU someSingular Imperatives end in u the Plural sometimes

has a Suffix -tu -to much obscured by sound-change

9cTenses

(i)MostTensesareformedbySuffixeswhicharefinalintheVerbComplex

Le Cœur records a second Continuous Progressive Tense with Suffix -deaddedtothefirstContinuousHe further records two Conditional TensesWith Suffixes -ɔ (TEDA) -gɔ

(DAZA) and -onda (TEDA)

PerfectSuffix-nawithsound-change

lsquoPredicativersquoSuffix-iacuteGenerallyusedinaPastsenseinmostdialectsitcan

replacethePastTenselsquoRelative Pastrsquo used after Interrogative Pronouns also after any part of

speechemphasizedbytheParticle-maacuteSuffix-oinS1There are two Participial Tenses formed with Suffix -na (cf the Perfect

TenseSuffix)

InKANURItheformoftheTenseelementvariesaSuffix-0alsooccursinsomePersonsInClassIIItheTenseelementfollowsthestem

ThePastTenseinKANURIissimilarinshapetotheFuture

ZAGHAWA

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerblsquotobersquo

10aZeroCopulaisrecordedinTEDAandKANURI

11NegationandInterrogation

11ANegation

(a)Verbal

InKANURI theNegative of the Continuous and Perfect Tenses is formed

withthePostpositionbacirc(=notherenotthere)Past and Future Tenses have a Negative based on gnyiacute (= not it)


13aNounPossessor

NotealsoinTEDAyagabidahohanohouseroofits(roofofhouse)13bPronounPossessorseesect8a(iv)


AdjectivesandNumeralsfollowtheNouninalllanguages

InTEDA-TUBUbothNounandAdjectivenormally take thePluralSuffix -aNotethatwithNumeralstheNounisinthePlural

TheDeterminativeelementisfinalintheNounGroup

1Personalcommunication1Writtenasflapped1byLukas2Notnowwrittenintheofficialorthography1Lukasrsquossectiononsound-changes(vowelandconsonant)inTUBUoccupiesover21pages1TheexistenceoftwoseriesofPronounSubjectAffixesandtheirpositionintheVerbComplexare

reminiscentofKUNAMA(p337)ComparealsoCUSHITICp5012Usedafterlsquoandrsquoexceptfinallyinthesentence(seeLukasopcitp35)3WiththisconstructioncompareClassIIVerbsinBEDAUYEformedbysuffixingtheconjugated

ClassIVerblsquoantotheStem(p501)SeealsoETHIOPICp6064The-ŋgeformofthePronounSubjectSuffixisthenasalizedformof-ske(ampltn-ske)accordingto

Lukas1LeCœurcallsthisDerivativeformlsquoconjugaisonmoyennersquoandincludesinitSimpleClassIVerbs

havingfailedtoobserveinthoseVerbstheabsenceoftheDerivativeelement2ComparetheformationofDerivativeVerbsinBEDAUYEandSAHO(CUSHITIC)(p504)1IncapsulationlikewiseoccursinVerbalNounsmadefromAppliedVerbsofClassI(sect4b)

IncapsulationofaDerivativeelement(hereCausative)isalsofoundinPARANILOTIClanguages(seep454)

2NotethattheCausativeAffixinCUSHITICisS(p504andfootnote)inPARANILOTICbothsandtareused(p454)

1ATKcharacteristictheselanguagesdonothoweverexhibitanyothercharacteristicfeaturesoftheTKlanguages(seeIntroductionp22)OntheotherhandcfBEDAUYEp506

1LukasnotesthatnodifferenceismadeinthedialectofYerwabetweenthesetwoformsitappearsfromcomparisonwithotherdialectsthattheNounswith-tahadageneralthoseWith-tamorespecializedmeaning

1Contrastcagravem-maacutemilk-seller(sect411)2InsomedialectstheSuffixis-waacute1PerhapsfromlsquoCHADO-HAMITICrsquoaccordingtoLukas1ThepatternoftheSelf-standingPronounsinTEDA-TUBUstrikinglyresemblestheconjugationpattern

ofClassIVerbs(sect9b)InTEDAthereisstrictBlockPatternSingularandPluralbeingdistinguishedby

changeofthefinalvowelto-8asinNounPlurals(sect5a)TheelementsIinS1ninS2arealsofoundinOMETO(p558seealsosectSa(iii)footnotebelow)

2TheformsSegәnamp38cusedforthe3rdPersoninsomeTUBUdialectsareprobablyIudefinitePronounsaccordingtoLukas

1ProbablyfromlsquoCHADO-HAMITICrsquoaccordingtoLukas2Seefootnote4onp1713IdenticalwithPronounObjectPrefixesinRASHAD(TEGALI-TAGOIGroup)p2941ThepatternofthePossessivesinTEDA-TUBUstrikinglyresemblestheconjugationpatternofClassII

Verbs(sect9b)ThereisstrictBlockPatternSingularandPluralbeingdistinguishedbythePluralelementt(sect5c)

1CfMORU-MArsquoDI(p46)BONGO-BAGIRMI(p74)NILOTIC(p423)1Seefootnote2p1711CfNUBIAN(p3z5)andBILIN(pp531536--7)1LukasrecordsoneSingularandonePluralformonlyforallPersonssuacute-nusuIthouhewilldiesu-

nuint-iduweyoutheywilldiebutcommentsthatthislsquoisnotveryprobableandrequiresfurtheriacutenvestigationrsquo

1From =nothereaccordingtoLukas

10MIMI

Nodataavailable

11THEMABAGROUP

SourcesGTrengaLeBura-MabangduOuadaiumlParis1947JLukaslsquoBeitraumlgezurKenntnisderSprachenvonWadaacutei(MarareumltMaba)rsquo2rsquoSocAfric1933-----VerbalwurzelundVerbalaffixeimMabarsquoAfrikauUbersee1952---lsquoTonbezeichneteMabatexte(Waddai)rsquoAfrikauUbersee1953RCStevensonMSnotesonMASALITRDaviesMSnotesonMASALITAll examples are from MABA unless otherwise stated Examples from

TrengaandDaviesareinitalics

1PhoneticsIaVowelsTrenga normally uses five vowels only i e a o u to which he adds uuml

(which however seems to be rare) egrave (here transcribed 2) occurs in a fewexamplesLukas records seven vowels i eԑ aᴐ o u stating that it is not clear

Whetherԑ and ᴐ are phonemic From his examples and comparison WithTrengarsquos material it would appear that G and 0 regularly occur in certainSufficircxes(Future-tἑPast-5)InMASALIT Stevenson records seven vowels i eԑ aᴐ o u he also

writesIandUwhichmaybevariantsofianduDaviesusesthefivevowelsieaouonly

VowellengthoccursandmaysometimesbesignificantDiphthongsarecommonmostlyendinginitherearealsojuxtaposedvowels

and it is not always possible to distinguish them inTrengarsquosmaterial TrengasometimeswritesiumloriWhereLukashasyanduWhereLukashasW(Trengarsquostranscription retained here) Lukas indicates diphthongs and long vowels byabsenceoftone-markonthesecondvowel

AssimilationelisionandVowelHarmonyoccurbuttheprinciplesgoverningsound-changeinvowelsarenotknown

IbConsonantsThefollowingappearstobetheconsonantsystem

It isnotknownwhether t anddaredentaloralveolarLukasstates that thesymboltrdrrepresentretroffexsoundsTrengaalsowritestrdranditwouldappear that in some cases these represent t+r d+r 1 and r are separatephonemesVoicednasalcompoundsmbndnjŋgoccurTrengastatesthatgisalways

sounded in the compoundwhich he variouslywrites as ntildeg ngLukas recordsbothŋandŋģ

Otherconsonantcombinationswithnasalsandliquidsarecommon

AccordingtoLukasallsyllablesconsistofCVthereforeaninitialvowelisprecededbyaglottalstophedoesnothoweverwriteitHealsostatesthatfinalplosivesareunexplodedLongordoubledconsonantsoccurinLukasrsquosmaterial

Trengarecordsassimilationofvoicelessplosivesmafukgothemanrealizedasmafug go in Lukasrsquos material however elision takes place agravemaacuteragravek lionagravemaacuteragravegugravethelionNoteontranscriptionofconsonants

Trengarsquosšrsquoisheretranscribedf

2ToneandStressTrengagivesno informationon toneLukas suggests that theremaybe two

mainleveltones(HighandLow)alsoRisingandFallingtonesInMASALITStevensonrecordstwomainleveltonesbutsuggeststhatMid

tonmayalsoexist(exampleswithMidtoneoccurinhismaterial)TonesareheremarkedasgivenintheavailablematerialNothingisknownaboutStress

3WordShapeVerbStemsoften seem to consist ofCCVCV orVC though shorter and

longerformsalsoseemtooccurThereisconsiderablevarietyinNounsCVCVandCVCarebothcommon

4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i)MorphologicalClassesItwouldappear inMABAatleast thatVerbsmaybegroupedaccordingto

two different criteria (α) the Subject Prefix of S 2-Primary MorphologicalClasses here numbered With Roman numerals (β) The Past Tense Suffix-SecondaryMorphologicalClassesherenumberedwithArabicnumeralsThesegroupingscutacrosseachother1

(α)PrimaryMorphologicalClasses(S1S2S3PresentTensegivenhere)IS2Prefixzero(withvoicingofinitialtks)a-nar-inar-ita-nar-iIyouhebring(s)a-tan-idan-ita-tan-iIyouhemount(s)u-sk-izuk-itu-sk-iIyouheweave(s)a-uls-ilus-it-uls-iIyouhemeet(s)a-ban-iban-ita-ban-iIyouheleave(s)

IIS2Prefixd-a-ms-idi-ms-iti-ms-iIyouhebury(buries)u-kun-idu-kun-itu-kun-iIyouhefind(s)a-rk-id-rak-ita-rk-iIyouhebuy(s)

IIIS2Prefixg-a-da-iumlge-da-iumlta-da-iumlIyouheWant(s)a-uf-ig-uf-it-uf-iIyouhebind(s)

IVS2Prefixl-a-tin-ile-tin-ite-tin-iIyouhepass(es)a-uk-il-uk-it-uk-iIyouhewash(es)a-ol-il-al-it-ol-iIyouheweep(s)a-ur-il-ur-it-ur-iIyouhedig(s)

VS2Prefixn-(fewVerbsonly)a-nfa-iumlna-nfa-iumlta-nfa-iumlIyouhelose(s)

VIS2Prefix2-(veryfewVerbs)a-iumlrez-iret-ireIyouhedo(es)

BothStevensonrsquosandDaviesrsquosmaterial suggests that similarMorphologicalClasses exist in MASALIT the six Verbs of which Davies gives paradigrnscontainVerbsofClassesIIIandIIIalsooneWithS2Prefixj-(β)SecondaryMorphologicalClassesIPastTenseVowelSufiixgenerally-aor-o(Lukas-aacute- )

a-nar-aIbrought(I)a-ms-aIburied(II)a-uf-aIbound(III)a-tin-aIpassed(IV)a-uls-oImet(I)u-kun-oIfound(II)(Lukas) hewasangry

2PastTenseSuffix-(V)rigenerally-eributalso-eri(Lukas-ri-oacuteri-iacuteri(buseesect4a(iii))u-sk-eriIwove(I)a-rk-eriIbought(II)(Lukas)Wagrave-rk-iacuteritheyboughta-ur-eriIcried(III)a-ur-eriIdug(IV)a-da-riIwanted(III)

Whether there are Secondary lIorphological Classes in MASALIT is notknownthesixVerbsgivenbyDavieshavePastTenseSuffix-a

(ii)ToneClasses

ItwouldappearfromLukasrsquosmaterialthattherearetwoToneClassestaacuten-aacutenmountingkugrave-dugravem-ugravenhitting

(iii)DerivativeVerbsTrenga records a Causative only With Prefix nd-and Primary Class I

behaviourv(iezeroPrefixinS2)a-ko-iumlIseea-nd-oko-iumlIshowla-ko-iumlyouseend-oko-iumlyoushoww-aiuml-atheyenteredwa-ndaiuml-atheybroughtinNote consonant change inwu-sur-o theydescendedwo-njur-0 theybrought

down(Lukassuacuter-uacutendescendingnjucircr-uacutenbringingdown)Lukas states that Singular and Plural Object or Action are distinguished in

severaldifferentwayssometimesbySingularorPluralStem-extendingSufiixsometimesbychangeinfinalconsonantofStemNOTEExamples fromLukasrsquosmaterial are here given in Stem form only

constructed from his material by comparison With that of Trenga They arethereforenottone-marked

Note alsondun- light (one)nduʃ- light (many)with a further Singulativeformed from the Pl nduʃ-uŋ- (cf Trenga o-ndufon-i I light) perhaps aCausativeofunPluʃSgStemendsinnPlink1

tan-mount(one) tak-mount(many)

Waan-pourin(one) Waak-pourin(many)

PlSuffix-kesndԑkԑl-ŋa leanone thingupndeksl leanmany thingsupndskel-kes lean

thingsupofteninmanyplaces(perhapsaCausativewithPrefixnd-)NotealsochangesinthePastTenseSuffix

Lukas further gives a Passive-Reffexive-Neuter-Intransitive with Stem-extending Suffix -Vr andor sound-change in Stem or Tense Suffix

Notealsoa-riw-ariIshaveda-riw-eriIshavedmyselfwasshaved

TherearemanyCompoundVerbsformedwiththeVerbs

baa-a-rontildegiIdividefi-w-iretheyburn(Trans)

InLukasrsquosmaterial thereappear tobemanyCompoundVerbs formedWithsuŋ-(meaningunknown)eg

bacirc-suacuteŋuDivide

ThereisnoinformationonDerivativeVerbsinMASALIT

4bNouns_VerbalNouns are formed by the Suffix -Vk Participles by the Suffix -Vn

The Noun Agent is formed by Prefix nV-and sometimes Suffix -Vk as wellTwo main forms of the Verb Stem are involved Compare S 1 (Present)Imperative Participle Verbal Noun2 Noun Agent

5NumberTheselanguagesexhibitsomeNKcharacteristicsSeeIntroductionp23

5aNounsSingularandPluralaredistinguishedbySuffixesandortoneHightoneand

vowellengthseemtobeassociatedwithPluralitySingularSuffixesinkandŋPluralSuffixes in tandnyorŋhavebeenrecordedasWellaszeroSuffix inbothSingularandPluralinMASALITSgSuffix-ti-diisrecordedwithStemsendinginror11

In MASALIT further the Plural Suffix -ta is used With loan wordssanduksanduk-tabox(ARABIC)5bAdjectives

According to Trenga Adjectives like Nouns have various Singular andPluralformsthecommonestbeingSingSuffix-(V)kPlur-tufafar-akfafar-tuwhitekomol-akkomal-tustrongBothNounandAdjectivedistinguishNumberNothingisknownofAdjectivesinMASALIT

5cPronounsAvelar Plural element occurs in the Self-standing Personal Pronouns (sect 8a

(i)) the Subject-Object Complex (sect 8a (iii)) and Demonstratives (sect 8c) In

MASALIT the Suffix -ŋa is added to a Possessive or Possessor Noun in theGenitiveCasewhenthePossessedNounisPlural(sectsect8a(iv)7)

5dVerbsForSingularandPluralObjectorActionseesect4a(iii)Note thatamongthe

manywaysofdistinguishingNumberinVerbsisannkoppositiontan-mount(one)tak-mount(many)6GenderThereisnogrammaticalGender

7CaseTrengastatesexpresslythatthereisnoinffexionforCaseinMABAHedoes

however give both -(a)ntildeg and -na as Genitive Sufiixes (sect 13) buramaba-ntildeglanguageoftheMabaanyidrabag-naexcrementofhyena

InLukasrsquosmaterialitwouldappearthatNominativeandAccusativeCasearedistinguished by tone on the Determinative Particle ģ (sect 8d)

There are also several Particles considered as Postpositions by Lukas eg

DaviesgivesanumberoflsquoCaseendingsrsquoinMASALITAccus(Sgonly)changeoffinalvoweltoou

GenitiveWithP1PossessedNounSg-tu-ŋaPl-ni-ŋa1

Case endings may also be attached to Possessives Demonstratives andInterrogatives8Pronouns

8aPersonal

(i)TheSelf-standingPronounsare

(ii)ThePronounSubjectoftheVerbisaPrefix

ThevowelsinSubjectPrefixesvaryaccordingtoVowelHarmonyMABAVerbsbeginningWithavowel

a-uf-it-uf-iIbindhebinds

VerbsbeginningwithaconsonanthavingStemvoweluo(Lukasᴐ)u-sur-itu-sur-iIdescendhedescends

havingStemvowelaei

a-naf-ita-nar-iIbringhebrings

Someapparentexceptionshavebeennoted

(iii)ObjectoftheVerb

ThereisaseriesofPrefixesdenotingSubjectandObjectsimultaneously1(Istand 2nd Person Object only) According to Trenga these are

egand-ui-tԑtlitme-hewillkillDavies lists a similar series inMASALIT butwithamb(a)- as P 1Object

(lsquousrsquo)

(iv)ThePossessivesare

LukasgivesexamplesWiththeDeterminativeģugravewithshortenedfinalvowelἑmbἑ-ģugraveminealsowithaSuffix-k(SingularSuffix)

hicircraacuteaniktἑnἑ-khispupilInMASALIT the Possessive has a Sufiix -ŋa when the PossessedNoun is

Plural(sectsect5c7)-

8bInterrogativeTrengalistsanumberofInterrogativesinMABAallofwhichcontainnny

orngnyiawhonyiԑm(Lukasnyecirck)whatnyiԑwhichngewhathowniet(Lukas nyeacuteenaacute) why ngun (Lukas ŋguacutema ŋgucircun) where ngotu whennganahowmuchDaviesgivesthefollowinginMASALIT

ŋaPlŋa-tawhowhichŋeriwhat

TheycantakeCaseendings

8cDemonstrativeTwodegreesofDemonstrativesarerecorded

(cfinMABAwitherelelfar(Adverbs))

8dDeterminative-Relative

InMABAtheParticlego(Trenga)ģu(Lukas)2appearstobeaDeterminativeand among its many functions is that of Relative Particle aek te-tina go themonthwhichispastCase(NominativeandAccusative)appearstobedistinguishedbytone(seesect

7)-nualsoseemstohaveDeterminativefunction

9VerbConjugatiacuteon9aTheredoesnotseemtobedistinctionofAspectMoodamp38c


(i) Verbs are conjugatcd for Person by Prefixes those of S 2 varyingaccordingtoMorphologicalClass(sect8a(ii)4a(i))InMABAatleasttheSelf-standingPronounsnormallyprecedetheVerbasWellThe3rdPersonPrefixesbutnottheSelf-standingPronounsareusedwithNounSubject

(ii)ImperativeformsThe Imperative varies according to Primary Morphological Class The

PrefixesarerelatedtobutnotalwaysidenticalwiththeS2PrefixesInMABAtheSingularhasaSuffix-a(sometimes-iespeciallyinClassIIveryrarely-e-o-u)thePluralaSuffix-e

(noexamplesofClassVIavailable)

InMASALITthesituationWouldseemtobesimilar

9cTensesTensesareexpressedbySuffixesinbothlanguages

Trenga gives no otherTenses inMABA butLukas has an lsquoOptativersquowithSuffix-neeandaConditionalwithSuffixorPostpositionnuIn MASALIT Davies records a Subjunctive with Suffix -n(i) and an

OptativewithSuffix-teiItappearsfromthefewVerbsgivenbyDaviesthatthePresentTensehasa

differentStemfromthatoftheotherTensesComparea-rn-eiIsleep a-miy-aIslept a-mig-tiIshallsleepa-ny-eiIeat a-nyan-aIate a-nyan-tiIshalleata-ser-eiIsee a-kel-aIsaw a-kel-liIshallseea-iaw-eiIkill a-wi-aIkilled a-wi-tiIshallkilla-g-eiImake a-n-aImade a-n-tiIshallmake

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerbslsquotobersquoNOTEAllexamplesarefromMABAthereisnoinformationonMASALIT

10a ZeroCopula can be used to express Identity orDescription zalak kerekGod(is)good

10bTherearetwoVerbslsquotobersquo

To be someone something (Identity or Description) Note that S 2 variesaccordingtoTense

egmi kulak li lit you big you-aremantildegmaba mi weMaba we-are To besomewherestayremainnd(ClassI)ama-nd-ihereIamgulekti-nd-ithereisawellwantildegtang-nuunwi-nd-atheywereinthehouselittheyhouse-inthey-werelsquoTohaversquoisexpressedby-newithSubjectPrefixesasforClassIVerbstorrombosinehaveyoucamelsgulekinjite-nethewellhaswaterThereappearstobeanInterrogativeVerb-gin(ClassIV)ithasperhapsaRelativemeaningandmaythusbeconnectedwiththeDeterminative-Relative(sect8d)

11Negation11aVerbal(i)TherearetwoNegativeTensesinMABAGeneral(PresentandPast)withSufiix-aandPostpositionacircndiama-mor-a

andiIamnottired

FuturewithSuffix-tan

miga-tanyouwillnotgo

TrengaalsorecordsaNegativeParticlekaiumlfollowingtheAffirmativeFutureTensetantildeg-tetkaiumlhewillnotenter

(ii)TheNegativeImperativehasaSuffix-an

and-adani-anDonrsquotdeceivemezir-anDonrsquotfight

11bNon-verbalTheinvariableNegativeParticlekaiumlisused

12WordOrderWord order in the finite sentence is S+O+V The Verb is always final

howeverlongthesentencebitakjama-nagomajuktimsik-nagoti-nyi-arilitriverDjama-oftheslavePrincess-oftheit-has-eatenietheDjamariverhasswallowedupthe

Princessrsquosslavejermagomboroajiidsalamaat-namborikfufiekwenegot-as-olitDjermaGomboroAjidSalamatrsquosslavechieftheirhe-gaveietheDjermagavethemGomboroAjidSalamatrsquosslavefortheirchief

WhereseveralVerbsareinvolvedtheParticiple(sect4b)isusedforallexceptthelast1tijatorrombositenennar-annemereka-dau-antimszlg-gokamajetutenekatorrombosi-nuunta-nlan-alithethencamels-hisbringingwellsaddlingPrincesstheandslavesherandcamels-onhe-caused-to-mountieThenhehavingbroughthiscamelsandsaddledthemwellmountedthePrincessandherslavesonthecamelsamarakkok-1nyi-ankil-inkugin-intaiumlalitliongoingeatingbeingsatedreturn-ingheentered

13TheGenitiveConstruction13aNounPossessorBothordersarerecordedinMABA

Possessed+Possessor with Case ending or Genitive Particle -ng -na satinyngon-nateethelephantrsquos

lingaklulum-naroadWestrsquosiethewesternroadPossessorWithCaseendingorGenitiveParticle-I-Possessedsoltaan-natantildegSultanrsquoshousealin-natifiiostrichrsquosfeathersLukashasexamplesofsimplejuxtapositioninbothorders

13bPronounPossessorPossessivesfollowthePossessedNoun

mbortuambemyslaves

Trenga also records a number of Suffixes added to the Possessive whose

meaningisnotknown(Determinative)14ConstructionswithQualifiers

1ComparethetwotypesofMorphologicalClassinFUR(wherehoweverthePrefixesofS3dis-tiacutenguishPrimaryClasses)(p220)VerbClassesdistinguishedbyTenseSuffixesarealsofoundinGELEBA(p562)

1NotethealveolarSgelementnandvelarPlelementkhere(seeIntroductionp23)thisishoweveronlyoneamongmanywaysofdistinguiacuteshingNumberinVerbs

2NotethatinFURtheVerbalNounisidenticalwiththeImperative(seep221)1SingularSufiix-kisfoundalsoinGELEBA(p564)SgSuffixin-tisreminiscentoftheTK

languagesbutnooppositionoftkhasbeenrecorded1NotetheuseofavelarelementtoindicatePluralityofthePossessedNoun1Subject-ObjectComplexisfoundinTESOandMAASAI(p471)andKUNAMA(p341)alsointhe

lsquoSelectorrsquoinIRAQW(p587)NotetheoccurrenceofthevelarelementkwhentheObjectisPlural2Trengarsquosvowelsareinconsistentasbetweeneandegravenoattemptisthereforemadetodistinguishthem

here1CfFURp2242RelativeParticlesngarealsofoundinBAGIRMI(p74)ZANDE(p150)RASHAD(p295)

BARYA(p332)UDUK(p362)andGELEBA(p565)1CftheconstructionsinBARYA(p334)KUNAMA(p346)andBILIN(p589)andtheuseofthe

GerundinAMHARIC(p611)1TheSuffix-anissometimesashereelided

12THETAMAGROUP

SourcesRCStevensonMSnotesincludingmanyverbparadigmsonTAMAalsoonMARARITJLukaslsquoDieSprachederSungorinWadai(AusNachtigalsNachlass)rsquoMittdAusland-HochschuleUnivBerlin1938

mdashlsquoBeitraumlgezurKenntnisderSprachenvonWadairsquoJSocAfric1933BroadbentMSnotesonERENGAVMABryanldquoTheVerbintheTamaandDidingaLanguageGroupsrsquoAfrikanischeStudien(FestschriftWestermann)Berlin1955

1PhoneticsIaVowels

STEVENSONusesninevowelsinhisTAMAmaterialiIeԑaᴐoUuLukaseightinSUNGORieԑaoᴐuandaFor MARARIT Lukas gives the following (orthography adapted)

VowellengthiscommonandsometimessignificantTAMAkalsevenkaalWater

Diphthongsendingini(y)andu(W)arecommonVowelHarmony undoubtedly exists but the principles governing it are not

known

IbConsonantsThe following occur in Stevensonrsquos material and may be considered as

representa-tive for the Group

Lukasdescribesjasapalato-alveolaraffricatelandrareseparatephonemesɽ

perhapsbelongstothet-orr-phonemeNonasalcompoundshavebeenrecordedinTAMAandMARARITandfew

otherconsonantcombinationsexceptthosewithWandywhicharecommonbutmaybeduetoinffuenceofneighbouringbackandfrontvowelsrespectivelyIn SUNGOR there aremany consonant combinations especially with liquidsandnasalsandthereappeartobenasalcompoundsLongordoubledrhasbeenrecorded

TAMAarrskyrain

Consonantsound-changehasbeenrecordedegTAMAatPlaɽ-iŋperson(butat-InAccusativeSg)2ToneandStress

StevensonrecordsexamplesoflexicalandgrammaticaltoneinTAMAthreelevel tonesare implied inhisexamplesLukasconsiders that theremaybe twoleveltonesandaFallingtoneinMARARITLexicaltone

Grammaticaltone

TAMAtἑἑPltἑἑcowToneisnotmarkedthroughoutNothingisknownaboutStress

3WordShapeNounStemsarehighlyvariablebutVCandCVCseemthemostcommonVerb Stems cannot be isolated owing to the extreme complexity of

conjugationinvolvingmanyAffixesandmuchsound-change

4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i) It has been found convenient to divide Verbs into two Morphological

Classes according to shape

Class I Verbs have a vowel Prefix in Ist and 2nd Persons (Sg and Pl) inconjugation(seesect9)Since no twoVerbs inTAMAappear to be conjugated alike this grouping

mustberegardedassomewhatarbitrary

ThesametwoclassescanbedistinguishedinSUNGORandMARARITSome Verbs have been recorded in MARARIT in which the order of the

components of theVerb Complex differs from the lsquonormalrsquo order As can beseenfromtheparadigmsinsect9thenormalorderisPrefix(n-inIstPersonSgandPlsporadicn- inS2k- inP2)+VerbStem--Numbern-utt-ayyougoout Suflix (--Aspect Sufiicircx)

ItisthuspossiblethatsuchVerbsconstituteaseparateMorphologicalClassofadiffer-entorderfromtheClassesgivenabove1(ii)ItisnotknownwhetherthereareToneClasses(iii)StevensonrecordsthefollowingDerivativeVerbsinTAMA(ImperSg

(iii) forms are givenhere these however provide little or no indication as toother forms of the Verb)

4bNouns

CertainSuffixesappeartobeusedasNounFormativesbutsincetheStemoftheVerb is extremely difficult to isolate the examples are here givenwithoutreference to the original Stem TAMA Noun Agent Verbal Noun InfinitiveSuiacutefixes-it-It2-Vi-itkillerjowo-ItwashermanA

li-1t to drink drinkingŋan-It to eat eating foodԑɽ-1t songŋun-i thiefŋun-otheftber-atofightfightingSUNGORVerbalNoun-ut-Vtolk-ut(alsotolok)tocoughcoughingen-ebirthony-efeargᴐn-aseeingbar-eebattle4cAdjectives

ThereisnoevidenceofAdjectiveFormatives

5NumberThese languagesexhibitbothTKandNKcharacteristicsSee Introduction

p225aNounsNumberisdistinguishedbySuffixesofwhichtherearemanysomeofthese

being of the TK type others not Nouns can conveniently be grouped as

follows

5bAdjectives

AdjectivesaswellasNounshaveSingularandPluralSuffixesTheNumberSuffixesareapparentlyasvariableandunpredictableasthoseofNounseg


A velar Plural element occurs in the Self-standing Personal Pronouns (allPersonsinMARARIT3rdPersononlyinTAMAandSUNGOR)(sect8a(i))intheObjectPronoun(sect8a(iii))inPossessives(sect8a(iv))inDemonstratives(sect8c)andinVerbconjugationandtheImperative(sect9)Thesporadicoccurrenceof an n-k- oppositionin the 2nd Person Prefix inMARARIT should also benoted

5dVerbs

ForPluralObjectorActioninTAMAseesect4a(iii)An alveolar element in the Singular and a velar element in the Plural have

been recorded in a few instances in TAMA indicating Number of Subject


7CaseCaseisshownbySuffixeswhichfollowtheNumberSufficircxesThefollowing

CaseshavebeenrecordedNominativenoSufiixAccusative-(1)ŋ-nInTAMAapparentlyonlyusedwhennecessarytoavoidambiguitythereisnoevidenceoftheuseoftheAccusativeinSUNGOR-withNounsatleastbutseePronounssect8alsquoBroadbentrecordsanAccusativeSuffix-(e)ringinERENGA1

Genitive-V-ŋV2amp38c

Broadbentrecordsboth-erand-ringinERENGAJ1

Examples

Broadbentrecords`AblativersquoSuffixes-(e)rge1and-deninERENGA

8Pronouns8aPersonal


BlockPatternwithPluralElementŋisclearinMARARITtherearetracesofitintheotherlanguages

(ii) The Pronoun Subject of theVerb is contained in theVerb Complex insuchawaythatitisimpossibletoisolateitAcharacteristicoftheGroupisthepresenceofaprefixedn-intheIstPersonSingularandPluralSeesect9(iii)TheObjectformconsistsintheSelf-standingPronounAccusativeCase

in TAMA the Plurals contain an additional Element -kU

(iv) The Possessives precede the Noun in TAMA follow it in SUNGORMARARIT both orders are apparently possible (sectI3b) Note that MARARITalsohasPossessiveSuffixes

8bInterrogativeExamplesareavailablefromSUNGORonly


(i)ThefollowingDemonstrativeshavebeenrecorded

(ii) A Suffix -Ir has been recorded in TAMA which is perhaps a

Determinative9VerbConjugation9a b Owing to the extreme complexity of Verb conjugation it has not beenfoundpracticable todiscussAspectsamp38c separately fromconjugation forPersonThemaincharacteristicsofconjugationarethereforesummarizedbelowandparadigmsfollow1Verb Class Class I Verbs have a vowel Prefix in Ist and 2nd Persons

sometimesthereisvowelchangeintheSteminthe3rdPerson

Aspect The difference between theAspects varies considerably as betweenVerbstheDefiniteAspecthasaSuffix-ŋVinTAMAandSUNGOR(whichisfinal in theVerbComplex) inMARARITaSufiix -iappears tobeassociatedwiththeDefiniteAspectFurtherinTAMAandSUNGORaprefixedElementt(V)-occursinsomeVerbs2

Person Inall languages there is aPrefixn- inS I andP I3 inMARARITPrefixn-inS2k-inP2alsooccurssporadically4

NumberInmostVerbsSingularandPluralSubjectaredistinguishedeither

by a change of vowel Sufiix (lsquo Stem Suffixrsquo) or by the addition of a PluralElementbetweentheStemandtheStemSuffixorbetweentheStemSufficircxandthe Aspect Element this Plural Element often consists of a velar or nasalconsonant (k g n ny ŋ)5 sometimes there is consonant change in the Stemitselfusuallyofthetypenyampgtnjyampgtnynampgtzeronampgtŋ]TheStemisoftensomuchobscuredbysound-changeastobeunidentifiable

andinsomeVerbsitseemstodisappearaltogetherIntheexamplesbelowsomeofthelessobscureVerbshavebeenselectedbut

it must be remembered that many Verbs especially in TAMA are apparentexceptions

NotetheelementsinthePluraloflsquodrinkrsquoThisistheonlyVerbinwhichthiselementisrecordeditoccursalsointheImperative(seep216)IntheDefiniteAspect of lsquolook atrsquo the Stem has disappeared and there is an unexplainedelementģinthe3rdPerson

ImperativeThe Imperative appears to be as unpredictable as the other forms of the

VerbThe frequent occurrence of the velar element k in the Plural should benoted

9cTenses

Stevenson does not record any Tenses in TAMA beyond the AspectsInSUNGORthereisasecondTenseoftheDefiniteAspectperhapsaldquoPluperfectrsquoWithSuffix-ŋV-precedingtheAspectSuffixn-a-u-ŋi-ŋinaIhadwept()n-u-du-ŋu-ŋoIhadseen()n-i-di-ŋi-ŋaIhadtaken()Lukas states that there is also a Future Tense apparently of the Indefinite

AspectwithSuffix-s(a)-NoexamplesaregivenLukasobservesthataPreffixt-hasbeenoccasionallyrecordedinthe3rdPerson(SgandPl)inthisTenseHefurtherrecordsseveralConditionalTensesWithSuffix-nen-ig-oŋ-neifI

hearn-ig-oŋ-uŋ-neshouldIhearn-a-un-neeifIWeepn-a-un-iŋ-neshouldIweep

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerbslsquotobersquolsquotohaversquo10aZeroCopulahasbeenrecorded

TAMAInlil-Irwԑlnethisdonkey(is)goodSUNGORiinareeyou(are)who

10bTherearevariousVerbslsquotobersquo

There are also Verbs lsquoto haversquo recorded from SUNGOR andMARARIT

Notealso

SUNGORiŋwonareeiThisismine(litthisImineis)MARARITmaasħonniormaas-iħonniThisismyboy(seesect13)11NegationandInterrogation11AInTAMAandSUNGORNegationisexpressedbyaSuffixndashtowhichisfinalintheVerbComplex

InMARARITm(V)-isprefixedtotheStemn-ᴐ-m-gutIdidnotseemᴐ-guthedidnotseeInthePluralthereisa

sufficircxedelementtwhichisperhapsrelatedtotheSuffix-toinTAMAandSUNGORn-ᴐ-m-ģut-n-etwedidnotseema-ģut-tetthey

TheNegative ImperativehasSuffix -aito inTAMAandSUNGORTAMAԑn-aitoPlԑŋģ-aitoDonoteatSUNGORisek-aitoPlisek-iny-aitoDonotask

NothingisknownofNegativenon-VerbalPredication

11BStevensonrecordsanInterrogativeinTAMAwithSuffix-ԑP1-aintheIndefinitenoSuffixintheDefiniteԑn-ԑareyoueating(Sg)ԑԑŋģ-a(Pl)

ԑrniŋhaveyoueaten(Sg)ԑɽԑŋģaŋ(Pl)12WordOrderWordorderinthefinitesentenceisS-amp124-O-I-V

TAMAiimaataeŋalitWomansonbore

13TheGenitiveConstruction13aNounPossessor

The normal Word order is Possessor (with or without Genitive Caseending) +Possessed in all languages

The order Possessed--Possessor has also been recorded in SUNGOR sigitkul-unhair(of)mouth-his(hismoustache)

13bPronounPossessorThe Possessive Pronoun precedes the Noun in TAMA follows it inSUNGORIn MARARIT several constructions are possible Possessed--PossessiveSuffixmaas-naourboy

PossessiveP1-onoun+PossessedaģaamaasPossessed+PossessivePronounmaasaģanPossessivePronoun+Possessed+Suffixaģaamaas-na

14ConstructionswithQualifiersTheAdjectivefollowstheNounNumberSuffixesareattachedtobothNoun

andAdjective

1NotapparentlyaPrefix1CftheMorphologicalClassesinEastSAHARANandCUSHITICinwhichtheorderofthe

componentsoftheVerbComplexisthemaindistinguishingfeature(pp17I501)2ATKcharacteristicSeeIntroductionp221APluralSuffix-tinalsooccursinTEMEIN(p256)andPARANILOTIC(p462)allTKlanguages

SeealsoTEPETH(p395)2CfDIDINGAp3761TheelementrinthisSuffixisperhapsaDeterminative(sect8d)2CftheGenitiveSuffixorPostpositioninFUR(p223)andKUNAMA(p340)3Contraɽ-iŋPluralwithconsonantchange1CftheSelf-standingPronoun3rdPersonPlural(sect8a(i))1SeealsoBryanopcit2CfDIDINGAp371NYIMANGp2493InDIDINGA-MURLEthereislikewiseaPrefixintherstPersononlybutthereitisk-Seep3824AnNKcharacteristic5CfDIDINGA-MURLEp382anNKcharacteristic1ThisVerbappearstohaveClassIbehaviourintheDefimteAspect1CfD1DINGA-MURLEp385

13FUR

Sources

ACBeatonAgrammaroftheFurLanguage(MS)EZyhlarzlsquoDasVerbumimKondjararsquoAnthropos1926CMeiacutenhoflsquoSprachstudienimaumlgyprischenSudan29KondjararsquoZKolSpr1917ndash18

1Phonetics1aVowelsBEATONrecordseightvowelsieԑaᴐouandacentralvoweləVowellengthissignificant(iiaaanduuarerecorded)ur-shutuur-

kick

DiphthongsendinginioccurElisionandassimilationarecommon

1bConsonantsThefollowingconsonantsoccurinBeatonrsquosmaterial

According to Beaton t d and j are lsquoas in Englishrsquo z alternates with s incertaincir-cumstances(seesisect15)landrareseparatephonemesConsonantlengthissignificant

ur-shuturr-bury

Consonantcombinationswithliquidsandnoccurinstemsd-ᴐrmathrowing-stickd-ᴐrtԑgruelpotd-ᴐlbahornOtherconsonantcombinationsoccurwhenSuffixesareattachedtoaStemendinginaconsonant

Consonantassimilationhasbeennoted

2ToneandStressThere is little informationMeinhofrecordssomelexical tonedoubletsegwater monkey

3WordShape

ThemajorityofVerbStemsappeartoconsistofVCalsoVCVCmanyNounStemsconsistofVCVorVCCVafewofCVCCVCVBothshorterandlongerformsalsooccur

4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i)MorphologicalClassesVerbs may be grouped according to two different criteria Morphological

Classesarethusdistinguishedby(α)theformoftheStemandortheconsonantPrefixin3rdPersonSingular(thecriteriaadoptedby

Beaton1)ndashPrimaryMorphologicalClassesherenumberedwithRomannumerals(β)theTenseSuffixesusedndashSecondaryMorphologicalClassesherenumberedwithArabicnumerals

These twogroupings cut across eachotherThere are alsomany apparentlyirregularVerbs(α)PrimaryMorphologicalClasses(S1andS3PastTensegivenhere)IS3identicalWithS1(zeroPrefix)

uwil-ᴐuwil-ᴐIheWinnowedIISIbeginswithVCS3withC

aliŋ-ᴐliŋ-ᴐIhebathedIIIS1beginsWithVCS3withCV

irg-ᴐrig-ᴐIheboundIV(BeatonrsquosClassesIVandVcombined)S3hasaconsonantPrefix

sometimesWithvowelorotherchangeintheStemaswellTheconsonantPrefixesare

VerbsinthisClassWillbereferredtobytheirClassnumberfollowedbytheconsonantoftheS3Prefix

V(perhapsavarietyofI)S3beginswithi-an-iin-iIhegave

(β)SecondaryMorphologicalClassesThere isconsiderablevariation in theTenseSuffixesTheP3Suffixof the

PastTenseisheretakenascharacteristicfortheClassesasitappearstobethe

most stable (a detailed table of Tense Suffixes is given under sect 9c) In thefollowingexamplesPrimaryMorphologicalClass(asdeducedfromS1andS3)isgiveninbrackets

Identical Stems not infrequently occur in different Verbs but these aregenerally in different Morphological Classes eg ul-

(ii)ThereisnoinformationconcerningToneClasses

(iii)Beaton recordsoneDerivativeVerbonlyaNeuter-PassivewithStem-extendingSuffix-iŋ-(sometimes-uŋ-)precedingtheTenseSufiixkuunyal-iŋ-ul thecattlehavebeenbewitchedZyhlarz furthernotesanelement -n-whosesignificanceisuncertaink-am-n-aWeate

(Note that the -s- element considered by Zyhlarz to be a Transitive orCausativeelementprobablyrepresentssi-seesect15)

4bNounsTheonlyNounFormative recordedbyBeaton is thePrefix j-which forms

VerbalNounsfromtheSubjunctive-ImperativeStemj-uwil-ᴐwinnowingj-ur-ishuttingThisformisidenticalwiththeImperativeSingular1

TribalnamesandsomeotherNounsdenotingpersonsareperhapsCompoundNounsintheSingularfᴐr-duŋᴐfᴐr-aFurjurԑ-duŋᴐjurԑ-ŋamessengerV

SeealsoCompoundNounssect13a

5NumberFUR exhibits NK characteristics (see Introduction p 23) in pronominal

NumberdistinctionextendingalsotoNouns

5aNounsNumber is distinguished by both Prefixes and Suffixes in various

combinations the nature of some of these Affixes appears to be phonetically

controlled

PrefixesSgbeforeconsonantotherthanzuzero

beforevowelorwd-whentheStemconsonantisnotanasal(cfPossessivessect8a(iv))n-

whentheStemconsonantisanasalPlbeforeconsonantotherthanzozero

beforevowelorwk-(cfPossessivesDemonstrativessect8cInterrogativelsquowhichrsquosect8b)d-agik-agitoothn-ansuk-ansubreastSuffixes

Sgafteravowel(butcomparativelyinfrequent)-ŋᴐra-ŋᴐrarafterd-iirᴐ-ŋk-iirᴐeggn-ansa-ŋk-ansafeatherWingPlaftervowelorr-ŋa(cf3rdPersPronounsect8a(i)PronounObject8a(iii)Interrogativelsquowhorsquosect8b)utᴐutᴐ-ŋamouthd-wak-wa-ŋaheadpadtaartaar-ŋalegafternasallorg-akaamkaam-athiefbaanybaany-astreamd-ԑrgaŋk-ԑrgaŋ-abranchlellel-adonkeymutᴐkmutᴐg-afield

apparentlynotphoneticallycontrolled-ti-ta-ntaamp38cbəubəu-taaxed-olk-ol-digrainstalkn-uumk-uum-tisnaked-uruk-uru-ntaarmn-iimᴐk-iinᴐ-ntameat

5bAdjectivesAdjectives appear to agree in Number with Nouns denoting persons (with

non-personsNumberisnotusuallydistinguishedintheAdjectiveaccordingtoBeaton)theonlyexamplesrecordedhavethePluralSuffix-ŋakiisᴐ-ŋakura-ŋalitchiefstallkwaburԑ-ŋapeopleshort(butk-uru-ŋaapatreesbig)

5cPronounsNumber in Pronouns is distinguished for the most part by the use of the

alveolar Singular element d- (Possessives distinguishing the Number of thePossessed Noun sect 8a (iv)) and the velar Plural elements k- (PossessivesDemonstratives sect 8b) Interrogative lsquowhich rsquo sect 8b) and -27 (3rd PersonPronounsect8a(i)ObjectPronounssect8a(iii)Interrogativelsquowhorsquosect8b)1

6GenderThereisnogrammaticalGenderZyhlarzsuggeststhatthereisanObjectPrefixk-iftheObjectismalelargeor

superiorj-iftheObjectisfemalesmallorinferiorkurok-u-athecrowspoke(tothehyena)tᴐrᴐj-u-athehyenaspoke(tothecrow)ThisisnotborneoutfromBeatonrsquosmaterial(k-andj-areofcoursebothS3PrefixesinVerbClassIV-seesect4a(i))

7Case

TherearefourCasesdistinguishedbySuffixesorPostpositions1thesefollowthe Number Sufiixes and are attached to the last word in a Noun GroupNominativezeroAccusative-siGenitive-(i)ŋ

Locative-le(mostlyusedwithNounsdenotingPersonsandPersonalPronouns-sect8a)kwasagal-sikanyiŋulThepeopleabusedtheheadman(litpeopleheadmanabused)duomurtafuta-silədilitmanhorsewhitebeat

lel-iŋtaardonkeyrsquoslegmurta-ŋa-ŋk-əwin-tahorsesrsquotailsmurtafuta-ŋkwethewhitehorsersquosfoal(lithorsewhitersquoschild)ahmedomar-leelԑAhmedhascomefromOmar

NotethatwhenaVerbhastwoObjects-siissufiixedtothemainObjectkiisᴐsagala-sijuriŋainiThechiefgavetheheadmanclothes(litchiefheadman(Acc)clothesgave)-siisnotusedwithallVerbsmurtaduouurolithorsemankickedSeealsoAccusativeformsofPersonalPronouns(sectSa(iii))

8Pronouns8aPersonalThe Personal Pronouns have separate forms for all fourCases (sect 7) in the

Accusative theCase ending -si can be used and there is a Particlegi whoseexact function is not clear TheNominative andAccusative Pronouns precedetheVerbasSubjectandObjectrespectively

There are also Subject Prefixes which consist of contractions of theNominativePronounsinS2P1andP2

The Genitiacuteve and Locative forms show little or no resemblance to theNominativeorAccusative(exceptperhapsinthe3rdPerson)TheGenitivehasSingular and plural Prefixesd-k-1 indicatingNumber ofPossessedNoun theLocativehasPrefixd-

egd-wii-ŋkamald-ii-lekalitmycamelyou-withis8bInterrogative

The following have been recorded Some of them can take Case endings

8cDemonstrativeTwodegreesofDemonstrativearerecorded

TheyprecedetheNounandthereforecanonlytakeCaseendingsWhenusedasSelf-standingPronouns

8dRelativeThereisaninvariableRelativeParticleal3

ThisParticleisalsousedtointroduceindirectspeech

9VerbGonjugation9a There do not appear to beAspectsMoodsamp38c inBeatonrsquosmaterial(butseep227)9bConjugation forPerson andwithNounSubjectTheSelf-standingPronoun(NominativeCase) precedes theVerbComplex In addition there are SubjectPrefixesandinP3theTenseSuffixdiffersfromthatintheotherPersonsandisacluetoSecondaryMorphologicalClass(sect4a(i)AsalreadystatedthePrefixorStemvariesaccordingtoPrimaryMorphologicalClassinS3With a Plural Noun Subject denoting non-person the S 3 form with P 3

Tense Suffix is used

9cTenses(i) There are four Tenses distinguished by Suffixes Past Subjunctive-

ImperativePresent and lsquoImperfectrsquo (PastandSubjunctive-ImperativeSufficircxesareoftenidentical thelsquoImperfectrsquoSuffix isrelatedto thatof thePresent)TheTenseSuffixesvaryaccordingtoSecondaryMorphologicalClass(sect4a(i))andare not predictable from the Stem nor always from the P 3 Suffix As theexamples will show a different grouping would result from the choice of adifferentSuffixascriterionfortheClassesExamples of Past Tense are given below for Verbs of all Classes (where

available)inSIS3andP3

ThemainSuffixesoftheotherTensesareasfollowsTheseSuffixesarenotdependentonPrimaryMorphologicalClassTherearemanyexceptionsSubjunctive-ImperativeSecondaryMorphologicalClass

PresentandImperfectThedistributionoftheseSuffixesislessregularthanthosegivenaboveThere

are three main types

(ii)TheFutureisexpressedbyaParticleniŋfollowedbytheSubjunctivekaniŋuwil-ᴐIshallWinnowbinimb-uwil-ᴐyou(Pl)willwinnowWhenniŋfollowssi(sect15)theNegativeParticlea-(sect11a)ortheInterrogativeParticlela(sect11b)itiscontractedto-ŋZyhlarzrecordsthefollowingSufiixeswhichperhapshaveAspectratherthan

Tensesignificanceԑl-aheiscominghecame(IncompleteorIndefinite)ԑl-iheisnowcoming

camejustthen(Immediate)ԑl-ᴐhehascome(Complete)ԑl-iheusuallycomescameasusual(Habitual)

10VerbslsquotobersquoNon-Verbal Predication is not recorded in FUR Identity and existence are

expressed by two closely related (irregular) Verbs

To haversquo is expressed by the Verb lsquoto be somewherersquo preceded by the NounObjectandsi(whichhoweverisnottheAccusativeCaseendingseesect15)kadagalaiissiaiŋlitIchildrenthreesiam11NegationandInterrogation

11 A Verbal Negation is expressed by the Particles a preceding and ba

followingtheVerb

lsquoNot yet is expressed by an Auxiliary Verb eiacutey with Particle na and theNegativeBothAuxiliaryandMainVerbsareconjugatedforPersoniyek-eiŋsinaaj-əgilabahehe-not-yethe-has-seen(it)(forsiseesect15)11BTheInterrogativeisexpressedbytheParticlelaThepositionoflainthesentence varies according to Beaton it is added lsquoto any suitableword in thesentencersquoItisherewrittenseparatelyexceptwhenitcombineswiththeFutureParticleniŋ(la-ŋ)Withsi(s-a)andwithbothsiandniŋ(s-a-ŋ)

12WordOrderWordorderinthefinitesentenceisS+O-l-V

13TheGenitiveConstructionI3aNounPossessorThe order is Possessor in Genitive Case--Possessed to express possessive

relationship

kiisᴐ-ŋtᴐŋchiefrsquoshousekiisᴐkura-ŋmurtatallchiefrsquoshorseThe order is Possessed-1rsquo-Possessor in Genitive Case to express non-

possessiverelationshipgԑrakaaŋ-iŋbasketforgraintawukᴐrᴐ-ŋpotforWaterPossessed+Possessor Without Genitive Case ending is recorded in what

appeartobeCompoundNounskԑwabloodkᴐrspearkwapeople(thesignificanceofduŋᴐisnotknown)kԑwa-duŋᴐkԑwa-kwaleperkᴐr-duŋokᴐr-kwaspearmanNotealsothealternativesbslefarspeech(ofthe)Furfyra-ybaletheFursrsquospeech

13bPronounPossessorPersonalandInterrogativePronounsintheGenitiveCaseprecedetheNoun

14ConstructionswithQualifiersAdjectivesandNumeralsfollowtheNoun

Case endings are postpostitional to the Noun Group (Noun-+-Qualifier)

BeatonrecordstwolsquoIndefinitePronounsrsquobutthebehaviourofkarappearstobe

similartothatofAdjectives

DemonstrativesandPossessivesprecedetheNoun

15MiscellaneousTheParticlesi

ThisParticleisassociatedwithcertainVerbsandusuallystandsbetweenanyprecedingword(NounorPronounSubjectorObjectConjunctionamp38c)andthe VerbIt does not seem to have any significance of itself although someVerbshavedifferentmeaningswhenusedwithandwithoutsiWhen si is used with a Transitive Verb and follows the Object it may be

difiicult to distinguish it from the Accusative Case ending -si (sect7) TheAccusative-sihoweverisnevercontractedwhereastheParticlesiiscontractedafteravoweltosbeforeanothervowelandtozbeforeaconsonantCompare

ExamplesofdifferenceinmeaningbetweenaVerbusedwithandwithoutsi

1BeatongivessevenClasseshisClassesIVandVareherecombinedbutheincludesVerbsWithS3initiali-inhisClassVHisClassVIislsquoIrregularrsquohisClassVIIlsquoDefectiversquoieusedin3rdPersononly

2ComparethetwotypesofMorphologicalClassinMABA(wherehoweverthePrefixesofS2distinguishPrimaryClasses)p195VerbClassesdistinguishedbyTenseSuffixesarealsofoundinGELEBAp562

1InMABAtheVerbalNouniscloselyrelatedtotheImperative(p197)1CfSpecialCategorySuffixesinNYIMANG(p246)KOALIB-MOROandTALODI-MASAKIN(p

276)1ThesearealmostidenticalwiththepostpositionalParticlesinKUNAMA(p340)comparealsothe

GenitiveSuffixintheTAMAGroup(p211)2NotrelatedtotheSelf-standingformsandthusperhapsanNKfeature1TheclosestresemblancetothisformisfoundinDINKA-NUERseep4202CfMABAGroupp2023CfKATLAp2661BeatonwritesakariacutebaasonewordIfheisrightthentheconceptoftheVerbComplexmustbe

enlargedtoincludenotonlytheNegativeInterrogativeandFutureParticlesbutalsosi(sect15)

1ThisprobablyaccountsfortheTransitiveorCausativesignificanceofspostulatedbyZyhlarzsect4a(iii)

14THEDAJUGROUP

SourcesRCStevensonMSnotesSSantandrealsquoLittleknowntribesoftheBahrelGhazalbasinrsquoSudanNotes1948

THEDAJUlanguagesfallintotwomaindivisionsVEasternSHATTandLIGURIWesternDAJUandNIALGULGULEStevensonrsquosmaterialdealsmainlywithSHATTfromwhichthemajorityof

examplesareconsequentlytaken

1Phonetics1aVowelsThereappeartobefivemainvowelsieaouwithacentralvoweloumlinthe

eastern languages this vowel would seem to be a separate phoneme in some

WordsbutsometimesalternateswithuStevensonalsorecordsopenIandUԑandᴐbutthesemaynotbephonemic

and are not written here except in the Demonstratives in SHATT whereStevensondistinguishesᴐandoVowellengthhasmorphologicalsignificance

AnaptycticəhasbeenrecordedVowelHarmonyundoubtedlyoccursbuttheprinciplesgoverningitarenotat

presentunderstood1bConsonantsTherearefourpointsofarticulation1

t and d are dental in most languages alveolar and slightly retroffex inSHATT a few examples of more retroffex ṭ and ḍ have been recorded inLIGURI1andrareseparatephonemes

CompoundswithWkwģwarecommonŋWalsooccursVoiced nasal compounds both explosive and implosive and long or

gerninatedconsonantsoccurusuallyas the resultof sound-changeConsonantchange is intimately bound up with morphology--see sect 4a (i iii)Voicing ofconsonantsinintervocalicpositionandelisionhavealsobeenrecorded

2ToneandStressThree tone levels have been noted but no tonal doublets have been found

(examplesherearenotmarkedfortone)Stress would also seem to have some importance but has not been fully

investigated

3WordShapeBothNounandVerbStemsmaybemonosyllabicCVCbeingcommonbut

longerformsalsooccurSomeNounshaveavowelending(SuffixP)inthewesternlanguageswhich

isabsentintheeastern(forapparentconsonantSufficircxesseehoweverDeterminativesect8c)4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i)Verb conjugation is highly variable and it is possible that theremay be

Morphological Classes of Verbs classifiable according to more than onecriterionTwoClassesofVerbsmaybedistinguishedby the typeof sound-change in

theinitialconsonantoftheStemIVerbsinwhichtheSteminbothAspects(sect9a)isthatofthePluralImperative(Withinitialconsonantexplosiveorzero)

IIVerbsinwhichtheSteminbothAspectsisthatoftheSingularImperative(allotherinitialconsonants)

Cutting across the Classes given above the following main types ofconjugation pattern have been noted (see also sect 9b (i) )

5Withotheraddedelements1

(ii)ItisnotknownwhetherthereareToneClassesofVerbs

(iii)DerivativeVerbsareformedinseveralways(Impergivenhere)2

DirectionalVerbshavevariousSuffixesorStemExtensions1

4bNounsThe followingNoun Formative Suffixes have been recordedVerbalNoun

SHATT-t2SILA-kA Suffix -n(V) occurs in all languageswith no apparent significance It is

oftenattached to loan-words SHATT aŋģareb-ne bed (ARABIC) murta-nihorse(NUBIAN)5NumberThese languagesexhibitbothTKandNKcharacteristicsSee Introduction

p22

5aNounsIn the eastern languages there is a multiplicity of Singular and Plural

Suffixessome of these being of the TK type others not In the western

languagesthereareseveralSingularSuffixesbutthegeneralPluralSuffixis-geor-ke1sometimesinsteadofsometimesaddedtothePluralSuffixasfoundineasternDAJUNounsinSHATTcanbeconvenientlygroupedasfollows

InSHATTthere isaCollective(withzeroSuffixes)asWellasaNumericalPluralofsomeNouns3

SpecialCategoryProper names have two Plural forms with the following meanings

5bAdjectivesAdjectiveslikeNounshaveavarietyofSingularandPluralSuffixes1Note

thatinSHATTthereappearstobeasmallerrangeofSuffixesthanwithNouns

butinSILAalarger5cPronominalandconjugationalTheoccurrenceofaSingularalveolarelement(n)andaPluralvelarelement

(k) in pronominal forms is very widespread These elements are found in

PossessivePronouns(wheretheydistinguishNumberofthePossessedNoun)(sect8a (iv) ) some Interrogatives (sect 8b) and the Demonstratives (sect 8c) TheDeterminativeParticle (sect8c)consists in theSingularofavariablebutalwaysalveolar consonant in the Plural of k In Verb conjugation a velar elementoccursintheIstPerson(k)and2ndPerson(ŋ)PluralbutwithoutcorrespondingSingular element (sect9b) in theSelfstandingPersonalPronouns avelar elementoccurssporadicallyinPluralPersons(sect8a(i))Singularn(alsoŋ)andPluralkarealsofoundinvarioustypesofPredication(sect1oa)

5dVerbsForPluralObjectandActionseesect4a(iii)

6GenderThere is Pronominal Gender in the 3rd Person only (in Selfstanding

SubjectObjectandPossessivesect8a)TherearetwoorthreeGendersaccordingto language the Gender-distinguishing elements being

(Material on otherDAJU languages is insuflicient to showwhether there isGenderdistinction)7Case

ThereisnoinffexionforCase

8Pronouns8aPersonal(i)TheSelfstandingPronouns are here given for a number of languages in

SHATTtheformsofthePronounsusedasObjectoftheVerbarerelatedtotheSelfstandingformsandarethereforealsogivenhere

Exclusive-InclusivedistinctioninPrhasbeenrecordedinsomelanguagesitisnotknownwhetheritoccursintheothers(ii)SubjectofVerb

SubjectPrefixesvaryaccordingtoAspect therearealsoSubjectSuffixesinsome Plural Persons

The forms given above for SHATT follow the Determinative (sect 8c) when

usedasAdjectives8cDemonstrativeandDeterminative(i) There are three degrees of distance and in SHATT a Demonstrative of

ReferenceaswellIntheeasternlanguagestheDemonstrativeAdjectivesrequiretheDeterminativeParticle(see(ii)below)

(ii) In the eastern languages there is a Particlewhichwould appear to be aDeterminative It standsbetweenaNounanda followingQualifier (AdjectiveNumeralPossessive Demonstrative the Interrogative ldquowhichrsquo and NounPossessor) It cosists of an alveolar consonant (but sometimes zero) in theSingular k in the Plural2 It cannot properly be described as a Prefix to theQualifiersinceinthewesternlaguagesafinalelementintheNouncorrespondsto this Particle neither however is it here a Suffix since it is separable andrepeatable (for convenience it is here hyphened to the following word)CompareThe nature of the alveolar consonant in the singular varies according to

principlesnotatpresentunderstoodExampleswiththelsquonearrsquoDemonstrative

8dRelativeThe Relative Particle which stands at the end of the clause is identical in

shape with the near Demonstrative Pronoun in SHATT A Demonstrative isrequired as well agoumlnaŋ aŋ1 a-ndokolo-ŋ2aŋ I this I-stand who (I who amstanding)Wasaka-ndokolo-C-oumlkaŋwewhoarestanding

Sokᴐŋ1loweiaŋroadthislongwhich(thislongroad)poxobibin-ika-noxaŋchildthatI-sawwho(thechildIsaw)9VerbConjugation9aTherearetwoActiveVoicesApplicative(withadefiniteObjectexpressedor understood) and Qualitative (with indefinite Object or no Object) TheQualitative has a Stem Extension -SV or -VcV3 according to Aspect (ForPassiveseesect4a(iii))TherearetwoAspectsIndefiniteorPresentandDefiniteor Past distinguished in conjugation by the choice of Subject Affixes Forexamplesseebelow9bConjugationforPersonandwithNounSubjectisbyPrefixes4alsoSuffixesinP1and2TheSelfstandingPronoungenerallyprecedestheVerb

The abovemay be taken as a lsquoregularrsquoVerb For variations inConjugationpattern see sect 4a (i) Compare also

(ii)ImperativeThe Imperative consists of theStemwith finalStemvowel in someVerbs

and with change of initial consonant as between Singular and Plural Forexamplesseesect4a(i)-

9cTensesTwoAuxiliaryVerbsj-u(Plnj-uClassI)sitandwuŋ(PlwwuŋClassII)

come are used to form Continuous or Progressive and Future Tenses BothAuxiliaryandMainVerbareconjugatedforAspectandPersoninbothVoices

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerbsldquotobersquo1oaZeroCopulahasbeenrecorded

Emphatic Predication is expressed by a construction based on the Pronouns(SelfstandingandPossessive)Inthelsquoitis1rsquoamp38cformthereisaSingularSuffix in ŋ (in S 3 only) a Plural Suffix -k (all Persons) in the PredicativePossessiveNumberofthePossessedNounisdistinguishedbybothPrefixesandSuffixes Sg n- -ŋ Pl k- -k

11NegationIn the eastern languages there are Negative Postpositions

InNIANGULGULEthePostpositionisba1InSILAtheARABICwalaprecedestheVerb

cookeģariŋģgewalawura-ahachildrenbeernotdrink

12WordOrderInmostlanguageswordorderinthesimplesentenceisS+V+OinSILAitis

S+O+VBothordersappeartobepossibleinNIANGULGULE

13TheGenitiveConstruction13aNounPossessorTheorderisPossessed+PossessorthroughoutSimplejuxtapositionisusedto

denote Intimate possession and in Compound Nouns

14WordOrderwithQualifiersTheQualiacutefierfollowstheNouninalllanguagesintheeasternlanguagesthe

Determinative followed by -a stands between Noun and Adjective

1CfPARANILOTICp4471TheseformsareobscuretheremaybeothersasyetundiscoveredasseveralVerbsappeartobe

lsquoaberrantrsquo2IntheIndefiniteandDefiniteAspectstheStemExtensionsvaryDerivativeFormativesalsovary

accordingtoAspectinNYIMANG(p244)andKOALIB-MORO(p273)accordingtoTenseinPARANILOTIC(p451)

1CfTEMEINp2552ATKcharacteristicseep221PerhapsfromBONGO-BAGIRMI(seep69)2Noassimilationofntoghere3CfBARIp4631SantandrealsquoLittle-knowntribesoftheBahtelGhazalbasinrsquoSudanNotes19481Santandreaopcit2MacDiarmidlsquoThelanguagesoftheNubaMountainsrsquoSudanNotes193I3MacMiacutechaeIlsquoDarfurlinguisticsrsquoSudanNotes1920

4Withsound-changeofinitialconsonantinsomeVerbs(seesect4a(i))1CfthePronominalsbasedonminNILOTIClanguagesp4422WiththisphenomenoncftheDeterminativeinDINKA(Singular)wherehowevertheelementisn

afteravowelornasalizationoftheprecedingconsonantinthePluralthefollowingDemonstrativehask-Prefix(seepp421-2)

1ItwouldappearthattheDemonstrativePronounisusedafterPronounstheDemonstrativeAdjectiveafterNouns

2-ŋapparentlyoccursafteraVerbendinginavowel3CfMAASAIandKALENJINIntransitive(Qualitative)p4524ThevowelsinS3andP3inbothAspectsS2andP2intheDefiniteAspectareunstableCompare

mi-Si-eheeatsma-siheateki-Siyouateka-ģasyoubit1Santandreaopcit

15THENYIMANGGROUP

SourceRCStevensonlsquoAsurveyofthephoneticsandgrammaticalstructureoftheNubaMountainlanguagesWithparticularreferencetoOtoroKatchaandNyimangrsquoAfrikauUbersee1956alsopersonalcommunication

AllexamplesarefromNYIMANGunlessotherwisestated

1Phonetics1aVowelsSTEVENSON records sevenvowelphonemes i e saᴐ ouwithI andU aslsquopositionalvariantsrsquoofianduoumlisamemberoftheophonemeassociatedwithɽ anddu is fronted to ii inassociationWithpalatalsəhasbeen recorded inAFITTIVowellengthisnotsignificantDiphthongsarecommonVowelHarmonyperhapsoccurs(eginStemExtensionsofDerivativeVerbs

sect4a(iii))buttheprinciplesgoverningitarenotknown

1bConsonants

pandCoccasionallyoccurinAFITTIbutareabsentinNYIMANGtandd(alveolar)areslightlyretroflexʃbelongstothesphonemeoccurringbeforefrontvowelsbeʃihomebutbesᴐathome1randɽaredistinctphonemesbulaŋbroadhocburaŋadulteressbuɽaŋjackalFinalrmaybesyllabic

andissometimeslonginAFITTICompare

The only consonants found in final position are nasals liquids and ģ(unexploded) intervocalicģ is often softened tow or elidedmoģurmowurmourbaboon

Voiced nasal compounds occur also compoundsWith liquids Compoundswithwareverycommonandoftenoccurinitially

2ToneandStress2a There appear to be three tone levels dynamic tone occurs only whendisyllablesarereducedLexicaltonedoubletshavebeenrecorded

Tonealsohasgrammaticalfunction(seesectsect4a(iii)and9a)Stevensonrsquos examples are only tone-marked When tone is of lexical or

grammaticalsignificance

2bStressalsoappearstodistinguishWords

Stressisnotmarkedinotherexamplesgivenherehowever

3WordShapeNoun and Verb Stems are mostly monosyllabic CV CVC or disyllabic

CVCV(C)longerwordsalsooccurespeciallyinAFITTIManywordsinAFITTIhaveafinalvowelabsentinNYIMANGwhichhas

noapparentsignificance4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i)DefiniteandIndefiniteAspectshaveStemsdifieringinanumberofways

(seesect9a) It does not appear possible however to group verbs intoMorphologicalClassesaccordingtotheirAspectStems(ii)ItisnotknownwhetherthereareToneClasses(iii)TherearemanyDerivativeVerbsformedbyStem-extendingSuntildeicircxesSomeoftheseSuffixesdifferaccordingtoAspect1

4bNounsNounFormativeSuffixesaremanyandinclude

4cAdjectivesSomeAdjectiveshavenoFormativeelementsOthersareformedfromNouns

orVerbs by Prefixes a-kV- vowel change in the Stemmay occur aswell

5NumberTheselanguagesexhibitNKcharacteristicsSeeIntroductionp23

5aNounsNumberisnotdistinguishedinmostNounsItisinfactcharacteristicofthe

NYIMANGGroup thatNumber is shown in theVerb (sect5c) rather than in theNoun

Partialreduplicationisusedtoexpresslsquoallthehelliprsquomԑdԑhillmԑmԑdԑallthehills

SpecialCategoryNouns denoting persons especially kinship terms and proper names and

certainPronounshaveaPluralSuffix-ŋiorndashgi1

nyufanyufa-ŋi(your)fathermᴐrmᴐr-ģifriendbԑlfԑbԑlfԑ-ŋiBelfepeoplecalledBelfeorBelfeandcompany

SeealsoSelf-standingPersonalPronouns(sect8aandthePersonalInterrogative(sect8b)SeealsoCase(sect7)

5bAdjectivesNumber is not usually distinguished Special Category Plural Suffixes are

attachedtotheQualifier(asfinalintheNounGroup)insteadoftotheNounbuttheuseofQualifierswithSpecialCategoryNounsisoftenavoided(seesectIo)

5cPronounsNumber is distinguished in the Self-standing Personal Pronouns 8a and the

Interrogativelsquowhorsquo(sect8b)inthesamewayasinSpecialCategoryNounsbyPluralSuffix-ŋi-ģi(sect5a)iebyavelarPluralelement

5dVerbsManyVerbshavedistinctSingularandPluralStems(distinguishingNumber

ofSubject)egrdquo


7CaseCaseisshownbySuffixeswhicharepostpositionaltotheNounGroupThere

are two sets of Case Suffixes for lsquonormalrsquo and Special Category Nounsrespectively1 Personal Pronouns have their own Case forms which showrelationship to theSpecialCategoryCaseendingsThe lsquonormalrsquoCaseSuffixeshave two forms ofwhich the second is used lsquobroadly speakingrsquowithNounsendinginvowelsliquidsandŋ

In thePluralSpecialCategoryNounswithSuffix -ŋior -ģihavezeroCaseSuffix in the Accusative and Dative the lsquonormalrsquo Case Suffixes in bothGenitivesandintheAblativelsquospecialrsquoCaseSuffixintheLocativeonlynyufa-ŋ-okԑl(your)fathersrdquocountrynyufa-ŋ-IlatelaigotoyourfathersTheCaseSuffixesareusuallyfinal in theNounGroupawelkafᴐr-auțan

litIhouseempty-towentbutnoteintheAccusativeațԑrģԑny-ᴐtabar-owԑnIdonkeywhiteseeStevensonaddsthatlsquoseveralofthecasesareusedinconjunctionwithcertain

prepositionssomeofwhichgovernmorethanonecaseaccordingtomeaningrsquobutgivesnoexamples

8Pronouns8aPersonal(i)TheSelf-standingPronouns ofNYIMANGare here set out in allCases

together with the AFITTI Nominative forms

ItwillbenotedthatthereisBlockPatternofasortThePluralPronounshavenoAblativeformsinsteadtheNominativeisusedfollowedbyģiewithThereisacertainsimilaritybetweenthePronominalCaseformsandtheCaseSuffixesofSpecialCategoryNouns(sect7)buttheyarenotidentical(ii) The Self-standing Pronouns Nominative precede the Verb as

SubjectTherearenoPronounSubjectAffixestotheVerb(butseesect9b)(iii)TheSelf-standingPronounsAccusative standbetween theSubject and

VerbasObject(iv)TheGenitiveformprecedestheNounasPossessive

8bInterrogativeThe only Interrogative occurring in Stevensonrdquos material is ŋa1 Pl ŋa-ŋi

who(SpecialCategoryseesect5a)8cDemonstrativeandDeterminative(i) Information onDemonstratives is lacking in Stevensonrsquosmaterial but it

wouldappearthattherearetwoDegrees

TheycantakeCaseendings(ComparetheDemonstrativeAdverbs

(ii)ThereisalsoaSuffix-ḑuWhichStevensoncallsaDeterminativeParticlewhich is attached to the Noun or Qualifier and can be followed by Case

endings

9VerbConjugation9aTherearetwoAspectsDefiniteandIndefinitewithdifferentStemsThe

StemsaredifferentiatedinanumberofwaysandtheStemExtensionsofmany

DerivativeVerbslikewisedifferaccordingtoAspect(sect4a(iii))Noclearrulescan be laid down for the formation of the Aspect Stems but certain generaltendencieshavebeenobserved

There are two Moods Indicative and Dependent in each Aspect

9b(i)ConjugationforPersonandwithNounSubjectTheSelf-StandingPronounorNounSubjectprecedestheVerbPersonisthus

notshownintheVerbComplexitselfexceptthatintheProgressivePastTenseof the Indefinite Aspect the Tense Suffix is

Number (but not Person) of both Subject and Object is distinguished bySuffixesThere are threeNumbers SingularDual andPluralTheseSuffixesprecedetheTenseandMoodSuffilxes(ii)ImperativeTheImperativebelongstotheDefiniteAspect(theNegativeImperativetothe

IndefiniteAspectseesect11)

9cTenses(i) There are two Tenses in each Mood of each Aspect General and Past

(DentildeniteAspectRemotePastIndefiniteAspectProgressiveorHabitualPast)TheseTensesaredistinguishedbySuffixesThe Verb Complex thus consists of (maximum number of components)

AspectStem+DerivativeExtension+Number+Tense+MoodSuffixes

Table of Suffixes (Paradigm not complete) Verb țal tam eat

(ii)FurtherTensescanbeformedfromtheabovebytheadditionofParticles

invariouspositions

10VerbsldquotobersquoandldquotohaversquoNon-VerbalPredicationdoesnotoccurTheVerblsquotobersquoisDefinitenaIndef

nԑ

The Verb ldquoto bersquo is also used to avoid the use of QualifiersWith Special

CategoryNouns

11NegationTheParticlefaprecedestheVerb

The Negative Imperative belongs to the Indefinite Aspect fa precedes theObject

NotethattheSingularformisusedinthePluralWithaSingularObjectbutthePluralformwithnoobject

12WordOrderWordorderinthefinitesentenceisS+O+V(seeexamplesundersect9c)

13TheGenitiveConstructionWord order in NYIMANG is always Possessor-I-Possessed Simple

juxtaposition is recorded in a few cases only which may be regarded ascompounds

bԑlfe-mafatherofBelfeŋԑ-mafatherofsons(paterfamilias)

Notealsoamina-wInatAminarsquos(FrenchlsquochezAminarsquo)Normally the Possessor Noun or Pronoun is in the Genitive Case

In AFITTI Stevenson has recorded examples of Possessed-l-Possessor

In MacDiarmidrsquos material1 however the order is the same as that inNYIMANGsir-uŋwachiefrsquosson

14ConstructionswithQualifiersAdjectivesandDemonstratives follow theNounand formpartof theNoun

GroupinthatCaseSuffixesareattachedtotheQualifieronlywaḑaŋdia-imanbig-towelka-fᴐr-auhouseempty-into

SimilarlytheDeterminativeSuffix(sect8c)isattachedtotheQualifierw1dԑŋkԑd1nŋ-ḑuthelittleboyinquestion

1AsinDAJU(p233)andKOALIB-MORO(p273)InPARANILOTICDeriiacutevativeSuffixesvaryaccordingtoTense(p451)

1lsquoGoandreturnrsquoformsarealsorecordedinKOALIB-MORO(p273)andLOTUHO(p452)2CftasVerbalNounFormativeintheTKlanguages1cfKOALIB-MonoandTALODI-MASAKINp276seeaiseFURp2221AseparateCaseSuffixforSpecialCategorywordsisfoundalsoinKOALIB-MORO(p280)1CfMABA(p201)TEMEIN(p258)NILOTIC(p421)andPARANILOTIC(p472)1ComparetheelementtintheDefiniteAspectintheTAMAandDIDINGA-MURLEGroups(pp213

371)2StemonlysuchVerbshavevariousSuffixesusuallyvowelswhosefunctionisnotclear1QuotedinStevenson

16THETEMEINGROUP

SourcesRCStevensonlsquoAsurveyofthephoneticsandgrammaticalstructureoftheNubaMountainlanguagesrsquoalsopersonalcommunication

All examples are from TEMEIN unless otherwise stated Material on lsquojirrursquo(initalics)isquotedbyStevensonfromMacDiarmid

1Phonetics1aVowelsStevenson records seven vowel phonemes i eԑ aᴐ o uwith I andU

lsquooccurringaspositionalvariantsrsquoItshouldbenotedhoweverthatIandUarenot confined tounstressed syllables and that final ianduaregenerallycloseeg

Vowellengthhasbeenrecordedbutappearstobesignificantinafewwordsonlyk-ԑnhandsk-ԑԑneyesnaGenitiveParticlenaagoatVowelHarmonyoccursespeciallyinAffixesbuttheprinciplesgoverningit

have not been determined

2ToneandStress

2aThepresenceofTonehasbeennotedbutitsroleisnotknownOneexampleoflexicalTonedoubletisgiven2b Stress is often on the antepenultimate syllable eg

The material in the following sections is however unmarked for Tone orStress

3WordShapeEtymologicalStems areoftenobscuredbyAffixes but appear tobemainly

mono-syllabic(CVCbeingcommon)ordisyllabic(CVCVCbeingcommon)ldquoItishoweverpossiblethatmanydisyllableshaveconcealedaffixesrsquoSomeVerbStemshoweverappeartoconsistofConlysincethefinalvowel

is both variable and separable and may thus be a suffixz

4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i) There appear to be three Morphological Classes distinguished by the

vowel Suffixes of the Imperative and the Present Tense

(ii)ThereisnoevidenceofToneClasses(iii)ThefollowingDerivativeVerbshavebeenrecordedformedbySuffixes

or Stem Extensions lsquoDativersquo (to for at on on behalf of amp38c) Suffix -VkV thevowelshavingafixedrelation to theStemSuffixof theImperative

QualitativeSuffix-k1followingtheStemSuffixlam-a-kEat(Iam-antԑțEat meatl) Associative-Reciprocal Stem Extension -aņ- preceding the Stem

SuffixPlural Action or Object is shown by Stem Extension -Vț- (only used

however when it is specially desired ᴐto emphasize plurality)

TheelementtisbothapronominalandverbalPluralelementSeesect5cdalsoImperativePluralsect9b(ii)Change of Stem Suffix appears to denote direction3 and the Suffix -ai to

denote Motion towards in such examples as

ForPassiveseeParticiplesect4c

4bNounsThe only Noun Formatives recorded are the Suffixes used to form Verbal

NounsCfthePassiveParticiplesect4c

4cAdjectivesAPassiveParticipleisformedbythesameSuffixesastheVerbalNounthe

con-struction is however diiacuteferent Compare


p22

5aNounsNumber is distinguished by Affixes (Suffixes in the Singular Prefixes and

Suffixes in the Plural) these Affixes are mostly of the ldquoTKrsquo type and are

variouslycombined

5bAdjectivesAdjectives like Nouns have their own specific Singular and Plural forms

whichdonotconcordwiththequalifiedNounOnlyafewexamplesaregivenanditisthusnotpossibletostatewhetherallthecombinationsofAffixesshownabove(sect5a)canoccurwithAdjectives

5cPronounsNumberofthePossessedNounisdistinguishedinthePossessives(sect8a(iv))

and the Genitive Particle (sect 13) by a Plural Prefix kI- the Demonstrativeslikewise(sect8c)haveaPluralPrefixkl-andtheParticleusedwithInterrogatives(sect 8b) a Plural Prefix k- The occurrence of ņ in Singular and k in PluralPersonalPronouns(sect8a(i))shouldalsobenotedAlongsidethisvelarPluralelementthereisalsoaPluralelementțoccurring

in thePersonal Pronouns (sect8a (i)) the Personal Interrogative (sect8c) and in theSubjectPrefixesofthe1stand2ndPersonsPlural(sect9b)

5dVerbsThePluralelementț1occursasfollowsPluralSubject3rdPerson(apparently

optional)ka-lam-(aț-)ԑ theyeat (ka-Iam-ԑ he eats) Imperative Iam-aț-aEatye(Iam-aEat)PluralObjectorAction-seesect4a(iii)SomeVerbshavedifferentStemsaccordingtowhethertheSubjectisSingular

or Plural the Plural Stems can be seen to be related to the Singular and theelement nt or ņț occurs in some (but not all) Plural Stems


7CaseALocative Suffix -ᴐ has been recorded if theNoun ends in a vowel this

Suffixreplacesthefinalvowel

8Pronouns8aPersonalThevarious formsof thePersonalPronouns are set out belowTheSubject

Prefixesvaryslightlyaccording toMoodandTense(sect9c)andareaffectedbyVowel Harmony Note the Prefix k1- in Possessives to showNumber of thePossessedNoun

8bInterrogativeThe Personal Interrogative has two forms in the Singular ŋaņi ŋaņᴐ Pl

ŋaņiațStevensonsuggests1thatthemeaningofthesetwoformsmaybeŋaņilsquowho

thisrsquo (ofsomeonewhomyouhaveseenbutdonotknow)ŋaņᴐ lsquowho thatrsquo (ofsomeoneyouhavenotseen)CfDemonstrativessect8crsquoWhosersquoisexpressedbyņaŋaņiņaŋaņᴐ(seeGenitivesect13)TheotherInterrogativesareŋԑ what ņԑԑņ Which with Optional lsquolinkrsquo i Pl ki2 mԑrԑŋ-1s (i)

ņԑԑņmԑrԑŋ(ki)ņԑԑņwhichtreekwooorkwooņiwhere

8cDemonstrativeThree degrees of distance have been recorded

With these compare the Demonstrative Adverbs

9VerbConjugation9aTherearetwoformsoftheVerbwhichmightberegardedaseitherAspectsorMoods Indicative andDependent In the Indicative there is a StemSuffixvaryingaccordingtoMorphologicalClassofVerb(sect4a(i))ŋa-lam-sIeatŋa-IamthatImayeat

9b Conjugation for Person (i) Pronoun Subject Suffixes vary somewhataccordingtoAspect(orMood)andTenseThePluralelementțwhichispresentinthePrefixesofP1andP2occursasanoptionalStemExtensioninP3(see4a(iii)5cd)Forexamplesseebelow(ii)ImperativeTheImperativehasaStemSuffixvaryingaccordingtoMorphologicalClass

andthusdifferinginsomeVerbsfromthatoftheIndicative(sect4a(i))InthePluralthe Stem Extension -Vț- stands between Stem and Stem Suffix

9cTensesTheIndicativehastwoTensesPresentandPastThePastTensehasaPrefix-

ț(V)-standingbetweenSubjectPrefixandStemThePluralelementținPIandP 2 Subject Prefixes is elided before the Past Tense Prefix

StevensonhasrecordedexamplesofwhatappearstobeasecondDependentTense its exact meaning is not known

(iii)AdditionalTensesareformedWiththeParticlekԑņԑprecedingtheVerbdenoting Progressive or ԑHabitual action sometimes also Future The Self-standing Pronoun precedes kԑņ (apparently not in 3rd Person)

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerblsquotobersquo10aZeroCopulahasbeenrecorded

AreversedorderisfoundincertainCompoundsdenotingsexsizeinwhichthetwocomponentsarelinkedbytheParticle-ņțԑ-Thesecompoundsareformedwith thewordsopuņ bull l1ģamԑwomandalchildo dogo-ņțԑ-puņmaledog o-ņțԑ-l1ģamԑ bitcho-ņțԑ-dal puppyNotealso tijuhoney tiju-ņțԑ-dalbeeņ1ņațhandņ1ņaț-ņțԑ-dalfinger14ConstructionsWithQualifiersAdjectivesPossessivesandDemonstrativesfollowtheNounandhavePlural

Prefixes kV- (Adjectives) k1- (Possessives and Demonstratives sect 5c)AdjectivesmayalsohavePluralSuffixes (seesect5b)Numeralsalso follow theNounandarelinkedtoitbyaParticleaԑi(1)TheyhavenoNumberAffixes

1CftheIntransitiveinKATLAp2642ATenseParticleseesect9c3CfDAJUp2344ATKcharacteristic1APluralSuffix-tinoccursinSUNGOR(p210)PARANILOTIC(p462)andTEPETI-IP3952CfespeciallythesingulativeSuffix-tVtinPARANILOTIC(-in-detinNANDI)pp4624641cfPARAN1LoT1cp4651Themeaningsheregiveninbracketsarethosegiventohimbyhisinformants2RelativeCfDIDINGA-MURLEci(p382)

17THEKATLAGROUP

SourcesRCStevensonlsquoAsurveyofthephoneticsandgrammaticalstructureoftheNubaMountainlanguages_rsquoandpersonalcommunication

AllexamplesarefromKATLAunlessotherwisestated

1Phonetics1aVowelsStevensonrecordssevenvowelphonemesieԑaᴐouWithIandUas

ldquopositional variantsrsquoThere is also anunrounded central vowel probablynon-phonemiacutec (varying between iuml and ouml in KATLA but more resembling u inTIMA)Unstressed vovvels especially a are sometimes heard as ə lsquothere ismuchvowelvariationrsquoVowel lengthhasbeen recorded and isoccasionally lexically significante

foreehunger(seealsoDemonstrativessect8c)

Juxtapositionofvowels isgenerallyavoidedby the introductionof aglottalstopᴐ1girlPlᴐ-ᴐ1DiphthongsendinginioccurbutarerareVowel Harmony exists but the principles governing it are not known the

initial vowel of theVerb is perhapsdeterminedbyVowelHarmony (sectsect4a (i)9b)

1bConsonants

Dental1andglaredistinctfromalveolar(slightlyretroffex)tanddjisapurepalatalplosivenisalveolar(exceptinthecompoundnd)kpandgboccurinKATLAonlyWheretheyalternateWithkwkandgwgrespectivelyCorrespondenceswithTIMAareobscureCompare

ʃandcoccuronlyasoptionalvariantsofss1kʃ1kc1ktwoģasgaʃģachead

ɽoccursinafewwordsonlyandmaybenon-phonemicFinalrislongandcanbesyllabickalrnecklrrpig

NasalcompoundswithvoicedplosivesandwithSare fairlycommonalsocompoundswithliquidscompoundswithwarecommon(butseenoteonlabio-velarsabove)Finalvoicelessplosivesareunexplodedvoicedplosivesdonotoccurfinally

2ToneandStressStevensonnotestheexistenceofbothtoneandstressandgivesexamplesofa

fewlexicaltonedoubletsExamplesarenototherwisetone-marked

3WordShapeStevensonstates thatlsquoetymologicalrootsmaybemonosyllabicordisyllabic

the latter often having the form (C)VCV Reduplication of Stems (usually inpart)isquitecommonrdquo


(i)Thereare twoMorphologicalClassesofVerbsaccording to theshapeoftheStemIVerbsbeginningwithCintheImperativeand3rdPersonSingularjatakSteallmatԑBreakllԑStrikeIIVerbswithinitialvowelintheImperativeand3rdPersonSingularThisis

apparentlyusuallya-oro-a-bukDrinklo-jaŋSinglo-loumlkEatTothisClassbelongAdjectivalVerbsofvariousoriginsa-tԑbesmallamplt

tԑsmalla-ģwosbestonyampltģwosstoneVariation in the Subject Prefixes of Class I Verbs and the initial vowel of

ClassIIVerbsoccursItwouldseemthatthevowelprecedingtheStemisI-ori-whenthePersonalPronouncontainsafrontorclosevowelComparenyᴐŋny-a-bukIdrinknyᴐŋny-o-loumlkIeatnԑnn-1-bukwedrinknԑnn-i-loumlkweeatConjugation ot the twoClasses appears to be similar except for the phoneticchangesmentionedabove

(ii)ThereisnoevidenceofToneClasses(iii) Derivative Verbs are mostly formed by Stem-extending Suffixes

Intransitive -Vk (apparently ina fewVerbsonly)o-loumlk eat (Trans)ouml-1k-ok(Intrans)1Causative-takak(-akakafterafinalk)a-ģodancea-ģo-takakcausetodance

a-bukdrinka-buk-akakcausetodrinkPassive-tVmatԑ breakmatԑ-ta be broken lԑ beat lԑ-ta be beaten There is also a

VowelPrefixaccompaniedbylossoffinalStemVoweldenotingFrequentativelamibitea-Iammatԑbreako-mattԑcuta-t2

4bNounsVarious Noun Formative Affixes both Prefixes and Suffixes have been

recordedNounAgent(α)Suffix-akal (followingfinalk) initialvowelretaineda-bukdrinkabUk-akaldrunkardu-nyoklieunyok-akalliar

(β)Suffix-t(replacingfinalk)

jatakstealjata-tthiefNotealsoPrefixj-andinternalchangeinaltokfearj-1l1tcoward

TheVerbalNounisformedinvariouswaysSuffix ndasha1 (following final k) initial vowel absent a-buk drink buk-aldrinkingjatakstealjatak-altheft

o-jaŋsingjaŋģ-alsongNotealsoo-ģ1lbuyģ1l-abuying

Suffix-pᴐinitialvowelabsento-loumlkeatloumlk-pᴐfoodNotealsojᴐ-loumlk-pᴐeatingPrefix1-replacinginitial

vowel (Infinitive)1di ali 1-bukWaterwhich to-drink (GenitiveConstructionseesect13)Notealsokadaakmarrykadaa-1marriageaģodancek-aģo-taadance

AbstractNounsareformedfromAdjectivalVerbsbyPrefixb-a-tԑbesmallb-atԑsmallnessotunybedarkb-otunydarknessNotechangeininitialvowelina-dulbehotb-ԑ-dulheatᴐ-1ԑnybecoldb-ԑ-lԑnycold4cAdjectivesTherearenoAdjectiveformativeelements

5Number5aNounsSingularandPluralaredistinguishedbyPrefixesvowelvariationintheStem

sometimesoccursaswellTherearetwomaintypesofPrefix

(a)KATLAandTIMASgC(oftenk-ģ-ģb-b-)Pl w- (KATLA) y- (TIMA) zero (both languages)

NotealsotheSingulativeuseofthePrefixinKATLAģ-iyaiyadropofmilkmilkģ-ԑԑԑԑgrainofmilletmillet(β)KATLAonlySgzeroPlV-(withsomedegreeofVowelHarmony)kața-kațlegᴐ1ᴐ-ˀᴐ1girljԑna-jԑnhandarmInsomewordsinKATLA

alternativePlurals havebeen recordedmomanyomanya-momany elephantģilamilama-ģilamgrass5bAdjectivesNumberisnotdistinguished

5cPronounsNumber is distinguished in pronominal forms as in Nouns by either (α)

SgPl Prefixes ģ- k-y- zero the near Demonstrative (sect 8c) the RelativeGenitiveParticle8d13)(β)PlPrefixa-inKATLAonlythefarDemonstrative(sect8c)


7CaseThereisnoinffexionforCase(butseesect13TIMA)

8Pronouns8aPersonal(i)TheSelf-standingPronounsare

(ii) The Subject of the Verb in KATLA is a Prefix consisting of the first

consonantof theSelf-standingformexcept inS3where it iszeroTheSelf-standingPronounoftenprecedestheVerbaswell(iii)TheSelf-standingPronoun follows theVerbasObject andcanalsobe

usedinadditiontoaNounObjectny-a-kp1ŋ1ŋᴐˀᴐ1teIbeatthemtheboys(iv)ThePossessiveSuffixesare

8bInterrogativeNoinformationavailable


(i)ThreedegreesofdistancehavebeenrecordedinKATLA(ii)ADeterminativeSuffix-dԑisrecordedbyMeinhofStevensonwasunable

tofinditandconsidersthatitisprobablytheDemonstrativetsSeealsoGenitive(sect13)forSuffix-nԑ-niinTIMA

8dRelativeThereisaRelativeParticle

TheRelativeisused(α)WithVerbstheVerbbeingprecededbyt(a)-whichStevensonconsiders

to be connectedwith theDemonstrative tԑģoģwunԑnģ-ali t-akaoiwomanwhomakespots

(β)WithAdjectivalVerbsusedattributively (sect14) andwithNounsusedasattributive Adjectives ģwos ģal tԑ Plwos al tԑ stone which small (smallstone)iģalģwosplacewhichstone(stonyplace)1

9VerbConjugation9aAccordingtoStevensontherearetwoAspectsIndefinitewithoutSuffixesand Definite with Suffixes ItWould seem however that these Suffixes arebetterregardedasTenseSuffixes-seesect9cbelow


(i) The Self-standing Pronouns often precede the Verb in addition to thePronounSubjectPrefixesTheonlyparadigmsgivenareofClassIIVerbs(withinitialvowel)

(ii)TheImperativeSingularconsistsofthesimpleSteminthePluralthereisaPrefixn-(cfP2SubjectPrefixabove)a-bukPln-a-bukDrink

9cTenses

(i) Past Tenses are formed by Suffixes all of which contain the elementŋVowelharmonyappearstooperateintheSuffixes

ny-a-buk-1ŋIhavedrunkdrankrecentlywasdrinkingny-a-buk-11aŋIdrank(sometimeago)haddrunkny-o-1k-11anŋIatebio-mun-11oŋthecowgavebirth

ny-a-buk-oumlŋԑŋIwasdrinkingusedtodrinkny-o-1k-oumlŋ1ŋIwaseating

(ii)TheFuture is formedbymeansofaParticle (Auxiliary)preceding theVerb(nyᴐŋ)kariny-a-bukIshalldrinkStevensonrecordsoneexampleofwhatmaybeaSubjunctive1-so1-buk1di

Letrsquosgoanddrinkwater1 (cf joGo)10Non-verbalPredicationandVerblsquotohaversquoNoexamplesofnon-verbalPredicationarerecordedNote that allAdjectives andNouns used adjectivally have verbal behaviour

whenusedpredicativelyTheyareconjugatedforPersonnyᴐŋny-a-tԑ Iamsmallģwosa-tԑ thestone issmall ia-ģwos theplaceisstone(iestony)

AVerbaitohavehasbeenrecorded(seeexampleunderNegationsect11)

11Negation11aVerbal

VerbalNegationisexpressedbytheParticlesțaprecedingandnaŋfollowingtheVerb

nyᴐŋ ța ny-o-loumlk naŋ ģabas lit I not I-eat not meat ŋaŋ ța ŋ-ai naŋģbᴐ1ᴐsYouhavenospear

IntheNegativeImperativețaprecedestheVerbwhichhasSubjectPrefixesinbothSingularandPluralțaŋ-a-bukPlțan-a-bukDonotdrink

11bNon-verbalOne example of non-verbal Predication occurs in Stevensonrsquos materialnyᴐŋțaģoģwunԑnnaŋIamnotaWoman

12WordOrderWordorderinthefinitesentencesisS+V-l-O


TheorderisPossessed+PossessorinbothlanguagesSimplejuxtapositionhasbeenrecordedinKATLAinCompoundNounsonly

theyarenotcommonS1kamombulmalelion(mbu1bull)jԑnmbu1thumb(malehand)InTIMAsimplejuxtapositionhasbeenrecorded

kwurtuwenehouse(of)myfatherceducekslave(of)sheikhInKATLAtheRelativeParticle(sect8d) isusedasaLinkingParticle in theGenitiveģbᴐnģaliģumb11Plwᴐnaliumb11houseofchief1diali1bukwaterfordrinkingMeinhofnotesaGenitiveParticle i(cfTIMAbelow)heardbyStevensononlyinwat1ŋitomumanofwar(warrior)In TIMA the Particles ka1 and i (both invariable for Number) are used

alternativelythePossessorNounhasaSuffix`-nԑ-ni2kahkaciba-nԑkahiciba-nԑheadofboy

TheParticlel(perhapsrelatedtoKATLAgal(i))isprefixedtoaPossessorNoundenoting region or locality yihwa 1-omuriki people of Tima țaman1k l-omurikilanguageofTima(umoriknameoflocality)13bPronounPossessorIn KATLA the Relative is used as with Noun Possessor an alternative

Particleģi3canbeusedwithkinshiptermsģbᴐ1ᴐsģal-bimyspearabaģal-biorabaģi-bimyfatherInTIMAtheParticle l isusedwithPronounPossessormurta1-enimyhorse14ConstructionswithQualifiersTheAdjective orNoun used adjectivallywithout any initial vowel (cf sectsect

8a(β)andIo)followstheNounandtheRelativeParticle(sect8d)standsbetweenthemNumber is distinguished in the Relative and not in the Qualifier itself

1ComparetheQualitativeinTEMEINp2552Pronouncedwithfriction1CfFURp2241ThesecondexamplemightberegardedasaGenitiveconstruction(lsquoplaceofstonersquo)exceptforthefact

thatwithNounsaswithAdjectivesthereisacorrespondingpredicativeuseieaVerbwithinitialvowel(seesect4b)

1Itisnotclearwhether1-bukisaSubjunctiveorInfinitiveform(sect4a(iii))1CfTEGALIp298andKADUGLI-KRONGOp3122StevensonsuggeststhatitmaybeaDeterminativeParticleItisdoubtfulwhetheritcanbeconsidered

asaCaseending3CfthenearDemonstrativesect8c

18THEKOALIB-TAGOI(CLASS)LANGUAGES

IN the Handbook this Larger Unit has been regarded as consisting of threeGroupsandaSingleUnitKOALIB-MOROTALODI-MASAKINLAFOFA(Single Unit) and TEGALI-TAGOI Closer examination of the availablematerial however has shown that the TEGALI-TAGOI Group differs sowidelyfromtheotherlanguagesthatitmustbetreatedseparatelyTherearenoNounClasses in theTEGALIDialectCluster (TEGALIandRASHAD) andtheNounClasses in theTAGOICluster (TAGOITUMALE andMOREB)are not as numerous as those in the KOALIB-MORO and TALODI-MASAKIN Groups It is probable indeed that the Noun Class and ConcordSystemhasbeenadoptedintheTAGOIdialects1Seefurtherpp288-9

18aCLASSLANGUAGESKOALIB-MORO(K-M)TALODI-MASAKIN(T-M)ANDLAFGFA(L)

SourcesRCStevensonlsquoAsurveyofthephoneticandgrammaticalstructureoftheNubaMountainlanguagesrsquoalsopersonalcommunication

Note Examples in italics are adapted by Stevenson fromMacDiarmid VerylittleisknownaboutLAFOFA

1PhoneticsIaVowels

The following Vowels have been recorded for all the languages but thenumberofphonemesisuncertaini1eԑaᴐouuCentralVowelsoumlandəoccur inK-Mə in T-Mwhere it appears to be phonemicMASAKINkeedibletermitekԑkindoftree(Pl)kəhorsersquosmaneNotethatinMASAKINatleast1appearstobephonemic

-ithis(Demonstrative)-1my(Possessive)

VowellengthissignificantinT-MandLandhasbeenrecordedinK-MDiphthongsendinginianduarecommoninK-MabsentinT-Msomehave

beenrecordedinLTheprinciplesgoverningVowelHarmonyandVowelchange ingeneral are

notasyetfullyunderstood

IbConsonantsTheconsonantsystemvariessomewhatasbetweenlanguagesbutappearsto

have a five-point articulation throughout1 and may be summarized thus

LongconsonantsarerareinK-MbutfairlycommoninT-M(apparentlyonlynasals and rr)Where length appears to have lexical significanceMASAKINpuuruhegligtreepuurruostrichTheyareabsentinL

kwģwandŋWareverycommoninK-McommoninLrareinT-MVoicednasalcompoundsarecommonexceptinK-Mwheretheyarerare

ConsonantcombinationsWithliquidsareverycommoninK-MaccordingtoStevenson(althoughnotmanyexamplesoccurinhismaterial)rareinT-MandLThe initial plosive of a Stem is voiced after a Prefix2 in many

languagesOTORO (various dialects)

There ismuchoptional variationbetweenvoiceless andvoiced plosive andfricativeconsonantsinK-MinitialconsonantvariationiscommoninL

In T-M plosivesmay be realized as voiced plosives or nasal compounds atword-junctionswithinthesentence1MASAKINporpumməporbumməpormbumməbigmanțoțumməțoḑummətoņḑumməbigmouth2ToneandStress

2aToneThe importance of Tone has not yet been fully investigated A few lexical

Tone doublets have been recorded eg

2bStress

AccordingtoStevensonlsquodynamicStressaccompaniedbyHighorLowtoneplaysagreaterrolethansyllabicpitchassuchbutisnotequallyprorninentinalllanguagesrsquoExamplesarenotmarkedfortoneorstress

3WordShapeThe simplest form of the word is monosyllabic or disyllabic VCV being

commonInT-MNounStemsoftenconsistofVCVVerbStemsofCVC

4StructuralElements

4aVerbs(i) In K-M Verbs may be grouped according to the Stem Suffixes in the

Aspects(sect9a)In T-M Verbs appear to fall into two main Classes (examples from

MASAKIN)IVerbSteminvariableinallformsincludingImperativekuublowpᴐni leave II Stemhas Suffix -ə(k) in Imper -a inNeg Imperother vowels (-ᴐ -u -aaccording to principles not at present understood) inotherformsrəģ-ᴐeaty-udrinkwer-adance(ii)ItisnotknownwhetherthereareToneClasses(iii) InK-MDerivativeVerbsare formedbyadditions to theStemsomeof

whichappeartobeSuffixes(invariableforAspect)andothersStemExtensions(followedbySuffixesvariableforAspect)1TheDerivativeSuffixesaremoreorless constant for Verbs of both Classes Stevenson records the following

MotiontowardsthespeakerisshownbyaSuffixidenticalwiththatofthe3rdAspect(seesect9a)inTIRAandOTOROTIRAandOTOROap-ᴐtake(away)ap-abring

OTOROḑ1r-osleepḑ1r-a(goand)sleep(andreturnagain)3

InT-MDerivativeVerbsareformedbySuffixesorStemExtensions

In MASAKIN Plural Action or Object is also denoted by partialreduplicationrərəģ-eatofteneatmany thingsalsobyPrefixk- (sometimesreplacing the initial consonant of the Stem)k-ooumləkmake oftenmakemany(ooumlakmake)k-ԑțԑcutoftenmany(mԑțԑcut)Directional forms in regular use have not been found but note awᴐ come

a(w)ugoInformation on L is inadequate Stevenson says lsquoThere appears to be a

Passive form of the Verb but it is impossible to state how it is formed orwhetheritisaderivedverbalspeciesrsquo4bNouns(i)NounsaredividedintoClassesdistinguishedbyPrefixes1inalllanguages

The Classes are mostly paired for Singular and Plural and there is somecorrelationbetweenClassandmeaning

ThereisConcordwithotherpartsofspeech(seesect6)TheClassPrefixesareas follows (numbered according to Stevenson)

(ii)NounFormativesTheClass Prefixes function asNoun Formatives in thatNouns are formed

from Verbs and Adjectives by putting them into Noun Classes With theappropriatePrefixes

In K-M Verbal Nouns are made from the 2nd Aspect in two-Aspectlanguagesfromthe3rdAspectinthree-AspectlanguagesThePrefixisd1-oumli-

ț1-ḑ-(Class19)InT-MVerbalNounsandAbstractsaremade(α)FromtheStemwithStemSuffix(seesect4a)byPrefixesθV-mV- (Class

56) MASAKIN ŋ- die θ1-ŋᴐm1-ŋᴐ death kԑr- buy θə-ģԑrᴐmə-ģԑrᴐbuying (β)from the Stem without Suffix by Prefixes țV-rV- (Class 910)

MASAKINwerdanceța-werra-weradanceNotealsoinCl9Io

ᴐpəkstrong(Adjective)ț-ᴐpəkr-ᴐpəkstrengthThe Infinitiveconsistsof theStemwithoutPrefixWithStemSuffix (But seeConcordsect6)MASAKINtᴐɽ-atohoerəģ-ətoeatmԑț-ԑtocuty-utodrinkNothingisknownoftheformationofNounsfromVerbsinLAFOFAChangeofClassPrefixcorrespondstochangeofmeaning

4cAdjectives

InT-MAdjectives in isolationandprimaryNumerals incountinghave thePrefixy-MASAKINy-ᴐɽԑredy-errioneMostAdjectiveshoweverbehavelikeVerbs(sectIo)

5NumberTheselanguagesexhibitNKcharacteristics(seeIntroductionp23)

5aNounsSingularandPluralaredistinguishedbytheNounClassPrefixes(sect4b(i))

SpecialCategoryIn K-M and T-M kinship terms proper names and some other Nouns

denoting persons have a Plural Suffix -ŋa -ŋԑ (and noClass Prefixes) ThisSuffixisalsousedWithPersonalPronouns(sect8a)andthePersonalInterrogative(sect8b)1SuchNounsmaythusberegardedaspronorniacutenalintheirbehaviourwithregardtoNumberdistinction(seesect5c)

OTORO babababa-ŋa father ģwukᴐģwukᴐ-ŋa Gwukopersons calledGwuko MASAKIN romborombo-ŋԑ brother sister mamurmamur-ŋԑpolicechief2InK-MSpecialCategoryWords take theConcordof the lsquoPersonalrsquoClasses

(12)theyhavespecialAccusativeSufiixes(sect7)InT-MpropernameshavetwotypesofPlural(α)NormalPlural by analogy the name is treated as if its initial consonant

were a Class Prefix and the appropriate Plural Prefix is substituted for itMASAKINkakawaka(ClassPrefixesk-w-78)KakatheKakasțuțuruțu(ClassPrefixesț-r-91o)ŋoțiņoți(ClassPrefixesŋ-ņ-1516)ForConcordsseesect6

(β)Associative Plural with the Special Category Suffix (= lsquoSo-and-so andcom-panYrsquo)MASAKINkakakaka-ŋԑțuțuțuțu-ŋԑŋoțiŋoți-ŋԑ5bAdjectivesInK-MallAdjectivesareAdjectivalVerbsIo)InT-MAdjectivesbehavelikeVerbsSomehaveareduplicatedPluralform

bothConcordandStembeingrepeatedThePluralStemsometimesdiffersfromtheSingularMASAKINp-əɽᴐp-ummək-əɽᴐk-ᴐak-ᴐabigbaobabk-ațok-irw-ațow-irw-irheavyspeark-aḑak-1ņņaw-aḑaw-1ņaw-1nasoftcloth5cPronouns

InK-MandT-MNumberisdistinguishedbyaSuffixinŋintheSelf-standingPersonalPronouns(sect8a(i))andthePersonalInterrogative(sect8b)asinSpecialCategoryNounsThe Subject Affixes to Verbs in MASAKIN differ from the Self-standing

formsbutavelarelementoccursinthePluralherealso(sect8a(i))MostotherpronominalformstaketheClassConcords(sect6)

5dVerbsFor Plural Action and Object see sect 4a (iii) Note that the Affixes forming

theseDerivativeVerbscontainavelarelementinMASAKINTheImperativeinMASAKINlikewisecontainsavelarelementinthePlural

(sect9b(ii))-InLAFOFAmanyVerbshavedistinctSingularandPluralStems

6GenderandConcord

6aThereisnogrammaticalGenderinK-MandT-M

InLAFOFAMacDiarmidrecordsthe2ndPersonSingularPronounsMascreciaFemorԑjiaandStevensonthe3rdPersonSingularPronouns

MascbujiFemajiCom(ienon-person)1lSeligmannotespepimalecalfpapoifemalecalfStevensoncommentsontheabovelsquobuttheserequirefurtherinvestigationrsquo

6bTheNounClassConcords

InalllanguagesthereisConcordbetweentheNounandotherpartsofspeechshownbyPrefixesTheConcordPrefixesarealmost always identicalwith theClassPrefixesavowelI(Uafterģw-ŋw-)inK-MusuallyainT-Mstands

betweenthePrefixandafollowingconsonant InLAFOFAPerson-non-Persondistinction appears to cut across the Class Concord system (see examplesbelow)TheoccurrenceofConcordPrefixesisasfollows

AdjectivesandNumeralsareVerbsinK-MtheycanbefullyconjugatedforPerson Aspect and Tense The same applies to Interrogatives (sect8b) andIndefinite Pronouns (sect8d) Note that the Concord Prefix is not used as theSubjectoftheVerbinallAspectsinK-MandT-M(seesect9a)

Subject (Here Gender distinction replaces the Concord system)

SpecialCategoryInK-MtheConcordsforSpecialCategorywordsarethoseofClassesI2InT-Mtheyareasfollows(examplesfromMASAKIN)

Singular with Adjectives the Numeral lsquoonersquo and Verbs Cl 1 Concord p-rombop-errionebrothermamurp-errionepolicechiefrombop-umməp-

aabərobigbrotherisrunningintheGenitiveConstructionnoLinkingParticle(seesect13)romboțuțubrother(of)TutuwithPossessivesandDemonstrativesAlliterativeConcordrombor-1mybrothermamurm-ithispolicechief

PluralwithAdjectivesandVerbsț-

rombo-ŋԑț-ᴐaț-ᴐaț-aabərᴐbigbrothersarerunningintheGenitivenoLinkingParticlebutthePluralSuffixistransferredtothePossessoriepostpostitionaltotheNounGroupromboțuțu-ŋԑbrothers(of)Tutu

withPossessivesandDemonstrativesAlliterativeConcordthePluralSuffixispostpositionaltotheNounGrouprombo-ŋԑ1-ԑɽamybrethrenrombor-i-ŋԑthesebrothers

withNumeralslsquotworsquolsquothreersquoAlliterativeConcordbutPluralSuffixattachedtoNounrombo-ŋԑr-ԑɽatwobrothersmamur-ŋԑm-ԑɽatwopolicechiefsTheNumericalPluralofpropernamestakesanAlliterativeConcordwakaw-iruțur-iņotiņ-itheseKakasTutusDotisAfurthernoteonAlliterativeConcordwhichisnotaClassPrefixThe Infinitive consists of the simple Verb Stem if the initial consonant

happens to coincideWith a Singular (but not a Plural) Class Prefix then theConcordisalliterativeotherwisetheConcordisthatofCl7k-tᴐɽat-ᴐtitohoeisgoodbutrəģᴐk-ᴐtitoeatisgood7CaseCase (Nominative and Accusative) is distinguished in K-M only In these

languagesnormalNounshaveanAccusativeSuffix-VinvariableforNumber

SpecialCategoryWords1haveanAccusativeSuffixbasedonSgŋPljinthe Plural the Case Suffix follows the Number Suffix

The Accusativc of Personal Pronouns is used With certain PostpositionsOTOROŋi-ŋugitiacute)nearmeana-ŋa-jԑģițᴐbehindusCfalsothePronounObjectSuffixestoVerbssect8a(iii)

8Pronouns8aPersonal

(i)TheSelf-standingPronounsareasfollows

1st Person Dual is found only in some of the K-M languages Exclusive-InclusivedistinctioninP1occursinKOALIBHEIBANandOTOROandinMASAKINNote the occurrence of the Special Category Suffix (sect 5a) in K-M and

MASAKINTheuseofthisSuffixdoesnothoweverseemtobeconstantinallPersons(ii)SubjectofVerbInK-M and T-M the Concords of the ldquoPersonalrsquo Classes (12) are used as

SubjectPrefixes to theVerbincertainconstructions(inallPersons) inothersPronounSubjectAffixesareused(seesectsect69a9b)NotethattheP3AffixesbearsomerelationtotheNounClass2ConcordsinK-MIn LAFOFA the Subject in the 3rd Person is a Gender Prefix indicating

MasculinePersonsFernininePersonsnon-persons(Common)

(iii)ObjectofVerbInK-MtherearePronounObjectAffixesinistand2ndPersonsbasedonSg

ŋPlj(cfSpecialCategoryAccusativeSuffixessect7)Inthe3rdPersonClassConcordAffixesareused(sect6)ThesePersonAffixesaresuffixedtotheMainorAuxiliaryVerbinAspect1butprecedetheVerbinAspect2andtheNegativeImperative

InT-MPronounObjectSuffixeshavebeenrecordedinAspect2(withSubject

Prefixes) only They bear some relationship to the Subject Suffixes

egaka-ņņ-iyou-see-meak1-ņņ-uI-see-youItisnotknownhowthePronounObjectisexpressedinLAFOFA(iv)ThePossessivesare

Possessives take the Noun Class Concords (Alliterative Concord inLAFOFA)TheyfollowtheNounexcept inLAFOFAandcanalsobeusedasSelf-standingformsInT-MPossessiveswithSpecialCategoryNounshaveanAlliterativeConcord(seesect6)

8bInterrogativeThefollowinghavebeenrecorded

AllexceptthePersonalInterrogativetakeConcordPrefixesandareprobablyverbalinbehaviour(seesect6)

8cDemonstrativeThreedegreeshavebeenrecordedinK-MtwoinT-MNothingisknownof

DemonstrativesinLAFOFA

Cf inOTORO theDemonstrativeAdverbsŋinԑ(nᴐ) hereŋinᴐ(nᴐ) thereŋinoweiyonderDemonstrativestaketheClassConcordPrefixes(sect6)

8dRelativeInK-MtheldquonearrsquoDemonstrativeappearstobeusedasaRelativeParticle

InT-MtheGenitiveConstruction(sect13)isusedMASAKIN p-or p-ᴐ kᴐbᴐțԑ ț1rr1ģᴐ man of lion killing (ie man who

killedlion)9VerbConjugation

9aAspectIn K-M there are three Aspects in the languages TIRA OTORO and

MORO and two inthe languagesKOALIB andHEIBAN The Aspects aredistinguished in conjugation by the order of the components of the VerbComplex (andbywordorderwithNounSubject andObject-seesect12) by thechoice of SubjectAffixes and by a distinctive Suffix in eachAspect (AspectSuffix)ThefunctionoftheAspectsvariessomewhatandtheyarethereforenotgiven names here Thus in TIRA

18bTHETEGALI-TAGOIGROUP

3StressonSteminbothIByI-kᴐrsquorəkIstealyᴐ-kᴐrsquorəkIstole(iii) There are many Derivative Verbs formed by Suffixes Those most

frequently occurring in RASHAD are

ThemeaningofthesetwoformswasgiventoStevensonas(a)partiallybrokenrobbed(ofsomethings)(b)completelybrokenrobbedofeverything

PluralObjecttəs-agachopmanythingskars-agasplitmanylogs1PluralObjectorActionram-anahuntmanyanimalsosənd-anaurinateanywhere

4bNouns(i) In the TAGOI Dialect Cluster Nouns are divided into Classes

distinguishedbyPrefixesTheClassesaremostlypairedforSingularandPluralandthereissomecorrelationbetweenClassandmeaningThereisConcordwithotherpartsofspeech(seesect6)The Class Prefixes are here given with the numbers of the Classes in the

KOALIB-MORO TALODI-MASAKIN and LAFOFA languages to whichtheybearsomeresemblanceThere are no Noun Classes in the TEGALI Dialect Cluster (see sect 5a for

SingularPluraldistinctioninthesedialects)

Stevensonsuggestsfurtherasvariantsof1and2

(ii)NounFormativesIntheTAGOIdialectstheClassPrefixesfunctionasNounFormativesinthat

Nouns are formed from Verbs and Adjectives by putting them into NounClasses with the appropriate Prefixes Change of Class Prefix corresponds tochangeofmeaning

NotethatintheTEGALIdialectswhichhavenoNounClassesthePrefixŋ-identicalwith thatofClass20 isusedasaFormativeofAbstractNounsfrom

NounsorAdjectives5NumberThesedialectsexhibitNKcharacteristics(seeIntroductionp23)

5aNounsIn the TAGOIDialectCluster Singular and Plural are distinguished by the

ClassPrefixes(sect4b(i))Plural Suffixes in and n have been noted in some Nouns in the TAGOI

Cluster in addition to the Class Prefixes

In theTEGALIdialects thePlural is formedbySuffixes (-V -Vn -nampc)thereisalsoaPluralPrefixV-usedwithorWithouttheSuffixes

5bAdjectivesPluralSuffixesareusedwithsomeAdjectiveswhichthushaveaPluralform

of theirown independentof theNounas toSuffixwhile also in theTAGOIdialects taking the Noun Class Concords

InRASHAD-oisacommonAdjectivePluralSufixbutotherSuffixeshavealsobeenrecordedlᴐtlod-obigyirəmyirm-odoblackrigilrigil-egreen5cPronounsPronounObjectSuffixeshaveaPluralelementŋ(sect8a(ii))

5dVerbsFor Plural Object and Plural Action see sect 4a (iii) Note the velar Plural

elementintheSuffixThePluralImperativeinRASHADhasasufiixedvelarelement(sect9b(ii))

6GenderandConcordThereisnogrammaticalGenderThereisConcordbetweentheNounandotherpartsofspeechintheTAGOI

dialectsConcord is shownbyPrefixes identicalwith theNounClassPrefixes(except in Class 4) and occurring as follows (examples from TAGOI)

7CaseNounsarenotinffectedforCase

8Pronouns

8aPersonal(iii)TheSelf-standingPronounsandVerbSubjectPrefixesare

(iii)ObjectofVerbObject Prefixes in 1st and znd Persons have been recorded They are

distinguishedforNumberbyavelarPluralelementgorŋIstPersont-(d-)2ndPersonn-1

(ForSuffix-akwhichalsodenotesPluralObjectseesect4a(iii))SeealsoVerblsquotohaversquosect10It has further been observed that a Prefix n- occasionally occursWith 3rd

PersonObjectCompareinRASHADŋiyԑgamIcaught(=Icaughthim)mbᴐrᴐŋn-ԑgamhyenahim-caughtŋgokurin-iylnhespearhim-is(=hehasaspear)

This 3rd Person Prefix is perhaps only used with Noun Subject and PronounObject(iv)PossessiveThefollowingarerecordedforRASHADandTAGOI

IntheTAGOIdialectsPossessivestakeConcordPrefixes(sect6)

Note that in RASHAD a form related to the Possessive is used in locativephrasingti-ŋənfrommetᴐ-ŋənfromyoutu-ŋənfromhim

(taappearstobeaLocativePrepositiontabatinthegranarytabatŋənfromthegranary)

cftIŋ-tadᴐmtomeNotealsocontractedPossessiveseg

aba-ŋmyfatherab-ᴐŋyourfatherab-uŋhisfather8bInterrogativeTheonly informationavailable isonRASHADHere the Interrogativesare

taa1Pltaa-ndenwhoaa2Pl(a)a-ndənwhat8cDemonstrativeThreedegreeshavebeenrecorded

8dRelativeThere is an invariable Relative Particle ago3(ako)

9VerbConjugation

9a There are two Aspects Indicative and Dependent each with two TensesPresent and Past They are distinguished by Stress and often also by vowelchange in the Stem and by Suffix Thus in RASHAD

9b(i)ConjugationforPersonisbyPrefixes

Note that there isoftenvowelchange inP2abackvoweloccurring inStemandorPrefixCompareinRASHAD

(ii) The Imperative varies according to Morphological Class (sect 4a(i))

9cTensesThere are two Tenses in each Aspect Present and Past S 1 given here

10Non-VerbalPredicationandVerbslsquotobersquoandlsquotohaversquo

There are two Verbs lsquoto bersquo conjugated for Person as follows

Whereas the Verb lsquoto be someone somethingrsquo distinguishes Tense inRASHAD by vowel change y-ԑ(n) I am y-in I was the Verb lsquoto besomewherersquodistinguishesTensebyTone(ratherthanStress)y-ey Iamy-eacuteyIwasPossession is expressed by a Verb apparently related to the Verb lsquoto be

somewherersquo with Object Prefixes in all Persons (sect8a (iii))

11Negation(i)ANegativePrefixk-(g-)precedestheMainVerbwhichisnotconjugated

forPersontheVerblsquotobersquofollowsNotethatVerbsendinginklosethiskin

theNegativeinsomelanguages

The Negative of lsquoto haversquo is expressed by a separate Verb with ObjectPrefixes in all Persons (sect 8a (iii))

(ii)TheNegativeImperativeisidenticalinshapewiththe2ndPersonofthePositive Dependent Past but preceded by a Particle

12WordOrderWordorderinthefinitesentenceisS+O+V


13aNounPossessor

OBSERVATIONComparison between the Class languages KOALIB-MORO and TALODI-

MASAKIN1ontheonehandandTEGALI-TAGOIontheothershowsthatthemain points of similarity areNounClass andConcord system (sectsect 4b (i) 6)NounClassesdistinguishedbyPrefixesandConcordwithotherpartsofspeechin theClass languagesand in theTAGOIDialectCluster (TAGOITUMALEMOREB) of T-T There is considerable correspondence in the Prefixes butsomeoftheClassesarelackingintheTAGOIdialects

Personal Pronouns (sect 8a) Self-standing Pronouns and Possessives showconsiderableresemblanceDerivative Verbs (sect4a (iii)) Suffixes forming Plural Action Verbs in

MASAKIN and Plural Object Verbs in RASHAD show resemblance bothcontainavelarPluralelement

ThemainpointsofdifferencearePhonetics(sect1b)5-pointarticulationofconsonantsinK-MandT-M4-point

in T-T implosives in K-M and compounds with W in both K-M and T-MabsentinT-TStress(sectsect24a(ii))highlysignificantinT-TwherethereareperhapsStress-

ClassesofVerbsMorphologicalVerbClasses(sect4a(i))DerivativeVerb formation (sect4a (iii)) except forPluralActionorObjectmdash

forwhichseesimilaritiesaboveNounClassandConcordsystem4b(i)6)NoNounClassesintheTEGALI

DialectCluster(TEGALIRASHAD)IntheTAGOIdialectstheClassConcordPrefixisnotusedastheSubjectofVerbsasitisintheClasslanguagesNoun Plural(sect 5a) Plural mainly by Suffix in the TEGALI dialects some

Suffixes in addition to the Class Prefixes in the TAGOI dialectsSpecialCategorywordsinK-MandT-MnoneinT-TAdjectives(sect5b)AdjectivesareVerbsinK-MbehavelikeVerbsinT-Min

T-TtheydonotbehavelikeVerbsandtakePluralSuffixesPronounObjectPrefixes(sect8a(iii))inT-TdifferentirelyfromSelf-standing

andPossessive formsandare in fact identicalwith those inTEDA-TUBU(ESAHARAN)Relative(sect8d)ThereisaspecificRelativeParticleinT-TnoneinK-Mand

T-MVerb Conjugation (sect 9) the whole Verb conjugation system of T-T is

completelydifferentfromthatofK-MandT-MWordOrder(sect12)S+V+OvaryingwithV+S+OinK-MandT-MS+O+V

inT-T

Note on ʋocabulary Stevenson draws attention to lexical correspondencesbetween T-M and T-T but also with KATLA which otherwise seems to beunrelatedtoeitherGroup

1ComparethepositionofMBUGUanon-BANTUlanguagewhichhasadoptedtheBANTUClassandConcordsystem(seeHandbookp157)

1Contrastthefour-pointarticulationinTEGALI-TAGOIp2892CfKADUGLI-KRONGOp3011CfKADUGLI-KRONGOp3011lsquoCfDAIUandNYIMANGwhereDerivativesvaryaccordingtoAspect(pp233n244)and

PARANILOTICwheretheyvaryaccordingtoTense(p451)2Noreasonisknownforthevowel-changeintheStem3lsquoGoandreturnrsquoformsarealsorecordedinNYIMANGp245LOTUHO(PARANILOTIC)P-452-4NotetheoccurrenceofavelarelementdenotingPlurality(seeIntroductionp23)B98151CfBANTUseealsoClassSuffixesintheMBAGroupppno-122SummaryofNounPrefixesfromalllanguagesConcordPrefixesfromOTOROonly3SummaryofNounPrefixesfromalllanguagesConcordPrefixesfromMASAKINonly4AccordingtoStevenson5InfinitivesinKADUGLI-KRONGOalsohaveaPrefixț-whichishoweveraNounFormativeandnot

aClassPrefixthere(seep303)6NotealsosoundchangeinStem7TheonlywordrecordedinthisClassbutnotereversedPrefixesineg baobab1CfNYIMANGp246alsoFURp2222ARABICloan-word1NotethattheConcordPrefixwiththenearandfarDemonstrativeshasavoicelessinsteadofavoiced

consonantTheseQualifiersfollowtheNoun2ThePossessiveprecedestheNounandtheConcordispurelyalliterativethisappliestoallConcords

markedwithlsquorsquointhetableinsect4b1SeparateCaseSuffixesforSpecialCategorywordsarefoundalsoinNYIMANG(p247)2ThesecondseriesofSufiixesisusedwithVerbsendingin-țԑCfyu-riIdrankkuț-i(ampltkuțԑ)1

stayed1-unyiafterģw-ŋw-1NotetheoccurrenceofavelarPluralelement(seeIntroductionp23)1AccordingtoStevenson1NotinPIinTAGOIIdenticalinRASHADwiththeObjectPrefixesinTEDA-TUBU(ESAHARAN

p180)andotherwiseunique1tԑbeforeԑn(=(it)is)2ԑbeforeԑn3NotethatParticlesingareusedinRelativeconstructionsinBAGIRMI(p74)ZANDE(p150)

MABA(p202)BARYA(p332)UDUK(p362)GELEBA(p565)1DemonstrativequalifiesSubjectPronounhere2CfKATLAp269KADUGLI-KRONGOp3121LAFOFAhereclassedwithK-MandT-Misinsufficientlyknown

19THEKADUGLI-KRONGOLANGUAGES

SourceRCStevensonlsquoASurveyofthephoneticsandgrammaticalstructureoftheNubaMountainlanguageshelliprsquoandpersonalcommunication

TheselanguagesfallintothreemaindivisionsWesternTULISHIKEIGAKANGACentralMIRIKADUGLIKATCHATUMMAEasternKRONGOTUMTUM

ExamplesfromKATCHAunlessotherwisestated

1Phonetics1aVowelsStevensonstateslsquoThereappearstobefundamentallyaseven-vowelsystemrsquo

ieԑaᴐoubutmanyvariantshavebeenrecorded(IUandseveralcentralorcentralizedvowels)Finalunstressedvowelsareoftensemi-muteespeciallyinKRONGOisifireIntheWesterndialectstheyarelackingVowellengthissignificantlexicallyandgrammatically

KATCHAarotermitesaarᴐfencesKRONGOaranaPlaaranaBeg(ImperativeofClassIIVerb)SeealsotheDefiniteAspectofClassIIVerbsinKRONGO(sect9a)DiphthongsarerareVowel Harmony is very common especially as between Stem and Affix

(oftenbutnotalwaysFullHarmonythereasonforthisisnotknown)kismԑPlnI-gislnԑ donkeykanda Plnaganda spear See alsoGenitiveParticle sect131bConsonants

Labial Dental Alveolar Post-Alveolar Palatal Velarp ţ t c kb d j gɓ ɗ

s ʃ(z)n ny ŋ1r(ɽ)

w y

and aredistinctfromtanddinalllanguages

nisalveolarexceptincompoundswithţandcandjarepurepalatalplosivesz occurs as a variant of s but noteKATCHAazas-KRONGOa as-wantɽoccurssporadicallyasanoptionalvariantoftlandrareseparatephonemesTheGlottalStophasbeenrecordedbutonlyinthePersonalPronounswhen

emphaticandeventhereoftenomittedVoicednasalcompoundsareverycommoncompoundswithwandyoccurConsonantlengthhaslexicalsignificanceamareplyammalistenbutalsooccursinemphaticspeechorafterastressed

Vowel

PlosivesandsareoftenVoicedaftersomePrefixes1KATCHAkusuPlnu-gusuowltԑmbiPlkI-dԑmbicockKRONGOtaPlna-ɽapotsherdţa-falaFemma- a-falaguestAfterotherstheyarerealizedasvoicednasalcompoundsţoɗameatba- oɗapieceofmeatBoth theseprocessescanalsooccurat

wordjunctionswithinsentences1kafi obu kuku a kufi Kafi hits Kuku with a stick is realized as kafi

obuŋgukuagufi

2ToneandStress

2a Stevenson states that tone is less important than stress but tonal doubletshavebeenfoundinsomelanguages

2bStressissometimeslinkedwithtone

KRONGOlsquokucircrugravegugravehuskskursquorucircgugravekidneys

Notealsotheconnexionbetweenstressandconsonantlength

lsquo ummo P1nugu- ursquoma-nԑ ostrich Tone and Stress however are notmarkedinthefollowingsections

3WordShapeAccording to Stevenson Stems in their simplest form are mostly

monosyllabicordisyllabicmanyVerbsbeginwithavowelandVCVVCVCVarecommonCVCV(C)iscommoninNounsNotethatfinalkhasanirregulardistribution

KAMDANG KEIGA MIRI KADUGLI KATCHA KRONGOlak lak la la la la hutbaarak baaro baarᴐk baarᴐk baarᴐ bara fence

honey

ku e ku ek ku e ku e ku e ku i honey(I)mIk muk amlk amlk ami ami sit

InTULISHImanyNounshavean initialk (notaPrefix)not found inotherdialectskᴐbaoil(ᴐbainmostotherdialects)4StructuralElements

4aVerbs

(i)TherearetwoMorphologicalClassesofVerbsdistinguishedbybehaviourbut not by shape of Stem Verb Stems being of various shapes The main

differencesare(ii)ThereisnoevidenceofToneClasses(iii)DerivativeVerbsareformedbySuffixes

Dative-(a)da-(a)gaampc(accordingtodialect)

KATCHAo In-a a sow for lto lniuwe- o sing for ltuweKRONGOo lmi-gᴐlto Iniuwi-galtuwi InKRONGO thisSuffix also formsComparative fromAdjectivalVerbsirib-agabesharperthanltiribibesharp

Passive(WithAgentexpressedorimplied)-(a) ԑnԑ-(a) InyiKATCHAᴐԑ-a ԑnԑ be drunk ltᴐԑ agwur-a ԑnԑ be eaten ltagwuri KRONGOᴐi-aInyiltᴐiaugwur-adInyiltaugwuriQualitative(withanindefiniteObjectornoObject)-nV-gV-jiKATCHAiya-nadomilkingltiyamilkKRONGOosioumlni-jidothatchingltosioumlnithatch

Neuter-Passive (ie Passive of Qualitative) -(m)ja added to QualitativeSuffixKATCHAarum-an-Injabecutltarumᴐcut(grass)

KRONGOauw-an-jabegroundltauwagrind

Stevenson also notes a Continuative or Frequentative form (rare) with vowelchange and partial reduplication in KATCHA vowel Prefix in KRONGOKATCHAUŋgwUnεnεgooftenltUŋgwanεgo

KRONGOi-diakeeponcomingltdiacomeu-ţunakeeponseekingltţunaseek

4bNouns(i) Stevenson considers these languages to be Noun Class languages and

attemptstocorrelatetheSgandPlPrefixeswiththoseofKOALIB-TAGOIona notional rather than a phonetic basis Since these languages have noClassConcord (but seeGender sect 6) it is open to questionwhether the term lsquoNounClassesrsquo can be truly applied Nouns can bemore conveniently grouped on aformalbasisaccordingtotheirPluralPrefixes(seesect5a)

(ii)NounFormatives

TheInfinitive-VerbalNounFormativePrefixisţ-1

ţ-ɔεtodrinkdrinkingţ-arnatomarrymarriageSomeNumberPrefixes(sect5a)alsohaveaformativevalueCompare

ku ehoneybeesţUŋ-gu eabeeno-gu ePloflsquohoneyrsquotɔ-ɔεtodrinkţa- -ɔεadrinker

5Number

TheselanguagesexhibitbothTKandNKcharacteristics(SeeIntroductionp22)5aNouns

NumberisdistinguishedinNounsbymeansofchangeofPrefixAsstatedinsect4b(i)NounscanbestbegroupedaccordingtotheirPluralPrefixes

1 Sg (a) tama- a- Plka-(b) mV- mV- V- kV-(c) zero kV-

KATCHA

(Male persons (with Fem Pre-prefix female persons) including NounAgents members of a tribe ampc ie members of artificial or social human

categories)

(b) mU-solagakU-solaga finger-nailma- ɔ- wɔdεkU- wɔdε hoof

(Manyof theseNounsdenoteffat thincurvedobjects thesearenotionallyFem (sect 6) thus the Pre-prefix is probably the Fem Pre-Prefix as in Nounsdenotingfemalepersons)

InKATCHAthePluralPrefixissometimesa-mI- I-gIlaa-gIladigging-stick

InKRONGOthePluralPrefixmaybezeroiftheStembeginswithkmU- U-gUrUgUkUrUguhusk(c) KATCHA tuŋgukU-tUŋgu male sheep ţadaka- ada grandparent

(Manynamesof animals (but also otherNouns) also somepersons in naturalhuman categories eg friend father) The Plural Prefixk- also occurs as thePluralofsomeNounswithSingularPrefixb-(ɓ-f-m-)-see3abelowKAMDANG b-ɔŋgɔrɔk-aŋgɔrɔ nose

KEIGA s-adiay-adi pot

(AfewNounsonlymostlynamesofvesselsorcontainers)

5bAdjectives

All Adjectives are verbal in behaviour and Number is only shown by thechoiceofGenderPrefixsect6a)


AvelarPluralelementoccursinmostoftheSelf-standingPersonalPronouns(sect8a(i))InVerbConjugationthereisaSgPlPrefixn-k-in1stand2ndPersons

6GenderandGenderAgreement

InalllanguagesexceptKEIGAthereisgrammaticalGenderTherearethreeGendersMasc Fem andNeuter linkedwith sex but covering also variousothernotionalconceptsFurthersomeNounsappeartobeassignedtoaGenderonthebasisofanalogyaccordingtotheinitialconsonantofthePrefixorStem(the term PhoneticGender is used to describe this phenomenon) TheGendersystemcutsacrossNumberGendercanbesubdividedinto(a) Nominal Gender partly Notional partly Phonetic and associated with

Gender agreement shown inPrefixesof two typesAttributive andPredicative(seebelow)(b) Pronominal Gender (Masc and Fem Sg only) shown in the Stems of

PersonalandotherPronouns(sect8)(a)NominalGenderMasculineNotional (Sgonly)malepersonsandanimals long thicksolid

objects somepartsof thebody some liquids ţa-falamaleguestbibala boymi ε man kɔdda bull tɔŋga hoe A few Plural Nouns are also Masc inbehavioureglεlachildrenFeminine Notional (Sg only) Female persons (including all Nouns with

Fem Pre-prefixma-) female animals hollow deep objects ffat thin objects(notethatmanyofthelatterhavePre-prefixorPrefixmV-)ma- a-falafemaleguestba a agirlkawomanfiɔcowtɔgourdml- I-giladigging-stickmU-solagafinger-nailFemininePhonetic(SgorPl)AnyNounwhosePrefixhasinitialmunless

notionallyMasculineandNounswithzeroPrefixwhoseStembeginswithmmldlgistars(Sgţl-mldlgiisNeuterseebelow)merocowrie(SgisNeuter)moţohorse

NeuterAllotherSingularNounsallPluralNouns(includingPluralPersonsandanimals)exceptthosebeginningwithm(seeabove)ţI-mIdIgIstarţam-merocowrieka-falaguestsεfɔcowskɔ-tɔŋgahoeskandaspearnagandaspearsIt will be seen from the above that Nouns are not infrequently in different

GendersinSingularandPlurals1

GenderagreementGenderagreementisshownbytheuseofPrefixesintwoseries

Masc Fem NeuterAttributive y- m- n-(KRONGOn-y-KADUGLIy-)Predicative zero(KRONGOŋ-] m- k-(KRONGOn-k-)

(i)TheAttributive series isusedwith theGenitiveParticlePossessives (incentral dialects only) the lsquonearrsquoDemonstrative-Relative Participles includingthose from Adjectival Verbs (except in KRONGO)

Notethatsomevariationinusageisfoundintheotherlanguages

(ii) The Predicative series is usedwithVerbs and otherwordswithVerbalbehaviourAdjectivalVerbs InterrogativeVerbsNumeralsand thePositional

Demonstratives6bPronominalGenderTwoGenders only are distinguishedMasc andFem (Neuter is sometimes

included inMasc sometimes in Fem) TheGenders are not distinguished byPrefixesbutintheStemitselfPronominalGenderthusdiffersmorphematicallyfrom Nominal Gender See Personal Pronoun sect 8a Possessives sect 8a (iv)PersonalInterrogativesect8bDemonstrativessect8cIndefinitePronounsect8d


8Pronouns8aPersonal

(iiiiii)TheSelf-standingPronounswhicharealsousedasSubject(suffixedto the Verb see sect 9b)1 and as Object are as follows

(iv)ThePossessives(whichtakeGenderPrefixesAttributiveseriesbutseesect13) are related to but only occasionally identical with the Self-standing

Pronouns8bInterrogativeThePersonalInterrogativelsquowhorsquo(alsolsquowhichrsquo)showsPronominalGender

distinctionsect6b)MascandNeuterogUnɔFemogUmɔTheInterrogatives-iewhere(is)-anyahowmany(are)areusedWiththe

PredicativeseriesofGenderPrefixes(sect6a(ii))andarethusverbalinbehaviour8cDemonstrativeFive Demonstratives have been recorded which fall into three Groups

according to theirbehaviourwith regard toGenderTheyareall invariable forNumber(prop) lsquoNearrsquo DemonstrativeRelative (see also sect 8d) Pronominal Gender is

distinguishedintheStemMasc-aFemandNeut-ɔfurthertheAttributiveseries of Gender Prefixes is used ml ɛ y-a this man tɔ m-ɔ this gourdnagandan-ɔthesespears(β)lsquoNotnearrsquoDemonstrativesPronominalGenderisdistinguished in the Stems there is no Gender agreement by Prefix

(γ)PositionalDemonstratives1GenderisnotdistinguishedintheStembutthePredicativeseriesofGenderPrefixesisusedthepositionalDemonstrativesarethusverbalinbehaviorkam-annε yonderwoman stationary

yonderwoman approaching

kam-Inniyonderwoman approaching

8dRelativeThe Attributive series and the lsquonearrsquo Demonstrative are used with Verbs

includingAdjectivalVerbstodenotetheSubjectRelativemIdεy-alIŋgɔy-a themanwhoisworking(orthisworkingman)fiɔm-abasam-ɔ thecowwhichiswhite(orthiswhitecow)kandan-atɔŋgɔrɔn-ɔ thespearwhichislong(orthislongspear)

The Genitive construction with Personal Possessive or Genitive Particle(sect13) followedbyaParticlekV1and the Infinitiveof theVerbwithSuffixedPersonal Pronoun denotes the Object Relative

8eIndefinitePronounlsquoAnother the othersrsquo also lsquothe lastrsquo is expressed by a Pronoun varying for

Gender(twoGendersbeingdistinguished)butnotforNumberMascandNeutcocɔkonɔFemkɔmɔ9VerbConjugation9aTherearetwoAspectswhichmaybetermedIndefiniteandDefiniteIntheDefiniteAspecttheStemhasaPrefix-ag-orlengthenedfirstvowel

9bConjugationforPerson(i) InS1andS2 there isaPrefixn- inP rand2aprefixk- in the3rd

Person the Predicative series of Gender Prefixes is used In the 1st and 2ndPersons(SgandPl)theSelf-standingPronounissuffixedtotheVerbInClassIIVerbsthereisvowelchangeintheSteminKATCHAinS2(both

Aspects)

In the Western and Central dialects there is an alternative construction inwhich the Self-standing Pronoun precedes the Verb in all Persons instead ofbeingsuffixedtoitandtheGenderPrefixesinS3areabsentKRONGO

InKEIGAtherearenoPrefixesexceptinP3whichhasa-

But note aa a-wani I walk with Self-standing Pronoun precedingVerb andɗeam-iŋheshecameWithGenitiveParticleandPossessivePronoun(sect13)TheInfinitivehastwoAspectStems

ţ-asalatolookforţ-ag-asalatohavelookedfor

(ii)Imperative

The Imperative Singular belongs to the Indefinite Aspect the Plural to the

DefiniteAspect

9cTensesTenses are formedbymeansofAuxiliaryVerbs orAuxiliaryParticleswith

verbalbehaviourtheyareconjugatedforPersonandGenderthoughsometimesthePronounSuffix is absent and are followedby the Infinitivewhich showsAspectdistintiona(Verblsquobersquo)Narrativeandconnectedstatements

Note the use of the Particle kV (see sectsect 8d 13 and 15) in the following

AnAuxiliaryVerb is also used to expressNegation but the construction isdifferentfromthatusedinformingTensesSeesect11

10Non-VerbalPredicationZeroCopulaisrecordedinafewcaseseg

KEIGAagobɘlahe(is)aboyagonerashe(is)agirlThePredicativeseriesofGenderPrefixes(sect6a(ii))isusedwithallVerbsStevensonsayslsquoThereisnoformaldistinctionbetweenadjectivesandverbswhichwithnumeralsformonegrammaticalcategoryAllsuchformsmaybeconjugatedrsquoTotheseformsmustbe added the Interrogatives lsquowhere (is)rsquo lsquohow manyrsquo and the PositionalDemonstratives

TheseverbalformscanbeconjugatedforbothPersonandAspect

k-l um-ɔŋɔwearefivek-ag-l um-ɔŋɔwewerefiveNotethattheAttributiveseriesofGenderPrefixesisusedwithPossessiveseveninaPredicativesenseţεndiy-ay-a εcloththismy=thisclothismineThereisaVerblsquotobersquoa

iiabibalaheisaboyɔgɔm-aba a asheisagirl11Negation

TheVerb ţala ţalɔ ţa iţa to be lacking is used as anAuxiliaryVerb toexpress Negation The Negative construction is different from that in Tensesformed with Auxiliary Verbs the Auxiliary Verb takes the Pronoun SubjectSuffixthemainVerbthePronominalorGenderPrefixandtheAspectPrefix

In KRONGO Negation is expressed by Prefix or Proposition a and

Postpositione

IntheCentralandEasterndialectsfafεorluleavestopareusedwiththeInfinitive to form the Negative Imperative

12WordOrderWordorderinthefinitesentenceisnormallyS+V+O

buttheorderV+S+Oisalsopossibleeg

13TheGenitiveConstructionThe order is Possessed+Possessor in all languages The following

constructions occur Simple juxtaposition in Compound Nouns only (notfrequent)

14ConstructionswithQualifiersAs has already been stated (sect 10) Adjectives Numerals ampc have verbal

behaviourUsed attributivelyAdjectives take theAttributive series ofGenderPrefixes (sect 6a (i)) except in KRONGO where the Predicative series is usedwithAdjectivesJust as lsquoAdjectivesrsquo used predicatively have verbal behaviour soVerbs can

haveadjectivalbehaviourandtake theAttributiveGenderPrefixesCompare

15MiscellaneousUsesoftheParticlekV

AsaLocativePreposition

1CfKOALIB-MOROandTALODI-MASAKIN(pp271272)1Insomedialectsonly1ATKcharacteristic1AsimilarphenomenonoccursinthethreeGendersofIRAQW(p576)comparealsoPolarityin

SOMALI(p513)ItshouldbenotedthattheelementstandkhavenoGendersignificanceinKADUGLI-KRONGO

1KEIGAhoweverhasdifferentSubjectSuffixesinP1Inc-lgaiExe-Iŋo1CfthePostureDemonstrativesinSARAMBAIp731Seesect152AlsowithPluralNounswhichareFeminineheretheGendersystemcutsacrossNumber1AccordingtoStevensonTheexamplesdonotsubstantiatethis1LocativeaccordingtoStevensonSeealsosectsect8d13and15ButcomparealsotheLinkingParticlein

KATLAp269andTEGALIp298

20THENUBIANGROUP

SourcesNileNUBIAN

CHArmbrusterDongoleseNubianAGrammarCambUnivPress1960pp461

ARAyoubTheverbalsysteminadialectofNubian(FADICCA)(PhDthesis)MS

CRLepsiusNubischeGrammatikBerlin1880(MAHAS)(italicized)

HillNUBIAN

RCStevensonMSnotesonKADARUDILLINGDEBRICMeinhoflsquoSprachstudienimegyptischenSudanrsquo(ZKS1917ndash19)(ital)

MIDOB RCStevensonMSnotes

1PhoneticsIaVowels

FiveVowelsare recorded inNileNUBIAN i eaouStevenson recordssevenvowelsinHillNUBIANieεaɔouwithIandUaslsquovariantsrsquoofianduLong Vowels are common throughout the Group Length is sometimes

significant in Nile NUBIAN there is no evidence of its significance in HillNUBIANDiphthongs ending in i (y) or u (w) are common in Nile NUBIAN but

apparentlynotinHillNUBIANAnaptycticiisverycommonthroughoutVowel Harmony occurs but the principles governing it are not fully

understood

1bConsonantsThe following have been recorded for the Group as a whole

tanddarenormallydentalAlveolar(andslightlyretroflex)ṭandḍhavebeennotedinHillNUBIAN

hisanoptionalvariantoffpisusuallyanoptionalvariantofbandsometimes

occursastheresultofdissimilation(itappearstobeaseparatephonemeinMIDOB)

ɽoccursasamemberofthelandorrphonemeinKADARUandhasalsobeenrecordedinDEBRIIn MIDOB both l and r are voiceless in certain positions usually final

Compare

BothsandʃoccurinNileNUBIANandMIDOBʃonlyinHillNUBIANThereappearstobeanalmostinfinitepossibilityofconsonantjunctionwhere

Stems and Affixes are concerned but there is also much assimilation bothprogressive and regressive often resulting in double consonants there is alsodissimilation True voiced nasal compounds perhaps occur in MIDOBCombinationswithwandyarecommonLong or double consonants not apparently caused by assimilation have also

beennoted

ExamplesofconsonantchangeinFADICCAAccusativeSuffix-gaPlSuffixndashgu

goonand(repeatedaftereachNoun)alii goonmihammad toon fa-kab-innanAli andMohamedwill eatkajcoon tii goon-g f-ekkac-c-ir I will bring the donkey and the cow kitabpoonhellipbookandhellipagarkoonplaceandhellipwilidtoonhellipboyandhellipkabakkoonfoodandhellip

2ToneandStress

2aTone

Little isknownabout tone inFADICCA it appears tobe linkedwith stress(seebelow)In KADARU a few lexical tone doublets have been recorded there would

seemtobethreeleveltones

ToneisonlyshowninafewofStevensonrsquosexamplesandisnotmarkedhereexceptinafewcaseswhereitisobviouslysignificant

2bStressArmbruster marks three degrees of Stress in DONGOLAmdashrsquoPrimary

SecondaryandWeakrsquoAyoub1notes the existence of Tone-Stress (lsquoProminencersquo) patterns in

FADICCASeesect4a

3WordShapeMonosyllabicStemsbothNounandVerbseemtobethemostfrequentCV

CVC and VC being common (both long vowels and long consonants oftenoccurring)MostNounStemsendinC


(i)ThereisnoevidenceofMorphologicalVerbClasses(ii) According to Ayoub there are Tone-Stress(lsquoProminencersquo) Classes in

FADICCAandeachClasslsquohasitsownwayofbehaviourinthephoneticpieceas regards prominencersquo2 Compare lsquoay kab-ir I eat ay lsquodumm-ir I know aydumm-rsquoirIburn(iii)DerivativeVerbsareformedbyStem-extendingSuffixessomeofwhichareidentifiablewithVerbswithaseparateexistence(andwhicharecalledAuxiliaryVerbsbysomeauthorities)whileothersappeartobeStemExtensionspureandsimpleInternalchangeintheStemisalsorecorded(prop)Stem-extendingSuffixes

Armbruster relates thePassiveFormative -katti- inDONGOLAto theVerbkattiwrap it is used as a Passive and Potentialnal-katti-ran they are seentheycanbeseen

A comparable form has not been recorded in Hill NUBIAN but noteKADURU

kam-adIn it iseatenrr-adInhe is (was)bornalsodwεj-IribespoiltltdwajispoilCausativeTransitiveSuffixinrdDONGOLAdab-irloseltdabdisappearTheCausativecanbeformedfromaVerb(asabove)alsofromVerb+Accus

Caseendingeeje-g-irplywithfoodlteejebelchNouninAccusCasekombo-g-irstrengthenltkombostrongNumeralinAccusCasetoski-g-irtreblemakethreelttoskithreeNotealsoag-iddicausetositltaagsitremainExamplesfromHillNUBIANareobscureCompare

PluralityinVerbsisdenotedbyanelementcj(oftencausingassimilationofneighbouringconsonant)ItdenotesPluralSubjectObjectorActionaccordingtolanguageFADICCA(PlObject)

taruu-gadeen-c-onheusgave(Verbdeengivewith1stPersonObject)tarik-katic-c-onheyougave(Verbtirgivewith2ndor3rdPersonObject)(PlSubject)unfa-kac-c-urwewillcometerkab-afii-jj-inantheyeatinglie(ietheyaresated)MAHAS(PlObject)

iruu-gagafradeen-j-inamyouforgaveus(lityouusforgivenessgave)aiuk-k iiga tij-j-ir I tell you (lit I you a telling give) DONGOLA (Pl ActionIntensive)uur-ijbreakwindaudiblyltuurbreakwindinaudiblyPlObjecthoweveris

expressedinDONGOLAbySuffix-irnal-irsee(severalthings)ltnalseeMIDOB(PlSubject)soumlr-j-uwawegooumll-j-Iwaweeat

Note also the Suffix -Vda denoting Plural Action in Ukk-Uda bear oftenltUkkabearoumlkk-Udabeartwinsoftenltoumlkkabeartwins

acc-Ida-ɔbitemanythingsoftenacc-Idabiteoftenacca-cbitemanythingsltaccabiteExamplesfromKADARUareobscureCompare

(β) Stem Extensions identifiable as independent Verb Stems (CompoundVerbs) FADICCA ed-aag-ir I am married cf aag-ir I am I sit Note thatassimilationwith thePluralelement -j- takesplacewhen the item isusedasaStemExtensionbutnotwhenitisanindependentVerbCompareFADICCAkab-ec-c-onheate(severalthings)ed-j-isImarried(severalwives)

ed-ooj-j-isIhavebeenmarried(severaltimes)oos-j-isItookout(severalthings)

4bNounsNouns are formed from Verbs by means of Suffixes which include the

followingVerbalNounandorInfinitive

NounAgent

NotethatallthewordslistedbyNewbold2haveaSuffix-qior-kiofwhichthesignificanceisnotknownADiminutiveSuffixhasbeenrecordedinKADARUkɔju-nduPlkɔju-rusmallhorsefoal

4cAdjectivesSeveral Adjective Formative Suffixes have been recorded in FADICCA

In DONGOLA -kiri lsquolike -ishrsquo forms Adjectives kumbu-kiri egg-like Plkumbu-nci-kirilikeeggsIn DONGOLA there is a construction which might be termed lsquoGenitival-

Adjectivalrsquo1andwhichisroughlytranslatablebylsquopertainingtorsquoItisformedbySuffixing-ditoaNounPronounRelative(sect9c)ampcintheGenitiveCase(sect7)tiicowGentii-ntii-n-dipertainingtocowayIGena-na-n-dipertainingtomenii-ritheonethatIdrinkGennii-ri-nnii-ri-n-dipertainingtotheoneIdrinkThese forms can themselves take Case endings and can also take the

AdjectivalSuffix-kiritii-n-di-kirilikethatpertainingtoacow5NumberTheselanguagesdonotonthewholeexhibiteitherTKorNKcharacteristics

(seeIntroductionp22)SeehowevertheSingulativeSuffixtoNounsintdinHill NUBIAN below in MIDOB a velar Plural element occurs in PersonalPronouns(sect8a(i))

5aNounsNounshavemostlynoSuffixintheSingular(otherthanFormativeSuffixessect

4b) there are various Plural Suffixes

NotealsokɔjukojuhorseDILLING-i-enibolbol-idogebeb-enitailInMIDOB-tiisanalmostuniversalPluralSufiixInBIRGIDArkell2notesaSingularSuffix -iwithPlural -tikwar-ikwar-ti

birdASingular or Singulative Suffix has been recorded inmost if not allHill

NUBIANdialectsitcontainstheelementtd3

DAIR om-doom-instarDILLING non-tinonmonth

InDONGOLAArmbrustercitesoneexampleofSingulartiʃkartiguest(Pliʃkari)5bAdjectives

Adjectives appear to have the same type of Plural formation asNouns theAdjectivewhichfollowstheNounandtheNounbothrequirePluralSuffixesDONGOLA kaaduulkaa-riduul-inci largehouse

5cPronouns

In Nile NUBIAN the Interrogative lsquowhorsquo and Demonstratives take thenominalPluralSuffix-gu(sectsect8b80)A velar Plural element occurs in the Self-standing Personal Pronouns in

MIDOBonly(sect8a(i))

5dVerbsForPluralityinVerbsseesect4a(iii)


7CaseThere are threeCases theNominative has no Suffix and appears to be the

Absolute form The other Cases have SuffixesAccus-g (often assimilated toprecedingconsonant)inKADARU-gi-i-eGen-n(sometimesassimilated)TheCaseendingsareattachedtotheNounortothelastelementoftheNoun

GroupNounsPronounsVerbStems(in theCausativeinDONGOLA)Adjectives

Numerals Participles the lsquoGenitival-Adjectivalrsquo construction and RelativeTenses1cantakeCaseendings

FADICCA

Notealso theuseofCaseendings incertainadverbialconstructionsay issa-gkakab-isIjust-Acchaveeatenaywiil-inkis-sIyesterday-Gencame

andthepositionoftheCaseendingaftergoonandkajcoontigoon-gf-ekkac-c-ir donkey and cowand-Acc Iwill bringThere is also anAccusative of the

Genitive8Pronouns8aPersonal(i) The Self-standing Pronouns show Block Pattern to a certain extent

InclusiveExclusivedistinctioninP1hasbeenrecordedinMIDOBonly

TheSelf-standingPronouncanbutneednotprecedetheVerbNoteInterlockingPatterninKADARU(iii)PronounObjectisexpressedbytheAccusativeoftheSelf-standingformInMIDOBdistinctformshavebeenrecordedintheSingular1uwe2naacute3

nagrave

(iv)ThePossessivesconsistoftheGenitiveoftheSelf-standingPronounsorof forms related to them InDONGOLA there is a second set of Possessivesusedwithsomekinship termsThePossessive follows theNoun inFADICCAand MAHAS precedes in DONGOLA and Hill NUBIAN

InMAHASandDILLING the followingexamplessuggest thataprecedingPossessive is used at least with some kinship terms as in DONGOLA


8cDemonstrativeThreedegreesofdistancearerecorded(twoonlyinDONGOLAandDEBRI)

TheDemonstrativeAdverbsinFADICCAareformedfromtheDemonstrativeswithLocativeSuffix-doin-doheretad-dothereman-doyonder(cfalsotheInterrogative lsquowherersquo above) 8d The Relative is expressed by Tenses of theVerbwhichcanbedeclinedforCaseSeesect9c9VerbConjugation9aMoodandAspect

TherearetwoMoodsinsomelanguagesIndicativeandInterrogativeTherearetwoAspectscalledPresentandPastPerfectorAoristbyvarious

writers They are here termed Imperfect and Perfect or Past according to

languageAspect is differentiated by the series ofPronounSubjectSuffixesusedtheelementrbeingassociatedwiththeImperfectswiththePerfectinFADICCAincertainPersonsThevoweloisalsoassociatedwiththePerfectorPast


(i)TheVerbisconjugatedforPersonbySuffixesTheSelf-standingPronounoften but not necessarily precedes the Verb A Prefix i- in P 1 occurs inKADARUandDILLING

NILENUBIANndashFADICCAVerbkabeat (theSelf-standingPronounsaregivenhere toshowtheTone-

Stress (lsquoProminencersquo) patternssee sect 4a (ii))

TheMAHASVerbresemblesthatofFADICCAInDONGOLAthelsquoPresentrsquo(Imperfect)Aspectalsoresembles thatofFADICCAbut thePerfectAspect isnot used except as a Relative construction (see p 326) The Interrogative isformedbymeansofapostpositionalParticle(seesect11)

HILLNUBIAN-KADARU

(ii)ImperativeIn DONGOLA and FADICCA the Sing Imperative consists of the Simple

SteminKADARUithasavowelSuffixthePluralImperativehasaSuffixin

alllanguagesrecorded

9cTensesTensesareformedbySuffixesAuxiliariesand(Future inNileNUBIAN)a

PrepositionalParticleSuffixes

InKADARUalsquoPerfectrsquoTensecanbebuiltupinbothAspectswUr-ŋ-ǵaɽ-ε(n)IhavekilledwUr-n-al-ε(n)IhadkilledandaFuturePerfectwUr-ŋ-gal-caIshallhavekilledwUr-n-al-caIshouldhavekilledAuxiliariesInFADICCAsomeAuxiliaryVerbsareusedwith theVerbalNounin-aof

theMainVerboos-afii-nitistakenout(litatakingoutitlies)kab-afii-rIam

fullup(litaneatingIlie)FromthelastexampleitwouldseemthatthisisnotaPassiveEquivalent

Note It is not easy to distinguish Tense-forming Suffixes from DerivativeStemExtensionsandAuxiliaries

PrepositionalParticleIn Nile NUBIAN the Future is formed by a Particle which is normally

prefixedtotheStembutwhichcanbeseparatedfromitbySubjectorObject

DONGOLA1

All these forms can be conjugated for Person and also take Case endingsDONGOLAnii-ri-g(Accus)nii-ri-n(Gen)andcangiverisetolsquopertainingtorsquoforms(sect4c)jom-ri-n-di pertaining to the fact that the one that ampc I strike 10 Non-

verbalPredicationandVerbslsquotobersquoandlsquotohaversquo

10aZeroCopulahasbeen recorded inKADARUkato-n jur-εwo tohoe thefieldishardlitfieldrsquosto-hoehotInDONGOLA-eriisusedinthe1stPersonSingular-(u)n inallotherPersonsandWithNounstodenotelsquobeingsomeoneorsomethingrsquoayboob-eriIamayoungpersonerboob-unYouareayoungpersonkaa-nItisahousekub-unItisaboat

lsquoDefinitersquo Predication is expressed by -taran or -tannan kaa-taran -tannanItrsquos the house ay tirti-taran I am the owner The Interrogative lsquowhere isrsquo isexpressedbyseer(i)seWhereareyoukubseWhereistheboat

Interrogativelsquoisitahelliprsquoisexpressedby-relsquoDefinitersquo-te(cfsect11b)kaa-reIsitahouseun-deIsitthemoonwel-leIsitadog

terkaa-teIsitthehousealso-ted-de(lt-ter-de)terkaa-ted-deIsitthehouse

10b InFADICCA there is aVerb lsquoto bersquo (the final consonant is obscured bysoundchange)ayfadiccamellIamaFadiccaayfadiccamessIwasaFadiccaThereisalsoaVerblsquotohaversquokunkun-irIhavekun-isIhad

11NegationandInterrogation11A In Nile NUBIAN Verbal Negation is expressed by a Suffix containingmVn which follows the Verb Stem or Tense Particle

In DONGOLA the Negative Suffix is -munun in all Persons except P 3whereitis-munannii-mununIyouampcdonotdrinknii-munantheydonotdrink jom-ko-munun Iampcdidnot strike jom-ko-munan theydidnot strikeThesameSuffixisusedinnon-verbalPredicationkaa-mununitrsquosnotahousekaari-munantheyarenothousesTheNegativeImperativehasSuffix-mennii-menPlnii-men-weDonotdrink

-men-isalsousedinRelativeTensesnii-men-dithefactthattheonethatampcIdonotdrink11BInterrogationin

DONGOLAisexpressedbypostpositionalSuffixes-a-de-re

nii-ri-adoIdrinkijom-ki-ri-oifWhenIstrikenii-ri-othefactthatampcIdrinknii-ran-detodrinkkaa-reisitahousewel-leisitadog



TheorderisPossessorinGenitiveCase+Possessed

InKADARUtwoconstructionshavebeenrecordedwithVerbalNounswee-

ndlr-tudurrarsquossowing(VerbalNounwithSuffix-tu)thesowingofdurraweetIr-ε-ni durra to-sow-of (Infinitive in Genitive Case) durra for sowing 13b)PronounPossessorPossessivesfollowtheNouninFADICCAandMAHAS

butnoteMAHASarmessimysister(seesect8a(iv))ThePossessivesprecedetheNouninDONGOLAandHillNUBIANDONGOLAann iccimymilkawwelmy dog embeled your countryNotealso in FADICCA Self-standing Pronoun in Genitive Case preceding thePossessedNounay-iinkitaabmybook

14ConstructionswithQualifiersAdjectives follow theNounbothNounandAdjectivehavePluralSuffixes

butCaseendingsareattachedtotheAdjectiveonlyDONGOLA kaa duul large house kaa duul-g(i) nal-li I see a large house

1Persona]communication2CfRASHAD(p290)BEDAUYE(p502)andBILIN(p503)1TheuseoftheelementtintheformationofVerbalNounsisreminiscentoftheTKlanguages(See

Introductionp22)1NothoweveraRelativeconstructionSeeRelativeTensessect9c2lsquoSomelinkswiththeAnagatJebelHarazarsquo(SudanNotes1924)1CfBILINp5072MSnotes3PerhapsduetoinffuenceofneighbouringlsquoTKrsquolanguagesthewordforhillinKADARUmay1Cf

CUSHITICp5191Tone-Stressnotknown1AnisolatedexampleofthevelarPluralelement(seeIntroductionp23)andthereforenotconclusive1CfEastSAHARANp188andBILINpp531536ndash72Cfjaacutean-ihewhosellsjaan-rsquoiiseller(NounAgentsect4b)1CalledlsquoSubjunctiversquobyArmbruster

21BARYA1(BAREA)

1ThisspellingisadoptedhereinsteadofthatusedbyReinisch(andintheHandbook)ontheadviceofHuntingfordquotingEthiopicsourcesNotethatthewordinAmharicmeanslsquoslaversquo

22KUNAMA

SourcesGiuseppe-FermodaCastelnuovodeZappaGrammaticadeltalinguaCunamaAsmara1938(herecitedasGF)(initalics)

RCStevensonMSmaterial

1Phonetics1aVowelsGFrecordsfivevowelsonlyieaouStevensonalsorecordsfivemain

vowelsbutnotesinadditionIanduoccasionallyɛLengthislexicallysignificant

Consonant assimilation occurs ga-s-ke he went is realized as ga-s-se inBARKAdialectAnaptycticnasalhasbeenrecordedinsomeInterrogativeforms(seesectrr)

2ToneandStress

Tone andStress appear to be significant both lexically and grammatically

Neithertonenorstressismarkedinmostoftheexamples3WordShape

StevensonreportsthatmanyVerbRootsappeartoconsistofCV(ClassI))C(ClassIIa)VC(ClassIIb)insofarasRootscanbedistinguishedfromStemsNounStemsnotinfrequentlyconsistofCVCbutmanyothershapeshavebeenrecorded

4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i) There are two Morphological Classes differing in behaviour Class II

Verbs fall into two subdivisions

(ii) The fact that tone alone differentiates some Verbs (see examples sect 2)suggests that theremaybeToneorStress-ToneClassesbut thesehavenotasyetbeeninvestigated(iii) There is no evidence of Derivative Verb Formatives The Passive-

ReflexiveisaCompoundVerbformedbythe(irregular)Verb(o)ko(si)tobetobepresentconjugatedforPersonandfollowedbytheVerbalNounwithTenseSuffix (Class I Verbs) or the Main Verb with Tense Suffix (Class II)

5dVerbsdInsomeClass IIVerbs theStemappears todifferaccording toNumberof

Subject6GenderThereisnogrammaticalGender

7CaseKUNAMA hasmany Postpositions some of th ese correspond towhat are

elsewheretermedCaseendings1

(iii)Object Prefixes (1st and 2nd PersonObject) occurwithClass IIVerbsonly they replace the Subject Prefixes Object Prefixes are not usedwith 1stPerson Subject In addition the element -(i)n(a)- preceding the Verb StemindicatesPluralityofObjectinallPersons(seesect5c)TheObjectPrefixesare1

1CfPARANILOTICp4502TheexistenceoftwoseriesofPronounSubjectAffixesandtheirpositionintheVerbComplexis

reminiscentofESAHARAN(p171)1ThesearealmostidenticalwiththePostpositionalParticlesinFUR(Accus-siGen-ŋLoe-lep

223)ComparealsotheGenitiveSuffixintheTAMAGroupp2111CfSubject-ObjectPrefixesinMABAp201andPARANILOTICp471alsolsquoSelectorsrsquoin

IRAQWp5871Stevensonnotesthat-mu-before-keisrealizedasŋgo-ŋ-keyoutheystayed1Seenoteundersect122For3rdPersk-seesect151CftheconstructionsinMABA(p204)BARYA(p334)BILIN(p549)AMHARICp611)

23BERTA

SourcesECerullilsquoThreeBertadialectsinwesternEthiopiarsquoAfrica1947PWReidheadReportofLinguisticSurveyamongtribesBertaIngassanaKomaUdukJumjumMaban(cyclostyled1946)

1Phonetics1aVowelsReidheadrecordstenvowelsi1eεaɔouuandə1Cerullirecordsfive

mainvowelsie(describedaslsquoopenrsquo)ao(lsquofairlyclosersquo)uhenotescloseeinonewordonlyandopenɔintheRIKABIYYAHpronunciationoftheNegativeParticle(sect11)Long vowels occur very frequently in Cerullirsquosmaterial whereas Reidhead

givesnoindicationofvowellength

1bConsonants

The consonants given by the two authors differ considerably

Nasalcompoundsarealsofound

2ToneandStressNothingisknownaboutTone

Reidhead states that Stress is significant sometimes serving to distinguishwordsˡisrsquoustariˡsrsquoulargepotˡbɪʃibreastbɪrsquoʃigood3WordShapeThecommonesttypeofwordappearstobeCVCthoughmanyothershapes

alsooccur

4FormativeElements4aVerbs(iii)ThereisnoevidenceofMorphologicalorToneClasses(iii)DerivativeVerbsFrom some examples given byCerulli itwould appear that change of final

vowelorvowelSuffixdistinguishesMotionawayandMotiontowardsWA-KOSHO ad-aʃuliyaGohomead-oʃuli-ŋkrsquooCometomyhouse

ad-iŋwowhereareyougoing

4bNounsNoinformation

4cAdjectivesReidheadgivesnɪŋεlεfemaleltnɪŋewomanMostAdjectiveshoweverappeartobeAdjectivalVerbs

5Number5aNounsSingularandPluralarenotdistinguished

6GenderThere does not appear to be grammatical Gender though Cerulli alleges

Masc and Fem distinctions in Demonstratives in the RIKABIYYAH dialectmabaidalalethismanninyelethiswoman7CaseThereisnoevidenceofinflexionforCase

8Pronouns8aPersonal(i ii) The Selfstanding Pronouns are also used as Subject of the Verb

sometimes with a slightly differing form in Cerullirsquos material

(iii)ThereisnoinformationonPronounObject(iv)ThePossessiveSuffixesare

8bInterrogativeCerullirecordsthefollowing

dalaambalawhoŋwoŋowhere

8cDemonstrativeThefollowingarerecorded

uduleidalale[Cerulli] ɪdəlε[Reidhead]thisidele[Cerulli]that

CerullifurtherrecordsaFemininelsquonearrsquoDemonstrativeele(sect6)

9VerbConjugation9a b Cerulli records two lsquoTensesrsquo distinguished by Suffixes which he callsPerfect and Imperfect The Selfstanding Pronoun precedes the Verb in thelsquoImperfectrsquotherearealsoPrefixesinsomePersonsandinP2aSuffixperhapsrelated to theSelfstandingPronoun1while inP3 theSelfstandingPronoun isrepeatedbetweenthePrefixandStem

InReidheadrsquosmaterialmostVerbsinthePresentTenseendin-ior-əthoughsomeexamplesaretranslatedbyaPastTensegəlbid-idogbitmeguriabid-əomaŋgahabiethaŋsnakebitmymotheryesterdayThefollowingmaycorrespondtoCerullirsquos lsquoPerfect Tensersquoniŋe fi-o guriə she killed snake 9c There do notappeartobeanyotherTensesTheImperativeconsistsoftheStemwithSuffixSg-aPlndashaθaaccordingto

Cerulli(butcftheImperativeexamplesundersect4a)RIKABIYYAH fiy-aKillPlfiy-aθa

10Non-verbalPredicationThe only examples available are those of Reidhead from which it would

appearthatAdjectivesareverbalinbehavioursinceallendinifirbəd-iwaterishotbεldaŋ-ihill isbigNotealso fulɪ-ŋgamiba-daŋ-imyhouse isbigThefunctionofbə-isnotknown11NegationVerbal Negation is expressed by a Particle or Prefix wol preceding the

PronounSubjectaPrefixa-alsooccursprecedingtheSubjectinmostPersonsbutfollowingitinS1CerullihyphenatesalltheelementsNotetheSuffix-iinthelsquoImperfectrsquo

S 1wol-al-a-fiyoyIdidnotkill wol-ali-fiyiIdonotkill2wol-a-ŋgu-fiyoy wol-a-ŋgu-fiyi

TheNegativeImperativeaccordingtoCerulliisbakrsquoa-fiyiŋgoDonotkill12WordOrderWordorder in thefinitesentence isS+V+Oin thefollowingexamplesfrom

Reidheadguriabidəomaŋgasnakebitmymotherali fadisabun Iwantsoaphaethaŋgaliuuŋweeatmeat13TheGenitiveConstruction13aNounPossessorThe order appears to be Possessor+Possessed in simple juxtaposition

CompoundNounsareverycommon[Cerulli] ol bu ʃ head-hair ethab-aloo hand-head (finger) θabu-bu ʃ hand-hair(finger-nail) [Reidhead] sɪsrsquoiə buwə tree(lsquos) branchmisrsquoε hohulu bird(lsquos) egg13bPronounPossessorHere the order is Possessed+Possessor the latter being a Suffix (see sect 8a

(iv))

14ConstructionswithQualifiersItwouldappearfromReidheadrsquosexamplesthatAdjectivesfollowtheNoun

gal bəŋgor male dog gəl nɪŋεlε female dog (cf gəli dog nɪŋε woman)NumeralsalsofollowtheNoun[Cerulli] mabihoolontwomen[Reidhead] misrsquoεhohuludukunulitbird(lsquos)eggone

1WrittenAbyReidhead1ButcfPARANILOTICp465

24TABI(lsquoINGASSANArsquo)

SourcesPWReidheadReportofLinguisticSurveyamongtribesBertaIngassanaKomaUdukJumjumMaban(cyclostyled1946)

SVerrilsquoIIlinguaggiodegliIngassananellrsquoAfricaOrientalersquoAnthropos1955(ThisarticlemakesuseofallpreviouslypublishedmaterialespeciallythatofBZSeligman)FSListerfield-notesandpersonalcommunication

1Phonetics1aVowelsReidheadrecordsiɪeεaɔouandə1Verrirecordsieaouandoumland

uumlwithvaryingdegreesoflengthMaterial taken from Seligman shows three degrees of vowel length eg ă

(short)a(mid-length)ā(long)Reidheadgivesexamplescontaining twoadjacentvowelsbutdoesnotstate

whether theyarediphthongsorheterosyllabicVerri records thediphthongsaiauei

1bConsonants(fromReidhead)

Verriaddsgydyqxand(perhaps)v2butcommentsontheabsenceofʃHealsonotesthattisperhapsretroflexandnotessound-changeoftgtlrutPlrul-kastreamReidheadnotesthefrequentoccurrenceofcombinationswithwtherearealso

manycombinationswithliquidsegudulkmouthguldaktreeəlzamonkeyNasalcompoundsappeartobelacking

2ToneandStress

3WordShapeVerrisuggeststhattheVerbRootiscommonlyCVCWordsofmanyshapes

havebeenrecordedfromVCtoCVCCVCMorewordsendinCthaninV

4StructuralElements4aVerbsNoinformation4bNounsASuffix -nwithnoapparent functionhasbeennotedbyVerri thisSuffix

occurs in someexamples from someofhis sources and is absent in the samewordfromanothersourceegwenorwēhousemōnormofireReidheadgivesfənttohearwɪntearinotherexamplesVerbandNounappeartobeidenticalinshapekəlottotalktongueListerrecordsanoptionalPrefixa-beforenamesofpartsof thebodya-ʋiacutent

eara-έteyea-luacutetlega-uacute(l)kmouthVerrinotesasex-determining(Feminine)Suffix-ŋye(butcfnyamwoman)

5Number5aNounAccordingtoVerriacommonPluralSuffixis-k(-g)1Mōmō-kcalfmaumau-kgazelleoumlloumll-iglionrutrul-kastreamLister records this Suffix sporadically but is not sure that its function is

exclusivelyPluralReidheadmakesnoNumberdistinction

5cPronounAvelarPluralelementoccursintheSelf-standingPersonalPronouns(sect8a)

6GenderThereisnoevidenceofGenderdistinction

7CaseListerrecordsaLocativeSuffixrutstreamrud-iktothestreamsugmarketsug-i(l)ktomarket8Pronouns

8aPersonal(i) The Self-standing Pronouns according to Seligman are

TheseareinBlockPatternwithavelarelement(g)inthePlural(ii) The Pronoun Subject is a Prefix related to the Self-standing forms

accordingtoSeligmantheformsgivenbyReidheaddifferconsiderably

(iv) The Possessive Suffixes recorded are

9VerbConjugationThe few examples available (from Seligman) are insufficient for any

conclusions to be drawn as to verbal behaviour There are Suffixes whichperhaps denote Tense The Verb Stem appears to be inflected in S 2

Notealsowor(r)-iIcalledtel-itheysent

10Non-VerbalPredicationNoinformationavailableReidheadandListergiveexamplesofwhatmaybe

eitherAdjectivalVerbsorAdjectivesinpredicativeuseVerbsorAdjectivesinpredicativeuse

11NegationLister records aNegative Postposition and aNegativeword of place avinti

nyalkɔrwaIdonrsquotunderstandlitearhearsvoicenotikεgan-towaacuteThereisnomilkorikkaylitmilkabsent12WordOrder

WordorderinthefinitesentenceisS+V+Okunbak-saεlkIamhungrylithunger grips belly 13 TheGenitiveConstruction Both orders exist with orwithoutLinkingParticlei

Thesignificanceofthedifferentendingsofthewordforlsquotreersquoisnotknown

14ConstructionswithQualifiersAdjectives follow theirNouns someare introducedby theRelativeParticle

na

1WrittenɅbyReidhead2Listerdistinguishesʋfromw1CftheTKlanguagesHerehoweverthereseemtobenoSingularSuffixes

25GULE

Nodataavailable

26THEKOMAGROUP

KOMA and UDUK together with several lesser-known languages aretentativelygroupedtogetherintheHandbookThelexicalaffinityofKOMAandUDUKisveryclose1

SourcesSJBurnsMSgrammarofKOMAFDCorfieldlsquoTheKomarsquoSudanNotes1938MSvocabularyandsentences(initalics)AglenMSvocabularyandsentencesinGWAMA(initalics)RCStevensonMSgrammarofUDUKfrommaterialsuppliedbyMIForsberg

1Phonetics1aVowelsSevenmainvowelsarerecordedforbothlanguagesieεaɔouəalso

occurs in KOMA UDUK has three central or centralized vowels iuml euml auml Ofthese euml occurs rarely in thematerial available iuml appears to be a variety of ioften alternating in the same word it may also be anaptyctic auml sometimesappears to be an unstressed variety of a sometimes alternatingwith it it alsoseems to be used as an anaptyctic vowel especially initially inNouns (sect 4b)ThereasonsforitsuseandomissionarenotknownLong vowels appear to be absent in KOMA rare in UDUK (but see

Demonstrativessect8c)Diphthongs ending in i and u are recorded in KOMA in UDUK only the

diphthongaihasbeenrecordedBurnsstatesthattherearenasalizedvowelsinKOMAbutgivesnoexamples

thereappeartobenasalizedvowelsinGANZAInKOMA vowel change of a gt εɔ gtə ε gt e has been noted thismay

perhapsbecausedbyproximityofiandubuttherearealsosomeexamplesofvowelchangewhichcannotbesoaccountedforFullVowelHarmonyoccursinKOMA(eginPossessivessect8a(iv))andin

UDUK(seeespeciallysect9b)ElisionhasbeennotedinKOMAegyel-epsheseesbutya-pshegoes

1bConsonantsTheconsonantsystemsofthetwolanguagesaresimilarthoughnotidentical

BurnsrecordsonevarietyoftinKOMAitisnotstatedwhetherthisisdentaloralveolaritiswrittentccedilisperhapsavariantofcinUDUKŋoccursonlybeforekandginKOMAalsoinGANZAhisinitialonlyinKOMAinUDUKitissometimesanalternativeofkrissometimeslonginUDUKkɔrrɔvultureConsonantcombinationswithwandyarecommoninbothlanguagesOther

combinationsalsooccurbutsomeofthesemaybeheterosyllabicAnaptycticnis of extremely frequent occurrence in UDUK it is realized as m beforePossessiveswhichhaveinitialbConsonant assimilation occurs in KOMA krsquoet-er he catches but yel-el he

seesMany consonant alternations have been recorded in UDUK1 eg

InKOMAslurringandvoicingofplosiveshasbeenrecordedakanaaxanaI(Self-standingPronoun)2ToneBurns states that there are four significant tones inKOMAwhich he calls

high mid norm and low and that all words in isolation have inherent toneTherewould seem tobeToneClasses inVerbs (sect4a (ii))GrammaticalTonehasalsobeen recorded inPronounSubjectSuffixes (sect8a (ii)) and inSingularandPluralVerbs(sect5c)Notallexampleshoweveraretone-markedTonehasnotbeenstudiedinUDUKlexicaltonedoubletsoccurbutdonot

seemtobecommoneacuteyou(Sg)eacuteeyeToneisheremarkedasintheexamplesgiven

3WordShapeInKOMAthesimplestformofthewordappearstothemonosyllabicCVC

beingcommonthoughmanylongerwordsoccurIndisyllablesthetwovowels

areoftenidenticalInUDUKVerbStemsappeartobemostlymonosyllabicCVorCVCNoun

StemsshowgreatervarietymanybeginwithC(butseesect4b)

4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i)Burns suggests that inKOMAVerbsmaybe classed according to shape

(MorphologicalClasses)butgivesnoinstances(ii)BurnsgivesfourToneClassesformonosyllabicVerbs1lsquoInherenthighrsquo

poacutebedampʃaacuteeat2lsquoInherentmidrsquoɗibebravegyέmhoe3lsquoInherentmidbecomingnormincertaincircumstancesrsquokwɔcry4lsquoInherentnormrsquokegivelushideWith Verbs of more than one syllable the possibilities are of course muchgreaterThereisnoevidenceofMorphologicalorToneClassesinUDUK

(iii) Derivative Verbs appear to be few In KOMA the following Stem-extendingSuffixesarerecordedMotiontowards-o-

4bNounsInUDUKmanyNounshaveaninitialaumlwhichseemsinsomecasestoform

Nouns from Verbs

InfinitivesorVerbalNounshaveaPrefixmmo-1mmo-kεfjuaauml-tuccedilkwatbe2tocuttrees(is)work(of)menahadi-naumlmmo-

yoraumlkobaumlIwasgrindingcornIn KOMA Sex-distinguishing Prefixesmay be attached to Nouns denoting

persons only these Prefixes also show Number (sect 5a)

InGWAMAAglenrecordssex-distinguishingSuffixesinvariableforNumberkiki-zmankiki-atwoman1

ThereisnoinformationonotherNounFormativeshere

4cTheredonotappeartobetrueAdjectivesinKOMAonlyAdjectivalVerbsInUDUKmanyAdjectivesare formedfromVerbsbyreduplicationwitha

betweenconsonantsɓɔrbegoodɓɔraumlɓɔrgoodjabebigjajabig5Number5aNounsNumberisnotnormallydistinguishedinNounsineitherlanguageInKOMAhoweverthesex-distinguishingPrefixesalsodistinguishNumber

(sect4b)SpecialCategoryInUDUKkinshiptermspropernamesandthePersonalInterrogativehavea

PluralPrefixi-5bAdjectivesIn UDUK Adjectives of the reduplicated type (sect 4c) do not distinguish

NumberInafewAdjectiveswhicharenotformedbyreduplicationNumberisdistinguished by tone (these Adjectives precede the Noun)

5dVerbsIn both languagesVerbswith different Singular andPlural Stems (denoting

Number either of Subject or of Object) are not uncommon

ExamplesfromUDUKNumberofSubjectmiya-digoatwentmii-nigoatswentNumberofObjectadigudohecarriedathingadiuacuteodohecarriedthingsNotealsotheVerbţodbearwɔlbeartwins

6GenderInKOMA there is grammaticalGender in the 3rdPersonSingularPersonal

Pronounsonly(Self-standingSubjectObjectandPossessivemdashseesect8a)Thereare threeGenders theGender-distinguishing elements beingMascr FempNeutnThereisnogrammaticalGenderinUDUK

7CaseThereisnoevidenceofinflexionforCaseineitherlanguage

8Pronouns8aPersonalIt is in thePersonalPronouns that the closest resemblancebetween the two

languages can be seen (except in S 3 where KOMA alone distinguishesGender)(i)Self-standing(alsoSubjectandObjectinUDUK)

(ii iii) InKOMASubject andObject are expressed by Suffixeswhich arerelated to the Self-standing Pronouns Separate Subject and Object forms arealsorecordedinGANZA

egKOMAyel-el-apheseesherNote the tonaldistinction inSubjectSuffixesbetweenS1 andP1Exc andbetweenS3NandP3inKOMATheObjectformscansometimesbeusedasSelf-standingPronounsham-ep

giha-oapkwomthen-sheandcame-hithershemotherTheVerbComplexV+Owithout Subject Suffix or Noun Subject appears to be used as a PassiveEquivalent1

AsimilarconstructionisusedwithAdjectivalVerbskrsquoausw-ardogbig-him(thedogisbigthebigdog)Seesect10(iv)PossessiveThePossessives inboth languagesarebasedonb- (cfDemonstrativeba in

KOMAsect8c)

NotereduplicationofconsonantwithharmonizingvowelinsomePersonsinKOMAharmonizingvowelwithoutreduplicationofconsonantinotherPersonsInUDUKanaptycticmoccursbeforePossessives

8bInterrogativeInformationonKOMAislacking

TheInterrogativesinUDUKare

8cDemonstrativeBurnsrecordsoneDemonstrativeonlyinKOMAbawhichfollowstheNoun

andisinvariableforNumbergugravebiacutebathishousethesehousesCfPossessives(sect8a(iv))UDUK has three degress of distance and one Reference Demonstrative

ya-seyan-se(here)isalsoused

Foruseofbaseesect15

8dRelativeThereisnoinformationontheRelativeinKOMAUDUK has a Relative Particle gi Pl gu1 (with anaptyctic n in certain

circumstances)giisalsousedintheGenitive(sect13)andincertainotherconstructions(sect15)

9VerbConjugationTheoutstandingdifferencebetweenthetwolanguagesisinthebehaviourof

theVerbTheyarethereforetreatedseparatelyhereKOMA(a)and(b)AspectandconjugationforPersonTheredonotappeartobeAspectsorVoices(forPassiveEquivalentseesect8a

(iii))TheVerbComplex consists ofV+S+O the Self-standing Pronoun can also

precedeorfollowtheVerbforemphasis

UDUK(a)and(b(i))VoiceandAspectconjugationforPersonTransitiveVerbshavetwoVoicesActiveandPassiveEachVoicehastwoAspectsApplicativeandQualitativeIntransitive Verbs have Qualitative Aspect only and are identical in shape

withtheQualitativeAspectofActiveTransitiveVerbsAnoptionalParticlemocanfollowtheVerbmostlyifIntransitive(sect15)IntheApplicativeAspectofPassiveVerbsaumlormauml1standsbetweenVerband

Agent(g-iftheAgentis1stPersonSingular)Conjugation is basically simple but phonetically complex vowel harmony

andanaptycticnplayingaconsiderableroleTheSelf-standingPronounprecedestheVerbasSubject

TransitiveActiveApplicative(withexpressedObject)S1Suffix-aumlwithanaptycticnafteravowel

S2Suffixzeroanaptycticnbeforeavowel

S3SuffixzeroanaptycticnbeforeavowelasuffixedvoweloccurswithsomeVerbs2

TransitivePassiveApplicative(withexpressedAgent)

TransitivePassiveQualitative(withoutexpressedAgent)

(ii)TheImperativeinUDUKconsistsofthesimpleStemwithoutdistinctionofNumber(exceptofcourseinVerbswithSingularandPluralStemssect5d)

9cTensesKOMAhas a number ofAuxiliaryVerbswhich are conjugated for Person

andfollowedbytheStemoftheMainVerbSomeoftheseexpressTime(PastFuture)butothersexpressnon-temporalconcepts2(NegationisalsoexpressedbyanAuxiliaryVerbseesect11)

UDUKlikewisehasAuxiliaryVerbswhichareconjugatedforVoiceAspectandPerson and followedby theStemof theMainVerbbutonly a fewhavebeenrecorded

ContinuousorProgressiveActionisexpressedbyrepetitionoftheVerbieitisconjugatedandthenfollowedbythesimpleStemtheconstructionisthusthesameas thatwithAuxiliaryVerbsahaya-naumlya Iamgoingamso-naumlsoweare running A Subjunctive (lsquoHortatoryrsquo) Tense has been recorded in UDUKwithout Pronoun Subject lob-auml let us play i-nauml let us go (PI Verb) withPronounSubjectandrepeatedVerbiumlnaumlamainamoletusgo1

InadditionUDUKhasaseriesofTensesdenotingPastTimeorCompletedActionformedbySuffixescontaininggtheseSuffixesimmediatelyfollowthe

VerbStem

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerbslsquotobersquoandlsquotohaversquo10aZeroCopulaisrecordedinUDUKonlyThePostpositionbabe(sect15)can

followbutisapparentlyoptionalInKOMAtheSelf-standingPronounwithLocativeParticleeisusedforlsquoto

bepresentrsquomahomethareHere isMahomethape legap1Here isLegap InKOMAtheObject formof thePronoun(seesect8a(iii)) isusedwithAdjectival

VerbsInCIITAandBULDIITtheSelf-standingPronounsareusedwithAdjectives

predicativelyCIITAokazar ton litmanhebigbapaap tonwomanshebig10bIdentityisexpressedinbothlanguagesbytheVerbta(inUDUKsometimestrsquoa)KOMAta-rkweHeischiefta-phapnaItissheta-nʃεtItisanantelopeInUDUK ta is a Transitive Verb It is in the Applicative when the Object is apersonIt is in theQualitativeAspectwhen followed by anAdjectiveNumeral or

Noun denoting a generalized type of person

11Negation

InbothlanguagesNegationisexpressedbyanAuxiliaryVerbKOMAlsquoyak(1stPersonSgandPl)εk(allotherPersons)

CorfieldrecordsaNegativeAuxiliaryVerbbafiharbafi-l-akyilhenot-he-mesee(Hedoesnrsquotseeme)

UDUKdiPlkrsquoobesomewheregi(sect15)standsbetweentheAuxiliaryandthe

mainVerbObservationUDUK has several Verbs expressingNegative concepts1 so that a Positive

construction is often used


WithAdjectivalVerbsandin thePassiveEquivalent inKOMAtheorder isV+O(seesectsect8a(iii)10)

13TheGenitiveConstructionTheorderisPossessed+PossessorinbothlanguagesSimple juxtaposition is used in Compound Nouns perhaps in the Intimate

Genitiveandwithnon-personalPossessorCompoundNounsareverycommoninUDUKandincludeCompoundsofNoun+VerbStem

14ConstructionswithQualifiersIn Burnsrsquos KOMAmaterial there do not appear to be true Adjectives but

AdjectivalVerbs(seesect10)CorfieldhowevergivesexamplesofwhatappeartobeAdjectivestheyfollowtheNountsatontreebigʃuwatonlionbigIn GANZA there likewise seem to be invariable Adjectives which follow theNounInUDUKAdjectivesformedfromVerbs(sect4c)followtheNounalmusjajabananabig

AfewAdjectivesprecedetheNounanddistinguishNumberbyTone(seesect5b)InbothlanguagesDemonstrativesandPossessivesfollowtheNounthoughit

wouldappearthatinUDUKtheDemonstrativecansometimesprecedetheNoun(seesect8c)

15MiscellaneousUDUK has several Particles which are of frequent occurrence The most

commonly used are gi (Pl gu)Particle used in the following constructions

Whether the Past Tense Suffix -gi (sect 9c) or the Particle g- introducing 1stPersonSingularAgentwithPassiveVerbs are identicalwith theParticlegi is

notknownNote that KOMA has a Postpositional Particle gi used after the Auxiliary

Verbham(Narrativesect9c)

babePostpositionwhosesignificance isnotcertainbutwhichmayperhapsbe emphatic or determinative (cf KOMA Demonstrative ba sect 8c)

1SeeBryanlsquoALinguisticNo-manrsquosLandrsquoAfrica19451Wordsarethereforerecordedasfoundinthematerial1Perhapsm-mo=inaplace2ForPostpositionbabeseesect151TheFemSuffix-atsuggestsERYTHRAICinfluence1-aacutewhennoObjectisexpressed(withanaptycticnafteravowel)-g-whenanObjectSuffixfollows

yel-aacuteIseeyel-g-eIseeit2-eacutelafteraVerbendingin1yel-eacutelhesees1NotethatinTEPETHtheNeuter-PassiveDerivativeVerbisapparentlyusedwiththeObjectformof

thePronoun(p394)1NotethatParticlesing-occurinRelativeconstructionsinBONGO-BAGIRMI(p74)ZANDE(p

150)MABA(p202)RASHAD(p295)BARYA(p332)andGELEBA(p565)1BeforepropernamesandNounsbeginningwithauml2ThefunctionofthisSuffixwhichisnotnecessarilyinharmonywiththeStemvowelisnotknown1ForPostpositioneseesect152CfSLWOp431MAASAIp4833OneexampleoccursinwhichthemainVerbisconjugatedandfollowedbypwɔʃwithchangeoftone

kyέ-o-npwɔʃarrived-here-they4CftheParticlegiinUDUK(seesect15)1NotecentralizationofvowelinthefirstVerbabsenceofcentralizationinthesecondForParticlemo

seesect151Whetherthetermination-aptoawomanrsquosnameissignificantisnotknown1CfNILOTICp436

27THEDIDINGA-MURLEGROUP

SourcesANTuckerMSnotes______lsquoNotesonMurle(lsquoBeirrsquo)rsquoAfrikauUumlbersee1952RELythAMurleGrammarcyclostyled1947(initalics)mdashmdashSomeNotesontheSuriTribecyclostyled(initalics)JHDriberglsquoTheDidingaLanguagersquoMSOS1931(initalics)MABryanlsquoTheVerbintheTamaandDidingaLanguageGroupsrsquoAfrikanistischeStudien(FestschriftWestermann)1955

1Phonetics1aVowelsDriberg records ī i e ecirc ε a ā o ō u ū forDIDINGA but some of his

diacriticswouldappeartorepresentvowellengthLythusesonlyfivevowelsie a o u for MURLE Tucker employs i ɪ e ε a auml ɔ o u u for bothlanguagesbutisuncertainofthephonemicgroupingofthesesoundsaumlisrareandseemstobetheresultofUmlaut

Vowellengthisapparentlyoflittlesignificanceanddialectalvariationshavebeen noted In some cases an elided medial consonant may be presumed

Lyth however frequently doubles the vowels in his MURLE material

CompareInsomeinstancesvowellengthseemstobelinkedwithstressSeesect2b

Diphthongsendingin-iand-uoccurinopensyllables

Little can be said about vowel assimilation but vowel dissimilation occursoccasionally

1bConsonants

sţand areusuallydentalretroflexṭisrareNon-implosivebanddarerareandmightbephonemicvariantsofɓandɗxandɣareprobablyvariantsofkandgrespectivelyfisavariantofvandθisavariantofethTheglottalstoponlyoccursfinallyinsomewordsitsuseisnotconsistentCfDIDINGAarţέLONGARIMartέgrassDouble consonants have occasionally been recorded but consonant length

seemstohavenosignificance(butseeunderStresssect2b)Voicednasalcompoundsarecommonbuthetero-syllabicjunctionsoccurwith

-r-onlyegDIDINGAgέrethȧbad

2ToneandStress2aToneThreetonelevelshavebeenrecordedalsoRisingandFallingtoneToneapparentlyhaslexicalandgrammaticalsignificance

2b Little is known about stress though a stressed syllablemay sometimes beaccompaniedbyvowellengthorbefollowedbyalengthenedconsonant

3WordShapeMostVerbStemshavetheformCVCbutshorterorlongerStemsfromVto

CVCVCarenotuncommonIn the caseofNouns it is virtually impossible todetach theSingular andor

PluralSuffixessothatNounsmayrangefromonetofiveorsixsyllables

4StructuralElements

4aVerbs(i) Each Verb has two main Stems more or less phonetically related and

associatedwithAspect1AccordingtotheirshapeVerbsmayperhapsbedividedinto three Morphological classesmdashwith subdivisions The followingclassificationcriteriaareinvolvedAspectSuffixPresenceorabsenceof-t-inistSg-PrefixDefiniteAspect2

Vowel of 1st Sg Prefix in both Aspects Apparent metathesis in Stem asbetweenAspectsVowelchangeinStemasbetweenAspectsFinalStemconsonantchangeasbetweenAspects

NoteaPrefixk-withoutapparentfunction1

(ii)NounsdifferfromeachotherintonebutnogroupingofNounsintoToneClasseshasasyetbeenattempted

4cAdjectivesMostAdjectivesbehavelikeVerbsinthattheymaybeconjugatedforPerson

On the other hand they have Plural forms andCase endings likeNouns andcannotshowTenseAnAdjectiveFormativeoccursin

Therelationshipbetweenpredicativeandattributiveformsisoftenobscure

5Number

These languagesexhibitbothTKandNKcharacteristicsSee Introductionp22

5aNounsNumberisdistinguishedbySuffixesofwhichtherearemanysomebeingof

the TK type others not Nouns may be conveniently grouped as follows

Note the following example of Number distinction by internal change

SpecialCategoryCertainkinshiptermsandthePersonalInterrogative(sect8b)inDIDINGAhave

aPluralPrefixki-(seesect5candcfBARIetcp464)babaki-babamyfather

5bAdjectivesTheNumberSuffixesofAdjectivesareasvariedandunpredictableasthoseof

Nouns1AcommonPluralSuffixis-k

5cPronounsAvelarPluralelementoftenwithacorrespondingalveolarSingularelement

occursinSpecialCategoryNouns(sect5a)andthePersonalInterrogative(sect8b)PersonalPronouns(sect8a(i))andSubjectSuffixes(sect8a(ii))Possessives(sect8a(iv)) and Noun Possessor in Genitive Case (sect 7) Interrogatives (sect 8b)Demonstratives(sect8c)theRelativeParticle(sect8d)

5dVerbsAvelarPluralelementalsooccursinVerbconjugation2bothintheVerbStem

andinSuffixes(sectsect9b10)

6GenderThereisnogrammaticalGenderthoughsexisdistinguishedinDIDINGAin

afewloan-words3lo-cyensisterrsquossonna-cyensisterrsquosdaughterandinsomepersonalnames

Masc loculi Fem naculiloguto naguto

7CaseThere are four Cases distinguished by Suffixes which follow the Number

SuflixesNouns including tribal and place names (but not personal names) and

Adjectives are inflected for Case also in MURLE the Possessives and someInterrogatives Personal Pronouns have Absolute and Nominative forms butthesearenotformedwiththeCaseSufExes(seesect8a)TheAccusativeisusedaftermostPrepositionstheGenitiveafterafew

8Pronouns8aPersonal(i)BoththeSelf-standingPronounsandthePronominalSuffixesshowCase

NoteBlockPatternbetweenSingularandPlural(and-g-inPlural)

InLONGARIMandMURLEtheSelf-standingPronoun(AccusativeCase)isoften used instead of the Object Suffix (In DIDINGA it occurs mostly foremphasis or after a Preposition)

(iv)PossessivesThePossessivesarebuiltupontheRelativeParticles(sect8d)andapronominal

SuffixdifferentfrombothSubjectandObjectSuffixesTheRelativeParticleisDIDINGAciPlcikSURIciaPlaMURLEcioortithelastisusedonlywithkinshiptermsandmaybereplacedbyavowelSuffixafteraStemendinginaconsonantThesituationinSURIisobscureNumberofbothPossessedandPossessorisdistinguishedtheelementsn(Sg)

and k g ŋ (Pl) playing an important role

ExamplefromMURLEwithkinshiptermsyoa-tunooŋyour(PL)mothergɔtɔn-uyourbrotherPossessivesshowCasein

MURLEbutnotinDIDINGA

MURLEadaialaan-io-nan-elitis-deadchiefmyDIDINGAakatimikabu-i card ten ciganik took thief my cattle my Lyth records several forms ofPronominal Suffix after Prepositions these bear some relationship to thePossessivesPrepositionsyaatkibothmeaninglsquotofrombywithrsquoampc

egavuŋaatinaaŋheiscomingtousavuŋaatigaic theyarecomingtous8bInterrogative

ThePersonalInterrogativeinDIDINGAhasthesamePluralPrefixasSpecialCategoryNouns (sect5a)Note thengopposition in some Interrogatives alsoa

Pluralelementk

8cDemonstrativeThe Demonstratives show relationship to the Relative ci (and ti in one

exampleinDIDINGA)Seesect8d

CfAdverbsofPlace ecihitherecatherethither

Examples

AccordingtoLythcenicegi=thisisitthesearetheySometimes a Demonstrative is used instead of the 3rd Person Pronoun

8dRelative

Examples

As already stated the Relative is also found in the Genitive ConstructionincludingPossessives (sect8a (iv)) and theAdjectivalConstructionSee furthersectsect1314

9VerbConjugation9aAspectandMoodThere are two Aspects distinguished by different Verb Stems (sect 4 a(i))

IndefiniteAorist or Indefinite Imperfect and FutureTensesDefinite PerfectandPastTensesTherearetwoMoodsdistinguishedmainlybyconjugationpatternIndicative

withPrefixk-inistPersononly(SgandPl)1

SubjunctivewithPrefixk-inistand3rdPersons(SgandPl)

TheSubjunctiveisintheDefiniteAspectinDIDINGAbutapparentlyinbothAspectsinMURLE

9bConjugationforPerson(i) InbothDIDINGAandMURLEthePluralStemsareanextensionof the

SingularStemsavelarelementinthePluralisfoundinsomeVerbs2NotethatLythrecordsInclusiveExclusivedistinctioninP1

(ii)ImperativeformsThe Imperative appears to be identical in shapewith the 2nd Person of the

SubjunctiveinDIDINGAandinMURLEaccordingtoTuckerintheexamplesrecorded by Lyth the extra k- Prefix is lacking

(ii) Most Tenses are formed by Auxiliary Verbs andor PParticles thePronominalSuffixesmaybeattachedtotheAuxiliaryVerbtheParticleortheMain Verb Indicative Mood Indefinite Aspect

AnotherPastTenseinvariableParticle+Verbbakataŋu-naIsleptŋanocircŋIslept

MainVerbinSubjunctiveFuture (recorded in MURLE only) invariable Particle+Verb

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerbslsquotobersquoandlsquotohaversquo10a Zero Copula is common in LONGARIM and MURLE

10b(i)DribergrecordsalsquoCopularsquoinDIDINGAwithTensesLythregardsitasaVerblsquotobersquoinMURLE1

11Negation11aVerbal(i)TherearetwoNegativeAuxiliaries

The DIDINGA Auxiliaries usually take Subject Suffixes in MURLE theNominativePronounifusedmayfolloweithertheAuxiliaryortheMainVerb

Sometimes thepronominalSuffix isabsent inDIDINGAKoloŋakanyikithikixodeIwonrsquotgiveyouevenoneetakoloŋaarugumahudmertiThosewhodonotdancedrinkbeeradaxi-nebaŋakikiya-neniŋabukHedidnotcomeherebeforehisdeath lithediedandhedidnotcomeherealsobaadaxi-nebaya itanikniŋaHediedbeforeyou(Pl)cameherelithedieddidnotcomeyouhere(ii)NegativeImperativeHere the Auxiliary is ma in DIDINGA and MURLE (na or nya in

LONGARIM)followedbyaformoftheVerbsimilartobutnotidenticalwith

theAorist11bNon-verbalandVerbslsquotobersquoThe various Verbs lsquoto bersquo are negated in the same way as other Verbs in

DIDINGA and MURLE

12WordOrderWordorderinthefinitesentenceisV+S+OthoughV+O+Smaybeusedfor

emphasistheSubjectbeingintheNominativeCase1

13TheGenitiveConstruction13aNounPossessorThe word order is Possessed+Relative (sect 8d)+Possessor the Possessor

bearingtheGenitiveCaseendingunlessqualifiedSeeCaseBothRelativeandPossessor may take -k when the Possessed is Plural

14ConstructionswithQualifiers14aTheAdjectivefollowstheNounandmostAdjectivesareintroducedbytheRelativeParticle(sectM)TheNounisinitsAbsoluteformAccordingtoDribergthe Adjective takes the Nominative suffix in the Singular in the Plural theRelativeParticleendsin-kinDIDINGAbutnotinMURLE

14cNumeralAdjectivesfollowtheNounwithouttheRelativeParticleexceptinthe word for lsquoonersquo in LONGARIM and MURLE

1CfNYIMANGp2492CfTAMAp2131CfPARANILOTICp4591ProbablyaLocativeform―seesect71ATKcharacteristic2CompareTAMAp2103ThePrefixesemployedhereareGenderPrefixesinPARANILOTIC(seep466)

4NotethevelarPluralelementhere1IntheTAMAGroupthereislikewiseaPrefixinistPersonSingularandPluralbutthereitisn-(seep

213)2CfTAMAGroupp2131velek=lsquoallrsquohereitmeanslsquocompletelyrsquo1ComparetheVerblsquotobesomethingrsquoinTAMAp2161CfPARANILOTICp4881Possibly=thecowisonethebodyisone

28BAKO

Nodataavailable

29TEUSO(GROUPORISOLATEDUNIT)

OF these little-known languages or dialects () only TEPETHhas so far beenanalysedgrammaticallySourceQuestionnaire(translatedfromEnglishintoKARIMOJONG)filledinbyinformantsinthefieldandsentinbyMrsDyson-HudsonThesentenceswereprovidedbyaschoolboywhodidnotreallyknowhisownlanguagebuttookthequestionnairehometohisvillagetofillinsomevocabularymaterialisbyanoffice-boyandsomewasrecordedontapebyMrsDyson-Hudson1Thematerialismoreconsistentandthereforeprobablymorereliablethanmightbeexpected

Orthography The orthography used by the informants has been retained (afewminorinconsistencieshavebeenremoved)exceptforthesubstitutionofthfors andofŋ forngon theauthorityofMrsDyson-Hudsonwhohasheardthoughshecannotspeakthelanguage

1Phonetics1aVowelsFivevowelsonly(ieaou)arerecordedbytheinformantsRepresentation

ofvowelsisnotalwaysconsistentespeciallyasbetweeniandeeggitorget(alsogyet)goatsThefollowiagvowelswereheardonthetapeiIƐaaΛƏɔUu

butitwasimpossibletodelineatephonemesLongvowelsoccurapoohareriilogspeetpipe

but Mrs Dyson-Hudson sometimes records long vowels where the TepethinformantswriteshortonesegdaakordakfireTwovowels in juxtaposition often occur but it is not knownwhether these

representdiphthongsorseparatevowelskaceukaceoriverpaichisfatherithiausAnaptycticiiscommonalesssoi-takithai-takathaIsaw(Verbtak)

1bConsonantsThe following consonants are recorded but not described

According to the tape recording both dental and alveolar t occur and bothexplosiveandimplosivebd1jgcisusuallypronouncedtintandthusuallyethzandinthavealsobeenheard(thoughnotrecordedinthetexts)landrappeartobeseparatephonemesNasalcompoundsdonotseemtooccurconsonantjunctionsarerarekw andgwhavebeen recordedg isperhapspalatalizedbefore frontvowels

(getorgyetgoats)Voicing or slurring of intervocalic plosives has occasionally been recorded

Assimilation does not seem to occur though in one sentence nep person isrecorded as nem before a following nasalmek nem ni-gau nobody goes (notpersonwho-go-away)2ToneandStressNoinformationavailable

3WordShapeThemajorityofVerbStemsconsistofCVCbod beat cam want tin saymoth work though some shorter and longer

Stemsoccuraccomegagoirhoeworkkweputathcookpethwalosekimacreststay

NounStemsaremorevariedegelwelltegfootepelknifekaceurivernakoŋabeer4StructuralElements

4aVerbs(i)TheredonotappeartobeMorphologicalClasses(ii)ItisnotknownwhetherthereareToneClasses(iii)DerivativeVerbsareformedbySufExesThefollowinghavebeenfound

Motionfromordirectionaway-uibid-uriyatagiyitatnakwenpull-away(the)log to man yonder lsquoMotion towardsrsquo is however expressed by a CompoundVerb thesecondcomponentbeingtheVerbaccomedi-acbring(take-come)low-acenter(meaningoflownotknown)pon-acbearchildNeuter-Passive()-akExampleswithPersonalPronounssuggestthatthismaybeaPassiveEquivalentsinceitseemstobefollowedbytheObjectformofthePronoun1coth-akayaIambeingbeateni-coth-akayaIwasbeingbeatenpoti-ic-akbebornInthe3rdPersonthePronounseemstobeomitted

mu-ken-ak(he)waskilledWhen Agent or Instrument is expressed the Applied SufEx (see below) is

used insteadof thePassive It shouldbe noted that although someDerivativeSufExescanbecombinedtheAppliedandPassivecannot

Applied -Yth(a) This SufEx expresses various ideas Instrument or Agent(whenitreplacesthePassiveSufEx-ak)actionperformedforsomeoneampckimac-ithakoi(he)was-caught-byhyenatakithekweni-the-ith-ak2wantwewaterwhich-to-wash-withath-ethaŋitat-a(forath-eth-tha)cook-for-Ihusband-myi-gog-othlokoldornwas-broken-byLokol(the)pot

pon-ac-ithalokalwas-born(a)childNeuter()Vmi-gog-omdomwas-broken(the)potThereisalsoaSufEx-et(a)perhapsalso-itwhosesignificanceisuncertain

butwhichperhapsdenotescompletionItissometimesusedincombinationwithotherDerivativeSufExesi-dor-um-etakweis-spilt(the)wateri-pod-un-etunois-undone(the)rope

ThisSufExperhapsoccursingith-itarirananBlow-outflamethisapaejijkudono-cer-ith-itloDonrsquotletthedogchasethecows(litperhapsnotletdogwho-runs-aftercows)

4bNounsThefollowingNounFormativeSufExeshavebeennoted

Infinitive-ak3-uki-ŋallo-yanyal-ukmycowisdead(litfinishedcowmyto-die)incammuthenyal-uklitnotwantweto-diekologgabithatgab-uklitgood(is)foodto-eatkaimothguoathnotiine-yoi-th-aklitusewomenstoneswhich-to-grind-withVerbalNoun-eth-ith-at

moth-ethworkgab-ith-atfood(ltgabeat)iniyethair-ethIcannothoe(litnotknowIhoeing)PrecededbythewordforlsquopersonpeoplersquoNounAgent

epunath-ethcookPlyogath-ethneputolok-ethfisheryogtolok-ethnepunmoth-ethornepumothworker

4cAdjectivesTherearemanyAdjectivalVerbsbut ikealleveryandeniksome-or-other

appeartobetrueAdjectives

5NumberThis language exhibits TK characteristics in that both Singular SufEx in t

andPluralSufEx ink occur but nooneNounhasbeen recorded inwhich tkoppositionisfound

5aNounsSingularandPluralofNounsaredistinguishedasfollows1SingularSufEx-

atPlurzero(mainlynominaunitatisandtribalnames)1peth-atjpethbark(oftree)cuc-atjcucflythij-atjthijhairthor-atjthoTepethlok-atjlogKarimojong

2SingularSufExzeroPlurvariousSufExes-wek-ek-ik-uk(includingmanypartsofthebody)nagnag-wekbreastpethpeth-ekeardomjdom-ikpotepeljepel-ukknife-ikonir(r)lir(f)-ikonhouse

-en-an-inthipjthip-anshoulderotjot-instream-ot-ut-tmaikjmaik-otcooking-stoneunojuno-utropekaceujkaceu-triverNotealsothaajthaa-rotcattle-kraal

-itin-tin2korlkor-itincourtyardthogjthog-tinmountain-we-etegjteg-wefootlegilogjilog-eorlogjilg-wetooth-yoarotinjarotin-youpperarm

InsomeNounsNumberisnotdistinguishedinShapelocowcattleepelknives(alternativetoepel-ukabove)VowelchangeintheStemhasbeenrecordedin

elenjelinfemalesheep

aswellasinsomeexampleswithSuffixes


7CaseThereisnoevidenceofinflexionforCase

8Pronouns8aPersonalTheSelf-standingSubjectObjectandPossessiveformsarecloselysimilar

theSubjectformbeingthatwhichtendstodivergethemostHoweverinsomeexamples Subject and Object forms appear to overlap (the most frequentlyoccurring form is given first under each heading)

ItwillbenotedthattherearetwoentirelydifferentSubjectPronounsinP2ThesignificanceofthePronounide(ofwhichexamplesoccurasSubjectonly)isnotknown

8bInterrogativeThreeInterrogativesoccurintheavailablematerial

idicwhowhicheewhatinewhere

Theyusuallystandatthebeginningofthesentence

icina-ŋenpiyaga-uagoeoWhosawyougotothevillageidna-ŋenpaagoeoWhomsawyouatthevillageeeŋenpawhatseeyou(Whatdoyousee)inegabkepewhateatchildren(Whatdochildreneat)TwoInterrogativelsquoAdjectivesrsquoorAdjectivalVerbsoccurgwetewhatsorttanachowmanyTheyrequiretheRelative(sect8b)andfollowtheNounthewholeInterrogativeNounGroupstandingatthebeginningofthesentencekokurotini-tanacine-neketuwanenlionswhich-how-manywhichthere-areyonder(Howmanylionsarethereyonder)

epelni-gweteni-kukpakniveswhich-what-sortwhich-boughtyou(Whatsortofknivesdidyoubuy)

Two InterrogativeAdverbs occur eko where gwate how They stand at theendofthesentencenekeirekothere-ishousewherei-nyalicagwatediedhehow(Howdidhedie)

8cDemonstrativeTherearethreedegreesofdistance

nearme Sgnan Plinertnearyou non(noon) inoinoverthere nakwen inikzven(inekwen)

(ninnikwenarealsorecordedforlsquothatnearyoursquolsquothatyonderrsquobutthismaybe

duetotheinformantrsquosinaccuracy)TheDemonstrativesfollowtheNoun

8dRelativeThe Demonstratives are closely connected with a Particle here termed

Relativewhichoccursinmanydifferentforms

na- inicamthaepelna-mutunycamithana-ŋallitnotwantIknifewhich-bluntwantIwhich-sharp

ni- apamiyathaiyatni-nyamogrniyathani-kologdonrsquotgivememeatwhich-badgivemewhich-good

in- belitininertin-ithiasticksthosewhich-ours(Thosesticksareours)ini-ine-

kokurotini-tanacine-neketuzvonenlionswhich-how-manywhich-are-thereyonder

no- mudacicano-kzoaadagogabithat-ait-wasshewhoputmedicine(poison)infood-my

n- (beforevowel)muiŋenthawarnn-edethsawIold-manwho-one(Isawoneoldman)

Theredoesnotappeartobeanydiscerniblerulefortheuseof thesevariousforms but in some examples it seems that na- ni- and no- are Singular (cfDemonstratives nan non) while ini- in- are Plural (cf Demonstratives ineninoin) There are however too many apparent exceptions for a definitestatementtobemade

9VerbConjugation9aTheredonotappeartobeAspectsorMoods9bConjugationforPersonTheSubjectPronoun(sect8a)followstheVerb

S1 gabthaiyateatImeatampc2 gabpaiyat3 gabicaiyatP1Inc gabtheiyatExc gabineiyat2 gabpitiaiyat

gabideiyat3 gabitiaiyat

(ii) The Imperative Singular consists of the Simple Stem sometimes with

initiali(anaptyctic)thePluralhasaSufExndasheucerPlcer-euRunmiyathaPlmiy-euthaGiveme9cTenses(i) The Present Tense (including apparently general immediate and

continuous Present) is expressed by the Simple Stem gab ica iyat he eats iseatingmeatThereappeartobetwoPastTensesformedbyPrefixesmu-andi-(although

sometimes both Prefixes occur together) The difference between them is notclearmoreover the Present form (without Prefix) seems also to be usedwithPastsignificanceSomeexamplessuggestthatmu-referstoactioninthepasti-to completed action and or resultant state Sometimes kaka (significance notknownbutapparentlyadverbial)followstheSubjectorObjectThe following examples have been selected in order to show the possible

distinctionbetweenthetwoTensesOtherexamplesarelesscleari-ŋilaelo-yanyal-uk finished cow-my to-die (my cow is dead) i-gog-omdam broken-is thepot

mu-gabkudokakaiyatatedog(kaka)meatmu-wetcodkwedrankboywater

mut-isalsosometimesfoundasaPrefixmut-ŋencahokurotsawhelions

ThedoublePrefixmu-i-occursinmu-i-ŋenthawarnn-edethsawIold-manoneTheFutureisexpressedeitherbyPrefixko-orbyaccomeusedasanAuxiliaryVerbyatukmorningtomorrownotinfrequentlyfollowstheSubjectorObjectko-gabithayatuk(iyat)will-eatImeat(tomorrow)acpagabyatukiyatcomeyoueattomorrowmeat(ieyouwilleat)(ii)VerbalAuxiliaries

TwoVerbalAuxiliariesoccurinthematerialTheyprecedetheMainVerbTheAuxiliaryanisConditional(usuallyintheProtasisonlyinoneexample

in theApodosisaswell)A formmun isalso recordedwhichmightbeaPastform but the distinction is not clearmoreoveran andmun sometimes occurtogether

anko-wetpaadnonko-nyalpaifwill-drinkyoumedicinethatwill-dieyoumuncodko-pethwamekecanpa-icko-bodifboywill-losesheepthenfather-hiswill-beatanmunwetipaadnonmu-nyalpaifhaddrunkyoumedicinethatdiedyouTheexactsignificanceofthesecondverbalAuxiliaryisnotknownalthoughitoccursveryfrequentlyItisusually

idacsometimesmudacThiswouldappeartoconsistofid(meaningunknown)+accomeoccasionallyidisusedwithanotherVerbItisnotclearwhethermu-inmudachasPastsignificancemu-idacalsooccursThemeaningmaybelsquoitis(was)rsquoanditisthustranslatedhereitisoftenfollowedbyaRelativeidacyogiken-acitwaspeopleallwhocame(allthepeoplecame)mudackudono-maimu-gabiyatni-waitwasdogwhogotillatehemeatwhichbig(thedogatesomuchmeatthathegotill)OccasionallyacinthisconstructionisthemainVerb(lsquocomersquo)id-acthawitoj-acameI(to)seesister-my

id-withotherVerbs

id-enuccodisasleeptheboyidi-ratharapathave-cookedIporridgemu-taakpa-icthijmu-id-ithuaicanepupesaysfather-herliestolesheperson(herfathersaysitrsquosalieshestole(it)herself)10Non-verbalPredicationandVerblsquotohaversquo

10aIdentityisexpressedbysimplejuxtapositionayathoratorthoratayaIamaTepethDescription is expressed by Adjectival Verbs (there is no evidence as to

whetherthesehaveTenses)waetomeewabig(is)elephantYesbigmekiniwaelobwaemothmothnonotbighartebeestebigwaterbuck(noawaterbuckisbiggerthanahartebeeste)

Existenceinaplaceisexpressedbynekenekeakinyaagoabwalthereisacrocodileinthewaterholepa-yanekeuyofather-myis(at)cattle-camp

nekeirekothere-ishousewhere(whereisthehouse)neke is also used to express lsquoto haversquo In the case of thosePronounswhich

havedifferentSubjectandObjectformsitistheObjectformwhichisusedwithnekeThissuggeststhatthemeaningmaybelsquothereistomearsquo

nekeithialowehavecattlenekepitiakudoutyou(Pl)havedogs10bMrsDyson-HudsonalsorecordsaVerbtiyeapparentlymeaninglsquotohaversquotiyethadomIhaveapottiyepakethienyouhaveashield11Negation

11a (i)VerbalNegation isexpressedbymek (mak)or ini (in) standingat thebeginningofthesentencemekismostlyusedwithPossessivesandNounsandappearstobetheNegativeequivalentofneke(sect10)mekayaine-nekenotminethingwhich-

there-is(Ihavenone)mekuthaki-kenthanothingkilledI

taakoj-ameki-thuaicaiyatsaysbrother-mynotstolehemeatiniisusedwithVerbsincludingAdjectivalVerbswaelureiniwaIsawildcatbigItisnotbig

inicamithaŋen-ukpiyanotwantIto-seeyou

(ii) The Negative Imperative appears to be expressed in several ways bymek+simpleStemmekathkwekDonrsquotcookchickenbyini+Infinitiveiniweth-akDonrsquotsing(=nosinging)byopa+simpleStemapamiyathaiyatni-nyamogDonrsquotgivememeatwhich(is)bad11bNon-verbal

ANegativemere implying contrast seems to occur inaya ŋitatmere ayagwathat Imannot Iwoman (I amamannot awoman)ŋet ithiameregwathmen(are)wenotwomen12WordOrderWordorderinthefinitesentenceisnormallyV+S+O

mu-i-ŋenthapiyasawIyoubodaŋelagwathaticbeatsAŋelawifehis

In Interrogative sentenceswithout an Interrogativeword (sect8b) theorder isthesameiyarpaelobskinnedyouthehartebeeste13TheGenitiveConstruction13aTheorderisPossessed-Possessorinsimplejuxtapositionikŋitathead(of)manokkudobone(of)dog13bThePossessivePronounfollowstheNounloicacowhis

14ConstructionswithQualifiersAdjectives (ie Adjectival Verbs with the Relative) Demonstratives and

PossessivesfollowtheNounasdotwowordswhichmaybeAdjectivesikealleveryeniksome-or-otheryog ikeall thepeoplegithek ikeeverydaycodeniksomeboyorother

15MiscellaneousThere are several Prepositions of which the commonest appears to be a

generalLocativeago (agi)ago ir in thehouseagoeo to in thevillageagi

ŋitatnakwentothatmanALocativePostpositionaoccursinko-acijanyatukmoroto a he will come here tomorrow to Moroto There are also variousParticlesofuncertainmeaningsincluding

nawith() ingamuthenapitianotgowewithyou(Pl)kawith() ingathakapiyanotgoIwithyouukwith(instrument)() ken-ithamotiuk(hewas)killedspearby()

1Thesetaperecordingswouldseemtobeinadifferentdialectfromthatofthequestionnairesothatlittlecorroborativeworkcouldbedone

1Inatleastoneword(domcalabash)MrsDyson-HudsonstatesthatthesoundrepresentedbydsomewhatresemblesdrItisnotknownwhetherthisisaretroflexḍnorwhethertherearetwoseparated-sounds

1NotethatinKOMAtheVerbwithObjectSuffixbutwithoutSubjectSuffixorNounSubjectisusedasPassiveEquivalent(p361)

2TheSuffix-akhereisthatoftheInfinitive(sect46)notthePassiveDerivativeSuffix3TobedistinguishedfromthelsquoPassiversquoSuffix-akTheInfinitiveSuffixcanfollowDerivativeSuffixes

asinthelastexamplehere1ATKcharacteristicSeeIntroductionp222PluralSuffix-tinoccursinSUNGOR(p210)TEMEIN(p256)andPARANILOTIC(p462)

30THENILOTICLANGUAGES

THESElanguagesarediscussedunderfourheadsDINKAexamplesunlessotherwisestatedfromtheBORdialectNUERexamplesfromWesternNUERNLWOexamplesfromSHILLUKSLWOexamplesfromACOLI-LANGOALURKenyaLUO

SourcesANTuckerfieldnotessupplementedbyworkwithinformantsatSOASGordonAyomYithakWLualDINKA(BOR)LaAmolekerColAJYAyikSHILLUKJBAkotACOLINEOpioLANGOACOLIJObelIOmoloTOkeloOdongoJKinaniEDJakeyoKenyaLUO

mdashmdashmdashlsquoTheVerbinShillukrsquoMittdesInstitutsfuumlrOrientforschung1955mdashmdashmdashlsquoSomeProblemsofJunctioninLangorsquoibid1958PANebelDinkaDictionaryVerona1936mdashmdashmdashDinkaGrammarVerona1948(REK-MALUAL)RTrudingerDinkaGrammarMS(PADANG)AShawMSnotesonBORDINKAJKiggenNuer-EnglishDictionary1948PCrazzolaraOutlinesofaNuerGrammarVienna1933(initalics)mdashmdashmdashAStudyoftheAcooliLanguageOUP1938AMalandraANewAcholiGrammarEALB1952mdashmdashmdashEnglish-Lwo(Acholi)DictionaryKalongo1956GARSavageTheEssentialsofLwo(Acoli)EALB1956GWBHuntingfordElementaryLessonsinDho-Luodupl1960BKohnenShilluk-GrammarVerona1933JAHeastyEnglish-ShillukShilluk-EnglishDictionarydupl1937

1PhoneticsAnoutstandingcharacteristicoftheselanguagesisthepresenceofbothlsquohardrsquo

and lsquobreathyrsquo (or lsquohollowrsquo) Voice Quality in the pronunciation of vowelsdiphthongsandsemi-vowelsWhereas in languages suchasMORUZANDEandthePARANILOTIClanguages(andalsotheSLWOlanguages)distinctioninVoiceQuality is boundupwith distinction inVowelQuality (ieCategorydistinctionwherebyOpenvowelshavelsquohardrsquovoiceandCloseVowelslsquohollowrsquovoice) intheNorthernNILOTIClanguages(DINKANUERSHILLUKampc)almost any vowel may be pronounced with both types of Voice QualitydependinglargelyongrammaticalcontextInthisSectionthereforebreathyorhollowsoundsarerepresentedinroman

type1

1aVowels(i)DINKA-NUERhasamultiplephonemesystemconsistingof7ndash9vowelspronouncedwithlsquohardrsquovoicethesamevowelspronouncedwithlsquobreathyrsquovoice2ndash4centralvowelspronouncedwithlsquobreathyrsquovoiceTheexactphonemicboundariesofsomeofthevowelsarestilluncertainand

itisoftendifficulttoassessvoicequality

Peripheralvowelsmayhaveboth lsquohardrsquoand lsquobreathyrsquovoice centralvowelshaveonlylsquobreathyrsquovoiceSHILLUK has a similar though simpler system in which lsquohardrsquo and

lsquobreathyrsquovowelshavedifferenttonguepositionsexceptinthecaseofaanda

Itisprobablethat1andebelongtoonephonemelikewiselsquobreathyrsquoeandεandlsquobreathyrsquooandɔuumlisafrontedvarietyofuandinthesamephonemeThe final vowel inmanySHILLUKwords is semi-mute1 in SLWO these

vowelshavetheirfullvalue

SHILLUK

ComparewithLANGO

In S LWO there is a simple dichotomy of five lsquohardrsquo vowels against fivelsquohollowrsquo vowels in which the Categories are distinguished by both tonguepositionandvoicequality1

Finalvowelsarealwaysfullypronouncedhereegcagravem(eat)

Diphthongsofthetypeia(ya)ua(wa)areverycommoninalllanguagesinbothopenandclosedsyllablesbutdiphthongsofthetypeai(ay)au(aw)occurinopensyllablesonlyThediphthongsεaɔaoccuronlyinNUERThereareat least threesignificantdegreesofvowelanddiphthonglengthin

DINKA-NUERandNLWOmdashveryshortverylongandmedium

InSLWOthereappeartobeonlytwosignificantdegreesofvowellengthInACOLI-LANGOshortandmediumvowels(includingdiphthongs)falltogether2and truly long vowels aremostly confined to final open syllableswhere theirbehaviour is in factmore disyllabic thanmonosyllabic (See also (ii) below)

In ALUR and LUO owing to stress Stem vowels in closed syllables arenearlyalwayshalf-longwhen thewordsconcernedare said in isolationLUOgw middotn fowl middotkmouthbutm oil(opensyllable)(ii)Vowelsoundchangeplaysanimportantpartintheselanguagesandisof

two kinds (α) change within a vowel Category (ie one lsquohardrsquo vowel ordiphthongtoanotherlsquohardrsquovowelordiphthong)(β) Category change (ie between a vowel and its opposite number in a

differentvowelCategorymdashrsquohardrsquovoweltocorrespondinglsquobreathyrsquovowel)In S LWO this latter change is brought about byAblaut or by theUmlaut

activityoftheclosevowelsianduotherwiseWeakAffixesaredeterminedbytheStemVowelTheresultisthatthevowelswithinawordtendtobeeitherallcloseorallopen

In N LWO and in DINKA-NUER however the changes are due togrammaticallawsasarechangesinvowellengthandtone

RelicsofgrammaticalsoundchangesurviveinSLWO

and in ACOLI-LANGO changes in vowel length are also grammaticallycontrolled1

1bConsonants(i)ThereisacharacteristicbasicconsonantsystemforthewholeLargerUnit

withfivepointsofarticulation2

candjarepurepalatalsinNUERDINKASHILLUKbutapproachtʃ(ʃ)anddʒinSLWOwandyarelsquobreathyrsquovariantsofwandyIn ACOLI-LANGO and the dialect of ALUR spoken by the FONAM the

dentalcategoryhasdisappearedmdashbeingmergedintothealveolarcategoryExtraconsonantsThepost-velar fricativeɣ occurs initially in a fewwords inDINKA-NUER

andSHILLUKitoftenapproximatesandhasinfactbeensorecordedbyearlywritersinSHILLUKitmayalternatewithrsandhoccurinALURandLUOzalso occurs in ALUR but only as a local variant of j or d is normallyimplosiveinALURmdashotherwiseimplosivesarenoticeablyabsentFinalconsonantsareusuallyunexplodedButseesect1b(ii)Nasal compounds are unknown in DINKA-NUER and SHILLUK but in

somelanguagesoftheLWOGroup(BORALURLUOADHOLA)theyoccur

incertainwordsCompareConsonantgeminationoccurs inACOLI-LANGOwhere ithasgrammatical

significance

Seesectsect4a(iii)13b(ii)FinalconsonantchangeisagrammaticalfeatureinmostlanguagesFirst

seriesoffinalsoundchangeIn DINKA-NUER final unvoiced consonant may be exploded or not

exploded or replaced by a corresponding fricative sound or even omittedaltogetheraccordingtocertaingrammaticalrulesusuallyconcerningthePluralsofNounsorTensesinVerbsThus(finalptampcrepresentunexplodedsounds

unlessfollowedbyh)

[This is not to be confused with the optional consonant slurring2 betweenvowels in ACOLI-LANGO eg

SecondseriesoffinalsoundchangeIn DINKA and SHILLUK a final consonant may be replaced by the

corresponding nasal sound in Nouns in their Singular Determinative orDemonstrativeforms(alsobeforePossessivesandAdjectivesseesect8c)

ThirdseriesoffinalsoundchangeInNUER the final consonantmaybe replaced by the corresponding voiced

soundintheGenitiveCase

FourthseriesoffinalsoundchangeinvolvingnasalcompoundsInLUOandADHOLA(andtoalesserextentinALURandBOR)atypeof

soundchangeoccurswhichisfoundnowhereelseintheNILOTIClanguages

ThistypeofsoundchangeismostobviousintheStatusconstructus(seesectsect7

and13)egbutmay also be found beforeDemonstratives in the Plurals ofNouns and inDerivative Verbs

2ToneandStress2a Three main tone levelsmdashHigh Mid Lowmdashhave been noted in theselanguages

InDINKA-NUERandSHILLUKatleasttherearethreespecifictonemesInSLWOhoweverMidtoneisarealizationofraisedLowtonewhenoccurringbeforeaHightoneandofloweredHightone(DownStep)whenoccurringafteraHightoneFallingtonesmdashHightoLowHightoMidMidtoLowmdashhavealsobeennotedRisingtonesarelesscommonoccurringmostlyinSLWOHerealsocontractedtonepatternsaretobefoundinwhichthetonesnormally

heard on two syllables are both applied to one syllable eg

Seealsosect4b(ii)

There is a difference between Falling tone as in cagravekk his milk and acontractedHigh+Lowsequenceas inagravebέrsquorgood the latterendingona lowernote

NounsVerbsandAdjectivesfallintoToneClassesinmostlanguages(seesectsect4a(ii)4b(ii))Tone plays an important part in grammar but tone patternsmay vary even

between dialects in one language

2bAsageneralrulestressisontheStemofawordandneveronitsPrefixesorSuffixesThereseemstobesomerelationshipbetweenstressandvowellengthinSLWO(seesect1a(i))

3WordShapeThe simplest and most common form of word in DINKA-NUER is CVC

(whereVstandsforanyvowelordiphthong) InSHILLUKthemostcommonform isCVCV the final vowel being semi-mute and in S LWOCVCV thefinal vowel being fully articulated

4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i)TherearenoMorphologicalClassesinVerbs(ii)ThereareToneClassesinDINKA-NUERandSHILLUK

In S LWO all simple Verbs with a few exceptions follow fixed tonalpatterns(iii) There are many Derivative Verbs in DINKA-NUER and N LWO

formed mostly by internal change (ie change in the tone quality length orvoice quality of theStemVowelmdashoccasionally in the finalStemConsonant)

ComparetheSHILLUKcompounds1

In LANGO there are two a-Prefixes with different functions and differentgrammatical behaviour (see sect 1a (ii))

Some Prefixes are sex-determinants and in the LWO languages they areapplied to many personal names

Internalchangein theStemitselfplaysagreaterrole inDINKA-NUERandNLWOthanPrefixesDINKA

NUER

naumlɣtokillkilling nagraveagravedhmurderer(litkillpeople)SHILLUK

InternalchangeissometimesfoundinSLWOalsoinvowelSuffixes

LANGO

LUO

(ii)Thereareat leastfoureasilydistinguishableToneClassesofNounsbuttheSingularoftenbelongstoadifferentToneClassfromthePluralThereisnotmuch Tone Class correlation between languages

InSLWOToneClass distinction is at its fullest inNounsofStempatternCVCV with or without Prefix Seven Tone Classes have been noted inLANGO1

LANGO

InmonosyllabicStemsthesepatternsarecontractedto

SimilarToneClasseshavealsobeennotedforKenyaLUOThesehoweverarebestdistinguishedwhentheNounstandsasSubject

LUO

Whenpronouncedinisolationthewordstendtoblurtheirtonalpattern2

4cAdjectives

InNUER thequalifyingAdjective isprecededby theRelativeParticlemeuml-Plti-te-intheLWOlanguagesbytheRelativeParticlema-(SgandPl)Seesectsect8d14aInDINKAtheParticlema-isfoundonlyinmalecattlecolourwordsSeesect4b

(ii)

AswithNounsAdjectivesmay be grouped intoToneClasses so that it isquitecommonforaNouninoneToneClasstobequalifiedbyanAdjectiveinanotherToneClass

5NumberTheselanguagesexhibitNKbutnotTKcharacteristicsSeeIntroductionp

23

5aNouns

InDINKA-NUERandNLWOPlural formation is unpredictable and fewrules can be laid downThe difference betweenSingular andPlural is usuallyindicated by internal change in the stem in

Usuallyacombinationoftheseprocessesisfound

In many SHILLUK words the Plural is formed by omitting the semi-muteSuffix

There are certain final consonants which might possibly bear somerelationshiptoPluralSuffixeselsewhere1

Themost common Plural Suffixes are -(n)i in NUER and -i in SHILLUKsometimesaccompaniedbyinternalchangeNosuchSuffixesoccurinDINKA

A similar Suffix -i (with Umlaut of Stem vowel) is the regular Pluralformative in ACOLI (-ni after a vowel Elsewhere it varies ndashe or -ε Noteoccasionalchangeinthefinalconsonant(seep408)

SomePluralsneveroccurexceptinCompounds

AsstatedintheHandbookPartIIIpp102ndash3theLANGOoriginallyspokeaTESO-like languagebeforeadopting theirpresentACOLI-like languageSomeTESO-like Nouns and their Plural forms still exist agravekacirclagravekaacutel-aŋ reed-buckeriacuteoacuteŋeriacuteoacuteŋ-ecirctcompanyInotherinstancesTESO-likePluralAffixesareattachedtoNILOTICStems

5bAdjectivesAdjectives have specific Plural forms inDINKA-NUER andN LWO and

SingularandPluraldonotnecessarilybelongtothesameToneClass

InSLWOmanyAdjectiveshavePluralformsbutthereareotherswhichdo

notCompare

5cPronounsA velar Plural element with or without corresponding alveolar Singular

elementoccursinPersonalPronouns(sect8a(i))(alsoinPronounSubjectAffixessect 8a (ii)) Possessives (sect 8a (iv)) the Genitive Linking Particles (sect 13)Interrogatives(sect8b)DeterminativeandDemonstratives(sect8c)

5dVerbsampcInDINKAPluralAgentandPluralSubjectinPassiveVerbsareindicatedby

avelar elementk as is alsoPluralSubject in theRelative-InterrogativeMood(sectsect9abc)The velar element k also occurs in the Plural Imperative (sect 9b (ii)) and in

conjugatedAdverbials(sect15)InNUERitoccursintheCopula(sect10)IncertainDINKATenses the3rdPersonParticle isSga-Plaa- (inBOR

and PADANG these Particles are found in the 3rd Person only in REK and

AGARtheyoccurwithallPersons)ForPluralActionandPluralObjectseesect4a(iii)


7CaseAll Nouns are inflected for Case in NUERmdashCrazzolara recognizes

Nominative-AccusativeGenitiveand sometimesLocativeA fewNouns showLocativeCaseinDINKAInflexionisbyinternalchangemostlyalthoughinNUERaGenitiveSuffixi

(-auml)Pl-ni(-nauml)isoftenfoundandinDINKAaLocativeSuffix-ic

ButinsomewordstherewouldappeartobeadistinctionbetweenNominativeandAccusativeaswellNUER

Statusconstructus()CaseasindicatedaboveisabsentintheLWOGroupbutinLUOandtoa

lesser extent in ALUR Nouns preceding a Genitive undergo final consonantchange(alreadysetoutinsect1b(ii))

SimilarformsofthistypeofsoundchangeoccurbeforeDemonstrativesandtheRelativebutalsoinNounPlurals(Seealsosect1b(i))

In NUER only certain final consonants are affected (see sect 1b (ii) secondseries)lεbcieɣtongueofwomanNote that inDINKAandSHILLUK theDeterminative formof theNoun is

usedhere(Seesect8c)8Pronouns

8aPersonal

ThePersonalPronounsarecharacteristicforthewholeLargerUnit

(i)Self-standingforms

InNUERthere isa furtherdistinctionbetweenInclusiveandDual-InclusiveinsomeoftheformsbutthisisshownonlybytoneanddoesnotoccurintheSelf-standingforms

(ii)SubjectformsInNUERshortenedformsoftheaboveareusedasSubjectSuffixesattached

to the Verb Stem or to the Tense Auxiliaries and often accompanying StemvowelandconsonantchangeInDINKAthefull formprecedes theVerborTenseAuxiliaryasSubject in

theIndicativeMoodActiveVoice In theDependentMoodandin thePassiveVoicethereisaseriesofSuffixesinthePluralandthereismuchStemvowelchangeIntheLWOGroupshortenedformsoftheaboveprecedetheVerbasSubject1

exceptinthe3rdPersonSubjectSuffixesoccuronlyintheSubjunctiveMoodinSHILLUK

Note that thePrefixes a-andɔ-or o- often found in the 3rdPerson are notPronominalPrefixesastheyalsooccurafteraNounSubject(Seesectsect5c9b)

(iii)ObjectformsShortened forms of the Self-standing Pronouns occur as Object in all

languages except SHILLUK where the full forms are used3 (In NUER theydifferconsiderablyfromtheSubjectforms)Objecttoneisvariable

NoteUmlauteffectofclosevowelSuffixinLANGOandLUOabove

(iv)PossessiveformsIn all languages the Possessive forms are Suffixes In the LWO languages

theyaresimilartoSLWOObjectformsInDINKA-NUERthereisadifferentseriesInmanylanguagesthefinalconsonantoftheStemisaffected(seesect1b(ii)) while in DINKA there is often Stem vowel change

The Possessive Pronouns are formed by suffixing the Possessives to aPronominal based on m- (see Relative sect 8d) in the LWO languages

SHILLUK also uses the word lsquothingrsquo with suffixed Possessive as an

alternativetotheaboveeg

(v)ReferringASingularReferringPronouneεhasbeennotedinSLWOonly

(vi)ImpersonalAnImpersonalPronounPrefixisusedasSubjectinthePassiveEquivalentin

LUO(1-)andsometimesinACOLI(kigrave-)1Seesect9a

8bInterrogativeTheInterrogativesarecharacteristicfortheLargerUnitexceptinSHILLUK

where they are based on m (see Relative sect 8d)

8cDemonstrativeandDeterminativeInDINKAandSHILLUKthereisaDeterminativeformof theNoun in the

Singular only in which the final consonant is nasalized (see sect 1b (ii) 2ndseries) This form is used in isolation also before Demonstratives andPossessives in the Genitive Construction before Adjectives and (in DINKAonly) in Relative constructions Neither the Determinative form nor finalnasalization occurs in NUER or S LWO2 but -n- occurs in the SingularDemonstrativeinLUOandaftervowelsinACOLI-LANGONotehoweverthedoublingoffinalconsonantshere

WithprecedingParticleinDINKA

TheDemonstrativePronounsarebuiltuponm-1 in theLWOlanguagesonSg m- Pl t-in NUER (see Relative sect 8d) and on k-2 in DINKA

8dRelativeThereisaRelativeParticlememinPlurtitininNUER(m)aintheLWO

languages(aoramεinLANGO)whichbesidesintroducingRelativephrasesofvarious types is also used with Adjectives and Adverbs (sect 14a) Finalconsonants are doubled before it in LANGO and are sometimes affected in

NUERWhenreferringtopasttimeinSLWOthevowelisdifferent

InDINKAthere isnosuchParticlebut theAntecedent ifSingularhas theDeterminative form the Verb is in the Relative-Interrogative Mood

8eReflexiveandReciprocalThereisaReflexivePronounrɔ1PlrotinDINKA-NUER

9VerbConjugation9aVoiceAspectandMood

(i) DINKA and SHILLUK Transitive Verbs have two VoicesmdashActive andPassiveInadditionthereappeartobetwoAspectsofeachVoiceaccordingastheactionoftheVerbisApplicativeieappliedtoaspecificObject(orAgentinthecaseofaPassiveVerb)mentionedorunderstoodQualitativeiewithoutreferencetoanObjectorAgentorapplyingonlyinageneralsense

InNUERandSLWOwherethereisnoPassiveVoicethe3rdPersonPluraloften acts as Passive Equivalent

InLUOandsometimes inACOLI the ImpersonalSubjectPrefix (seesect8a(vi)) is used in the Passive Equivalent

(ii)DINKAhasaRelative-InterrogativeMood(seeexamplesundersect9b)andtheLWOlanguagesaSubjunctiveMood(seesect9bforSHILLUKandsect9cforSLWO)InSLWOthereisalsoAspectdistinctionbutofadifferentkindfromthatin

DINKAandSHILLUK1ALUR(Non-habitualandHabitual)LUO(Non-perfectandPerfect)Forexamplesseesect9c


(i)InDINKASHILLUKandSLWOthePronounSubject(oftencontractedto a Prefix) precedes the Verb and the Verb Stem is uninflected for PersonexceptasregardstoneThe3rdPersonPronounisusuallyomittedbutinDINKAthereisaPrefixa-

Plaa-inthe3rdPersonwhichisretainedaftertheNounSubject(IntheREKandAGARdialects it occurswith all Personseg I call the boyampc)InsomeLWOlanguagesthereisa3rdPersonPrefixɔ-o-alsoretainedafter

theNounSubjectbutconfinedtocertainTenses(cfMArsquoDIampcp42)NotetheVelarelement-kəinthePassiveinDINKAwhentheSubject(here

the lsquosuffererrsquo) is Plural (see sect 5d)

InNUERthePronounSubjectissuffixedtotheVerbwhichitselfundergoesinternalinflectioniechangeinvowelquality(andsometimesfinalconsonant)aswellasintoneSimilar internal change (but with fewer Suffixes) occurs in the Relative-

InterrogativeMood(noteagain-k-inthePlural)inDINKAandtheSubjunctiveMood in SHILLUK

NoteintheLWOlanguagesthetoneoftheSingularImperativeissometimesdepressedbeforeanObjectanditsHightonetransferred

9cTenses(i)TensesarefewinSHILLUKandareformedbymeansofTenseParticles

In theSLWO languagesPresent andPastTensearedistinguishedby toneandbythepresenceorabsenceofPrefixɔ-o-inthe3rdPerson2LANGOalsohas a-in the Present Continuous These Prefixes are retained after a NounSubjectLANGOshowsconsonantgemination(vowellengthbefore-r-and-y-)inthe

Present Continuous and Future (Aux Vb+Infin Stem)

(ii) Tenses apart from the Present Tense are shown by Auxiliaries inDINKA-NUERTheseAuxiliariesareconjugatedforPersonandtheMainVerbfollows in one of two basic forms according to the Auxiliary The mainAuxiliariesare

SeealsoNegativeImperativesect11c

(iii)ReduplicationIntheSLWOlanguagestheStemofaVerbwithPrefixa-3andSuffix-ais

often repeated at the end of the sentence

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerblsquotobersquo10a (i) In DINKA-NUER there is a Copula e Pl aa (DINKA) ε Pl kε(NUER) indicating Predication of Identification

In NUER there is a further Copula a used in Spatial Predication and insentences indicating lsquohavingrsquo

In SHILLUK the Copula a or the defective Verb ba (cf bεdo = to stay)

indicatesIdentificationInSLWOsuchpredicationisbyjuxtapositionmdashZeroCopula

Where Personal Pronouns are concerned however the shortened SubjectformsmaybeusedhereasinVerbconjugation

(ii)AdjectivesinNUERconjugateexactlylikeVerbs

The same is true for the Interrogative in DINKA In non-interrogativesentences the conjugation is also verbal except that most Adjectives havedistinct Plural forms

IntheLWOlanguages tooconjugationisverbalexceptforStemchangeinthe Plural (but see Nouns above)

10b Most languages employ a Verb lsquoto bersquo in Spatial Predication (but see

NUERabove)

OnlyDINKAhasaspecificVerblsquotohaversquoAlltheotherlanguages(includingNUER at times) employ some Verb lsquoto bersquo and a Particle (= with)

11Negation11aVerbal(i)ForDINKA-NUERNegativeAuxiliariesseesect9cInSHILLUKtheNegativeParticlesprecede theVerbandvaryaccording to

Tense

(ii)NegativeImperativeIn all languages this is expressed by anAuxiliary followed by the Positive

Subjunctive

11bNon-verbal

InDINKA-NUERci is alsoused innon-verbalPredicationSHILLUKuses

pa

With Adjectives the Negative is as with the Present Tense of Verbs inDINKA-NUER and SHILLUK and LUOmdashexcept that in the last two theAdjective Stem may indicate Number

Observation

BesidestheNegativeVerbslsquonottobersquoampcalreadymentionedthereisaVerbkuc (DINKA NUER) kwiya (LUO Group) expressing the Negative conceptlsquonottoknowrsquothoughconjugatedpositively1

12WordOrderWordorderinthefinitesentenceinNUERisV+S+O1orS+Vs+O(ieinthe

latter case the Verb must have a pronominal Subject Suffix)

InDINKAthewordorderV+S+OorAux+S+O+Vmaybefoundbutonlyin the Relative-Interrogative Mood

Otherwise DINKA word order is S+V+O or S+Aux+O +V2 though inPassive constructions the lsquoAgentrsquo occupies the same position as the lsquoObjectrsquo

IntheLWOlanguagesthewordorderisS+V(includingTensePrefix)+O(orAgent in SHILLUK Passive)


In all languages (except occasionally in DINKA) the word order isPossessed+Possessorandinall languages(exceptNUER)thereisanoptionalLinkingParticle

InNUERandLUO thePossessed is in theStatusconstructus (seesect7c) inDINKA and SHILLUK it is in the Determinative form (sect 8c) in the otherlanguagesitisrarelyaffectedIn NUER the Possessor is in the Genitive Case (see sect 7a) in the other

languages it is unaffected

InrareinstancesthewordorderisreversedinDINKA

InACOLI-LANGOacleardistinctionismadebetween(α) Intimate Genitive (no Particle but occasional softening of the final

consonantofthePossessed)(β) Non-intimate Genitive (with Linking Particles andmdashin LANGOmdash

geminationofthefinalconsonantofthePossessed)

13bPronominalPossessor(seesect8a(iv))

In NUER final consonants are affected as in sect 13a and there is someassimilation of the Singular Possessive Particle

If the non-intimate character of possession is to be stressed there is

occasionallyinternalchangeintheNoun

ThisdistinctionisnotpossibleinthePlural

In DINKA Nouns often undergo internal sound-change before Personal

PossessivesInSHILLUKandLUOfinalconsonantsareaffected

In ACOLI-LANGO there is occasional consonant softening in IntimatePossession in Non-intimate Possession there is gemination in both languagesbefore the Singular Possessive Suffixes

InalllanguagesthePronominalformcorrespondingtolsquominersquoampc(seesect8a(iv))maybeusedasanemphaticalternativeLUOt middotŋ-n t t ŋmaacutemiddotraWhataboutthatspearItrsquosmyspear14ConstructionwithQualifiers14a TheAdjective follows theNoun and in all languages exceptDINKA isintroduced by the Relative Particle (see sect 8d) TheAdjective showsNumberthoughinSLWOPluralformsaretendingtodisappear

NotegeminationinLANGO

In DINKA and to a lesser extent in SHILLUK Nouns have theirDeterminative form (see sect 8b) In DINKA further a Noun Stem undergoesinternal vowel change before an Adjective derived from a Noun

14bNumeralsandafewAdjectivesfollowtheNounwithnoRelativeParticlethough NUER inserts daaŋ for the numbers 2ndash19

Note again internal change in the Stem vowel in some dialects in DINKAbefore the Numeral lsquoonersquo

NotealternationinwordorderwhenaNounisqualifiedbyanAdjectiveanda

Possessive15MiscellaneousDINKA seems to be the only NILOTIC language in which the words

indicating lsquohowrsquo and lsquothusrsquo1 and theConjunction introducing reported speech

areconjugatedforPerson1lsquoBreathyrsquo=pronouncedwithopenpharynxaccompaniedbyavoicedaspirationindicatedbyroman

typeinthepresentsectionInSLWOtheaspirationislessevidentbutthevoicequalityislsquohollowrsquoNon-breathyvowelsarepronouncedwithvaryingdegreesofpharyngalcontractionandareheredesignatedlsquohardrsquoCrazzolaraoccasionallyusesdiacriticsunderthevowellettersinhisNuerGrammar(p3)forthesetwotypesofvoicequality

1Indicatedbyitalicsinthepresentwork(NotethatitalicsarealsousedinNUERmaterialquotedfromCrazzolarabutthisshouldcausenoconfusionassemi-mutevowelsareconfinedtoSHILLUK)1PhilologieallySLWOeandocorrespondtothelsquobreathyrsquocentralizedvowelsεeumloumlaumlofSHILLUKwhile1anducorrespondtoSHILLUK1eando

2Crazzolaratendstousedoublevowelsforallbuttheveryshortvowelsinhisworks1SeeANTuckerlsquoSomeproblemsofjunctioninLangorsquoMitteilungendesInstitutsfuumlr

Orientforschung19582ContrastfourbasicpointsofarticulationinPARANILOTICp4471SeeIntroductionp7thesoundiscalledlsquotremblingtrsquobyShaw1ThisphenomenonisrareoutsideBORandallieddialectsinDINKAnordoesitoccurintheJIKANY

dialectofEasternNUERthedialectfirstusedbytheAmericanMission2AcommontendencyinPARANILOTICseep4481SeealsoANTuckerlsquoSomeProblemsofJunctioninLangorsquo1LANGOuses- withgeminationinsomeVerbsandndashέr withoutgeminationinothersALURand

LUOusethelatterSufiix2Litthingofforestthingofevil1ThisparticularexamplehasledGreenbergtoassociatethel-(Masc)n-(Fem)Gendersignsof

MAASAIwithNILOTIC1SeeANTuckeropcit2IntheLUOexamplesgivenherethetoneswillbeshownasinisolationitbeingunderstoodthatthe

enunciationisnotclearcutasinLANGO1SeeespeciallyDIDINGA-MURLEp375PARANILOTICpp461ndash2alsoDAJUp2351ItisconvenientheretoregardtheSLWOformsasPrefixesbutnottheNLWOforms1ACOLIandALURformsarealmostidenticalwiththeLUOformsexceptfortheabsenceofS3

Pronounhere2MidorHightoneinDual-Inclusivesometimes3ItisagainconvenienttoregardtheSLWOformsasSuffixes1CfFURp2241CfPAumlKOTp472

2FinalunvoicedconsonantsarevoicedhoweverSeemiddottinLUOabove3AccordingtoKohnen-an-ak=thisthese-acamdashthatthose-ant=reference1CfDAJUp2382ProbablythewordforlsquothingrsquoSeepp4114201CfMORU-MANGBETU(p46)BONGO-BAGIRMI(p74)KANURI(p183)1ItismorelikethatfoundinMORU-MArsquoDIBONGO-BAGIRMIorZANDENotethatinLUOitself

theQualitativeisaDerivativeVerbSeesectsectia(iiβ)4a(iii)1CfTuckerlsquoSomeProblemsofJunctioninLangorsquo2CfMArsquoDIp421SouthernLUOforminNorthernLUOthePrefixiseacute-1AccordingtoCrazzolaratheInclusive-Dualformsarecacircnand -negraverespectively2ForAuxiliariesexpressingsimilarconceptsseeMAASAIp483KOMAp3653CfMAYOGOp98ZANDEp1541k1inACOLI1CfMORU-MANGBETUp541CfUDUKp367BypurecoincidencetheformkayainNYANJAalsomeanslsquoIdonrsquotknowrsquomdasharare

formintheBANTUworld1CfPARANILOTICp4882CfMORU-MArsquoDIp551-n-isfoundintheSingularonly-naacute-niacute-nέ1SeehowevermanyBantulanguageseginGANDA

31THEPARANILOTICLANGUAGES

THESElanguageshaveformanyyearsbeenknownasNILO-HAMITICIntheHandbookthisnamewasretainedinspiteofGreenbergrsquosattackuponitandtheauthors defended this retention by citing morphemes and grammatical pointswhichtheselanguageshaveincommonwithCUSHITICespeciallySOMALI1Subsequent investigationshoweverhaveestablished thatmostof thepoints

commontolsquoNILO-HAMITICrsquoandCUSHITICcanbeaccountedforbythelsquoTKsubstratumrsquounderlyingCUSHITIC(butnotERYTHRAICasawhole)aswellasall the other languages listed on p 24 of Introduction The KALENJINSecondarySuffixest(Sg)andk(Pl)arenotdirectlyconnectedwithSOMALIPolarityassuggestedintheHandbookratheristheuseoftheelementstandkin SOMALI Polarity a distortion of their original lsquoTKrsquo function (seeIntroductionp25)Thereremainonlythesex-denotingPrefixeskip-andcep-in KALENJIN which may indeed be CUSHITICmdashbut are not ERYTHRAICfeaturesFurtherthetermHAMITICitselfhasnowbeendiscardedbytheauthors(see

pp1ndash2)and is thereforedoubly inappropriatehereThe termPARANILOTIChasbeenchosentoreplacelsquoNILO-HAMITICrsquothusemphasizingtheundoubtedrelationshipoftheselanguagestoNILOTICwhilepointingoutsideNILOTICtootheraffinitiesnoteforinstancethatwhilebothNILOTICandPARANILOTIChaveNKcharacteristicsonlyPARANILOTIChasTKcharacteristicsOtherchangesinnomenclatureare

KALENJINThisnamehasrecentlybeencoinedbyspeakersofthelsquoNANDIGrouprsquolanguagesinordertoemphasizetheirpoliticallinguisticandculturalunityItmeanslsquoItellyoursquo

PAumlKOTThisformispreferredtothepreviouslyusedPOKOT(lsquoSUKrsquo)asmorenearlyrepresentingthepronunciationofthenamemdashpaumlkwŏtThePARANILOTICLanguagesarediscussedhereunderfiveheads

BARI(withsomenotesonKAKWA)LOTUHOTESO(withsomenotesonKARIMOJONGTURKANATOPOSA)MAASAIKALENJIN(PAumlKOTandNANDI-KIPSIGIS)

SourcesANTuckerfieldnotessupplementedbyworkwithinformantsatSOASJTompooleMpaayeiMAASAIIAdakunTESOJWLAkolKARIMOJONG

JWLAkolKARIMOJONGMJSeroneyALArapNgrsquoenyGKSumNANDITATowettCBNgrsquoelecheiKIPSIGISEPKassachonPAumlKOT

mdashmdashlsquoKalenjinPhoneticsrsquoInHonourofDanielJonesLongmans1964mdashmdashandMABryanlsquoNounClassificationinKalenjinPaumlkotrsquoAfrLangStud1962mdashmdashmdashmdashlsquoNounClassificationinKalenjinNandi-Kipsigisrsquoibid1964mdashmdashandJTompooleMpaayeiAMaasaigrammar(withvocabulary)London1955LMSpagnoloBariGrammarVerona1933CMuratoriEnglish-Bari-Lotuxo-AcolivocabularyOkaru1948mdashmdashGrammaticaLotuxoVerona1958HAArberASimpleLotukoGrammarandLotukoVocabulary(cyclostyled)1936AWHenricksenNotesontheTesoVerb(cyclostyled)Tororo1957JHHildersandJCDLawranceAnIntroductiontotheAtesoLanguageKampala1956ALKitchingHandbookoftheAtesoLanguageLondon1915ACHollisTheMasaitheirLanguageandFolkloreOxford1905mdashmdashTheNanditheirLanguageandFolkloreOxford1909GWBHuntingfordAManualoftheNandiLanguage(cyclostyled)London1958Pp160mdashmdashAComparativeStudyoftheNandiDialectsofEastAfrica(cyclostyled)1950mdashmdashNandindashEnglishvocabulary(cyclostyled)1955FJMumfordNandiStudiesAfricaInlandMissionKapsabet1959Pp100MWHBeechTheSuktheirLanguageandFolkloreOxford1911

1Phonetics1aVowelsInBARI andLOTUHO there is a balanced ten-vowel system consisting of

five close and five open vowels with clearly discernible laws of vowelharmony1ThissamesystemholdsgoodforTESOandMAASAIexceptthataisnotfoundintheselanguagesasaseparatephonemebutonlyoccasionallyastheresultofUmlaut(byyyandwwaswellasbycloseiandu)Inalltheabovelanguagesclosevowelshavelsquohollowrsquovoiceandopenvowels

lsquohardrsquovoiceNANDI also has a ten-vowel system though here the close vowel

corresponding toa (written in the presentwork) varies accoustically from avery far backα to a sound virtually indistinguishable fromɔ lsquoHollowrsquo voicequalityisheardregularlywithcloseiandubutonlysporadicallyelsewhere2PAumlKOThas a similar systemof long vowels but in addition has five short

vowelsofwhichthreearecentralKALENJINForvowelchartseep494The long vowels in PAumlKOT correspond to the long vowels in NANDI in

common vocabulary Where short vowels are concerned

In the TESOGroup only the final vowels of many words are semi-mute1Compare in TESO

(Notethatthefinalvowelofawordwhethersemi-muteornotiselidedbeforeawordbeginningwithavowel)Diphthongsbeginningwithi-(y-)andu-(w-)areverycommoninalllanguagesexceptBARIdiphthongsendingin-i(-y)and-u (-w) occur in all languages in open syllables only It is often difficult todistinguishadiphthongfromadisyllablealthoughthedistinctionissometimes

significant

TherearetwosignificantdegreesofvowelanddiphthonglengthinTESOandMAASAI but at least three in KALENJIN3 In BARI and LOTUHO vowellength does not appear to play an important part

When vowels belonging to different syllables come together the result isoften indistinguishable from inherent vowel length

CategoryHarmony iswellmarkedand is tobenoticedparticularly inVerbAffixesInsomelanguagesa inAffixesisneutral ie itmaygoinwitheither

category

NotethatinsomeofthewesternBARIdialectsaswellasinsomevariantsofTESOvoweldistinctionsintheVerbStemarenotalwaysapparentthoughthecharacteristicAffixesremainComparetheApplicativePassiveandQualitativeforms of the following two Verbs in

Vowel change plays a less important part in these languages than inNILOTIC It is to be seen mostly in Category shiftmdashie open vowel tocorrespondingclosevowelmdashcombinedoccasionallywithsomeformofUmlautwhich is not confined to the close sounds i and u

Category shift in the reverse direction ie Close toOpen vowel has (beenfound inKALENJINThus inPAumlKOTUmlaut inSecondarySuffix andor inStembyopenvowelinSuffix

UmlautinGenitiveParticlesbyOpenvowelinprecedingStemmaumltp kέt top of tree butŋ t pagravemiumlraumln spear ofWarriorNoUmlaut in

Particlewhen theNoun is followedby aPossessive orDemonstrativeSuffix

SeealsoGenitivesect13abCategory shift is to be seen especially in Derivative Verbs (sect 4a (iii))

DeverbativeNouns(sect4b(ia))SecondarySuffixesinKALENJIN(sect4b(id))Number(sect5a)Aspect(sect9ac)Genitive(sect13)Voweldissimilationistobenotedoccasionally

1bConsonantsTherearefourmainpointsofarticulation1notcountingthedentalθ(whichis

adialectalvariantofs)andtheglottalstop(forwhichseebelow)

TheglottalstopoccursfinallyormediallyinsomewordsinBARIandispartofthe1-phonemeComparegalookforPassiveStemgal-a

It occurs in TESO in final position after some non-semi-mute vowels InPAumlKOT it alsooccurs in finalposition and is linked to tone inawaynotyetfullyunderstoodIthasalsobeenrecordedinLOTUHO3In the alveolar-palatal category j lsquoy andy are true palatal sounds c and j

tendtowardstʃandʤIntheBARIdialectscisadialectalvariationofswhilezinCongoKAKWA

corresponds to j elsewhere s in TESO corresponds to θ in KARIMOJONGTURKANAandTOPOSA(Etymologicallycmaybederivedfrombothtandk in KALENJIN) There is phonemic distinction between explosive andimplosiveintheBARIDialectClusteronlybdjgandɓandɗ(andlsquoy)1InLOTUHOandTESObanddarenormally implosive(ɓandɗ) InMAASAItherearefourimplosivesɓɗ gWhereexplosivebdjghavebeenheardthese have been found to be phonetic variants of p t c k (see below) InKALENJIN there is only one set of explosive consonants p t c k withphoneticvariantsbɓorυdjandgorɣ(seebelow)ThereisanimplosiveɗinPAumlKOThoweverLong(andorstrong)consonantsareanoticeablefeatureofMAASAI

(Besides being pronounced longer and with more emphasis yy and wwbelongto thelsquoclosersquoCategoryofsoundswhileyandwarelsquoopenrsquo)Note thatfinal-risalwaysstronginMAASAIasisnormalrinKALENJINMuratoriwriteslsquopandrsquotinsomewordstoindicatestrongplosiveswhichresist

slurringbetweenvowelsHealsowritesdouble consonants from time to timeNodoubleconsonantsarewrittenbyArber

Consonantcompoundsareveryrarebutnote

Consonantjunction(heterosyllabic)iscommoninKALENJIN

There is a tendency in all languages except BARI to soften or slur theunvoiced consonants p t2 c k between vowels Compare

ThistendencyisatitsstrongestinNANDI-KIPSIGIS(notPAumlKOT)whereallunvoiced plosives except t are represented by voiced sounds between vowelsand after voiced consonants p gt b or υ c gt j k gt g or ɣ Initial p gt ɓoccasionally

InNANDIthefollowingchangestakeplaceafternorlnl+pgtmblbnl+tgt nd ld nl+cgt nj lj nl+k gt ŋg lg

InMAASAIp tckareconsiderablyweakenedafternandmbndnjnghavebeenwrittenbysomeauthoritiesButthesesoundsarealwayskeptdistinctfrom the true voiced (implosive) soundswhich are unaffected by a precedingnasal

Compare

Theonlysoundaffectedbybothnand1isʃ

Slurred consonants will not be shown here except in NANDI-KIPSIGISwherebdjandgwillbeused

2ToneandStress2aToneTherearethreemainleveltonesmdashHighMidandLowthoughMidtonemay

oftenberegardedasloweredHighthereisalsoaFallingtonewhichseemstoconstituteaseparatetonemeInPAumlKOTthereisalsoaRisingtoneTone is both lexical and grammatical and in all languages there are Tone

Classes in Nouns (sect 4b (iii)) and Adjectives (sect 4c) in BARI there are ToneClasses inVerbs(sect4a (ii))Tonealsoplaysarole inNumber(sect5abc)andGender (sect 6) in the TESO Group MAASAI and KALENJIN Case is alsodistinguishedbyTone(sect7)mdashbutnotinBARITonalassimilationisalsomuchinevidenceeg

Ithasnotbeenpossibletotone-markallexamplesespeciallyinBARI

2bStressStress falls normally on the Stem syllable of words In BARI there is

significant shifting of stress in certain circumstances

On other occasions it is hard to determine whether tone or stress is thedominantfactor

SeealsounderGendersect6

ObservationAlthough tone and stress patterns play such a large role in grammar the

patterns themselves may vary widely even between dialects Compare

3WordShapeThe most common word Stem is CVC and it is here that the relationship

between these languagesandNILOTICismost tobeseen It ishowever rareforwordsthemselvestobefoundinthisformnearlyallwordshavingPrefixesorSuffixesmdashorbothmdashsomeseparablesomenot(seesectsect4ab5a6)

4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i) In all the Groups except BARI Verbs fall into Morphological Classes

differinginshapeofVerbStemandingrammaticalandtonalbehaviourClassIStemwithnoInitialVowelClassIIStemwithInitialVowel1-ori-1(mostlyelidedinPAumlKOT2)

InKALENJINeachClassmaybefurthersubdividedaccordingtothelength

oftheStemvowel

The InitialVowel is not tobe confusedwith theStemvowelofVCStems

CompareinMAASAI

Morphological Class distinction is not necessarily consistent as between

languages

(ii) BARI alone has no Morphological Classes but it has Tone Classes

Seealsosect2b

InMAASAITESOandKALENJINToneClassesandMorphologicalClassescoincide

(iii)TherearemanyDerivativeVerbsmostlyformedbySuffixeswhichareonthewholecommontothelargerUnit1 Inmost instancestheAffixesare inCategoryHarmonywiththeStemvowelsomeAffixeshowevercontainclosevowelsandexerciseUmlautonopenStemvowelsTheAffixesvaryaccordingtoTense2

ThefollowingarethemostcommonSuffixesWithopenStemvowels

DerivativeSuffixesarecapableofendlesscombinationsBARIhasaPassiveSuffixandaQualitativeSuffixwhichmaybeattachedto

virtually all the Derivative Verbs as well as to the Simple Verbs In thepreceding lists theBARIVerbs are to be regarded as being lsquoApplicativersquo ieɓɔk=todigitɓɔk-untodigitupampcThe Passive and Qualitative forms of ɓ k dig reacutem spear are

In the other languages the Intransitive (Qualitative) form has a more limitedscatterIn TESO and MAASAI there is a Passive (or Passive Equivalent) Suffix

which can be similarly attached to virtually all Derivative Verbs

In TESO the Passive is used without an Agent according to Hilders andLawranceIn MAASAI this Derivative must be regarded as a Passive Equivalent

because the Noun concerned is in the Accusative Case (see sect 7)

SeealsoSubject-ObjectPronominalPrefixessect8a(iii)[InLOTUHOthe3rdPersonPluralisusedasPassiveEquivalentorryomoniŋɔlɛɔmukaatılimurlittheykilledsomemeninthebushInKALENJINtheImpersonalSubjectPrefixisusedSeesect8a(vi)]

AprefixedelementoftenoccursintheformationoftheCausative

4bNouns(i a) The following types of Noun Formative occur3 They must be

distinguished fromGender Prefixes in LOTUHO TESO andMAASAI (sect 6)andNumberSuffixesinalllanguages(sect5a)NounAgent

Nouns formed fromNouns or Adjectives (and Adjectival Verbs) have also

beenrecorded

(ib)Gender-likePrefixesinKALENJINonlyInKALENJINtherearethreePrefixesattachedtocertainNounsonlywhich

distinguish sex inter alia There is however no Gender agreement and theycannotthereforebeconsideredastrueGenderPrefixesInsomeNounstheycanbeseentofunctionasNounFormativesThesePrefixesandtheirallocationsare

1NANDIkı(p)-ki(p)-PAumlKOTp-malebigorstrongobjects2NANDIandPAumlKOTcɛmiddot(p)-cemiddot(p)-femalesmallorweakobjects(inmanyNounshowevernoreason

forchoiceofPrefixisapparent)3NANDIandPAumlKOTka(p)-place(commoninNANDIplace-names)Ithasbeensuggested2thattheelementskandcinthefirsttwoPrefixesmay

berelatedtotheMasckFemtofCUSHITIC3Thisdoesnotexplainka(p)-however4

NotealsoinPAumlKOT

(ic)Sex-distinguishingSuffixesinNANDI-KIPSIKISonlyAspointedoutbyHuntingfordcertainNounsdenotingpersonshaveSuffixes

whichdistinguishsex(egNandimanNandiwomanabove)(id)SecondarySuffixesinKALENJINonlyIn KALENJIN Nouns have two forms Primary and Secondary5 the latter

havingspecificSuffixesInNANDItheSecondaryformsarethemorecommonin normal speech the Primary forms occurring when the Noun is usedadverbiallyor inaverygeneral sense in function theSecondarySuffixes thuscorrespondto theGenderPrefixes inMAASAI(sect6) InPAumlKOTon theotherhandtheywouldseemtocorrespondrathertotheDefiniteArticleinEnglish1The Secondary Suffixes follow the Primary (ie Noun Formative and

Number)SuffixesInNANDI-KIPSIGIStheSecondarySuffixesallcontaintheelementtinthe

SingularkinthePlural2inPAumlKOTtheseelementsarenotalwayspresent3Attempts have beenmade in the past byKitching forTESO byHollis and

Huntingford for NANDI and by Beech for PAumlKOT to group Nouns intoMorphologicalClassesusuallyonthebasisoftheirNumberSuffixes

In KALENJIN it has proved more profitable to establish MorphologicalClassesonatotallydifferentbasisviztheshapeoftheSecondarySuffixesandtheirbehaviour(seePossessivessect8a(iv)Demonstrativessect8ctheGenitivesect13ab)There areSingularClasses andPluralClasses but there is no regularpairingofClassesasthereisintheMBAGroupKOALIB-MOROandBANTUnoristhereanyconcordialagreementThe Morphological Classes are here set out for PAumlKOT with NANDI

equivalentsNote vowel Category shift in some Stems and CategoryHarmony inmost

Suffixes

Secondary forms of the Nouns given in sect 4b (ia) thus are (MorphologicalClass added in square brackets)

(ie) Affixes with no discernible function but which can be determined bycomparison between languages and by comparison between PARANILOTIC

andNILOTIC(ii) Nouns also fall into Tone Classes InMAASAI where the subject has

beenmoststudied1theseClassesmaybedifferentiatedpartlyaccordingtotheirtonepatternintheAbsoluteformandpartlyaccordingtothepatternchangeintheNominativeCase(sect7)ThefollowingexamplesareofdisyllabicStemsonly

ThePluralisusuallyinadifferentToneClassfromtheSingular(seesect5a)In the other languages Tone Classes have not yet been established In

KALENJINhoweveragreatvarietyof tonepatternshavebeenrecordedegas regards the relation of Secondary Suffixes to the Stem These patterns cutacross Morphological Classes Compare in PAumlKOT

4cAdjectivesMostAdjectiveStemswould seem tohave an entity of their own inBARI

MAASAI andKALENJIN In a few instances derivation from other parts ofspeechmaybeobserved

LikeNounsAdjectivesmaybegroupedintoToneClassesandhavespecificPluralforms

SomeBARIAdjectivestakeGenderPrefixes(sect6)othersdonot

InMAASAIAdjectivestaketheGenderPrefixonlywhenSelf-standing

KALENJINAdjectivesdonottakeSecondarySuffixeshereasinTESOtheyareusuallyjoinedtotheirNounsbymeansoftheRelativeParticles(seesectsect8d14) In TESO however Adjectives are best regarded as Relative forms ofAdjectivalVerbs

InKALENJINthereisaParticipleformedfromsomeVerbsbyaSuffix-aacutet

-t5Number


5aNounsThere are many Suffixes indicating Number (Singular Singulative Plural

Collective) in innumerable combinations and including not only the Suffixescharacteristic of the TK languages but also others Plural by internal changealso occurs with or without Suffixes Category harmony occurs in SuffixesCategoryshift sometimes inStemsTheGenderPrefixesofLOTUHOTESOand MAASAI (sect 6) and the Secondary Suffixes in KALENJIN (sect 4b) alsodistinguishNumberthePrimaryformsofKALENJINNounsaregivenhereSingularandPluralofNounsareseldominthesameToneClass(sect4b)or(in

KALENJIN)MorphologicalClassNounsmayconvenientlybegroupedasfollows

InKALENJINNumberisalsoshownintheSecondarySuffixestoNouns(sect4b(id))anditishereratherthaninthePrimarySuffixesthattheTKelementsarefoundCompare the following Secondary formswith the foregoing Primary forms

(Morphological Classes in PAumlKOT shown in square brackets)

SpecialCategoryInBARIandTESOcertainkinshiptermsandthePersonalInterrogativehave

aPluralPrefixink-1inTESOtheytakeRelativePrefixesaswellInLOTUHOonly the Personal Interrogative takes a Plural Prefix

5bAdjectivesTheNumberSuffixesofAdjectivesandtheirtonepatternsareasvariedand

unpredictable as those of Nouns As already stated many languages haveAdjectivalVerbsthesehoweveroftenhavespecificPluralStems(Inthetablebelow Adjectival Verbs are given in square brackets)

NotealsoinBARI(Masculineformsgivenhere)

In TESO all Adjectives are really Adjectival Verbs and when usedattributively employ the Relative Construction (seesect 14) Occasionally anirregular form seems to occur Compare the following withsect 5d below


element occurs in Personal Pronouns (sect 8a (i)) Possessives (sect 8a (iv))Interrogatives(sect8b)andSpecialCategoryNouns(sect5a)Demonstratives(sect8c)andtheRelativeParticle(sect8d)

5dVerbsIn Verb conjugation there is reduplication in the 2nd Person Plural in

MAASAI(seesect9c)InLOTUHOthereisaSuffixndashtı-t-inthe2ndPersonPlural(seesectsect8a(ii)

9b) in TESO -t-varying with -s-occurs in the 2nd and 3rd Person Plural(occasionallyalsointhe1stPersonPlural)themainformsbeing-ata-oto-ası-osi-ete-ito(seesect9b(i))1AdjectivalVerbsandVerbsofStatehaveaPluralformoftheStem(seesect5b)

Notetheoccasionalopposition-n--k-inTESO2NotealsoPlural-t-inMAASAITESO

6GenderGender is present in all languages except KALENJIN (see sect 4a (i)) the

GenderandGenderagreementsystemsbeingcloselysimilarThere are two main Genders Masculine and Feminine TE SO also has a

Diminutive-GeneralGenderandMAASAIaPlaceGenderGender is shown in the Noun and in Gender agreement with Possessives

(distinguishingGenderofthePossessedNoun)(sect8a(iv))theGenitiveParticle(Gender of Possessed Noun also of Possessor in MAASAI) (sect 13)Demonstratives(8c)andtheRelativeParticle(sect8d)alsoinsomeInterrogatives(sect8b)andAdjectivesThereisnoGenderdistinctioninPersonalPronounsnor

inVerbConjugationGenderallocation

LOTUHOAllNounsareFemexceptthosedenotingmalesBARITESOandMAASAIMascmalesalsobigstronglongobjectsorobjectsusedasactiveagentsorinstrumentsFemfemalesalsosmallweaksoftroundhollowflatobjectsorobjectsusedinaPassivesense

Dimin-General(TESO)smallyoungobjectstermsusedinageneralsensealsoinapejorativesense

Place(MAASAI)thewordforlsquoplacersquoonlyTheGender-distinguishingelementsareMasc1FemnassociatedwithvariousvowelsTheGenderPrefixesofNouns1are

AFemPrefixk-(x-)ori-occursinafewNounsinLOTUHOandMAASAITheGenderPrefixesmaybeomittedwhentheNounisusedinanadverbialor

verygeneralsenseExamplesBARIInmostNounsGendercanonlybeseenintheGenderagreementthoughinafewNounstherearePrefixessomewhatresemblingtheGenderPrefixesofthe other languages

WithoutPrefixtɔmɛelephantxitochild(restricteduse)

Gender is parallel to Number ie Nouns are in the same Gender in bothSingularandPluralOccasional instances of Polarity between Masculine and Feminine have

howeverbeenfoundSingularandPluralbeingindifferentGenders1

GenderagreementismoreconstantintheSingularthaninthePlural7CaseCaseisdistinguishedinalllanguagesexceptBARI(thesituationinLOTUHO

is uncertain) Case distinction is shown as follows TESO By intonationAffixesorchangeinfinalvowelMAASAIandKALENJINByintonation(exceptforafewLocativesinNANDI)butmanyNounsinPAumlKOT(fewerinNANDI-KIPSIGIS)haveaSuffixintheNominativeNouns (including personal names) Personal Pronouns Interrogatives

DemonstrativesRelativesandAdjectivesareaffectedBothNounandQualifiershowCaseThereare twoprincipalCasesAccusativewhich is theAbsoluteCase and

Nominative They are used as follows

In TESO and NANDI there is a Locative Case confined to relatively fewwordsExamplesofCase

NominativeSufiixesinKALENJINexamplesfromPAumlKOTPrimaryformsSomeNounsinClassA(SgorPl)takeaNominativeSuffixtheoccurrence

ofthisSuffixisnotpredictableItisrelatedtotheSecondarySuffixasfollows

ThereisnoNominativeSuffix inClassbNounsCasebeingshownentirely

bytoneSecondaryformsHeretheNominativeSuffix(ClassesAandB)isidenticalwiththeSecondary

Suffix in shape but Case is usually distinguished by tone and glottalization

8Pronouns8aPersonal(i)Self-standing

NotetheExclusive-InclusivedistinctioninPıinTESOonlyIn BARI lpέŋ (dial lὲpέŋ)) refers to both men and women although a

FeminineformnagravepέŋhasbeenheardIn KALENJIN the Primary forms of the 1st and 2nd Persons are normally

used theSecondarybeingused for emphasis In the 3rdPerson however theSecondaryformisthatnormallyusedSeealsoReflexivePronounsect8a(v)

(ii)SubjectofVerbIn BARI the Self-standing form precedes the Verb as Subject without

contractionItmaybeemphasizedbyaDemonstrativeThe3rdPersonisoften

omittedIn all the other languages there are Conjugational Prefixes which differ

considerably from the Self-standing Pronouns The Self-standing Pronoun(Nominative Case) can however follow the Verb in TESO (optional) and inMAASAI and NANDI for emphasis

In LOTUHO and Western PAumlKOT the Self-standing Pronoun or acontractionof it issuffixedtotheVerbinnormalconstructions inadditiontotheConjugationalPrefixesinLOTUHOfurtherthefullSelf-standingPronounprecedes the Verb for emphasis and there is then no personal Suffix

The Subject Conjugational Prefixes are given below as found with Class IVerbs with open Stem vowels3 (In TESO Indicative Mood) See sect 9b

Exclusive-InclusivedistinctionisnotshownintheConiugationalPrefixes inTESO(iii)ObjectandSubject-Object

ObjectformsInBARIandLOTUHOtheSelf-standingPronoununcontractedfollowsthe

Verb (in LOTUHO the Subject Pronoun)

(iv)PossessivesInBARIandMAASAIbothGenderandNumberofthePossessedNounare

showninvaryingdegreesinthePossessiveswhicharebuiltupontheGenderelements1(Masc)andn(Fem)InBARIthePossessiveswithPluralPossessedNounarebuiltuponk3

InLOTUHOandTESOnodistinctionofNumberorGender ismade in thePossessive itself though Gender may be indicated in TESO by prefixing theDemonstrativeInKALENJINNumberofthePossessedNounisdistinguishedtheelements

nyŋoccurringintheSingularckinthePluralthePossessivesbeingsuffixed

totheSecondaryformoftheNounwithassimilation(seesect13b)PAumlKOThastwoseriesofPossessiveSuffixesinistand2ndPersons(seesect13

b)NotetheRelativePrefixinTESO(sect8d)8cDemonstrativeInBARILOTUHOandTESOtherearethreedegreesofdistanceandboth

GenderandNumberaredistinguished

InTESOthelsquonearrsquoDemonstrativeisusedasaRelative(sect8d)InMAASAItherearetwodegreesofDistanceandtwoofReferencethereare

also Time-reference Demonstratives all in three Genders

In PAumlKOT there are four degrees of Distance and two of Time threeReference Demonstratives of Distance and two of Time also emphaticDemonstratives Each Demonstrative has a Self-standing (Pronominal) and aSuffixed(Adjectival)formNumberisdistinguishedthroughoutUnmarkedhere

=neutraltone

Note that the tone-patterns of the Reference Pronouns vary in certain

circumstanceswhilethatofthecorrespondingsuffixedformsremainsconstant

A similar series in bothSimple andReference forms is recorded forPlaceDemonstrativesSimpleyiyarayɔnɔyinaumlampcReferenceyɔniacuteyiniacuteampcthetonepatternofyɔniacuteandyiniacutebeingthatoftheDemonstrativeSuffixesieconstantThissuggeststhaty-mayrepresenttheStemofsomeNounnolongerinuse(noNounmeaninglsquoplacersquohasbeenfoundinPAumlKOT)

Therearefurtherseriesbasedonwaumll-thissideampcandaumlt-herenowampc

InPAumlKOTtheDemonstrativeSuffixesareattachedtotheNounasfollows

SingularClassA(1234)DemonstrativewithinitialnfollowsSecondarySuffixVowelchangeinSecondarySuffix-ɛgt-a(insomeNouns-ɔ)-egt-othervowelsunchangedTone change in Secondary Suffix rising or mid gt low high and falling

unchanged8dRelative

9VerbConjugation9aAspectMoodampcBARIhastwoMoodsIndicativeandDependent(includingImperative)with

Suffix-ɛor-eThereisnoAspectdistinction1

MAASAIhastwoMoodsIndicativeandSubjunctive(includingImperative)ThereisnoAspectdistinction

InLOTUHO twoAspects havebeen recordedMomentary andContinuousdistinguished by change of vowel quality (Category shift) the ImperativeappearstobelongtotheContinuousAspect

TESO has twoMoods Indicative and Dependent distinguished by SubjectPrefixes (all Persons)

TheformscitedabovedonotdenoteanyparticulartimethereareinadditiontwoTensesshownbyPrefixesintheIndicativeonlyForexamplesseesect9c

9bConjugationforPerson(i) See sectsect 8a (ii) and 9c Note that Subject Prefixes vary according to

MorphologicalClassMood(TESO)andImplication(TESOandKALENJIN)

Observation

InMAASAIthereisaPrefixk-beforeavowelei-beforeaconsonantwhichmayprecede theSubjectPrefix foremphasis it ismuchused inquestionsandanswers to questions1 This Prefix raises the tone of the Subject Prefix

In Verbs with close vowel in the Stem there is no distinction of vowelCategoryasbetweenAspectsbuttonaldistinctionpersistsInClassIIVerbsapartfromdifferenceoftonethe3rdPersonPrefixinthe

Indicative Subsequent and Dependent Moods is Momentary Aspect ku-ContinuousAspectku-

Conjugationof theVerb inNANDI is similar but the full rangeofMoodsAspectsandImplicationshasnotyetbeenfullyinvestigatedSeebelowNANDI-KIPSIGIShasthreeTenseParticlesPAumlKOTtwo

OtherAuxiliariesmaybefollowedbytheIndicativeMood

In MAASAI there are many Auxiliaries1 some followed by the InfinitiveothersbyvariousTensesofeitherMood1stand2ndPersonObjectPrefixesareattached to the Auxiliary not to the Main Verb

TherearefourconjugatedVerbslsquotobersquo1

11Negation11aVerbal

11bNon-Verbal

Philologicallytheadditionof-tand-ktotheSecondarySuffixesabovemayberegardedastherestorationoftheoriginalfullSecondarySuffixes(Comparethe NANDI forms below)

Inmost languages there is a formof IntimateGenitive found inCompoundNouns in which not only the Linking Particle but also the Gender Prefix (inMAASAIandLOTUHO)1andSecondarySuffix (inKALENJIN) isomittedatthe point of junction

InPAumlKOTtherearetwoseriesofPossessiveSuffixes(seesect8a(iv))oneinnormalusetheotherapparentlydenotingsomesortofintimaterelationship1Inthe3rdPerson(SgandPl)onlythesecondseriesisusedThe Possessives of both series are suffixed to the Secondary form of the

Noun with tone changes resembling those in the Definite Genitive (see (a)above)

14ConstructionswithQualifiers14aMostAdjectives orAdjectivalVerbs used attributively follow theNounandmanyshowNumberbychangesinoradditionstotheStem(seesect5bd)InBARILOTUHOandTESO(butnotMAASAI)Genderisoftenindicated

bymeansofaPrefix(seealsoDemonstrativessect8candRelativessect8d)InMAASAIbothNounandAdjectiveareinflectedforCase(sect7)

TheGenderagreementsfor23and4inMAASAIarepeculiartoNumerals568and10areinvariableforGender7and9haveRelativePrefixesInTESOtheGenderPrefixiselidedifthepreviouswordendsinavoweligrave-wograve (o)ŋono they are four [ie children] agrave-wograve (o)ŋono they are four [ie

cows]1InKALENJINNumeralsandthewordsforlsquoallrsquolsquoonlyrsquolsquootherrsquodonotrequire

the Relative Particle

1SeeHandbookpp154ndash61IdenticalwiththevowelsysteminSouthernLWO(p404)2VoicequalityisthereforenotindicatedherebytheuseofdifferenttypeasitisinNILOTIC1HildersandLawranceusethetermlsquoshadowvowelrsquoopcitpxvi2ThePrefixofClassIVerbsismonosyllabicandthatofClassIIVerbsdisyllabicwithlengtheningand

hightoneonthea-NotethatinTURKANAandKARIMOJONGthePrefixisakı-inbothClasses3Owingtothefrequentdifficultyofdistinguishinglongfromhalf-longvowelsintheselanguageslength

marksarepreferredtodoublevowelsinKALENJINdoublevowelsbeingusedindisyllablesonly1ContrastthefivemainpointsofarticulationinNILOTIC(p405)2SlurredvariantoftasinACOLI-LANGOSeep407andnotes3CfDIDINGA-MURLE(p371)NotehoweverthesignificanceoffinalglottalclosureinGALLAand

SOMALI(pp8499)1WrittenlsquoblsquodyinthestandardorthographyetymologicallyBARIɓandɗcorrespondtoMAASAIɓ

andɗBARIb(andp)toMAASAIporwBARIdandjtoMAASAI ory2InLOTUHOthewordeitochildisregularlypronouncedwithslurredtasisthe2ndPersonPlural

PossessiveandVerbSubjectSuffix1ContrPAumlKOTkagraveraacutekukacirctwithnoslurring1CfKUNAMAp3372ButseeNounsderivedfromVerbs(sect4bp455)1TheunderlyingideasbehindtheseDerivatives(MotiontowardsMotionawayampc)areverysimilarto

thoseinNILOTIClanguagesbutinternalchangeintheStemwhichischaracteristicofNILOTIC(seepp409ndash11)islesscommonheremdashmostchangesbeingduetoUmlaut

2InDAJUNYIMANGandKOALIB-MORODerivativeFormativesvaryaccordingtoAspect(pp

233n244273)1InLOTUHOandTESOthisformoftheVerbmayalsoindicatePluralactionorinsomecasesaction

carriedoutasaprofessionMuratoricallsthisformthelsquolongstemrsquo(temalungo)andnotesthatitispreferredtotzelsquoshortstemrsquoinsomeparadigms

2CfDAJUp2393lsquoGoandreturnrsquoformsarealsorecordedinNYIMANG(p245)andKOALIB-MORO(p273)1IncapsulationofaDerivativeformativeelementintheVerbStemoccursinESAHARAN(Applied

formofClassIVerbsinTUBUp173)Theincapsulatedelementishereshownincapitals2tvarieswithsinTESOnotethatbothtandsoccurasCausativeformativeelementsinEast

SAHARAN(p173)sinCUSHITIC(p504)3InalltheKALENJINexamplesherethePrimaryformoftheNounisthatcited(seesect4b(id)below)1ThelatentInitialVowelofClassIIVerbsisapparentinNounsderivedfromVerbs2AlsolsquoactitselfrsquoinTESOandMAASAI1Comparealsomaumlricirccthenameofaplaceinanarrowvalley2HuntingfordlsquoTheldquoNilo-HamiticrdquoLanguagesrsquoSouthwesternJAntkrop19563SeeIntroductionp254Huntingford(AManualoftheNandilanguage)deriveska(p)-fromkahouse+apGenitiveParticle5CalledIndefiniteandDefinitebyMumfordHolliscallstheSecondarySuffixtheArticle1TheyarenotrecordedbyBeech2ATKcharacteristic3Fromthephilologicalpointofviewtheywouldappeartohavebeenelided4WithglottalstopafterRisingorMidtone(sometimesafterHightone)inPAumlKOTInNANDI-

KIPSIGISowingtodissimilationtheSecondarySuffixisshortincertainwordsSeeTuckerandBryanopcit

5InthisClassaretobefoundthemajorityofNounAgentsandNounInstrumentsandmanylivingbeings

1WithglottalstopafterHightone2-da-d after1orn3WithglottalstopafterRisingorMidtone(sometimesafterHightone)4WithglottalstopafterHightone1TuckerandMpaayeiopcit1Alsoostrichostrich-featherhead-dress1SeealsoSpecialCategoryp4641PluralSuffix-tinalsooccursinSUNGOR(p210)andTEMEIN(p256)bothTKlanguagesandin

TEPETH(p395)1CfDAJUp2351AnNKfeatureCfDIDINGAp3762RequiresGenderPrefix1CfTEMEINp257OMETOp5592CfBARI bad3CfInceptiveVerbssect4a(iii)thereisnoVerblsquotobebadorblackrsquoinTESO1CalledlsquoArticlersquobysomeauthoritiesthishowevergivesawrongimpressionaswordswithGender

PrefixmaybetranslatedwiththeDefiniteorIndefiniteArticleinEuropeanlanguages1ThisphenomenonisfoundinSOMALI(twoGenders)andinKADUGLI-KRONGOandIRAQW

(threeGenders)Seepp513305576seealsop251CfEasternPAumlKOTagrave-kacircrauml-k r y2NotePlSuffixndashtıSeesect5d3PronounPrefixesbeforeClassIIVerbsaresubjecttophoneticassimilationwiththeInitialVowelofthe

VerbStem1SeealsoMABA(p201)KUNAMA(p341)andtheSubject-ObjectSelectorsinIRAQW(p587)2NormalObjectPronounhere3TheVelarPluralelement(seesect5c)4lsquoPlacersquofallsinwithFemininehere1CfACOLIp4212HollisrecordsMasculineandFeminineformsbutthesearediscountedbyHuntingford(personal

communication)1TherewouldseemtobenojustificationforthecontentionofHollisandHuntingfordthatthefinaltof

theSingularSecondarySuffixisreplacedbyannbeforeDemonstrativesNodoublingofthenasalhasbeenheardbyusineitherNANDIorPAumlKOTButseesect13b

2Contractioncfpely middotn-deacutetinSABINYHuntingfordrecordspeliondetinKONYaswell1WhethertheApplicativeQualitativeandPassivearetoberegardedasVoicesisamootpointSee

howeverDerivativeVerbssect4a(iii)1CfKUNAMAp3471CalledlsquoPerfectrsquobyHenricksen2CalledlsquoSimplersquobyHenricksen1Thereisgreattonalfluctuationheredependinglargelyonwhatprecedesorfollowsandinformationis

insufficienttodeterminewhetherthelsquoNarrativersquouseofthisformshouldberegardedasdistinctfromitslsquoSubjunctiversquouse

1SimilarlylsquoPastofthismorningrsquoandlsquoPerfectrsquomaylaterprovetobetonallydistinct1ForAuxiliariesexpressingsimilarconceptsseeSLWO(p431)ComparealsoKOMA(p365)1CfKOALIB-MOROp2861CftheBARIaffirmativeexclamation thatrsquosso1ContrasttheAffirmativewhereonlytheIndicativeMoodissubdivided(sect9c)1CfDIDINGA-MURLEp3591CfMANGBETUpp36561Ourinformantwasunabletoelucidatetheprecisemeaningofthisconstruction1AdjectivalVerbwithRelative1Seeaacute-iacute(m)waututobeacertainnumberp484

32THECUSHITICLANGUAGES

THE languages classed in theHandbook as CUSHITIC are here treated underthreeseparateheads(a)CUSHITIClanguagesiethosewhichshowthemainfeatures accepted by most authorities as CUSHITIC1 BEDAUYE (lsquoBEJArsquo)AGAU (including BILIN AWIYA) SAHO-AFAR SIDAMO GALLASOMALI(b)partiallyCUSHITIClanguagesiethoseinwhichsomefeaturescommon

toCUSHITICoccurbutwhichdifferinmanyimportantrespectsJANJERO OMETO GIMIRA KAFFA OMETO is here chosen as

representativeSeep555(c)languagewithlittleornoclaimtobeCUSHITICGELEBASeep561

32aCUSHITIC

SourcesBWAndrzejewskifieldworkonSOMALIandGALLAsupplementedbyworkwithinformantsatSOASMusaHIGalaalAliJamaGaradShireAhmedJama(SOMALI)JosephGalgaloGodanaShunoLibanBagajaDida(GALLA)andothers

______lsquoTheProblemofVowelRepresentationintheIsaaqDialectofSomalirsquoBSOAS1955______rsquoAccentualPatternsinVerbalFormsintheIsaaqDialectofSomalirsquoBSOAS1956xviii1pp103-29

______rsquoSomePreliminaryObservationsontheBoranaDialectofGallarsquoBSOAS1957xix2PP354ndash74

______TheDeclensionsofSomaliNounsSOASLondon1964(DistributionLuzacampCoContainslatestcomprehensivebibliographyonSomali)FRPalmerlsquoTheVerbinBilinrsquoBSOAS1957xix1pp131ndash59______rsquoTheNouninBilinrsquoBSOAS1958xxi2pp376ndash91______rsquoTheVerbClassesofAgau(Awiya)rsquoMittInstOrientforschungBerlin1959andpersonalcommunication

EMRoperTuBeḍawiεLondon19291(initalics)RAHudsonAgrammaticalstudyofBeja2(PhDthesis)MSandpersonalcommunicationLReinischDieBedauyespracheinNordost-Afrika3Vienna1893(initalics)_____DieBilin-SpracheinNordost-AfrikaVienna1882_____rsquoDieSprachederIrob-SahoinAbessinienrsquoSitzungsberKAkadWissWien1878MMMorenoManualediSidamoMilan1940(initalics)_____IlSomalodellaSomaliaRome1955LEArmstronglsquoThePhoneticStructureofSomalirsquoMSOS1934MHIGalaaledBWAndrzejewskiHikmaadSoomaliLondon1956JTubianapersonalcommunicationonAGAU

1Phonetics

It isnotpossibletopostulateanoverallCUSHITICphoneticsystemthoughBILINandAWIYAhavemuchincommon

1aVowelsBILINhasaseven-vowelsystemoffiveperipheralvowels ieaouand

twocentralvowelsaumlandə1thelattersometimesbeinganaptycticTherearediphthongsendingini(y)andu(w)TherearenolongvowelsAWIYAhassixvowelsieaouandəallofwhichcanoccurinstressed

positionəalsooccursasananaptycticvowelwhenmorethantwoconsonantscometogetherinjunctionsThereisnoevidenceofvowellengthnorofdiphthongsUmlautmaybecausedbyiʃomet-aacutenagravetheybuycornʃumit-ithoubuyestcornfereacutesaacutemarefiriacutes-iacutehorseOccasionalAblauthasalsobeenrecordedʃumiacutetbuycorn(Imperative)BEDAUYEhasfive longvowelsae iouandfiveshortvowelsbut

the four short vowels e i o u are usually realized in pronunciation as anindeterminateclosevowelvaryingbetweenfrontandbackaccordingtodialectandphoneticenvironmentNotethatafinalvowelislengthenedbeforeaSuffixerawhiteera-stomakewhite(Hudson)2eratobewhiteeraa-stomakewhite(Reinisch)εraεrās(Roper)InSIDAMOMorenorecordsfivevowelsieaouandafairlyrarevowel

whichheequateswithETHIOPICNo1inqualityandrecordsasauml(withvalueapproachingthatinEnglishlsquofattenrsquo)oraring(afterwwithvalueapproachingthatinEnglishlsquowaterrsquo)Vowel length isassociatedwithStressand longvowelsoftenalternatewith

longconsonants3

mor-annoormor-aanohestoleAnaptycticvowelsoccurasdoas-i-nemmowedoas-i-tannoshedoes

GALLAhassixvowels ieaouandəbutəonlyoccursasananaptycticvowelorasasubstituteforasemi-mutevowelwithinaword-groupThere are no diphthongs vowels in juxtaposition preserve their syllabicqualityɗaacuteiuacutetagraveagraveliacutehitandrun

Vowel length is significantNote thatSuffixesoftenhave longvowels aftershortStemvowelsandshortvowelsafterlongStemvowelsVowelsinfinalpositioninastatementareofthefollowingkinds

Semi-mute kunnaacutemaacute itisamanGlottalized kunhaacuteyyugrave itisachieflsquoNormalrsquoshort kunollanamaacute itisthevillageofamanlsquoNormalrsquolong kunollahayyuacuteuacute itisthevillageofachief

Attheendofaquestionorapauseinastatementthefollowingchangestakeplace

kunnaacutemagravekunhaacuteyyuacuteugravekunollanamaaacutetikunollahayyuuacutetigrave

Within a sentence the semi-mute vowel is either elided or realized as əaccordingtophoneticcontextandtheglottalizedvowellosesitsglottalqualitykunithiscfkunaboveHiatus between words or between Particles is often expressed by a glottal

stopnuacuteigravesagraveǵagraverregravewehimsawinniacuteisɗagraveegravehehimhit(igravesagravehim)SOMALIhasa

ten-vowel system which can be analysed into two Categories of five vowels

eachAllvowelsmaybeshortorlongDiphthongsendingini(y)andu(w)arecommonVowelshavetwotypesofclosureglottalizedandaspirated2Botharebound

up with grammatical categories Within a sentence however neitherglottalizationnoraspirationareheardVowelcategoriesmayhavelexicalsignificance

On the other hand Category Harmony is of frequent occurrence ie anyfronted vowel exercises Umlaut on other vowels as follows (i) Umlaut byfrontedvowelinSuffixes

(ii)UmlautbyfrontedvowelintheStem

(cfwuacuteugraveǵagraveagraved-agraveagravehestalksmaacute-ǵaad-ohedoesnotstalk)(iii)UmlautinaspeechchainietheCategoryvowelofthefinalwordina

speechchainaffectsallprecedingwordsinthechainThiswillnotbeindicatedin the present work Thus the sentence

1bConsonantsThe following table shows the consonants recorded in the CUSHITIC

languages as a whole The distribution of the less common consonants isindicatedinbracketsThedistributionoftheejectivesoundsandtherarityofpqandnyshouldbeespeciallynoted

candjusuallyhavethevaluesoftʃandʤConsonantjunctionsarefrequentinalllanguages

Notesonindividuallanguages

BEDAUYE Reinisch records alternative pronunciations beɖaawye andbejaamye but states that retroflex ɖ is the normal sound Hudson recordsbiɖaacutewyeLongconsonantsoccurandassimilationhasbeenrecordedBILIN Long consonants frequently occur Labialization of velar sounds iscommonAWIYATherearenolongconsonantsAssimilationdoesnotoccurLabializationofvelarsandqiscommonSIDAMO Long consonants are common there is also much consonantalslurringandassimilationNoteregularmetathesisineghanb-emmoweforgothab-nemmo

GALLALongconsonantsarecommondueinsomecasestoassimilation

SOMALI There is much slurring voicing assimilation and dissimilation ofconsonants n l r w and y have two types of final closure glottalized andaspirated with devoicing1 Final closure is bound up with grammaticalcategoriesdameacuteegravermaledonkeydagravemegraveegraverfemaledonkeyFinalbdɖjandǵaredevoicedwithoutaspirationɖisretroflexbutmaybeimplosiveorexplosive2

2ToneandStress2aToneThere are three level tones inAWIYAGALLA andSOMALIHighMid

andLowthelastoccurringonlyfinallyinGALLAandSOMALIthereisalsoFallingtoneMidtoneisnotmarkedinthissection3

InAWIYAtoneisbothlexicalandgrammaticalandthereareToneClasses

inNounsandVerbsCompareInGALLA and SOMALI however tone ismore grammatical than lexical

andisoneofthemeansofindicatingNumber(sect5a)Gender(sect6)andCase(sect

7)Note that in SOMALI mid tone is usually realized as high when followed

immediatelybyanotherwordtherearesomeexceptionsNothing isknownabout tone inBEDAUYESAHOandSIDAMO(butsee

Stressbelow)

2bStressInBILINtoneisintimatelyboundupwithstressorsyllabicprominence1the

generalrulebeingthataprominentsyllable(markedhereforconvenienceasaHigh tone) has high pitch this high pitch often being carried through tofollowingsyllableswithinthesameunitofspeechWordsmaybedifferentiatedbythepresenceorabsenceofsuchprominence

andmayfallintolsquoClassesrsquoProminencealsoplaysalargeroleingrammaticalbehaviourNotethatnowordmaycontainmorethanoneprominentsyllableandmany

wordscontainnoneProminence is also grammatically relevant in BEDAUYE and Hudson

recordsasatypicalinstanceReinischrsquoslsquoAccentrsquoinBEDAUYEalsoseemstobeboundupwithstress2as

does the lsquoAccentrsquo recorded byMoreno in SIDAMO Such lsquoAccentsrsquo are heremarkedasHightonesforconvenienceInSAHOStress(orperhapstone)islinkedwithGender(sect6)

3WordShapeThough many words contain Affixes it is relatively easy to determine the

StemVerb Stems mostly have the shape CVC CVCC CVCVC the last most

commoninBILIN(PalmerhoweverhererecordsStemsaslongasCVCCVCC

ManyNounshaveCVCorCVCVStemsIn GALLA and SOMALI both Nouns and Verbs have Suffixes or specific

typesoffinalclosure(sectsect1ab)InAWIYAandBILINhowevermanyNounsexist in Stem form alone InSIDAMOallNouns end in -a -e -o sometimesinterchangeablehakkrsquoaorhakkrsquootreeSomeSuffixesinGALLAhaveashortvowelif theStemvowelis longand

viceversa(egCausativesect4a(iii)Pluralsect5a)

4StructuralElements4aVerbs(iii)MorphologicalToneandProminenceClassesThere are twoMorphological Classes in BEDAUYEAWIYA SAHO and

SOMALI they are distinguished by the order of the components of theVerbComplexIPronounSubjectprefixedtoVerbStemNumberelementsuffixed

egBEDAUYEte-diacuter-nayou(Pl)havekilled(Verbdir-)tiacute-dir-na

IIPronounSubjectSuffixedtoVerbStemNumberelementsuffixedtoSubjectSuffixegBEDAUYEduur-taacutea-nayou(Pl)havevisited(Verbduur-)

duacuter-ta-na

Class I contains very few Verbs in AWIYA and SOMALI (five in eachlanguage) but more in BEDAUYE and SAHO This is historically the olderClasscalledbyReinischlsquoprimitivenoderstarkenVerbarsquoClassIIcontainsthevastmajorityofVerbsinBEDAUYEAWIYASAHO

andSOMALI allVerbs inBILINSIDAMOandGALLAareof theClass IItypeAccording toReinisch these lsquodenominativen oder schwachenVerbarsquo areformedinBEDAUYEbySuffixingtheconjugatedClassIVerb an lsquotobersquo tothe Stem of the Main Verb this an however has largely disappeared inBEDAUYEandthereisnotraceofitintheotherlanguagesRoperontheotherhand points to the similarity of these endings to the Past Tense forms of theClassIVerblsquosayrsquo(n-yaccordingtoHudson)1

TheconjugationAffixesintheirsimplestformare

(butseesect9b(i)fordeparturesfromthisnorm)TheseareidenticalwiththebasicformsofconjugationAffixesinSEMITIC

but there thedistinction isbetweenImperfect(Prefixes)andPerfect(Suffixes)Seep609InBEDAUYEReinischnotestwosubdivisionsofClassIVerbs(a)thosewithCVCStemswithPrefixtV-inS2andS3FV-inS3M

e-n-diacuteirhekillste-n-diacuteirshekills

(b)thosewithCVCVCStems2withnoPrefixinthesePersonsk-an-hiacuteinhesheloves(Stemk-h-n)

HudsonfurthersubdividesbothtypesofClassIVerbsintoClassesaccordingtoprominencepattern(cfBILINbelow)aacute-n-ribIrefusea-n-diacuterIkillInAWIYAandBILINClassIIVerbsaresubdividedinto

InAWIYAVerbToneClasses cut acrossMorphologicalClasses and thereare four possibilities in terms of the tone of the Stem

In BILIN Prominence Classes similarly cut across Morphological Classes

GALLA does not show such sub-classification The tone here variesaccordingtocontextIn SOMALIClass IIVerbsmay be subdivided according to their Infinitive

forms (ie forms used with Auxiliary Verbs)

In both SOMALI and GALLA Verb tonal pattern may vary according tocontext

(iii)DerivativeVerbsareformedbyStem-extendingAffixes InBEDAUYEand SAHO these are Prefixes in Class I Suffixes in Class II1 in the otherlanguages no Derivatives of Class I Verbs have been recorded and thereforeonlySuffixesarefoundThemainAffixesare

s(ʃtsalsoiinSOMALI2)Causative3

t d st (-o in SOMALI1) PassivemdashReflexivemdashPersonal

DerivativeAffixescanbecombinedtogetherinalllanguagesTheFrequentativeisexpressedinmostlanguagesbypartialreduplicationPlural Action or Object is expressed by vowel lengthening in BEDAUYE

(ClassIonly)

4bNouns(i)InSOMALIandGALLANounsmaybedividedbecauseoftheirphonetic

behaviour particularly in thematter ofCase endings into thosewhich end inglottalclosureandthosewhichdonotWhether thisconstitutesMorphologicalClassdistinctionisuncertain(seesect1a)In BILIN Palmer postulates four Morphological Classes according to Case

endingsSeeespeciallyGenitive(sect7)

(ii)AlthoughNounshaveavarietyofTonePatternstheredonotappeartobeTone Classes though Palmer groups Nouns in BILIN according to whetherProminence is on the Stem vowel the last syllable or neither

(iii) There are many Noun Formative Affixes sometimes associated withinternalvowelchange(InSOMALIhoweverrelativelyfewNounFormativesareineverydayuse)

BEDAUYEder-aacuteanador-aacutenakillerltdirkillduur-aacuteanadur-aacutenavisitorltduurvisit

haacuteayd-itailorlthayidsewkaacuteahen-iloverltkehanlovetheseNounsareMasculineorFeminine

IbaasPlbasburialltbiskehuunloveltkehanIIduacuteur-tiavisittovisittaacuteam-tieatingtoeatlttaam1

theseNounsareMasculinemehas-aacuteylunchltmehaaseatatnoontheseNounsareFeminine

ma-diacutermaacute-dardeath-blowactofkillingma-rsquoaacutetfootprintstepltlsquoattreadtheseNounsareMasculine

BILINfaumlr-aagoingltfaumlr-natogoyinafaumlr-namygoingsaumlx-aumlntaPlsaumlx-aumlntitailorltsaumlx-natosewsəw-aacutenaPlsəkwaacutenthief

AWIYAasuacute-ŋaacutelyingtolieltasuacute-xwagraveheliedasuacutealieMascasuacuten-tiacuteniacuteFemasoacuten-teacutenaacutePlasoacuten-teacutenəkaacuteliardibs-əŋatotalkltdibs-xwagravehetalkedMascdibs-taacutentiacuteFemdibs-taacutentaacutePldibs-tkaacutetalkerTubianarecordsbaz-asongbaz-əŋactofsinging

SAHOaagdaacuteafPlaacuteagdoftokillkillingltgadaf(ClassI)ɖintosleepltɖin(Class

II)maagdaacuteafPlm-aacuteagdaafisalsorecordedforlsquotokillkillingrsquoMascmaagdaacuteaf-aFemmaagdaaf-aacuteaPlmaagdaacuteaf-itkillerIkalah-eacuteen-akalah-een-aacuteakalah-eacuteen-ittravellerIIFemm-aagdaf-aacuteaPlm-aagdaacutef-itplaceofkillingFemm-aatak-oacutePlm-aatak-okinstrumentforhittingFemutkaacuteaPluacutetkakahitablowlttakahitmu-lukPlmu-lukukmessageltlaakasendMascharaacutes-toFemharas-toacutePlharaacutes-titpeasantltharasacultivateMasc

kehan-aacutetFemkahan-toacutelovePlkehaacuten-otlovebak-oacutePlbaacutek-okendltbakstopdal-aacuteaPldaacutel-aalbirthltdalbearfarrim-toacutewillltfarrimmakeawill

SIDAMOmin-atobuildmin-ehouseltmin-rersquo-odeathltrersquo-los-oworkltlos-rosis-

min-atobuildmin-ehouseltmin-rersquo-odeathltrersquo-los-oworkltlos-rosis-aanoteacherltrosis-

GALLA

Thesporadicoccurrenceof theelement t inFormativesofVerbalNounandNounAgentshouldbenoted1

4cAdjectivesIn BEDAUYE a lsquoParticiplersquo2 is formed from the Verb by Suffix -a diacuter-a

havingkilledkillingltdirduur-avisitingltduuraacutekr-astrong(havingbecomestrong)ltakirbestrong

AnAdjectiveFormativePrefixa-isrecordedaacute-magbadcfa-maacutegIbecamebadTheSuffix-oappearstobeanAdjectiveFormativeadaacuter-oaacutedar-oreddaaacutel-odaacutebal-osmallIn BILIN Palmer records lsquogenitival-adjectivalrsquo forms of Nouns3 and

Adjectives which follow the Noun and show Gender and Number (normalGenitivesandAdjectivesprecede theNounandare invariable)Thus from theGenitive Case of

5Number5aNounsIn BEDAUYE and GALLA Number is parallel to Gender ie any Noun

which isMasc in theSingular is alsoMasc in thePlural anyNounwhich is

FemintheSingularisFeminthePluralIn SOMALINumber cuts across Gender ie a Nounmay beMasc in the

SingularFeminthePluralandviceversaIn BILIN AWIYA SAHO and SIDAMO Number is complementary to

GenderiethePluralcanberegardedasathirdGenderinthatMascandFemarenotdistinguishedinthePluralInBEDAUYESingularandPluralaredistinguishedasfollows

ByshorteningofStemvowelinthePluralkaacuteamkaacutemcamelhaacutetayhaacutetayhorse

BychangeinStemvowelmeacutekmaacutekdonkey

BychangeinProminence(onlywherethereisaGenderSuffix)lemaacute-bleacutema-bcrocodilekwaaacute-tkwaacutea-tsister

ByPluralSuffix-aisinisin-ahippoterigtirg-amonthlooliʃloolʃ-acat

RoperfurtherrecordsSuffixesindicatingSingulativeandlsquoPluralofpaucityrsquoMSkutānbug(ingeneral)FSkutān-īaiasinglebugFPkutan-īεiafewbugsFSarsiarsḯ-tfleece

FPaacutersī-tfleecesFPaacutersi-ātafewfleecesInBILINPalmerliststhefollowingtypesofNumberdistinction

In AWIYA Palmer reports a Plural Suffix -kaacute nearly always used (seeGender sect 6) Tubiana1 however reports sporadic Plurals in -k or -Vn or byreduplicationoffinalconsonantalsobylossoftheSingulativeSuffix-ainthedialectheinvestigated2INSAHOPluralsaremostlyformedbyreduplicationalsobySuffixes-it -

(w)aaafafoacutefmouthdahiacutenadahiacuten-itmorningigiacuteligil-aacuteastreamInSIDAMOMorenostatesthatPluralformsareseldomusedHerecordsthefollowingtypes

ofPluralInSOMALIthesituationisatitsmostcomplicatedreduplicationsuffixation

toneandfinalclosureallbeinginvolvedThefollowingseventypesofSingular-Plural distinctionhavebeen recorded and it shouldbenoted thatmanyNounschangetheirGenderinthePlural(seesect6)1SgMascPlMasc(monosyllabicNounsonly)Pluralbyreduplicationof

final consonant preceded by a)

Loan-words from ARABIC have Plural Suffix -iin also broken PluralsborrowedontheanalogyofARABICTherearesomeexceptionalPlurals

ACollective(Masconly)hasbeenrecordedniman-yawgroupsofmenagreatnumberofmengabɖa-yawmanygirls

TheSuffix-yaalcanalsobeusedtoformaCollectivePlural

niman-yaalgroupsofmen

5bAdjectivesInBILINeachAdjectivehasitsownspecificPluralformandthereisasmuch

varietyofPluralformationasthereiswithNouns(seealsosectsect67b)InAWIYAAdjectivestakethePluralSuffix-kaaswellasNounsInSIDAMOandSAHONumberisnotnormallydistinguished(butseesect6)InBEDAUYEGALLAandSOMALIwholeorpartialreduplicationisoften

found

InboththesecategoriessomeAdjectivesdistinguishGendersomedonot(seesect6)

5cPronounsThePluralelementnin2ndand3rdPersonsischaracteristicofERYTHRAIC

ingeneral InCUSHITIC it occurs sporadically inSelf-standingPronouns andPossessiveSuffixes(sect8a(iiv))1Notethatin1stPersonPluraltheelementndenotesPersonratherthanmerely

NumberoccurringinbothSingularandPluralinsomeforms

Compareforexample

ComparealsotheSubjectAffixesinVerbconjugationsect9b

5dVerbconjugationIn the 2nd and 3rd Persons Plural the ERYTHRAIC element n occurs as a

SuffixinbothClassIandClassIIVerbs2(sectsect4a(i)9b(i))mdashmostclearlytobeseen in Class I Verbs where the Pronoun Subject is a Prefix Thus (Perfect

TenseVerbdir-die)6GenderGrammatical Gender is present in all languages Gender is of two kinds

sometimes distinguished by different elements Nominal ie Gender of Noun

andGenderagreementPersonalinPersonalPronounsandVerbconjugationTheNominalGendersare

BEDAUYEandGALLAMasc(SgandPl)Fem(SgandPl)BILINAWIYASAHOandSIDAMOMascFemPlSOMALIMasc(SgorPl)Fem(SgorPl)withthefollowingGender-distinguishingelements1

ForPersonalGenderelementsseesectsect8a(indashiv)9bInBEDAUYENounsdistinguishGenderintheirAbsolute(Accusative)form

In theirCase formshowever (sect7) andwithDeterminativePrefixes (sect8c)notallNounsshowGenderdistinctionApart from sex the Masculine Gender includes big strong and important

things the Feminine Gender small weak and passive things Thus

InAWIYAandBILINasystemofthreeGendersMasculineFeminineandPluralispostulatedbyPalmerforbothNounsandAdjectivesThesamesystemwouldseemtoholdforSAHONouns(AdjectivestakeRelativeSuffixesseesect

8c(iii))

InBILINGenderisalsodistinguishedinthelsquoGenitival-AdjectivalrsquoformsofNounsbuiltupontheGenitiveCasewithaspecialseriesofSuffixesMasc-xw

Fem-riPl-wInSAHOSingularNounsendinginastressedvowelareFeminineallother

Singular Nouns are Masculine the Plural constitutes a third Gender MascmaagdaacuteafaFemmaagdaafaacuteaPlmaagdaacuteafitmurdererInSIDAMOGenderisnotnormallydistinguishedintheNounitselfbutnote

MeloFeloo-teloverMostinanimatesareMasculineabstractscollectivesandthingsinthemassareusuallyFeminineAfewAdjectivesdistinguishGenderandNumberMlowobigFlowo-tti

Pllowoo-ri

(SeealsoDemonstrativessect8c)

InGALLAthemajorityofNounsendinginglottalizedsoundsareFemininebut otherNouns areMasculineorFeminine according to tonepatternor other

criteria

ThereisnothirdlsquoPluralGenderrsquointhesetwolanguagesMascandFembothoccurringinthePluralandsinceGenderisassociatedwithcertainSuffixesandTone patterns many SOMALI Nouns change their Gender in the PluralmdashaphenomenonknownasPolarity1

For Gender agreement in Possessives Interrogatives DeterminativesDemonstrativesRelativeseesectsect8a(iv)8b8c

7CaseThere are three well-defined Cases in some languages There are also

PostpositionsregardedassuchbysomeauthoritiesasCase-endingsbyothersThese have a wide range of meanings and should be compared as betweenlanguagesNotethatinBEDAUYEandGALLAPostpositionsarebuiltontheGenitive

Case

7aNounsCase is shown by Suffix by change in Tone (Prominence inBILIN) or by

bothtogether

BEDAUYEhasthefollowingCases(wherethereisnoprecedingQualifier)1

karaacuteaylsquoooriheacuteehyenaboyseizedaroo-byirsquoaacutemashipheboardedaacuteneree-taferiacutekIawelldugallaacutea-ykaamGodrsquoscamel(preyingmantis)abaacutea-tideragriverrsquosbrink

TothesemaybeaddedthefollowingPostpositionsattachedtotheGenitive

-boo-sook-iacutei-baacutendetoSuakinIgoi-soacutek-i-befethe-Suakin-inhe-lives-t-di-taacutek-i-tsakiacutenithe-man-likehe-acts

-dai-taacutek-i-dathe-man-to-ka(incomparisonofAdjectives)oo-tak-iacutei-katuu-takathanyiacuteisthanthemanthewomanis-betterInBILINandAWIYAPalmerpostulatesthefollowingCasesNotethatinthesetwolanguagestheNominativeistheAbsolute

form

InSAHONominativeandAccusativearenotdistinguishedtheGenitivecanhave a Suffix -t(i) or -h(i) aacutebbaa-t aacutebbaa fatherrsquos father galaaytoacute-hi laakcamelrsquosfootPostpositionsare-(a)kfaacuteras-akilloacuteohoacuteyatothehorsebreadIgave-(V)d-(V)ldiacutek-idordiacutek-iltowardsthevillageinthevillage-liyo-liɖinsleepwithme(litme-withsleep)

-komandaacuter-kofromMandar(place-name)

CaseisleastwelldefinedinSIDAMOTheAbsoluteformoftheNounisintheAccusativebothNominativeandGenitivesometimeshavetheSuffix-ior-ubutMorenoconsiders that these finalvowelsarenot trueCaseendingsbutratherwaysofemphasizingtheNounmineacutemiacuteninoahousehebuiltmiacuten-iminaacuteminoahousewasbuilt

nugus-iornugus-uajjajinothekingcommandedhandoacuteorhand-uacuteannaoxrsquosmaster

Postpositionsare-radogo-raacutedogoacuteo-ratotheroadkonni-rabecauseofthis-hobeetoacuteo-hotothegirl(Dative)-wamineacutee-watowardsthehouse-tVangaacute-tteinthehanddogoacute-ttedogoacuteo-teontheroad-niampcanga-nnibyhandsikkrsquooo-nisikkrsquou-nniwithastickmini-nnifromthehouse1

-(n)naareacute-nnaaroacutewifeandhusband

TherearefourCasesinGALLAtheSuffixesdependingpartlyonGenderandpartyonthephoneticcompositionoftheNouninitsAbsoluteform(Accusative

Case)

SOMALIalsohasthreeCases

If theGenitive is the last component of aNounGroup it shows additionalNominative and Accusative Case inflexion but the preceding Noun is in theAccusative (ie Absolute) Case

ReinischrecordstheaboveformsbeforeallNounStemsRoperandHudsononlybeforemonosyllabicStemsbeginningwithaconsonantbeforeotherStemsthey record a shortened Uninflected Prefix

In SIDAMO likewise the Determinative (here a Suffix) distinguishes twoCases Nominative and Accusative (Absolute including Genitive)

In SOMALI only the last component of the Word Group (here theDeterminative)showsCasePrecedingcomponentsareallintheAbsoluteform

(Accusative)

ADeicticDeterminativewillprecedebothNounandAdjectivebutonlytheAdjective may indicate Gender and Case (Note that the Adjective cannotprecede the Noun here)

7dVerbsAnoutstanding feature of these languages is that in someof themVerbs in

dependent sentences often show Case (also Gender see sect 6)1

ForCaseinPronounsseesectsect8abc

8Pronouns8aPersonalPersonalGender(MascandFem)isdistinguishedinalllanguages

Thefollowingfactsshouldbenoted1ThenumberofPersonsinwhichGenderdistinctionoccursvariesasbetween

languages2PersonalGenderisoftendistinguishedbydifferentelementsfromthose

occurringinNominalGender(sect6)3TheelementsdistinguishingPersonalGendervarynotonlyasbetween

languagesbutalsosometimeswithinonelanguage(cfBILINSelf-standingPronounsandObjectSuffixes)

4InBEDAUYEGALLAandSOMALIPossessivestheGenderofthePossessorisdistinguishedbyPersonalGenderelementsthatofthePossessedbyNominalGenderelements

InadditiontotheFeminineelementt(seeGendersect6)andthePluralelementn(seeNumbersect5c)thefollowingERYTHRAICfeaturesshouldalsobenoted

ASubject Pronounmay precede theVerb in all languages In BEDAUYESIDAMOandGALLAthisconsistsoftheNominativeCaseoftheSelf-standingPronoun SOMALI has Specific Subject forms

(iii)ObjectoftheVerbInBEDAUYEandGALLAtheAccusativeCaseoftheSelf-standingPronoun

isusedasObjectoftheVerb(inGALLAthisistheAbsoluteformandthereforeidenticalwiththatgivenundersect8a(i)3BEDAUYEalsohasaseriesofObjectSuffixesBILIN (according toReinisch)AWIYA and SIDAMOhaveObjectSuffixesSAHOandSOMALIhaveseparateseriesofObjectPronouns

(iv)PossessivesPossessivesmayconsistofSelf-standingformsPrefixesorSuffixesinsome

languagestherearealternativeconstructions(inAWIYAandinsomePersonsinGALLAtheGenitiveCaseoftheSelf-standingPronounisusedinSIDAMOtheSelf-standingPronounWithoutindicationofCase)In BEDAUYE SOMALI and some Persons in GALLA the Possessives

distinguish Gender of the Possessed Noun (Nominal Gender see sect 6)

(v)InSAHOthereareReferringPossessivePronouns

8cdDeterminativeDemonstrativeandRelative(i)DeterminativesTherearetwokindsofDeterminative(α) Deictic (called lsquoArticlersquo by several authorities1) (β) Particularizing

Singulative2TheinteractionoftERtandkdescribedonp25istobeseenhere3

1twithoutreferencetoGenderThisoccursintheSAHOParticularizingDeterminativemdashseealsoRelativeandcompareNounAgentandVerbalNounFormatives(sect4b(iii))

This occurs in theSIDAMOandSOMALIDeicticDeterminativemdashsee alsoDemonstrative and Relative and compare Noun Agent Formative sect 4b (iii)comparealsoGALLADemonstrativeandRelativeandNounAgentFormative(α) Deictic Determinative (Prefix in BEDAUYE Suffix in SIDAMO and

SOMALI)

TheDeicticDeterminativeinBEDAUYEisveryfrequentlyusedandmaybesaid to correspond largely to the Definite Article in English It is prefixed toNouns(sect7b)Adjectives(sect7c)andPossessives(sectsect13ab)andformspartofthePersonalPronouns(sect8a)ItalsofunctionsasaRelative(seebelowsect8c)

uu-gawuu-batyuacuteuknayourhouse(you=FemPlhouse=MascSg)uacute-gawiacute-batiuknaoacuteo-sumwoo-aniibtikteacuteenadoyouknowmynamelitthe-namethe-myyou-know

oacute-simw-aacutenibtiacutektena

InSIDAMOitismainlyusedifitisnecessarytodistinguishtheGenderofaNoun It may be attached to Nouns Adjectives and Possessives and alsofunctionsasaRelativelabaacutea-hathemale meaacutea-tathefemaleanee-hu-hamine(Itallsquoilmiorsquo) anee-tamine(Itallsquolamiarsquo)

beetoo-tethegirl(beetochildofeithersex)

TheParticularizingDeterminatives are used to indicate lsquoa single individualrsquo(egofaspecies)lsquotheparticularhelliprsquo(inthePlurallsquoseveralsingleindividualsrsquo)

BILIN jaacuteugguubaboonjaugguacuteu-raaasinglebaboonjaugguacuteu-tseveralindividualbaboons

ganoacutePlganoacute-tskinganoacute-raaPlganoacute-t-aatindividualskin

SAHO adaacuteamPladaacuteamumpersonadaacuteam-toamanadaam-toacuteawomanadaacuteam-titsingleindividuals

NotethattheseSuffixesareusedtoformNounAgentsfromVerbStems(sect4b(iii))

SIDAMO woʃ-odogwoʃ-iccooneparticulardogfant-oservantfant-iccomaleservantfant-ittefemaleservanthakkothat(M)hakk-iccothatparticularonekarsquoatherekarsquo-iccorightthere

NotethatinKAMBATTA1theParticularizingDeterminative-cudenotestheMasculine theFemSuffixbeing added to itantabe-rsquou fowlsantabe-ccu thecockantabe-cu-tathehen

Cfzema-taaherdzema-ny-cuherdsmanIn GALLA the Particularizing Determinative is rare being used only with

specific persons and nationals

(ii)DemonstrativeInBEDAUYEBILINSAHOSIDAMOandGALLAtherearetwoDegrees

ofDemonstrative

The BEDAUYE lsquonearrsquo Demonstrative is closely related to the DeicticDeterminative

Demonstrativesmayprecedeor follow theNoun foremphasis theymaydoboth They can be conjugated for Predication (see sect 10)uun uu-tak aabu thismanwho-is

uu-takuunhadrsquoaabumanthissheikh-isuunuu-takuundaaybu(daiacutebu)thismanthisgood-isbaabuoon-umy-fatherthis-is

In the Genitive the Demonstrative is followed by -naa- (cf sect 7 c) and theGenitiveSuffix-yAoo-takoon-naa-ylsquoooretarsquoAbeatthismanrsquossonlitAthe-man (Acc) this-onersquos son he-beat

NotetheNomCaseSuffixtotheVerbinthelasttwoexamplesIn SOMALI the Determinative in Absolute form is used in Relative

constructionsCaseisshowninthelastwordofthephrase(ietheVerb)only

Seeexamplesundersect7d

9VerbConjugation9acAspectMoodTenseInmostlanguagesthereisadistinctionbetweenPerfect(Past)andImperfect

(Present) paradigms each with specific Affix series Besides these two maindivisionstherearenumerousotherparadigmsmdashOptative1DependentRelative2Participialampc eachwith itsownAffix seriesmdashwhichhavebeen regardedbysomeauthorities asAspects byothers asMoodsorTensesBILINapparentlyhas the greatest number and these can be grouped according to Suffixbehaviour in conjugation under either (or both) of the two main AspectheadingsNotethatthenumberofmembersmdashiedistinctPersonformsmdashinaparadigm

isanimportantclassifyingcriterion

SIDAMOParadigmshavefromfour1 to tenmembersThesimpleVerbformsof the Imperfect andPerfectAspects are used in dependent sentences only infinite sentences these forms are amplified by Suffixes2 which distinguishGenderinS1S2P1aswellasinS3Thusfromhun-exterminate

9dIndicators1

Indicators are an essential part of SOMALI Verb conjugation in that theyprecedetheVerbinfinitesentencesTheymaybedividedinto(i)waa2mdashwhichemphasizestheverbalaction

TheseIndicatorsarenotaffectedbytheNumberorGenderoftheNounsthatprecedethemthoughbaacoalesceswithStemsendinginashortvowel(aswellas with the Determinatives -ka and -ta)

9eAuxiliaryVerbconstructionsInBEDAUYEnotethefollowingtypesofAuxiliaryVerbconstruction

(iii)Doubleconjugation

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerbslsquotobersquoandlsquotohaversquo

BEDAUYEConjugationforPredicationThe Complement (Noun Adjective Pronoun ampc) is in the Accusative

conjugated for Person by a special set of Suffixes which are related to theDeicticDeterminative

InBEDAUYEthereareseveralverbslsquotobersquoClIlsquoan(Reinischonly)ClIkVy(irreg)lsquotobesomethingrsquoClIhVyfVylsquotobesituatedrsquo(irreg)

InBILINthereisaninvariableParticlegənwhichusuallycomesattheendof

asentenceSIDAMOJuxtaposition of Subject (NomCase) andComplement (withDeterminative

or Suffix -ti) is common

TheNegativeParticiple has an invariable Prefixbaa- and is conjugated bythePredicativeseriesofSuffixes(sect10)baa-diacuteir-unot-killing-I-am(ieImustnotshouldnotkill)NegativeRelative

In BILIN and AWIYA there are series of Negative lsquoTensesrsquo formed with

SuffixesInmostBILINNegativeTenses there is a suffixed element -g- thoughone

TensehasSuffix-laSeven-memberparadigms

In GALLA there is an invariable Indicator hin followed by various Verb

formsIn SOMALI the most common construction consists of the invariable

Indicator maacute followed by the Imperfect Dependent form in present time theunconjugated Verb Stem+-n -in or -nin in past time

ThereisnoSecondaryPerfectformintheNegativeTheIndicatormaacutecanbereplacedbyotherIndicatorswithSuffixndashn

InSAHOregularNegativeformsofthevariousVerbslsquotobersquoareusedatuacuteyaacutebbaamaa-kito-hoacuteAreyounotmyfatherlityoumyfathernot-you-are(-hoacute=ParticleofInterrogation)InGALLANegativeIdentificationorDescription-nigravetigraveisaddedtoalengthenedfinalvowel

VerbslsquotobersquoandlsquotohaversquoarenegativedlikeotherVerbswiththeNegativeIndicatorhin

InSOMALItheVerbslsquotobersquoandlsquotohaversquoarenegatived likeotherVerbswith Indicatormaacute or other Indicatorswith -n- except that there is noGender

differentiationinthe3rdPerson

AdjectivesarenotfollowedbytheVerblsquotobersquobuttakethesameSuffixesIamnotgood12WordOrder

The most common word order in the finite sentence is S+O+V though

O+S+V is sometimes used for emphasis (and in BEDAUYE even greaterfreedomisallowed)IneitherordertheSubjectisintheNominativetheObjectis the Accusative Case

IftheIndicatorisbaayaaorayaatheNounwhichprecedesitisinvariablyintheAccusativefurther if thisNounistheSubject theVerbisSingularandhasashortfinalvowelintheImperfectWithanyotherIndicatortheSubjectisintheNominativeandtheVerbisfully

conjugated (except in theOptative see sect 9b and theNegative Perfect (see sect11))Thuslsquothemenate(eat)somemeatrsquocanberendered


In BEDAUYE BILIN AWIYA SAHO and SIDAMO the most commonconstruction is Possessor+Possessed In GALLA and SOMALI the order isPossessed+Possessor

BEDAUYEThe Possessor is in theGenitiveCase (sect 7a) itmay precede or follow the

Possessed and its behaviour is that of Adjectives (sect 7c)

AWIYAHerethetwoconstructionsare

Possessor+PossessedbothintheAbsoluteform sycamore-root (Compound Noun) Possessor+-i-+Gen Case

ending+Possessed(Stemform)

SOMALIThemostcommonconstructionis

Possessed+PossessorinGenitiveCase

AlsoNounCompoundssuchas

WithDeterminative

CompoundNounstakeonlyoneDeterminative

Another construction is Possessor with Determinative+Possessed+PronounPossessor

13bPronounPossessorThereisconsiderablevarietyofconstructionsInBEDAUYE the Pronoun Possessormay precede or follow the Possessed

NounalternativelyaPossessiveSuffixmaybeused(seesect8a(iv))

InBILINthePossessiveisprefixedtothePossessedNoun(seep523)

InAWIYAtherearetwoconstructions

InSAHOthePronounPossessorprecedesthePossessedNounhiyaawa siniacute diacutek-il oacuteroban the people their (own) village-to returned In

SIDAMOtherearetwoconstructions

InGALLA thePossessor follows In 1st and 2ndPersons it is aPossessiveAdjective agreeing with the Possessed in Gender in the 3rd Person it is thePersonalPronounintheGenitiveCaseandthusshowsGenderofPossessornotofPossessedmdashseesect8a(iv)

14ConstructionswithQualifiersInBEDAUYEtheAdjectivemayprecedeorfollowtheNounIfitfollowsit

is subject to the same rules as in sect7aembadaacutea-b dauriacutei-b fenaacutea-t daucircrniacutei-thalaacutek dauriacutei-b ekuaacuteayt eacuteeya He took a good sword a good spear a goodsleeping-cloth and came lit sword good spear good sleeping-cloth goodtakinghecameIfitprecedesitisinvariableexceptfortheFeminineSuffix-tSeesectsect67cInBILINtheAdjectiveprecedestheNoununlessithas thelsquoAdjective-cum-

Genitiversquo form with Gender Suffix in which case it follows the Noun

InSAHOtheAdjective(describedbyReinischasalsquoParticiplersquoformedfromtheVerb)mayprecedeorfollowtheNounWhenitprecedesitisinvariableforGenderandNumberduluacuteshiyaawtifatmanduluacutesnumaaacutefatwomanWhenitfollowsittakestheRelativeSuffixes(sect8c(iii))hiyaawtidulus-tiacuteyaamanwhofatnumaacuteadulus-tyaacuteawomanwhofat

InSIDAMOallAdjectivesprecedeandareinflectedforGenderandNumber(see sect 6) but not for Casewajjo manc-o white manwajjo manc-i-ra to thewhitemanseeduilaalahighmountains(ltseedaseesect7a)Notealsohakkocrsquooethatthingtennesarsquoathiscowhittementithatwomanaymanc-iwhichmanma(y)crsquooewhatthing

AfterNumeralstheNounisSingular

mittomancoonemanſoolemancofourmenInGALLAallAdjectivesincludingNumeralsfollowtheNoun

ForNumberandGenderseesectsect5b6

InSOMALIAdjectives followbutNumeralsprecede theNounand the lastcomponentoftheNounGroupshowsCase

After Numerals the Noun is in the Genitive Singular unless it has a specific

PluralStem

32bOMETO

MORENOwhileusingthenameCUSHITICtoincludeall thelanguagestreatedhere in Section 32 points out1 the sharp cleavage between those languages inwhichtheS1PersonalPronounisanS2taandthoseinwhichS1istaS2neThelatter(hislsquoWesternCUSHITICrsquo)mdashJANJEROOMETOGIMIRAandKAFFAmdashhowever differ from the other CUSHITIC languages (those

consideredhereasfullyCUSHITIC)inseveralotherimportantrespectsItwillbeseenforinstancethattheconjugationoftheVerbinOMETOdiffersalmostentirely from that of CUSHITIC both in its system of Moods and AspectsAffirmativeandNegativeandintheconjugationAffixesforPersonTheselanguagesarethereforehereregardedaspartiallyCUSHITICOMETO

beingselectedasanexampleandtreatedseparatelysothatbothsimilaritiesanddivergenciesmaybemadeevidentSourceMMMorenoIntroduzioneallalinguaOmetoMilan1958AllexamplesareintheGOFAdialectunlessotherwisestated

1Phonetics1aVowels

Moreno records fivemain vowels i e a o u also ĭ ĕ ŭ auml and aring In hisexampleshoweveronlyfivevowelsymbolsareusedVowel length occurs but Moreno states that the length of vowels varies

accordingtopositionandstressandthatthereisconsiderableinconsistencyhethereforeindicateslengthonlywhereheconsidersittobesignificantDiphthongsendingini(y)andu(w)arecommon

1bConsonantsTheconsonantsystemisverylikethatofAMHARIC(thenearestCUSHITIC

consonantsystembeingthatofBILIN)

GeminationofaconsonantbeforeaSuffixisrecordedegutsitutt-iscauseto sit Moreno notes that short vowel+long consonant and long vowel+shortconsonantareofteninterchangeable1

2ToneandStressNothingisknownoftone

StressisrecordedbyMorenobuttheprinciplesgoverningitsoccurrencearenotknown

3WordShapeManyNounStemsconsistofCVCVerbStemsofCVCVCbutotherforms

alsooccur


TherearenoMorphologicalClassesofVerbsAfewDerivativeVerbsarerecordedmostlyformedbySuffixesCausative-s-is(-iʃ)2

4bcNounsandAdjectives

All Nouns end in long -a -e or -o but since length is variable andinconsistentasinglevoweliswrittenThe ending -o forms Nouns of various kinds from Verbs

OtherNounFormativeSuffixesare

Some Nouns and Adjectives end in -tsrsquoa with no discernible formative

functionAnAdjectiveFormativeisSuffixndashaama

TherearemanyAdjectivalVerbsbuttherearealsotrueAdjectives

5Number5aNouns

ThePluralisnotnormallyusedeg

heasa-yy-idosonathesemenhavecome(litthismanthey-have-come)namaasatwomen(littwoman)ThePluralSuffixes-anta-tahavehoweverbeenrecordedawaaw-antafather

ketsrsquoaketsrsquoa-tahousenarsquoanay-tachild

6GenderThere are two Genders in the Singular only Gender is not normally

distinguishedintheNounStembutnoteGender is distinguished in the Personal Pronouns and the Pronoun Subject

Affixes(S3only)(sectsect8a9)andperhapsintheDemonstrative((sect8c)

7CaseThe Absolute form of the Noun is the Accusative without Suffix The

Nominativewhichisnotalwaysusedhastheending-i(-y)There are also various Suffixes or Postpositions1 some of which show

correspondence with those in CUSHITIC languages

8Pronouns8aPersonal

HerethedivergencefromCUSHITICisnoticeableespeciallyinS1andS21ThePluralsarelessdivergentandcontaintheERYTHRAICPluralelementn(indashiv) As well as the Self-standing Pronouns there are special Subject and

Object forms Conjugation Suffixes vary for Person but also for Aspect andMood and will be found under sect 9 There are no Possessive Pronouns orAffixes the Self-standing Pronoun precedes the Possessed Noun (sect 13b)

8bInterrogative

Thefollowingarerecorded

8cDemonstrativeOnlyoneDemonstrativePronounoccursregularlyhaysa(WOLAMOhage)

AsecondDemonstrativewithGenderdistinctionisrecordedinWOLAMOMasc(h)annaFem(h)annoTheDemonstrativeAdjectivewhichprecedestheNounisheeorhaaJANJEROhastwoDemonstratives(h)annear(h)egfar

9VerbConjugationTherearethreeAspectsImperfectPerfectandSubjunctive-Imperativeand

threeMoodsDependent Indicative and Interrogative (twoMoodsonly in theNegativesect11)ThissystemthusdiffersentirelyfromthatofCUSHITICEachMoodofeachAspecthasitsownsetofSuffixeswhichindicateAspect

MoodandPerson Itwillbeseenfromtheparadigmsbelowthat thesesetsofSuffixes have certain characteristics throughout the Aspect or Mood eg theelementdcombinedwithafixedpatternofvowelsforPersonischaracteristicofthePerfectAspecttheelementuinS3FoftheIndicativeMoodTheonlyERYTHRAICfeatureisthe2ndPersonelementtbuthereitoccursonlyinthePlural1andnotinallMoods

TherearenoTensesbeyondtheabove

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerbslsquotobersquo10aZeroCopula isused inPredication theSubject is in theNominative theComplementintheAccusativeCasekawo-y(Nom)ita(Acc)(the)king(is)badilorsquoohe(is)goodtaa-ni(Nom)iya(Acc)I(am)he

10bThereisaVerbdersquoexistbesomewheretsrsquoosa-ydersquo-esGodexistskana-ytaa-sdersquo-esdogto-meis(Ihaveadog)

TheVerbgidbecomeiscitedinthefollowingNegativesentences(seesect11)lorsquoogid-ennagoodhe-becomes-not(heisnotgood)lorsquoogid-ennegoodhe-becomes-not(ishenotgood)

11NegationThe Negative is formed with conjugated Suffixes containing Gemination

Thereare threeAspectsas inPositiveTensesand twoMoods Indicativeand

InterrogativeThePerfectAspectappears tobeaCompound formed from theImperfectwithbersquo (significancenotknown)1ThevowelPattern forPerson inthePerfectAspectisthesameasthatinthePositiveandtheelementuoccursinS 3 F in the Indicative Mood as in the Positive

12WorkOrderWorkorder in thefinitesentenceisnormallyS+O+V2 throughO+S+Valso

occurs

13TheGenitiveConstructionWithNounorPronounPossessortheorderisPossessor+Possessedindirect

juxtaposition

14ConstructionswithQualifiersAllQualifiers(AdjectivesNumeralsDemonstrativesampc)precedetheNoun

itadorsquoabadanimal

32cGELEBA(MERILLEDATHANAIC)ISOLATEDUNIT

SourcesERShackletonTheMerilleorGelubba(cyclostyled1932)WFPKellyMSvocabulary(1942)

IN theabsenceof anyevidence to thecontrary andon thebasisof statementsandconjecturesbyvariousauthorities1thislanguagewastentativelyclassedasCUSHITIC in the Handbook Shackletonrsquos material however showsconclusively that it is not CUSHITIC grammatically butmust be regarded atpresentasanIsolatedUnitShackleton states that the speakers call themselves lsquoDATHANAICHrsquo or

lsquoDATHANIKrsquothevariousothernamesrecorded2beingthosegiventothembytheirneighboursTheorthographyusedhere is thatofShackletonwithout adaptation (except

fortheomissionofdiacriticsmdashseesect1a)

1Phonetics1aVowelsShackletonlistsanumberofvowels twovarietiesof i threeofe twoofa

fourofotwoofuThesearedistinguishedbydiacriticsinthefirstfewpagesofhisnotesbut intherestof thematerialfivevowelsymbolsonlyareusedandthediacriticsarethereforeomittedhereDiphthongsarestatedtooccurbutarenotdifferentiatedinthematerialfrom

juxtaposedvowelswhichalsooccurFinalvowelsarelsquofrequentlyomittedaltogetherrsquoorarelsquososubduedas tobe

extremelydifficulttorecognizersquoTheyarethusprobablysemi-muteThere is evidence of vowel harmony especially in the Aspect Suffixes of

Verbs(seesect9c)

1bConsonantsThefollowingconsonantsarerecordedbutnotdescribed

shstandsforintthprobablyforθ

ConsonantjunctionsoccurfrequentlyConsonant changes in Noun and Verb Stems (st tth ssh and rd) are

recorded inVerbs thesemaybedue toAblautsince theyareassociatedwith

certainAspectsandorPersons

2ToneandStressNoinformationavailable

3WordShapeIt would appear that many Verb Stems consist of V or VC but other

monosyllabic Stems (CV CVC) also occur as well as longer Stems NounStemsoftenconsistofCVCbutagainthereisconsiderablevariety


(i) There appear to be several Morphological Classes distinguished by theSuffixes of the Infinitive Imperative Singular Imperative Plural SubjunctiveDefiniteAspectandIndefiniteAspect1 (eachAspecthas twoformsaccordingto Person here called Def 1 Def 2 ampc See sect 9b) These MorphologicalClassesaresometimesalsodistinguishedbytheshapeoftheStembeforetheseSuffixesSix Classes have been tentatively established their main characteristics2

being

IStemusuallypolysyllabicendingin-isthe-s-alternatingwith-t-incertainformsSuffixesInfin-un-enDef2andIndef2containtInfinnyimis-unDef2nyimis-ute(cfDef1nyimit-e)deceive

IIStemmonosyllabicadditionof-Vt--Vth-incertainformsSuffixesInfinndashanDef2andIndef2vowelSuffixInfinf-anDef1fath-i2fat-idress

InallotherClassestheInfinSuffixis-in

IIIStemmostlymonosyllabicSuffixesImperSg-ishDef2andIndef2contain-ch-Infinmot-inImperSgmot-ishDef2mot-ichishake

IVStemmonosyllabicSuffixesImperSg-(V)kDef2andIndef2contain-y-Infinkan-inImperSgkan-akDef2kan-iyideter

V(a)StemconsistsoforendsinCaSuffixesImperSg-pDef2andIndef2contain-y-Infinka-inImperSgka-pDef2ka-iyihide

(b)StemconsistsofVfinIndefAspectVgVfwithvowelharmony

SuffixesImperSingzeroDef2andIndef2contain-y-Infinof-inImperSgofIndef1ogof-a2ogof-iyascrape

VIThisClassischaracterizedbythepresenceof-m-intheIndef1Suffix-n-intheIndef2SuffixOtherwisethereisconsiderablevarietysomeImperSghavingtheSuffixes-kor-pofClassesIVandV(a)otherszeroasinV(b)sporadicconsonantchangeintheStemisrecorded

(ii)ItisnotknownwhetherthereareToneClasses(iii)VerbalDerivativesACausativeStem-extendingSuffix-is-isrecorded1

arig-seearig-is-showkosol-laughkosol-is-amusedo-suckdo-s-suckle2

There are also several Particles (Prepositions or Prefixes) usedwithVerbssome of these correspond notionally toVerbalDerivative Formatives in otherlanguagesul-Reflexive-Reciprocalul-ginin-biteeachotherul-gieth-annoyeachotherka-Motiontowardsn-returnka-n-returnhitherka-fan-arriveka-j-falltowardsdu-Dative-Locative()minvelidu-bur-ewomanchildwept-for

ga-perhapsAppliedorPrepositionalbutoccursinmanycontextswherethemeaningisobscurega-ko-closega-b-unthreadSeealsosect15

ge-lsquoIntorsquoge-thaf-crawlintola-Nearnessse-gola-se-approacheyo-Movementhereandthereroundabouteyo-se-gohereandthere

4bNounsInmanycasesNounandVerbStemappeartobeidentical

5Number5aNounsThereareseveralSingularandPluralSuffixesThePlural formhowever is

notalwaysusedFour main types of SingularPlural formation can be distinguished but

whether thesecanbesaid toconstituteNounClasses isnotknownConsonantchangeintheStemoccurssporadically

5bAdjectivesdonotappeartoshowNumber

6GenderThereisnoevidenceofgrammaticalGender

7CaseAccordingtoShackletonthereisaGenitiveSuffix-ietwhichdoesnotseem

howevertobeusedwithallNounsSeesect13

8Pronouns8aPersonal(i ii iii) Subject and Object Pronouns (written by Shackleton as separate

words and not as Prefixes) are closely related to the Self-standing forms TheSubjectPronounsvaryslightlyaccordingtoAspect

(iv)ThePossessiveSuffixesdifferconsiderablyfromtheabove

8bInterrogativesTheonlyInterrogativesrecordedare

8cDemonstrativeTwodegreesofDistanceandtwoofReferencearerecorded

TheReferenceformsperhapscontainaRelativeelement

8dRelativeItispossiblethattheParticlegahasRelativeforce1itisusedinanumberof

contexts (seesect15) and thePrefix -gin-of theReferenceDemonstrativesmayperhapsbeconnectedwiththisParticle

9VerbConjugation

9a There appear to be three Aspects Definite or Complete Indefinite orIncomplete and Subjunctive (lsquoJussiversquo) These Aspects are distinguished bySuffixes sometimes also by consonant change in theVerb Stem (for the twoforms of Definite and Indefinite see sect 9b below) In the Indefinite AspectfurtherthereareotherchangesintheVerbSteminsomeVerbsReduplicationeg

9bConjugationforPersonTheSubjectformofthePersonalPronoun(sect8a(ii))precedestheVerbthere

aretwoslightlydifferingseriesofPronounSubjectsaccordingtoAspectPersonisalsoshownintheVerbsometimesintheStem(byconsonantchange)alwaysintheSuffixinthattherearetwoformsforeachAspectusedwithS1S3P3andS2P1P2respectivelyThereisthusakindofInterlockingPatternbutitdiffersfromtheInterlockingPatternsrecordedinotherlanguages1Examples from allVerbClasses The first example given under eachClass

maybeconsideredlsquotypicalrsquootherexamplesshowmoreorlessirregularity

Examples of the Subjunctive have been recorded with S 3 P 3 and P 1Subject(inthe2ndPersontheImperativeisused)S3andP3haveaPrefixi-P1aPrefixki-theStemandSuffixareconstantVerblsquotodeceiversquo(ClassI)

9cTensesShackletonnotesa lsquoConditionalrsquo formedbysuffixing -ga to theDefiniteor

Indefinite Aspect form He gives no example and further suggests that thislsquowould appear to be really a participlersquo and that it is also used lsquoto express arelativersquoHe also records a lsquoContingentrsquo Tense formed by suffixing -ga to the

Infinitive10Non-verbalPredicationandVerbslsquotobersquoandlsquotohaversquo

11Negation

11aVerbalNegationinbothAspectsappearstobeexpressedbyprefixingma-to theAspectStemswith the InfinitiveSuffixTheSubjectPronoun is thatofthe Definite Aspect Shackleton gives examples in S 1 only

12WordOrderWordorderinthefinitesentenceappearstobeS+O+Vminvelidu-bur-ewomanchildwept-for


14ConstructionwithQualifiersAdjectivesusedattributivelyfollowtheNounandarefollowedbyga(seesect

15)m-atiadeo-gaman-thatbad15Miscellaneous

TheParticlega1This Particle is very frequently used in a number of contexts (sometimes it

appears tobe realizedaska)The following isa summaryof itsusesmostofwhichhavealreadybeenreferredto(i) Prefix to Verbs perhaps with Prepositional or Applied Derivative

significance(sect4a(iii)(ii)With theDefinite Stem andSuffix -e apparently to expressRelative of

Time(iii)SuffixtoPersonalPronouns(EmphaticorDeterminative)

kun-kametabdotheasforyouwhatdoyouthink

(iv)WithAdjectivesusedattributively(sect14)(v)TheReferenceDemonstratives(sect8c)areperhapsbasedonga

1IncludingthosefeatureswhicharecommontoallERYTHRAIClanguages2HADENDOWAandAMARrsquoARdialects3ProbablyHALANGAdialect1ThissystemcloselyresemblesthatofAMHARICexceptthateandoarenotdiphthongizedəisvery

similartotheETHIOPICvowelNo6inthatitlsquohasalternativeexponentshalfclosecentralvowelandnilinthestem-finalsyllableonlyrsquo(Palmer)

2HudsondistinguishesbetweenalongvowelasinerasaboveandadoublevowelasinkaacuteamcamelReinischandRopermakenosuchdistinction

3AsalsoinOMETOseep5561IntermsoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociationInthepresentsectionhoweverAndrzejewskirsquos

symbolsareused2SincethedegreeofaspirationvariesaccordingtospeakeritisnotrepresentedhereGlottalizationis

representedbyfinal1Seealsovowelssect1aAspirationisnotwrittenhere2SeeArmstrongopcit3Somalitone-markingislsquotoneticrsquohereinAndrzejewskirsquospublicationsitislsquotonologicalrsquo1AsinAMHARIC2HislsquoaccentedrsquosyllablesandHudsonrsquoslsquoprominentrsquosyllablesdonothoweveralwayscoincide1CompareESAHARAN(especiallyTEDA-TUBU)where(a)VerbClassesaredistinguishedbythe

orderofthecomponentsoftheVerbComplex(thePluralelementalwaysbeingSuffixed)(b)ClassIwithSubjectPrefixesishistoricallytheoldest(c)ClassIIIVerbsareformedbysuffixingaconjugatedClassIIVerb(herensay)totheStemseep171SeealsoETHIOPICp606

2ielsquotriliteralrsquohenceconsideredasSEMITICloan-wordsbyReinisch1Since-i-isalwaysMid(seePalmerrsquos(II)and(IV))(iii)mayberegardedasbeingpartof(ii)1CftheformationofDerivativeVerbsinEASTSAHARAN(pp172ndash3)2-showeverintheVerbalNounformedfromtheCausative3CausativeshoweverisverywidespreadinAfricaCfZANDEEASTSAHARANandeven

BANTU4TheGALLAandSOMALIformsgivenhereareallSgImperatives1-dhoweverintheVerbalNounformedfromthePersonalDerivative1Cf-tiinTUBUpp174ndash5

1AcharacteristicofthelsquoTKlanguagesrsquoSeeIntroductionp222GerundrsquoaccordingtoRoper3CfNUBIANp3191Personalcommunication2PalmerconsiderstheseformstobemorecharacteristicofBILIN1CompareSEMITICmdashwherehoweverGenderissometimesdistinguishedbyaMascmFemn

opposition(p602)alsoBERBER(seeABassetLaLangueBerbegraverep31)2ComparetheImperfectandPerfectofSEMITICVerbs(p609)alsoBERBER(Bassetopcitp21)1TheinteractionoftERtandkdescribedonp25canbeseeninthistableMascc(SIDAMO

GALLA)lttMasck(SIDAMOGALLASOMALI)ltkFemtltERtandtSeealsosect8c(i)NotethatwhereasFemtoccursthroughouttheERYTHRAIClanguagesoppositionofMasckFemtispeculiartoCUSHITIC

1InKADUGLI-KRONGOandIRAQWasimilarphenomenonisfoundbutthreeGendersareinvolvedSeepp305576

1OtherwiseNomandAcchavezeroending1Notethefinalvowels-u-iprecedingthePostpositionandcompareGenitiveCaseabove1Cfna(Fem)=thing-naa-asusedaboveisneutral1TheVerbComplexbehaveshereasanAdjectiveSeealsoNUBIANp3201CfSEMITIC(Self-standingPronounsandSubjectAffıxes)pp602609alsoBERBER(seeBasset

opcitpp2131)2InAfricanSEMITICkortoccursinSelf-standingPronounskonlyinPronominalSuffixestonlyin

SubjectPrefixes(pp602609611)inBERBERkoccursintheSelf-StandingPronountinSubjectAffixes(Bassetloccit)TheseelementskandthavenoconnexionwiththetandkoftheTKlanguagesnorhaskanyconnexionwiththeVelarPluralelement

3CfSEMITIC(TIGRINYAAMHARICARGOBBAzinHARARI)p602BERBER(loccitp30)InthedialectsofBEDAUYEdescribedbyRoperandHudsonandapparentlyinmostmoderndialectssinthe3rdPersonisnowonlytobefoundinobliqueformsandthe3rdPersonSelf-standingformsarebaruacutebatuacutebaraacutebataacute

4CfSEMITICandBERBERThisformhoweverisnotexclusivetoERYTHRAICitoccursforinstanceinNILOTIC

5NormallywithsuffixedDeterminative(seesect8c(i))

1BothPalmerandTubianastatethatthereisnoseparateFeminineform2kaya-taya-ampcbeforeDeterminative3InSOMALICaseisshownbytoneincertaincontexts

1DefiniteArticlersquo(BellRoper)lsquoArtikelrsquo(Reinisch)lsquoArticolorsquo(Moreno)2CalledlsquoIndividualisrsquobyReinischlsquoSuffissodrsquounitagraversquoinSIDAMOlsquoformaindividuantersquoinGALLAby

Moreno(butlsquoDefiniteArticlersquobyHodsonandWalker)3SeealsoBryanlsquoTheTKLanguagesaNewSubstratumrsquoAfrica1959pp11ndash161LeslaulsquoNotesonKambattaofSouthernEthiopiarsquoAfrica19521lsquoOptativersquowouldseemtobeabettertermtouseherethanlsquoSubjunctiversquoasmanyconceptscoveredby

lsquoSubjunctiversquoinotherAfricanlanguagesfalloutsidethemorelimitedlsquoOptativersquocategoryinCUSHITIClanguages

2CfTUBUp188NUBIANp3253SeveninClassIb1NoteAccusativeending-saSeesect72Optativein3rdPersononlyOtherwiseusedinDependentImperfectsentencesmdashasabove1OurClassI=PalmerrsquosClass(V)withToneClasses(a)(b)and(d)1Reinischrsquos-uxisequivalenttoPalmerrsquos-aumlxwbothhearmuchvelarizationinthissyllable2PalmerrsquosClasses(IIIIIIIV)and(VI)areallsubdivisionsofourClassIIPalmerrsquosClass(V)=our

ClassIseesect4a(i)1The-i-ofthe2ndPersonisusuallyMidtonehowever1Tonalcriteriamightwellincreasethisnumber2NotethepresenceofMasc-oFem-aintheseSuffixes1TermfirstusedbyBellandadoptedbyAndrzejewskiWhiteleyusesthetermlsquoSelectorsrsquoforsimilar

ParticlesinIRAQW(seep583)2waausuallyprecedestheVerbthoughitmayalternativelyfollowtheheadwordinthesentence1dahayaftermad9wandqad2Notefinalconsonantchangebeforefollowingvowel1CfAMHARIC(p611)alsoMABA(p204)KUNAMA(p346)andBARYA(p334)1WithtransferenceofDeicticDeterminativeCfHudson

2-bbecausesaacuterisMasc1AccordingtoTubiana(personalcommunication)theSuffix-i-wderivesfromanAdjective-forming

Suffix-yeɣwrelatedto-awiofAMHARIC1ManualediSidamopp286ndash71CfSIDAMOp4962CfCUSHITICp504andGELEBAp5633CfCUSHITICp5054CfCUSHITICp5051ConsideredasPostpositionsbyMoreno1TheelementstinS1ninS2arealsofoundinEastSAHARANp1791ButcfPARANILOTICp4651ButcomparebaainBEDAUYEp5342CfCUSHITICmdashbutthiswordorderisverywidespread1egCerulliandMoreno2SeeHandbookp1301MorphologicalVerbclassesaccordingtoTenseSuffixesoccurintheMABAGroupandinFURpp

1952202ItisimpossibletopursueeachfeaturethroughalltheClassesforreasonsofspaceThereforeonlythe

salientcharacteristicsofeachClassaregivenhereafulltablewillbefoundonp5661OneofthefewCUSHITICfeaturesButseefootnote3onp5042ButtheClassIVerbswithStemsendingin-is-arenotnecessarilyCausative1ATKcharacteristic2NotetheoccurrenceofkinalltheformsofS2ThisisafeatureofERYTHRAIClanguagesandalso

occursinIRAQW(p578)InthePluraltheERYTHRAIC2ndPersontoccursSeep6023mu=person4gal=people1NotethatParticlesing-occurinRelativeconstructionsinBONGO-BAGIRMI(p74)ZANDE(p

150)MABA(p202)RASHAD(p295)BARYA(p332)andUDUK(p362)1SeeIntroductionp151Seefootnotetop565

33THEAFRICANSEMITICLANGUAGES

SeeSupplementbyWolfLeslau

34THEIRAQWGROUP1

SourcesWHWhiteleyAShortDescriptionofItemCategoriesinIraqw(withMaterialonGorowaAlagwaandBurunge)(1958)mdashmdashStudiesinIraqw(1953)

mdashmdashlsquoTheVerbalRadicalinIraqwrsquoAfrLanguageStudies11960andpersonalcommunicationMissFroumlydisNordbustadpersonalcommunicationMGuthriefieldnotesonIRAQW(MS)

ALLexamplesarefromIRAQWunlessotherwisestatedGOROWAresemblesIRAQWsocloselythatitisnotdealtwithhere

1Phonetics1aVowelsThereisabalancedsystemoffivefairlyopenshortandfivesomewhatcloser

long vowelsThere is also a central vowel auml (short only)which appears to bephonemicatleastinsomewordsoumlhasbeenrecordedinafewinstances

ThevowelsiauaredominantinStemstheyaretheonlyvowelsoccurring

inSelectors(seesect9d)LongvowelsarefrequentTheyhaveonlyonetonevalueNotethatwhentwo

shortvowelscometogetheraglottalstopisinsertedbetweenthemAlongvowelintheStemissometimesrealizedasshortwhenthereisalong

vowel in the Suffix (see sect 4a (iii)) gwegraveeacuter open gwegraveegraveriacuteiacutet be open (State)gwegravediacuteiacutetbeopening(Action)Diphthongs ending in -i and -u occur they are written ay aw ampc by

WhiteleyandthisspellingisretainedhereLikelongvowelstheyhaveonlyonetonevalueIn some words short vowels lightly pronounced have been recorded as

alternativestoaglottalstopbetweenconsonants

Finalvowelsaresometimessemi-muteinBURUNGEFullVowelHarmonyhasbeenrecordedin2ndPersonSuffixesoftheVerbin

ALAGWAandBURUNGEALAGWAaharis-ityougivea tunduk-utyoucookBURUNGEhahadis-idayougive

1bConsonantsLabialAlveolarPost-alveolarLateralPalatalVelarUvularPharyngalGlottal

ImplosiveƥandɓarerareandalmostalwaysoccurinStem2oftheVerb(sect9)(ƥinfinalpositionɓinmedialpositioninrelationtow)1andrareseparatephonemesThepharyngalplosiveʕ ispronouncedfurtherback than theARABICʕ in

somecasesitseemstobeprecededbyaglottalstoporbyacentralvowel1

Labializedkqandxoccurinvariouspositionsincludingfinal

AsoundrecordedbyWhiteleyasŋw(ŋ+semi-muteworlabializedŋ)butbyothersasnasalizedwoccursfinallyinIRAQWitcorrespondstowintheotherlanguagesdaacuteŋwelephant(ALAGWAandBURUNGEdaw)

ts (with ejection) in IRAQW corresponds to tint (with some ejection) inALAGWAandBURUNGEtseacuteegraveregraveblood(ALAGWAtinteereBURUNGEtinteede)intappearstoalternatewithsdaacuteyintacircmogravedaacuteysacircmogravesnakeNasalcompoundsotherthanŋgarenotcommonNoteforexamplekitacircragravebed(ltSWAHILIkitanda)Consonantcombinationsandjunctionsarecommon

2ToneandStressTone and Stress appear to be complementary and are intimately connected

withwordpatterntherebeingtwomainpatternsinoperation

PossessivesandDemonstrativeshaveHighTonemost(butnotall)Selectors(sect9d)haveLowToneLexical Tone is thus virtually absent andWhiteley records only one tonal

doubletwithinonegrammaticalcategoryɬocircrogravefroth(BasicTone)ɬograveroacutemantis(SecondaryTone)Ifdifferentgrammaticalcategoriesarecomparedhowevertonaldoubletsare

frequent bagraveragrave Subject Selector Group B Conditional (if Ihellip you hellip) seeTablep585baacuteraacuteLocativePreposition(lsquoinrsquo)3WordShapeThe most common Verb Stems are CVC CVCVC (with long or short

vowels)thoughothershapesalsooccurNounStemsvaryconsiderablybutCVCappearstobetheprevalentshape

4StructuralElements4aVerbs(i) It would appear that Verbs can be divided into Morphological Classes

accordingtotwodifferentcriteria(α)ChoiceofSelector(seesect9d)andSuffixesin Imperative These are here termed Selector Classes and numbered withRomannumerals(szlig) Shape and inflexions of Stem These are here termed StemClasses and

indicatedbylettersAandB(α)SelectorClasses(examplesfromIRAQWonly)1

(szlig)StemClasses(forshapesofSteminfullseesect9only theVerbendingsaregivenhere for IRAQWALAGWA(AL)andBURUNGE(BU))ALastvowellonginStem1

(ii)SinceallVerbshavefixedtonepatternstherearenoToneClasses(iii) Derivative Verbs are formed by Suffixes The following have been

recordedCausative-VVs3wagraveragraveagraveħaacuteaacutescausetopassagravewegraveegraver-iacuteiacutescausetodescendProgressive-VVm(mostoften-iacuteiacutem-uacuteuacutem)NotusedinPastTensesagravetegraveegravet-iacuteiacutembecallingtlagravex-uacuteuacutembeengagedinbuyingProgressive-Stative (someoverlap inmeaningwith theabove) -VVt (often -

iacuteiacutet)fograveoacuteldigfogravel-iacuteiacutetbeinthestateoractofdiggingRepeated or continuous action is expressed in many different ways all

involving some kind of reduplication The following types are of frequent

occurrenceNote thatall theseendingsarefoundwithVerbswhichhavenocorrespondingSimpleformeghugraveugraveriacuteiacutemcook(cfhuacuteuacuter-ucircsmograveNounAgent)

4bNounsSome of the Singular and Plural Suffixes (sect 5a) also function as Noun

Formatives(forGenderseesect6)therearealsootherNounFormatives

SomeNounsderivedfromVerbshaveaSuffix-ay

The Verbal NounmdashInfinitivemdashGerund is formed in a number of differentways the rules for which are not at present understood

4cAdjectivesNoAdjectiveFormativeshavebeenrecorded

5Number5aNounsSingular and Plural are usually distinguished by Suffixes In a few cases

SingularandPluralSuffixesareregularlypairedwithpredictableGender(seesect

6a)TheSuffix -(i)too (ii) appears to beSingular only (perhaps aSingulative)1

the Plural has zero or vowel Suffix

TheSuffix-tuisSingular(tribalnames)2PluralnoSuffixTheSuffixes-mo-amo-imo-omo(i)appeartobeSingularonlythePlural

variesTheSuffixes-u -eema-eemi -eemoand-du(iii)appear tobePluralonly

Other Suffixesmay be either Singular or Plural (andGender is not usuallypredictable) though -a and -i are more often Singular -e and -ay Plural

AsomewhatsimilarstateofaffairsexistsinALAGWAandBURUNGEbut

inadditionPluralbyreduplicationoffinalconsonant+-uoccurs1

5bAdjectivesAPluralSuffix-enhasbeenrecordedwithsomeAdjectives

Other examples of Singular-Plural distinction occur but no rules can bededuced from them

SomeAdjectivesappeartobeinvariableforNumberbutitispossiblethatthePluralformshavenotyetbeendiscoveredeg

5cPronouns2Avelar Plural element (g) occurs in the Self-standing Pronoun 2nd Person

(MascandFem)(sect8a(i))Note that the element k is associated with Gender iii which though not

exclusivelyPluralcontainsthehighestpercentageofPluralNouns(seesect6b)PronominalPluralityisshowntoacertainextentintheSelector(sect9d)

5dVerbsPluralSubjectisshownbySuffixeswhichalsoindicatePerson(sect9)3

6GenderandGenderAgreement6aNounsThreeGendershavebeenestablishedTheallocationofanyNountoaGender

doesnotappearonthewholetohaveanycloseconnexionwithmeaningshapeofNounorNumberThusmanyNounsare inoneGender in theSingularandanotherinthePlural1TheGendersareherenumberediiiiiiwhatconnexionthere is between Gender and sex can be seen from the examples below thefollowing facts should however be noted Gender i includes Singular maleanimatesGenderiiincludesSingularfemaleanimatesGenderiiicontainsthehighestpercentageofPluralNounsSeealsoGenderagreement

GenderiPropernamesofmalepersonsNounswithSuffix-usmo(SingularmaleNounAgentsmdashseesect4b)NounsdenotingSingularmaleanimates

MostSingularNounsendingin-mo(animateorinanimate)

MostSingularNounsendingin-ŋaw(animateorinanimate)

VerbalNounsfromClassIVerbs

Many Singular Nouns whose Gender cannot be deduced from eithermeaningorshape

ManyPluralNounsendingin-ay

ManyPluralNounswhoseGendercannotbededucedfromeithermeaningorshape micircgigraver firewood sheep (a number of these appear to belsquoCollectivesrsquo)A fewNounsbelong toa sub-Gender (ib)withcertaindifferentGenderagreementsSeesect8cGenderiiPropernamesoffemalepersonsNounswithSuffix-oo(SingularfemaleNounAgentsmdashseesect4b)ManyNounsdenotingSingularfemaleanimates

SomeNounsendingin-too(perhapsSingulativemdashseesect5a)

VerbalNounsfromClassIIVerbs

ManySingularNounswhoseGendercannotbededucedfromeithermeaningorshapeNounswithSuffix-usee(PluralNounAgentsofeithersex)

ManyPluralNounswhoseGendercannotbededucedfromeithermeaningorshapeA few Nouns belong to a sub-Gender (iib) with certain different Gender

agreementsSeesect8c

GenderiiiA few Singular Nouns whose Gender cannot be deduced from eithermeaningorshapePluralNounsendingin-eeri

ManyotherPluralNounsincludingthoseendingin-duandsomeendingin-ay (but see Gender i)

6bGenderagreementGenderagreementisshowninanumberofways(i)Byconsonantelements (Gender iwork ii randor t iiizeroandk)1 in

JunctionDemonstrativeandDeterminative(sect8c)andSelf-standingPossessive(sect8a(iv))(SeealsolsquoRelativersquosect8d)(ii)Byvowelelements(Genderiuiiaiii i) inPassiveSelectorandSubject-ObjectSelector (distinguishingGenderofObject)(sect9d)(iii) By choice of Subject Selector in some Tenses (Genders i and ii are

identicalGenderiiisometimesdiffers)(sect9d)(iv)ByVerbStemGendersi(andS3M)andiii(andP3)Stem3Gender

ii(andS3F)Stem22(sect9ab)(v)ByToneinAdjectives(GendersiandiiilasttonehighmdashSecondaryTone

PatternGenderiilasttonelowmdashBasicTonePattern)(sect2)NotealsothatinStatusconstructussomeNounsinGenderiandPluralNouns

inGenderiiiareinflectedforshape(sect7)

6cPronounsIntheSelf-standingPronounsGenderisdistinguishedinthe2ndPersononly

inbothSingularandPlural(SingularonlyinALAGWAandBURUNGE)Thereare twoGendersonlydistinguishedbyvowelelements (MascuFem i)andthere is no Gender agreement Personal Pronoun Gender thus appears to betotallyunrelatedtoNominalGender

7Case7aNounsarenotnormallyinflectedforCasebutWhiteleyrecordsoccasionalexamplesofinflexionofNounObject7bStatusconstructusBeforeAdjectivesPossessivesandPossessorNounsNounsareinflectedin

Tone1andorShapeNouns of all Genders are inflected in Tone the tone pattern in the Status

constructusbeingtheSecondaryTonepattern(seesect2)Some Nouns in Gender i and Plural Nouns in Gender iii are inflected in

ShapeInflexionispredictable2

FurtherNounsinStatusconstructusmaybefollowedbyaParticlecalledbyWhiteley lsquoJunctionrsquo This consists of a consonant related to the nearDemonstrative (sect 8c) and showing Gender agreement This Particle may be

DeterminativeinfunctionSeesect8cTheexistenceofseparateseriesofSelectorswhichindicatebothSubjectand

Object(anddistinguishGenderofObject)isdealtwithundersect9d


Notetheelementkin2ndPersonSingularandPlural3SeealsoGendersect6c(ii iii)Subject andObject of theVerb are expressed in theSelector (sect9d)

thoughtheSelf-standingPronounmayprecedetheVerbasSubjectorasObject(replacing the Selector)

ForadditionalemphasisitmaybeusedaswellastheSelector(iv)ThePossessiveswhichfollowthePossessedare

Self-standing Possessives with Gender agreement have been recorded

(SingularPersonsonly)inIRAQW8bInterrogativesMost Interrogative concepts (how why what) are expressed in the

Selectorsofsub-GroupD(sect9d)8cJunctionDeterminativeandDemonstrative(i)TheParticlecalledlsquoJunctionrsquobyWhiteleywhichstandsbetweenaNoun

inStatus constructus (sect7) and a followingAdjectivePossessiveorPossessor

Noun distinguishes Gender

The Junction is sometimes found outside the Status constructus especiallybetween a Noun and Demonstrative

NotealsotheoccurrenceoftheJunctionin

ThefunctionofthisParticlecorrespondstothatoftheDeterminativeinsomeotherlanguages1(ii) Whiteley further records a Particle perhaps Determinative which

howeverappearstobeusedwithnospecialsignificance

Itoftenoccursafternominaloradverbialwordsdenotingtime(iii)FourDemonstrativesarerecordedinIRAQWtwoonlyhavebeenfound

inALAGWAandBURUNGEThenearDemonstrativedistinguishesGenderinall languages in BURUNGE also the far Demonstrative In the ReferenceDemonstrative there is vowel variation for Gender apparently optional

Self-standingDemonstrativesarealsorecordedinIRAQW

8dRelativeMostRelativeconceptsareexpressedintheSelectorsofsub-GroupA(sect9d)

A Particle which Whiteley tentatively calls a Relative has however beenrecorded It is variable for Gender but does not bear any relationship to theDeterminative-Demonstrative

8eReflexiveThewordkigraveiacute (meaningunknown) followedby thePossessive is usedwith

the Passive Selector to express the Reflexive

9VerbConjugation(CombinedBlockandInterlockingPatternseep16)9a

bAswill be seen (sect9d)MoodVoiceTenseampc aswell asPerson are allexpressed in the Selector Person andGender are however also indicated byinflexionoftheverbStemandthereareSuffixesindicatingPersoninthePlural

TheStemhasthreeforms(Stems1and3areidenticalinsomeVerbs)andtheshapeandinflexionoftheStemperhapsdistinguishesMorphologicalClassesofVerbs (see sect 4a (i)) These Stems are used as follows

Theparadigmsgivenbelowaregroupedaccording toStemClass (sect4a (i))These Stems should be combined with the appropriate Selectors (sect 9d) 3rdPerson andNounSubject Selectors varying according to theSelectorClass oftheVerb

WhiteleydoesnotgivefullparadigmsofALAGWAandBURUNGEVerbsbutatableofSteminflexionsforcomparisonwithIRAQW

The regular occurrence of -t -d in Stem 2 (ie 2nd Person 3rd Person SgFemandGenderii)shouldbenotedInIRAQWthefinalconsonantistordinStem2insomeVerbs4

9b(ii)ImperativeTheImperativewithoutObject(orwithimplied3rdPersonObject)is

Note that the Suffix unlike the Plural Suffix in conjugation does not formpartoftheVerbComplexasregardsToneAsecond Imperativedenotes lsquoMotion towardsrsquo inClass IVerbs1stPerson

Object in Class II Verbs

Note that the Suffix here does form part of the Verb Complex as regardsToneThissameformwithchangeofTonedenotes1stPersonlsquoIndirectObjectrsquoin

ClassIIVerbsInALAGWAandBURUNGEonlyonetypeofImperativehasbeenrecorded

9cTensesTensesareinthemaindistinguishedbySelectorandbyoccasionalvariation

inthe2ndand3rdPersonPluralSuffixesSomeTenses are however inflected forTone havingSecondary insteadof

BasicTonePattern(sect2)RelativeofTimePresentTense(SelectorB4)nigravewagrave foacuteligraveigravet while I am digging (contr nigravewagrave foacuteligraveigravet while I was digging)

RelativewithObjectPresentTense(SelectorB1a)hegraveegrave tagraveaacutetegravet themanyouarecalling(contrhegraveegrave tagraveagraveteacutet themanyoucalled)

(NotethattheSelectoragreeswiththeSubject(2ndPresSg)butthechoiceof Selector Group shows that a Relative Object is indicated in the clause)MostPassiveTenses

9dSelectorsOneof theoutstandingcharacteristicsof theIRAQWGroupis theexistence

of the Particles called by Whiteley Selectors1 The Selector is a separableParticle which precedes the Verb Stem this Particle performs most of thefunctionsusuallyassociatedwiththeVerborVerbComplexinotherlanguages(ItisnothoweveranAuxiliaryVerb)TheSelectormayindicateatoneandthesametimePersonGenderNumber(inalimitedsenseonly)VerbClassTenseMood Voice and even such things as Motion towards speaker (normallyexpressed in aDerivativeVerb in other languages) Further the SelectormayalsoindicatetheSubjectofanObject-RelativephrasetheSubjectofaRelativeof Time or Manner phrase and various types of Interrogative also acombinationofPronominalSubjectandObject2Selectors are here grouped into Series on the basis of the shape of the 1st

Person Singular Selector with the following scatter

Within these Series Selectors are further sub-grouped as follows withhowever limitedscatter (seeTablesbelow)A1stPersonSelectorwith initialnasal(norŋ)

(a)ObjectRelative(twoTenses)(b)RelativeofManner(twoTenses)(c)RelativeofTime(d)Narrative(e)Subjunctive

B1stPersonSelectorwithinitialbConditionali(lsquoEvenifhelliprsquo)

iiDependentC1stPersonSelectorwithinitialtConcessional(lsquoEventhoughhelliprsquo)(twoTenses)D1stPersonSelectorwithinitialm

(a)Interrogative(lsquoWhatrsquo)(twoTenses)(b)Interrogative(lsquoWhyrsquo)(twoTenses)(c)Interrogative(lsquoWhyrsquo)(twoTenses)(d)Interrogative(lsquoHowrsquo)(twoTenses)(e)NegativeSubjunctive

ENegativeImperative(withinitialm)F1stPersonSelectorwithinitialvowel

lsquoAppliedrsquo(onlyafewexamplesavailable)NotalltheseGroupsandsub-groupsofSelectorsarefoundinanyoneSeries

thusGroupEandperhapsGroupFoccurintheSubject-ObjectSelectorSeriesonly1ThefollowingtablesshowtheSelectorssofarrecordedbyWhiteleyThe Selectormay differ according toMorphological Verb Class (sect 4a (i))

WherethisisthecasetheSelectorsforClassesIandIIareseparatedbyastrokeSince Selectors do not normally indicate Number only the Persons and

Gendersarenumberedontheleftofthetablesasfollows11stPersonSingularorPlural22ndPersonSingularorPlural3(i)3rdPersonSingularMasculineGenderi(SingularorPlural)(ii)3rdPersonSingularFeminineGenderii(SingularorPlural)(iii)3rdPersonPluralGenderiii(SingularorPlural)4MultipleSubjectorNarrativePlural

ExamplestagravenagravehograveoacutettheylivedMultipleSubjectPastTenseVerbClassIigravenagraveaacuteyhewent3rdPersSubject(GendershownbyshapeofVerbStem)Past

TenseVerbClassIigravenagraveeacuteeacutershewent(GendershownbyshapeofVerbStem)gaacute gagravegaacuter he carries (a load) 3rd Pers Subject (Gender shown by shape of

VerbStem)PresentTenseVerbClassII

Examplesigravewagravew tlwhen she returnedhellip3rdPersSubj (Gender shownby shapeof

Stem)RelativeofTimePast(TenseshownbytoneofStem)VerbClassIkagraverigraveaacuter(and)theysawMultipleSubjectNarrativeTenseVerbClassIINotethat thelsquoObjectRelativersquoSelectoragreesinPersonorGenderwiththe

SubjectoftheVerbbutindicatesthattheSubjectoftheClauseistheObjectoftheVerbhegraveegravetagraveagraveteacutetthemanyoucalled2ndPersSubject(SgNumberownbyabsenceofPluralSuffixtoStem)PastTense(BasictonepatterninStem)hegraveegravetagraveaacutetegravetthemanyouarecalling(SecondarytonepatterninStem)gagrave r tagrave bagravebagravew-aacuten legraveegrave the thing which we call lsquocowrsquo 1st Pers Pl Subject

(NumbershownbyPluralSuffixtoStemPersonalsoshownbychoiceofStem1) Present Tense (Tense shown by tone of Stem)

Exampleskuacuteŋ bagraveragrave dagraveqeacuteeacuter maacutetlograve igravenoacutes ugrave aacuten If you go tomorrow you will see him

bagraveragrave2nd Person Subject (Person shown by choice of Stem 2 of Verb)DependentConditionalTensetagravemagravehagraverdagraveh-iacuteugravegwagraveagraverigraveigravek EventhoughIcameIdidnrsquotseehim1stPersonSubject(NumbershownbyabsenceofPluralSuffixtoStemPersonbychoiceofStem1)ConcessionalPastTense(Tense isalsoshown by Suffix -i to Stem)

ExamplesmagravesagravenegraveegravehuacutetWhyhaveyoubecomethin2ndPersSubject(Personshown

by choice of Stem 2 of Verb) Interrogative lsquoWhyrsquo Past Tense magravegagravehagraverdagraveqagravew-aacutenWhydidwego 1stPersPlSubject (Person shownby choiceofStem1NumberbyPluralSuffixtoStem)InterrogativelsquoWhyrsquoPastTense(The distinction of meaning between Interrogative forms (b) and (c) is not

known)magravekagravewagravetlegraveeacuteħ theyarenottodo(anything)MultiplePluralSubjectClassIIVerb

SUBJECTSELECTORSlsquoMOTIONTOWARDSrsquoSERIES

The Conditional Selectors in this Series are semi-invariable for Person andGender the Interrogative and Neg Subjunctive Selectors are invariable

Examplesticircmnagrave hagraverdagraveh-iacute hellip even though I came hellip 1st Pers Sg Subject (Person

shown by choice of Stem1Number by absence of Pl Suffıx)ConcessionalPastticircmnagravehagraverdagravet-iacutehellipeventhoughyoucamehellip2ndPersSgSubject(PersonshownbychoiceofStem2)

Sub-GroupD

(a) lsquoWhatrsquo Pres migravendigrave Past migravendagrave (b) lsquoWhyrsquo Pres migravendigravehagraver Pastmigravendagravehagraver(d)lsquoHowrsquoPresmigravendigraverPastmigravendigraveragrave(e)NegSubjmigravendigravemigraveŋgigraveExamplesmigravendigraveragravehigraveigravemiacuteiacutetHowdidhewalk(here)migravendigravehagraverhagraverdaacutetWhydidshecome

SUBJECTSELECTORSPASSIVESERIES

NotethatthereappearstobenoMultipleSubjectSelectorinthisSeriesbutthereisaseparate2ndPersonPluralSelector

NotetheassociationofthevowelsuaiwithGendersiiiiiihere(seesect6)ExamplesfuacuteucircnagraveykiacutenaacutehaacuteyogravehnegraveseacuteegraveagraveythemeatwastakenbythedogkiacutenaacuteGenderiii

Past Tense diacuteigraveragraveŋwkwaacute icirclagrave gagraveagraves lit lion has been eye killed kwaacuteGender iCompletedActionTenseNotethattheVerbhasSecondarytonepatternhere

SUBJECT-OBJECTSELECTORS

In these tables the numbers on the left indicate the Person Number andGenderoftheObjectmdashNumberbeingdistinguishedin1stand2ndPersonsThePerson of theSubject (withoutNumber orGender distinction) is shown at theheadofeachcolumn

Examplestigrave ogravehigraveiacuten he (will) catch us 1st Pers Pl Object+3rd Pers Subject Present

TensegugravenagraveagravebegraveeacutershecalledhimGenderiObject+3rdPersSubject(GenderofSubjectshownbychoiceofStem2)PastTenseagraveteacutenkugraveŋgaacutenugravenagraveagraver-aacutenwesawyou(Plur)2ndPersPlObject+1stPersSubject(NumberofSubjectshownbyPlural Suffix to Stem) Past Tense

Examplesgugraverigrave tsagravexaacuteaacuter andhehit himGender iObject+3rdPersSubject (Genderof

SubjectshownbychoiceofStemI)NarrativeTenseacircyogravegagravermaacutewoacutesŋugravewagraveagravenhellipwhenthemothersawhersonhellip(litmotherson

herewhen-shesaw)ŋugravewagrave3rdPersSubject+GenderiObjectRelativeofTime(PastTenseshownbySecondarytonepatternonStem)

ExamplebugraveragravelegraveegravelegraveegraveћittsacirctagraveyugraveaacutenIfyoulookfortheknifeyou(will)seeitbugraveragrave(or

bugraverugraveŋgagrave) Gender i Object+2nd Pers Subject Dependent Conditional Tense

]Examplesmagravegagravehagraver gagraveaacutes Why did I kill her Gender ii Object+1st Pers Subject

Interrogative(b)mugraveiacuteiacutesagraverDonrsquothelphimGenderiObjectNegImperative(withSecondary

tonepatternonVerb)The only examples recorded in Sub-Group F (lsquoAppliedrsquo) are in the Present

Tensewith3rdPersonSubjectIt ispossible that thereexistsawholerangeofTensesampc and the lsquoAppliedrsquoSelectorsmayevenprove toconstituteanothercompleteSeriesdivisibleintoSub-GroupsIn ALAGWA and BURUNGE only the following Selectors have been

recordedSubjectSelectorsSimpleSeries

Sub-GroupBDependentConditionalInvariablebegraveregrave Invariablebigraverigrave

Sub-GroupDInterrogativelsquoWhatrsquoInvariablemigrave Invariablemagravelaacute

Object Selectors (apparently not varying according to Subject)

10Non-verbalPredicationandVerblsquohaversquo10aIdentityisexpressedbyaCopulaorinvariableSelectoragraveagraveniacuteŋagravehegraveegraveIamamanagraveteacutenagravemugravewearepeopleExistenceinaplaceisexpressedbyigravebagravebuacuteeacuteeacuteigravebaacuteracircqacircymogravefathermyisinfieldtsicircrrsquoigravegaacutewaacutedogravebirdisonhouseWith Adjectives used predicatively the Passive Selector Present Tense is

usedxaacuteacircnogravekuacutetlegraveeacutertreeistalllocircrsquoigravekaacuteqȃntsagraverleafisgreen10bPossessionisexpressedbyaVerblsquotohavepossessrsquokograveoacutemkograveoacutenkoacuten(ClA)11Negation11aVerbal(i)ANegativeSuffix -Vk withprecedingLowtone isused inallMoods

Tensesampcgaacutegagravegagraver-agravek hedoesnotcarry(ii)TheNegativeImperativewithanObjectisformedwithaSelectorofSub-

GroupE(seesect9d)theStemhasSufEx-agraverPl-agraver-agraveWhenthereisnoObjectmaprecedestheStemmaacutedacircqagravew-agraverInALAGWAtheNegativeImperativeis

SgStem+SufEx-afollowedbyb iztseacuteeacuteg-agraveb lDonrsquotshutPlmagraveregravemagraveprecedingStem+Suffix-Vtemagraveregravemagravetseacuteeacuteg-icirctegraveDonrsquotshut

11bNon-VerbalVk followsthewordnegatedhiacuteigravekwagraveeacuteeacuteagravekugravekaacuteegraveegravek litcowsmyarethesenothegraveegravewiacutekuacuteuacuteregraveegravek manthis

isbignot12WordOrderThe normal word order in the finite sentence is S+O+Subject-Object

Selector+VWhenaSubjectSelectorisusedwithaNounObjectitprecedestheObjectbut

thisconstructionisnotcommoniacutedogravegwegravediiacutethehouseunfastens

NotethattheSelectormaybewidelyseparatedfromtheVerbbuttheVerbisalways final in thesentence igravenoacutes igravenagravehigraveigravekwaacuteoacutesagrave1tigraveigraveiŋweacuteeacuter she (Pronoun)she (SubjectSelectorPastTense) cowsher after running (VerbalNoun)went(shewentrunningafterhercows)WithPronounSubject theSelf-standingPronoun is only used for emphasis

(as in the above example) the normal construction being O+Selector+Vmaacutesoacuteogravembagrave kagraverigrave aacuter youths and-they (Narrative Tense Multiple Subject) saw(andtheysawtheyouths)13TheGenitiveConstruction13aNounPossessorThe order is always Possessed+Possessor The Possessed Noun may be in

StatusconstructusandtheJunctionoftenfollowsit(seesect7)

13bPronounPossessorTheconstructionisidenticalwiththatwithNounPossessor

14ConstructionswithQualifiersAdjectives and Numerals follow the Noun which may be in Status

constructusandbefollowedbytheJunction(sect7)TheToneofAdjectivesandNumerals 1ndash7 varies according to Gender

Demonstratives(sect8c)followtheNounwhichisnotinStatusconstructusbutmaybefollowedbytheJunction(sect7)

15MiscellaneousTheParticlesaacuteragraverr(agrave)TheseParticlesoccurasfollows

(β) agraver Preposition toVerb (considered byWhiteley as aDerivative Prefix)

withsimilarmeaning(γ)r(agrave)1ParticlestandingbetweenSelectorandVerbwiththesamemeaning

as (α) but used when the Noun has already been mentioned

WhethertheSuffix-agravereacuteofthesecondImperative(sect9)canbeanalysedintondashagraver-eacuteisopentoquestionAnalysisofanIRAQWsentence

WhenSibodarsquoscowshadincreasedandhehadbornechildrenherememberedhisparents

1ClassedbyGreenbergasCUSHITICItistruethatcertainERYTHRAICfeaturesaretobefoundbutnotenoughtojustifyitsinclusioninSection32(aandb)here

1Thissoundfrequentlypermeatesthepronunciationofthewholewordproducingwhatsomeobservershavecalledlsquoasicksoundrsquo(WhiteleyStudiesinIraqwp3)

1Longvowelshaveonlyonetonevaluealthoughforthesakeofconsistencyeachvowelletterisgivenatonemarkheretheselongvowelsarenottoberegardedasdisyllabic

1AccordingtoMissNordbustadtheSelectorisgaifthereisanObjectinmindotherwisei2VowelinharmonywiththatofStem3CfCUSHITICp5041SingulativeSuffixintischaracteristicoftheTKlanguagesmdashseeIntroductionp222ATKcharacteristic1ReduplicationoffinalconsonantisfoundinCUSHITIC(p509)andinBERBERalsoinHAUSA2ThevelarPluralelementsgandkcharacteristicoftheNKlanguages(seep23)occuronly

occasionallyhere3WhethertheSuffix-aninP1isrelatedtotheERYTHRAICP1elementnortotheERYTHRAIC

PronominalPluralelementnisnotcertain(seepp602609)1AsimilarphenomenonoccursinthethreeGendersofKADUGLI-KRONGO(p305)cfalsoPolarity

inSOMALI(p513)1TheoccurrenceofkinGenderitinGenderiiisreminiscentoftheuseofkandtinCUSHITIC(p

511seealsoIntroductionp22n)2TheoccurrenceoftheelementtinsomeVerbsinStem2isreminiscentoftheERYTHRAICFeminine

elementt(Seesect9andnote)1FinalsyllablehighbeforeAdjectivesandPossessiveNounsunaffectedbeforePossessiveand2AccordingtoMissNordbustad

3AnERYTHRAICfeatureSeep520andnote21EgDAJU(p238)NILOTIC(p421)2Alternativetohiacuteigravekwagraveyiacuteigravekwagravegiveninsect6a1Notethat2ndPersSgand3rdSgFemhavethesameStemSeenoteonInterlockingPatternonp162-daafteranasal-einPastTenses3-aafteranasaloray-eafternasalorayinPastTenses4ComparetheERYTHRAIC2ndPersonelementtandtheERYTHRAICFeminineelementt1CftheIndicatorsofSOMALIp5412SubjectandObjectarecombinedinPrefixesinMABA(p201)TESOandMAASAI(p471)and

KUNAMA(p341)1ForNegativeImperativewithoutObjectseesect111WhiteleyalsorecordsSubject-ObjectSelectorswithinitialkinthisTenseperhapsindicating3rd

Person(andGendersiiiiii)ObjectwithMultipleSubject2WhiteleyalsorecordsSelectorswithinitialkinthisTenseasinthePastTense(qv)therearealso

alternativeformswithinitialŋ1ThisrmustnotbeconfusedwiththeGenderiiJunctionr

35MBUGU

MBUGU is listed as BANTOID in the Handbook in that it has a largeIRAQWvocabularyandaBANTUgrammaticalsystemcompletewithBANTUNounClassesandconcordialagreementsAgrammaticalanalysisofMBUGUhasalreadyappearedinLinguisticSurvey

oftheNorthernBantuBorderlandvolivpp72ndash74

36SANYE

Nogrammaticaldataavailable1

1Vocabularymaterialgivenonp89ofLNSBBvolivderivedfromEDammannlsquoEinigeNotizenuumlberdieSprachederSanye(Kenya)rsquoZEingebSpr1950

SUPPLEMENT

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ETHIOPIC LANGUAGEGROUPOFSEMITICLANGUAGES

ByWLESLAU

12VocabularyModern ETHIOPIC languages contain a fairly large number of Roots

unknowninotherSEMITIClanguagesManyofthesenodoubthaveSEMITICetymologies which are not easily traced on account of the extensive phoneticchange that has occurred in some of themodernETHIOPIC languagesOtherRootsaretakenfromtheCUSHITIClanguages

INDEXI

LANGUAGESANDPERSONS

ACCADIAN594ACOLI(ACHOLI)7402ndash42472nACOLI-LANGO5402ndash42447nAdakunI443ADHOLA406407AFITTI243244248249252AFRICANSEMITICI520n570seeETHIOPICAFROASIATIC2seeERYTHRAICAGAR408AGAU101618495ndash555AglenEF356AIMASA336342AKA3639AkolJWL443AkotJB402ALAGWA570ndash91ALUR404406407411n416434AMADIseeMAAMARrsquoAR495n

seealsoBEDAUYEAMHARIC329n334n346n496n500n520n549n551n555557593ndash613AMIRA276287288ANCIENTEGYPTIANIAumlNDRI42n51AndrzejewskiBW24n495497andn499n541nARABIC198276n358510571595605610nArberHA444ARGOBBA520n593ndash613ArkellAJ319ArmbrusterCH313320326nArmstrongLE495499nASUA27ndash58ASUA-AKA39557AWIYA495ndash555AyikAJY402AYMELLEL593AyomG402AyoubAR313315

BAGIRMI247111659ndash83163n164ndash6167n202n295n332nBAI899192BAKA29n59ndash83140n162n

BAKO1392BANDA1944n85ndash107145n161164ndash6BANDA-GBAYA-NGBANDI8485ndash107BANGANDO89BANGBA878999100nBANTU11110n113n142n143n144n150n153n156n270n274n436n442n457504nBARAMBU141ndash60BARAMBU-PAMBIA113n141ndash60164ndash6BAREA1seeBARYABARI8111418235n763443ndash94BARI-LOTUHO13BARKA336337BarrLI27BarthH59BARYA(BAREA)12474n150n202n295n329ndash35346n362n549n565n611nBassetA510n520nBAYGO237BeatonAC219ndash29BEDAUYE(BEDAWIYEBEJA)114171n172n174n296n315n495ndash555560n606nBeechMWH444457andnrsquoBELI59n64nBellCRV525n541nBENAADIR528BERBER116n510n520n575nBERTA348ndash51BIDEYAT168180BILIN91314n18188n290n315n319n325n334n346n495ndash555611nBINGA7073

seealsoYULU-BINGABIRGID(BIRKED)319BOA161seeBUABONGO59ndash83BONGO-BAGIRMI21121232431n35n37n41n44n45n46n58n59ndash8391n109n150n164

andn183n235n362n565nBOR(DINKA)402ndash42BOR(LWO)406BroadbentP206211BryanMA22andn206213n356n370525nBUA84161ndash6BUGURU142nBULALA60707273BULDIIT360366BURAKA89BurnsSJ356357358362BURUNGE571ndash88BUSHMAN1nBUSHMAN-HADZA1BUSO161BVIRI86n8789909192

CarringtonJ108andn110114115119125CerulliE348ndash51561nCHADO-HAMITIC178n180nCHAHA593ndash613ChalmelCapt168CIITA360361366CLASSLANGUAGES108ndash40270ndash88CohenM2nColLaAmoleker402CorfieldFD356367CrazzolaraJP7andn27402andn403n404nCUSHITIC11314161922n2325171n172n173n208n320n443495ndash555555ndash61561ndash9

602n612613

DAI161164ndash7DAIR320DAJU22232469n167n231ndash42244n255n273n415n451n452n463n580nDAJU(Darfur)237238239DAJU(WKordofan)237DammannE592nDATHANAICDATHANIK561seeGELEBADaviesR193ndash203DAZA165ndash92deBoeckLB108ndash38DEBRI313321322deDampierreE141DelafosseM4n5960n677577788083DidaB495DIDINGA1123206210n213n370ndash91464nDIDINGA-MURLE2224213n216n249n258n370ndash91415n447n488nDILLING313316318319320324DINKA571516182123238n402ndash42DINKA-NUER224n402ndash42DokeCM7151nlsquoDONGO95n108ndash40164ndash6DONGOLADONGOLESE313ndash28

seealsoNUBIANDribergJH370372385Dyson-HudsonR392393n399

EASTSAHARAN1020168ndash92208n294n299325n337n454n501n504andn558n606nEacuteboueacuteF86EFE831

seealsoMANGBUTU-EFEELIRI274275ENDEGENY593ENNEMOR593595604605611ERENGA206211ERYTHRAIC1216n25andn290n359n443495n510511n520andn558559564n570n575n

577n578n581n

ETHIOPIC116171n329n496andn501n593ndash613EZHA593604

FADICCA15313ndash28seealsoNUBIAN

ForsbergMI356FUR1021222324195n197n202n211n219ndash30266n276n340n562n

GadenH5960n62GAFAT593ndash613GalaalMHI495GALLA24825447n495ndash555GANDA143n442nGANZA356357360368GaradAJ495Gaudefroy-DeraombynesM161GBAYA7n858689164ndash6

seealsoBANDA-GBAYA-NGBANDIGBAYAKAKA86ndash106GErsquoEZ593ndash613GELEBA(DATHANAICMERILLE)152174n151n195n198n202n220n295n332n362n495556

561ndash9GIMIRA495555Giuseppe-FermodaCastelnuovodelZappa(GF)336341342343346GodanaJG495GOFA555seeOMETOGOGOT593611GoreEC141151n153Gorowa570GreenbergJ1n284n161164n570nGULE1355GURAGE593ndash613GuthrieM570GWAMA356359GYETO593

HackettPE227ndash508586108141HADENDOWA495n

seealsoBEDAUYEHADZA1nHALANGA495n

seealsoBEDAUYEHallaireJandRobinneJ59HAMITIC2443HAMITO-SEMITIC12seeERYTHRAICHandbook1222161167270329n356416443andn495561HARARI520n593ndash613HAUSA575nHeastyJA402HEBREW605

HEIBAN271274275282HENRICKSENAW444480nHilberthJ85HildersJHandLawranceJCD4n444445nHodsonAWandWalkerCH525nHollisAC444449456n457472n475nHudsonRA495496501505516520n521n522nHuntingfordGWB329n402444456andn457472n475n

INGASSANA352seeTABIInternationalPhoneticAssociation(IPA)36497Iraqw1314151618212223n24201n305n341n467n471n513n541n564n570ndash91

JakeyoED402JamaSA495Janjero495555557558JIKANY407nseeNUERJIRRU253seeTEMEIN

KADARU313ndash28KADUGLI300301305306307311KADUGLI-KRONGO11131722andn2473n269n271n272n274n298n300ndash12467n513576nKAFFA495555KAKWA443446448466KALENJIN1351011121725239n443ndash94KAMBATTA526KAMDANG301311KANGA300306307KANURI46n168ndash92KARA5963646566697073KARIMOJONG392443445n448494KASHIRDA168seeTUBUKassachonEP443KATCHA1773n300ndash12KATLA224n255n262ndash9298n299312nKEIGA300ndash11KELIKO41KellyWFP561568KENGA636769707274KiggenJ402KinaniJ402KIPSIGIS(KIPSIKIS)443450451452464474485491KitchingAL444457KOALIB273280282286KOALIB-MORO(K-M)24110n222n233n244n245n246n247n270ndash88289n299301n451n

452n457484nKOALIB-TAGOI11270KohnenB402KOKE161164ndash6KOMA356ndash69394n483n

KONDJARA219seeFURKONY475nKREDA168169179

seealsoTUBUKRESH59ndash83KRONGO300ndash12

seealsoKADUGLI-KRONGOKUNAMA161920171n201n211n223n334n336ndash47450n471n478n549n583n611n

LAFOFA270ndash88299nLagaeCR141LANGBASE90LANGO(LWO)402ndash42LARO(K-M)272275LarochetteT727ndash50153LawiriLB27LeCœurCandM168170172n188LekensP8586andn8788LENDU727ndash58LepsiusCR313LESE827ndash58LeslauW1526n593LibanS495LIGURI231236237238241LINGALA156nListerFS352ndash5LOGO27ndash58LONGARIM370ndash91LOTUHO(LOTUKO)712245n273n443ndash94LSNBB122785108115141161164n592LualYW402LUGBARA27ndash58LukasJ59ndash82161168ndash89193ndash205206216LUO(Kenya)15andn21402ndash42LWO402LWONorthern402ndash42LWOSouthern498n119n149n154n365n402ndash42444n483nLythRE370381382383385

MA(AMADI)13108ndash40145n146n164ndash6MAASAI111213141636n201n239n347365n412n443ndash94583nMABA162471n74n150n193ndash205220n220n224n248n295n332n334n340n346n362n

471n549n562n565n611nMacDiarmidPAandDN237n253270277288289MacmichaelHA168237nMArsquoDI1327ndash58MAHAS313ndash28MAKERE27MalandraA402MALUAL(MALWAL)170172n188402

MAMVU1927ndash58MANA161164ndash6MANGBETU71112202127ndash5886n88n113n143n162n491nMANGBETU-MEJE27ndash58MANGBUTU27ndash58MANGBUTU-EFE27ndash58MANJA89MARARIT15206MARDA345MASAKIN23270ndash88299MASALIT193196ndash203MASKrsquoAN593604611MAYOGO85ndash106154nMBA11131436n40n44n8489n93n100n104n105n108ndash40145n147n149n155n159n

163nMBACLASSLANGUAGES108ndash40164274n457MBAIseeSARAMBAIMBANJA86ndash107MrsquoBariH141MBUGU1270n592MeinhofC219269289313MEJE27ndash58

seealsoMANGBETU-MEJEMEMBI31MERILLEseeGELEBAMIDOB24313ndash27MILTU161MIMI1193MIRI300301306307310311MIZA27ndash58

seealsoMORUMolinaroL27MONZOMBO89MOREB270299MorenoMM495496500514525n547n555556557n561nMORO275282

seealsoKOALIB-MOROMOROKODO63656871727578MortierR8586MORU45911152027ndash5892n149n402MORU-MArsquoDI10141927ndash58596170n74131n141n163n183n417nMORU-MANGBETU11212427ndash58606467n68n7173n7883nMpaayeiJT443MUHER593604611MumfordFJ444456nMUNDU85ndash106164ndash6167MUNDU-MAYOGO91MUNDU-NGBAKAMArsquoBO162n167nMuratoriC7444448MurdockGP2

Murle15370ndash91seealsoDIDINGA-MURLE

MVUrsquoBA31

NANDI1513256n443ndash94NANDI-KIPSIGIS443ndash94

seealsoKALENJINNDO53NDOGO1687ndash106146nNDOGO-SERE282n85ndash101NDUNGU15108ndash40145n158n164ndash6NebelPA402Newbold318NGBAKA8586NGBAKAGBAYA1687ndash106161nNGBAKAMArsquoBO44n87ndash106149n161164ndash6167NGBANDI36n85ndash107125n145n161162n164ndash6

seealsoBANDA-GBAYA-NGBANDINGBAYA7nNGBUGU8590NgrsquoelecheiCB443NgrsquoenyALA443NIELIM161ndash6NIGER-CONGO84n161164nNILO-HAMITIC1443456nseePARANILOTICNILOTIC478122442n46n95n143n183n238n248n367n402ndash42443444n446447n450

451n459520n580nNILOTICNorthern4NJALGULGULE231236237238241NordbustadF570573n578nNUBAHILLAMOUNTAINS27237nNUBIAN91415188n290n313ndash28507n519n530nNUBIANHILL924313315316319321322324NUBIANNILE313ndash28NUER47402ndash42NUEREastern407n

seealsoJIKANYNYANJA436nNYIMANG24213n233n243ndash52273n276n280n371n451n452nNZAKARA44n92n141ndash59222

ŊIRεRε274275ŊUGWURAŋ275

ObelJ402OdaG27OdongoTOkelo402OKErsquoBU3132414248505256nOMETO179n465n495496n555ndash61OmoloI402

OpioNE402OTORO271ndash88

PADANG402408PAumlKOT(POKOT)15817443ndash94PalmerFR495502andn503505507508512514523n527528537nPAMBIA141ndash60PARANILOTIC1451112131719222425173n210n231n233n244n248n256n257n273n

337n340n350n374n376n389n395n402405n407n415n437n443ndash94559nPOKOT1seePAumlKOTPYGMIESseeAKAASUAEFE

RASHAD74n150n180n202n270289ndash99315n332n362n565nReidheadP348ndash51352ndash5ReinischL329333495496andn500501512516521525n526527537n554nREK402408435439RiberoP8586nRIKABIYYAH348ndash51

seealsoBERTARoperEM495496andn501507n508516520n525n

SABINY(SAPINY)475nSAHO172n495ndash555SAHO-AFAR495ndash555SamarinW7nSANDAWE-HOTTENTOT1SantandreaS25964n8586n231236n237nSANYE1592SARA59ndash83SARA(Delafosse)757677788083SARAMAJINGAY59nSARAMBAI21759ndash83164165166307nSARWA161SavageGAR402SEBEIseeSAPINYSeligmanBZ277352353354SELTI593594600601605611SEMITIC1501andn510n511n520n593ndash613SERE85ndash106164ndash6

seealsoNDOGO-SERESERE-MUNDU172132n44n8488105123n128n137n143n155n159n164ndash6SeroneyMJ443ShackletonER561564567568SHATT(DAJU)231ndash42ShawA402406nSHILLUK518402ndash42459SHONA7nSIDAMO25495ndash555556SILA232ndash42SODDO593600611

SOMALI23578131825305n443467n495ndash555576n583nSOMRAI1161164ndash6167SpagnoloLM444StevensonRC259ndash83161164n167168193195206208216217231243252n253258

259263264269andn270273274n289299300301303311n312n313314336356SUK444seePAumlKOTSumGK443SUNGOR206256n395n462nSURI370379380381SWAHILI572

TKLanguages1122ndash25174n198n208n209210andn234n245n255andn256303317n319330n331n375376n395443457n461462andn507n525n564n574n

TABI1524352ndash5TAGOI289ndash99

seealsoTEGALI-TAGOITALODI271274275TALODI-MASAKIN(T-M)24222n246n270ndash88289n299301nTAMA1518192224206ndash18223n249n340n371n376n382n385nTATOG449TEDA(TUDA)168ndash92TEDA-TUBU168ndash92294n299501nTEGALI269n270289291293299312nTEGALI-TAGOI(T-T)24180n270271n289ndash99TEMEIN2224210n234n248n253ndash61264n319n395n462n465nTEPETH2223n210n256n361n392ndash401462nTESO48121317201n286n347416443ndash94583nTEUSO392ndash401ThomasJMC85TIGRE593ndash613TIGRINYA16520n593ndash613TIMA263ndash9TIRA273275280284285287TisserantC85TOGBO86ndash106TOPOSA443448TowettTA443TrengaG193ndash205TrudingerR402TubianaJ495508523nTUBU168ndash92454n506n530n

seealsoTEDA-TUBUTUCKERAN24n27andn3359ndash8185108141143n370383384402405n408n414n443TUCKERANandBryanMA1n443457nTUCKERANandMpaayeiJT443459TUDAseeTEDATULISHI300301TUMALE270292293296297299TUMMA300TUMTUM300

TUNYA(TUNIA)161ndash6TURKANA443445n448486493

UDUK813182174n150n202n295n332n356ndash68436n565n

VekensA2735nVerriS352353354

WestphalEOJ1WhiteleyWH541n570571andn578579580581583584587n591WOLAMO558WOLANE593601605611WoodburnJ1n

YANGELE89YULU63646970164ndash6YULU-BINGA59656673

ZAGHAWA168ndash90ZANDE45789101432n44n6274n8486n88n89n91n93n96n98n99n100n104n

105n114n118n119n123n128n132n137n141ndash59162n164ndash6167n202n295n332n362n402565n

ZULU7n151nZWAY593594595600601605611ZyhlarzE219221222227230

INDEXII

LINGUISTIC

Hereithasbeenfoundconvenienttoindexthematerialbyparagraphaswellas(sometimesinsteadof)bypageTheitemsarethereforesetoutaccordingtothefollowingrubricforthemostpartFirstlythepagereferenceintheIntroductionSecondlytheappropriateparagraphnumberfollowedbythepagesinwhichitoccurs(wheretheseare

toonumerousforconvenientindexingthetermpassimisusedinstead)ThirdlyotherpagereferencesconsideredimportantTheSupplementonEthiopicLanguagesisarrangedonadifferentsystemofparagraphingreferencesto

itareprecededbythetermSupInadditionthereisageneralReferenceTableindicatingforeachSectionofthebookthepagesonwhich

therelevantparagraphsaretobefoundThisReferenceTableisnotapplicabletoSections8(Somrai)10(Mimi)25(Gule)28(Bako)wheregrammaticalmaterialislackingnortotheSupplement(seeabove)

AblativeCase14sect7179200211247514also248523

Ablaut5sect1a405496sect1b562

AbsoluteCase14sect7320376378468ndash9514ndash17518557also511521

AbstractNounsect4b138n176234245264274276292318330Sup597ndash8

Accent500seeStressAccusativeCase14

sect7passimalso212248281316326379453472498528ndash9Sup594600seealsoObject

ActiveVoice1118sect9239363ndash5424ndash7430also418434ndash5

ActualImplicationsect9477480481ndash2also485487

Adjectival-GenitivalseeGenitival-AdjectivalAdjectivalVerb121922n2488100263267277278286288299305ndash6349354359366

367368395396400460464ndash5484493507545557Adjective12ndash131416172122n24

sectsect4c5b1014passimAdjectivewithVerbalbehaviour6879154241268277286288299304310312351432see

alsoAdjectivalVerbAdjutativeSup607608AdverbAdverbialConstructions1697122202248258282320322374382397398423see

alsoConjugatedAdverbsAffirmative485andn487andnlsquoAfricaAlphabetrsquo6Agent(PassiveVerb)1824302363ndash4367369424437ndash8453AgreementseeGenderAgreementAlliterativeConcordsect6278n279

also281288AnaptycticConsonant8

sect1b63337345357also309360n361362363ndash4368

AnaptycticVowel5sect1a231313356358392404496also358Sup596609seealsoEuphonicVowel

AnimalGender14sect6114ndash15146147148nalso116118

AnimateInanimatedistinctionAnimateGender131416sect6114ndash15

AnimatePluralsect5a89146Antecedent128n423AoristAspect323seePastPerfectAoristTensesect9171184187188332343344

also171ndash3184ndash6345382383385Apodosis344398ApplicativeAspect18

sect9363ndash5424426ndash7also366434ndash5

ApplicativeDerivativeVerb10sect4aiii453also446476n

ApplicativeVoice18sect9239ndash40also233

AppliedDerivativeVerbsect4aiii173andn244273394563also175568

AppliedSelectorsect9d583588Article456n466n525andn

Supsect3600ndash1seealsoDefiniteArticleIndefiniteArticleArticle(-like)Prefix121321

sect4b35ndash3638113nsect135657seealsoGenderPrefix

Aspect1617ndash1819sect9passimalso117144227232ndash3244ndash5272ndash3281287302321371ndash3562564

Aspectnumberedratherthannamedsect9150152154also272281

AspectStemsect9244248ndash9250382also244371ndash3

AspectSuffixsect9282ndash4also272ndash3371ndash3

Aspiratedconsonantsect1b499AspiratedvowelAspirationsect1a402n497andnAssimilationconsonant7

sect1b3063169170171176194219314317319320329337357393499also176191235n260317319331333334439527Supsect17597also607608

Assimilationtone14sect286408499

Assimilationvowelsect1a61193219370also43

AssociativeCaseAssociationsect7199341558AssociativeDerivativeVerbsect4aiii234255273504AssociativePluralsect5a277AttributiveGenderAgreementsect6304ndash6

also307310312Augmentative274AuxiliaryVerb(Aux)1820

sect9passimalso5470123281284386ndash9418488Sup609610611seealsoNegativeAuxiliary

Backunroundedvowelsect1a85BasicformofNounseePrimaryFormBilabialroll6

sect1b2963140andnBiliteralRoot290BiradicalVerbSupsect63606BlockPattern5

sect8a41167179180182n211248321341342353378sect947

BreathyVoice4sect1a402ndash5402n404nsect1b406seealsoHollowVoice

Case12142021sect7passimSupsect24600also594601

CaseinVerb14316320326519CategoryseeVowelCategoryCategoryChangeShift5

sect1a405446447498also457461463477482

CategoryHarmony5sect1a29108110n446497also451ndash2457461

CausativeDerivativeVerb10sect4aiii3566109173ndash4173n196197208221234245264273291315ndash16330410ndash11

453ndash4454n504andn556andn563andnSup607ndash8

CharacteristicVowel334446CircumstanceSup610andn611ClassseeMorphologicalClassNounClassToneClassCohortativeTensesect9532Collective12

sect5a178235304461463509510576also183407

CombinedBlockandInterlockingPattern16seealsoPronounsandVerbConjugationinCushiticandEthiopic

ComitativeCasesect7514CommonGender13

sect6277also279280seealsoNeuterGender

ComparativeDerivativeVerbsect4aiii273302Complementsect12131157485488543ndash5559

Supsect3601ndash2ComplementofPossessionSupsect32601CompleteAspectseeDefiniteAspectCompletedActionSelectorsect9d584586587CompleteActionTensesect9251309356384CompletenessDerivativeVerbsect4aiii410CompoundDescriptiveVerbSupsect66606

also594CompoundNoun1220

sect4b221412sect1382102ndash3132157192242251261268287298311346351367491550ndash2568also7493416Sup598

CompoundNoun+Verbsect1382103367ndash8CompoundVerb11

sect4a197216317338344394553ConativeSup605ConcordseeNounClassConcordGenderAgreementConcessionalSelectorsect9d583585586588ConditionalAspectsect9530533ndash4535542ConditionalSelectorsect9d583585586588ConditionalTensesect9126188203216251324333344398567ConjugatedAdjective543ConjugatedAdverbial24417442ConjugatedGerund18n

Sup611ConjugatedNoun543ConjugatedParticiple544ConjugatedParticle110ConjugatedPreposition127ConjugatedPronoun543ConjugatedSuffix123126ndash7130ConjugationAffixesseeConjugationforPersonConjugationforPerson18

sect9bpassim

Conjunction442524Sup612

ConjunctiveTensesect9184188also171

Consonant6ndash8sect1bpassimSup595

ConsonantAssimilationseeAssimilationConsonantConsonantchange8175184186ndash7189207213232ndash3237n327372ndash3406ndash8508562564565Consonantclosure8

sect1b499seeFinalClosureConsonantclusterscombinationsjunctionssect1b63169219314357371393448562572

Supsect11596ConstructStateseeStatusConstructusContingentTensesect9567ContinuativeDerivativeVerbsect4aiii303ContinuousAspect17

sect9477479480ndash2also485

ContinuousDerivativeVerbsect4aiii373451seeFrequentativeContinuousParticipialTensessect9344345ContinuousTensesect9188189240365384427

also191seealsoProgressiveContraction7Contractiontonesect2408Contractionvowelsect1a28Copula18

sect10passimSupsect51603also594

Copula-likeCopularParticlessect1079154157240CreakyVoiceseeHardVoice

Darkconsonant7sect1b30

DativeCase14sect7179200247515518558also248

DativeDerivativeVerb10sect4aiii244254273302410411451453563

DefiniteArticle12n457466n525andnSup600601

DefiniteAspect16sect9passim

DefiniteForm12n456nseeSecondaryForm

DefiniteGenitivesect13490ndash1492Degreesofdistance(Demonstrative)17

sect8cpassimDeicticDeterminative16

sect8c183525ndash6543also516ndash18527550andn552

Sup600Demonstrative121316ndash172124

sect8cpassimalso40278andn279294305ndash6340349483491Supsect42602seealsoPositionalPostureReferenceTimeDemonstrative

DemonstrativeandorDeterminativeusedasRelative1745122150202239282307473476525ndash6529ndash30

DenominativeAdjective(Derived)sect4c177also178441

DenominativeDerivativeVerb10sect4aiii174505556

DentalAlveolardistinctioninconsonants7sect1b271300393405

DependentAspect17sect9295ndash6530532andn535539540

DependentSentence542seealsoSubordinateClauseDependentGenitive247ndash8DependentMood17

sect9249ndash50258ndash9476ndash7478480ndash1482559also417485487

DependentTensesect9282ndash3439DerivativeElements172ndash4175177184454andnDerivativeVerb10ndash11

sect4aiiipassimalso171248ndash9286299408447594Supsect7606ndash9

DerivativeVerbvaryingaccordingtoAspect233244273451nDerivativeVerbvaryingaccordingtoMorphologicalClass173ndash4DerivativeVerbvaryingaccordingtoTense451DerivedAdjectiveseeDenominativeAdjectiveDescription(Predication)19

sect10passimDesiderativeTensesect9385Determinative161724

sect8cpassimalso74175192199242498516ndash18551552553Sup598600

DeterminativeFormofNounsect8c421ndash2also418423438441seealsoDeicticDeterminativeParticularizingDeterminative

Deverbative10seeDerivativeVerbDiminutiveFormativesect4b37245318Diminutive-GeneralGender13

sect6466467Diphthong4

sect1apassimDirectComplementSupsect33601ndash2DirectionalDerivativeVerbsect4aiii109234255273316358seealsoMotionawayMotiontoDirectiveCasesect7514Dissimilationconsonant7

sect1b170313314499

Dissimilationtone170172177Dissimilationvowelsect1a61370447570Dissimilationvowellength457569DoublingofconsonantsseeGeminationLengthDownStep9

sect2a143n408Dual(Nouns)12

Sup599600Dual(Pronouns)1618

sect8a91280336339340341342343Dual-Inclusivesect8a418419n431nDualObjectSubject250251340DurativeTensesect9332

Elisionconsonant7sect1b30169170175194232also258370

Elisionvowel7sect1a28168193219339356445508509also65697477497

EmphasizingPronoun17sect8e457493123183476also43seealsoReciprocalReflexive

EmphaticconsonantSup593EmphaticDemonstrativesect8c473ndash4EmphaticTensesect9c251EuphonicvowelSup596609

seeAnaptycticvowelExclusiveInclusivedistinction1618

sect8a4291237280281321341342360ndash1380396418ndash20469520ExistencePredication19

sect10passimExistenceVerbofSupsect52603ExternalPluralSup593599

FactitiveSup606607ndash8FeminineGender1314

sect6passimSup593594598ndash9

Feminineelementt25511andn520581nSup593598

FesterEinsatz8Finalclosure499500509513Five-pointarticulationsect1b271289n299405447nFlappedlabio-dental7

sect1b296386Form9FormativeElementsAdjectivesect4cpassimFormativeElementsNounsect4bpassimFormativeElementsVerbsect4apassim

Four-pointarticulationsect1b231271n289299405n447FrequentativeDerivativeVerb10

sect4aiiipassimSupsect71606ndash7also594608seealsoContinuousIntensive

Frontedconsonantsect1b29142Frontedvowel5

sect1a243403497498also540

FrontingseeFrontedFullHarmony5

sect1a142300356498571also361

FutureParticle227228229FuturePerfectTensesect9c325FutureSelectorsect9d584587588FutureTensesect9cpassim

GandaLaw8143nGeminationDoubling176177232336406411andn421423427439440441556560

Sup595ndash6598604ndash5Gender13ndash1416181921

sect6passimalso116ndash18147ndash8507ndash9519ndash20572574ndash5Supsect22598ndash9seealsoMasculineFemininePlaceDiminutive-GeneralGender

GenderAgreementConcord13sect6114ndash15304ndash6465ndash7471ndash3489ndash90492493ndash4seealsoGenderPrefixes

Genderclassedbynumbersonly14576ndash7GendercomplementarytoNumber508GendercuttingacrossNumberseePolarityGenderparalleltoNumber467507GenderPrefixes13

sect6304ndash6376n466ndash7Gender-likePrefixes456

seeSex-determinantGeneralNegativeTensesect11191204GeneralTensesect9250

also283Genitival-Adjectival319andn320326507512550554GenitiveCase142024

sect7passimsect13passim

GenitiveConstruction1720sect13passimalso58264278282294308407ndash8

GenitiveLinkingParticle24sect13passimalso132n305ndash6308309312n447456nSup601

Gerund1118330334andn507n542574

Supsect91611also594Gerundio344

seeParticipialTenseGlottalizationGlottalclosure8497andn499505lsquoGoandreturnrsquoDerivativeVerbsect4aiii245andn273andn452andn

HabitualAspectsect9425428HabitualTensesect9153250259427430HardVoice45

sect1a28141402andn403ndash5444sect1b142ndash3

Hiatus8497seealso262570Hollowvoice45

sect1a28141402andn404444sect1b142ndash3seealsoBreathyvoice

HortativeHortatory365seeSubjunctive

IdentificationIdentity19sect10passim

Ideophone368ImmediateAspectorTensesect9c227Imperative1824

sect9bpassimalso197andn221andn573Supsect83610seealsoNegativeImperative

ImperativePostposition77ImperfectAspect17

sect9passimImperfectTensesect9153225ndash6350382

also351Supsect82609ndash10611also594603

ImpersonalPronoun1115sect8aiv4492118149421472524also99100n101424453

ImpersonalGender14seeInanimateGender

Implication17sect9477ndash8480ndash2487

InanimateGender14sect6114ndash15sect8146ndash7seealsoAnimateInanimatedistinction

Incapsulation10121122139140173andn175454andn530seealsoInfixInceptiveDerivativeVerb10

sect4aiii245330410411452also465n

InchoativeDerivativeVerbsect4aiii316InclusiveseeExclusiveInclusivedistinctionIndefiniteArticle466n528

IndefiniteAspect17sect9passim

IndefiniteForm456nseePrimaryFormIndefiniteGenitivesect13490ndash1IndefinitePronoun17

sect8f93308also179n229278

IndefiniteTensesect9382385IndependentPronounSup594seealsoSelf-standingPronounIndicativeAspectsect9258ndash9295ndash6IndicativeMood17

sect9124ndash5126249ndash50258ndash9323ndash4382ndash3384427ndash9476ndash81483559also418470485487andn560

Indicator18sect9d521n524535540541ndash2547548ndash9583nseealsoSelector

IndirectComplementSupsect34601ndash2IndirectObject582Infinitive1122

sect4bpassimSupsect92611also598

Infix10130seealsoIncapsulationInhabitantofplacesect4b245InitialVowel(Noun)113122133134135136137138InitialVowel(Verb)263267n337338339450455n480482InstrumentseeNounInstrumentInstrumentwithAppliedVerb394InstrumentalCasesect7376InstrumentalDerivativeVerbsect4aiii410451453IntensiveDerivativeVerbsect4aiii34109316410

Sup605seealsoFrequentativeInterlockingPattern15321ndash2567581nseealsoCombinedBlockandInterlockingPatternInternal

PluralSup593599Interrogation1819

sect11191217228327334345InterrogativeAdjective16119149396InterrogativeAdverb1692397InterrogativeIndicator524541InterrogativeMood17


InterrogativeParticle119227228229334InterrogativePostposition7378101323327InterrogativePredicationsect10327InterrogativePronoun1624

sect8bpassimSupsect44603

InterrogativeSelectorsect9d579583585586588InterrogativeSentence119400545InterrogativeSubject95

InterrogativeSuffix191327345InterrogativeVerb204366396InterrogativeVerbal306307310IntimateGenitive1220


IntimatePossessive447492IntransitiveDerivativeVerb10

sect4aiii3567197264316411452453also80239n255n

IntransitiveVerb172337363ndash5369Junction15Junction(Particle)577578579590591andnJussiveSupsect83610

also604611JussiveAspectseeSubjunctiveJussiveTensesect9344

seeSubjunctiveJuxtaposition(Genitive)20

sect13192205242251268287311334361367400551561568Juxtaposition(Predication)seeZeroCopula

Kinshiptermsrelationship4090113ndash14158246276322342359376379ndash8o390464

Labialization7Labio-velarkpgbsect1b6386108142262Lengthconsonantsect1b29448seealsoGerminationLengthvowelanddiphthongsect1apassimLinkingParticle(Adjective)136137138493LinkingParticle(Genitive)seeGenitiveLinkingParticleLoanwords174198234276n358376501510LocativeCasesect7passim

also83150224248401LongconsonantsseeLength

Manner(Noun)598612MasculineGender131425

sect6passimlsquoMatterofhelliprsquosect4b176MembersofParadigmsect9530ndash40

also547Metathesis372373ndash4499MiscellaneousParticlesampc21

sect155883229312335347368400441568590MomentaryAspect17


Mood161718sect9passim

also250555558Supsect8609ndash10

MorphologySup593MorphologicalClassNoun11

sect46457ndash9460461463ndash4468ndash9474ndash5490ndash1505seealsoNounClassMorphologicalClassVerb101618

sect4aipassimalso32ndash33172ndash4175180ndash2184ndash90285296299308ndash9338ndash9343ndash4

Motionaway(from)DerivativeVerb10sect4aiii245291349358373393409410451andn453

Motionto(wards)DerivativeVerb10sect4aiii34245255273292349358373394409411451andn453563also283488

lsquoMotiontowardsrsquoSelectorsect9d582586MultipleclassificationofVerbs10

sect4ai195andn208220232ndash3290501ndash3573MultipleSubjectSelectorsect9581584

also590

NK23ndash25seealsoespeciallysect5passimNarrativeSelectorsect9584585590591NarrativeTensesect9c309364430

also369Nasalizedconsonant7

sect1b62143239n407571also17n421

NasalizedvowelNasalization4sect1a606285ndash86108142169356

Negation1819sect1passim-also311Sup609610

NegativeAspectseeNegativeMoodNegativeAuxiliarysect1180ndash81101139156286287310367387ndash9435486

also430NegativeCopulasect11101156488NegativeImperativesect11passim

also272281283NegativeIndicator542547548549NegativeMoodAspect94151560NegativeParticlePostpositionPrepositionsect11passimNegativeRelative546ndash7NegativeSelector583585ndash6588589NegativeSubjunctivesect11345486546560568583585ndash6NegativeTensessect11191204547NegativeVerblsquotobersquo388NeuterDerivativeVerb10

sect4aiii411452seealsoPassiveNeuterGender13

sect6236304ndash6360361also240307308seealsoCommonGender

NeuterParticle110NeuterVerb110123127394452Neuter-Passive35144197221291302330504seealsoPassiveDerivativeVerbNeuter-Reflexivesect4aiii197411504Nomenrectum20nseePossessorNounNomenregens20nseePossessedNounNomenunitatis564seeSingulativeNominalformsSupsect21597ndash8

sect9611ndash12NominalGender13

sect6304ndash5511ndash13578also520522

NominalSuffixedPronounsSup596600602603611NominativeCase14

sect7passimNominativeSuffix467468ndash9Nomino-verbalconstructions131Non-habitualAspectsect9425428Non-IntimateGenitive20

sect135681ndash82103ndash5131ndash6158ndash9164311ndash12439ndash40also118

Non-PerfectAspect425429Non-possessiveGenitivesect13228311Non-verbalPredication1824

sect10passimalso145468

Non-verbalPredicationNegativesect11passimNon-verbalsentence115lsquoNormalrsquovowel497NotionalGendersect6304ndash5Noun7

sectsect34b5a67passimSupsect2597ndash600

NounAgent1122sect4bpassimalso457n576577Sup597

NounClass11sect4110ndash13115274ndash5291ndash2303also272298ndash9

NounClassConcordsect4b110274ndash5291ndash2sect5b293sect6114ndash15278ndash9293ndash4sect7116sect8a280ndash1sect86119281sect8c119ndash21282295sect9282ndash5sect10128296sect13131ndash6298

sect14137ndash40288298ndash9NounClassPrefixes274276278291ndash2NounClassSuffixes110ndash13115116119121132133138139NounFormatives11

sect4bpassimNounGroup(Complex)12164045697383178183192223228246247252279287320

396492494516518ndash19551553555NounInstrumentsect4b245318339455

also457nSup598612

NounObjectsect12passimalso227282578590

NounPluralsect5apassimNounPossessedseePossessedNounNounPossessorseePossessorNounnounShapesect3passimNounStemConcord115133135NounSubject19

sect7115sect8aii42andn117419sect9b95andn125152202225249282ndash4425581sect9c427ndash9sect9d541sect12passim

Nounusedadjectivally267268269NumberAdjectivesect5bpassimNumberNounsect5apassim

Supsect23599ndash600NumberPronounsect5cpassimNumberVerbsect5dpassimNumberofmembersinVerbParadigmsect9530ndash40

also547NumberSuffix457Numeral21

sect14passimalso83276278279293306310320351366391

NumeralVerb278

ObjectseeNounPersonalPronounPluralObjectObjectCaseseeAccusativeCase

ObjectConcord278ObjectSelectorsect9d589ObjectusedwithAdjectivalVerb361366ObjectusedwithPassiveEquivalent361andn394andn453470472OptativeAspectsect9530andn532andn533535536ndash40541

also547550-seealsoSubjunctiveOptativeTensesect9c188203333344

also345seealsoSubjunctiveOptionalvariantseeVariphoneOrderofcomponentselementsInVerbComplex20152171ndash4181ndash2184ndash6207ndash8208n282ndash4501

andnOrthographyandtranscription2347

Sup593Overroundingsect1b29

Palatalization723sect1b30170393Supsect16596also609

ParadigmseeNumberofmembersInVerbParadigmParticipialConstructionform123945546548549ParticipialTense18n

sect9c189344345346andnParticiple21177197ndash8204246254255305318320330339346507530537ndash8544546ndash7

554Supsect934611ndash12also597599

Particle21sect15229ndash30368ndash9401568ndash9590ndash1Supsect10612seealsoGenitiveRelativeLinkingMiscellaneousParticles

Particularizer2225ParticularizingDeterminative16

sect8c525526ndash7528Partsofthebodysect4b88110145andn274PassiveDerivativeVerb1118

sect4aiii67144172ndash3177208245264273291302315394411452505524556also180246446476nSup607608ndash9seealsoNeuter-Passive

PassiveEquivalent11154467117149361367394andn421424437453468472PassiveNounsect4b455597PassiveParticiple177246254255260330Passive-ReciprocalseeNeuter-ReciprocalPassiveDerivativeVerbPassive-ReflexiveCompoundVerb338345PassiveSelector577580586ndash7589PassiveVoicesect9363ndash5424ndash7430

also3673694174I8434437438PastAspectsect9323324PastImplication17

sect9477480PastParticipleseeParticiplePastSelector584585586587588589590591PastTense(s)sect9cpassim

also195ndash6290369486546Pejorative13

sect6466

PerfectAspect17sect9passimalso314501502503510n542547548550560594596603604

PerfectStem142144145PerfectSuffix144nPerfectTensesect9124153187189324325333350351382385430

also191511Supsect81609

Permissive344seeParticipialTense

PersonalDerivativeVerbsect4aiii358505PersonalGender519ndash23seealsoPronounGenderPersonalInterrogative1224andn

sect8bpassimalso4070113ndash14146276359376464

PersonalnamesseePropernamesPersonalPronoun1215ndash1624andn

sect8apassimSupsect41602

Personnon-Persondistinction278lsquoPertainingtorsquoform319326

seeGenitival-AdjectivalPhoneticGendersect6304ndash5Phonetics3ndash8

sect1passimPhonologySupsect1595ndash7

also593PlaceDemonstrativesect8c474PlaceGender13

sect6466also471n

PlaceNouns11sect4b176245318455Sup598612

PlacePredicationsect10passimPluperfectTensesect9216PluralseeNumberPluralActionandorObjectDerivativeVerb1024

sect4aiii356667196ndash7208234255273291316ndash17410452n505also114178299

PluralElement178180181184ndash6213314316ndash17501nPluralGendersect6511ndash13PluralInstrumentDerivativeVerbsect4aiii410PluralObject178342359ndash60PluralofPaucitysect5a508PluralSubjectsect5dpassimseealsosect9bpassimPluralSubjectDerivativeVerb10

sect4aiii114316ndash17PluralVerbseeSingularPluraldistinctioninVerbStemsPolarity(GendercuttingacrossNumber)1325

sect6304ndash5andn467andn513andn576andnalso443508509

PositionalPostureDemonstrative17sect8d73andn307andnalso306310

PositionalDerivativeVerbsect4aiii410PossessedNoun1520andn24n

sect13passimseealsoStatusconstructsPossessionComplementofSupsect32601PossessionPredication19

sect1052100190241297399483Supsect5603seealsoVerblsquotohaversquo

PossessivePronoun1520andn24sect8aivpassimsect13bpassim

PossessiveSuffixtoNounSupsect41602PossessorNoun20

sect13passimSup601613

PossessorPronounpronominalseePossessivePronounPostposItIon14192021

sect7passimsect155883n335369401Sup612seealsoInterrogativeNegativeRelativeTense

PostureDemonstrativeseePositionalPotentialDerivativeVerb315PotentialTense430PotentialityAuxiliary365Predicationnon-Verbal18ndash19

sect10passimalso145

PredicativeGenderAgreementsect6304ndash6also307308310312

PredicativeSuffix530534535543547PredicativeTensesect9c189Prefix10

sect3passimseealsoArticle(-like)PrefixGenderPrefixNounClassPrefixStemwithPrefixPreposition21

sect1558n83andn400590ndash1also93100123147148150248377379380381468572Sup601602603612

PrepositionalDerivativeVerb563568seealsoAppliedPresentAspect323seeImperfectPresentImplication17

sect9477480PresentSelector582584585586587588589PresentTensesect9c124126153203225ndash6254259296344398427428430

also195197ndash8260282290295403436Primary(Indefinite)Form454n456ndash8460461ndash3468ndash9476490PrimaryMorphologicalClasssect4ai195196220ndash1220n

also200202ndash3225ndash6PrimaryStem475PrimarySuffix12457ndash8461ndash3468ndash9ProgressiveDerivativeVerbsect4aiii573ProgressiveTensesect9173188240250259365seealsoContinuousHabitualProminence9

sect2b500also505508seealsoStress

Prominence(Stress-Tone)Classsect4aii315323338502ndash3also500

PronominalGender14sect6236305ndash6578also307seealsoPersonalGender

Pronounsect5cpassimsect8passimSupsect4602ndash3seealsoPersonalSelf-standingInterrogativeDemonstrativeRelativeReflexive

IndefiniteampcPronounPronounPronominalPossessorseePossessivePronounPronounSubject19

sectsect8aii9b12passimPronounSubjectSeries103242117123ndash4171andn180184ndash6237239323337andn341343

565Proper(Personal)names69235246276ndash7359376412466476576Protasis344398

QuadriradicalVerbsSupsect64606also608

Qualifier121521sect14passimalso178238ndash9247248251468514Sup612

QualitativeAspect18sect9363ndash5424426ndash7also366434ndash5476n

QualitativeDerivativeVerb10sect4aiii255302411425n452ndash3also239n259264n446

QualitativeVoicesect9239QualityseeVoiceQualityQuinquiradicalVerbsSupsect65606

RadicalSup596604ndash6seealsoRootRecentPastTensesect9365ReciprocalDerivativeVerbsect4aiii172ndash3234245255273316452504556563

Sup607608seealsoAssociativeReflexiveReciprocalPronoun17

sect8e45ndash467493123150423also43seealsoReflexive

ReduplicationRepetitioninAdjectiveFormativesect4c359

inAdjectivePlural12sect5b4090146178277510inNounFormativesect4b176inNounPluralsect5a508ndash9575Sup600

inSubjectPronoun7598inVerb98154365431inVerbFrequentative324556573Sup594607inVerbIndefiniteAspect565inVerbNegation19101inVerbPluralActionObject178in2ndPersonPlural465479

ReferenceDemonstrative16sect8c45120121238362473ndash4565580also122569

ReferringPronoun15sect8av43ndash447292118148andn238420524also136241558

ReflexiveDerivativeVerbsect4aiii172ndash3197273410411452504505556563Sup597607608seealsoAssociativeReciprocal

ReflexivePronoun17sect8e45ndash467493118123150183423476580also43410seealsoReciprocalEmphasizing

RelationofEthiopictootherSemiticlanguagesSup593ndash4Relationship158seeKinshiptermsRelative172124

sect8dpassimSupsect43603also611

RelativeConstruction127983116335421RelativeinAdjectivalConstructionsect4b465

sect4c39330400414sect14335390ndash1440ndash1493

RelativeinGenitiveConstructionsect13368389ndash90RelativeObjectSelectorsect9d583584ndash5RelativeofPlacesect8d476RelativeofTime476568RelativeofTimeSelectorsect9d583584ndash5587

also591RelativePostposition122RelativePrefix464472494RelativePronoun17

sect8dpassimalso421

RelativeSelector18sect9d583584ndash5587also580582591

RelativeSubject82andn103andn307RelativeSuffix39

RelativeTense18sect9c153188189325ndash6530531ndash3534536537also320327503512

Relative-InterrogativeMoodsect9424426430also417423437

Relativumobliquum512RemotePastTensesect9c250RepeatedActionImplication17

sect9477480481RepetitionseeReduplicationResultAspectorImplicationsect9477480481ndash2ResumptiveTensesect9430ReversiveDerivativeVerbsect4aiii66Root9263290

Sup596598599600608609613seealsoRadical

Secondary(Definite)Form124564594604623469472476490ndash1492SecondaryMorphologicalClasssect4ai195ndash6220ndash1

also225ndash6SecondaryStem490ndash1SecondarySuffix1225443447456ndash9456n460461462ndash3468ndash9474ndash5475n490ndash1492Selector18

sect9d583ndash9also541n570572573andn575577578579580ndash1582590591seealsoIndicator

SelectorClass573582Self-standingPersonalPronoun14152024andn

sect8apassimalsosect5cpassimalso6970225239241249259276299308309338366425469470471520n522577

seealsoIndependentPronounSemi-mutevowel4

sect1a60n6163169300403andn445496497561571also31n6468697277409415

Semi-mutew571Sex-determining(distinguishing)Formativesandwords13353359376412443456

Sup599Shadowvowel4n445nSeeSemi-mutevowelShape9seealsoWordShapeSingleImplication17

sect9477480ndash1SingularseeNumberSingularPluraldistinctionInVerbStems13

sect5d247257277340359ndash60465Singulative22256n265319ndash20462508574andnSingulativeDeterminative16

seeParticularizingSlurring7

sect1b6286357393407447n448ndash9448n499Soundchange57ndash8175184186ndash7189207213232ndash3237n327508seeAblautAssimilation

ConsonantchangeDissimilationUmlautSpatial(Distance)Demonstrative16

sect8cpassimSpatialPredicationseePlacePredicationSpecialCategory12162324

sect5a4090113ndash14235246276ndash7359376464also222n248251280andn281283287299361381

SpecialCategoryCase247andn248280SpecialCategoryConcord279281283286SpirantizationSupsect15596StativeDerivativeVerbsect4aiii573Statusconstructs(ConstructState)1520

sect7116377417ndash18572578also40843857757959059ISup594601

Sten9sect3passim

StemClass(Verb)573581StemwithPrefixesSupsect72607ndash9StemExtensionStem-extendingSuffix10

sect4aiiipassim144andnStress9

sect2b316486168170556572also295299409411415420555Supsect18597

StressClasssect4aii290andnseealsoProminenceClassStrongAffix5StrongLongconsonant448seealsoLengthConsonantStrongVerbs(lsquostarkenVerbarsquo)501StructuralElements10

sect4passimSubjectseeNounSubjectPersonalPronounSubjectNominativeCaseSubject-ObjectComplex162024n

sect8aii201andn341471andnalso199587n

Subject-ObjectSelector18201n577587ndash8590591Subjunctive18andn

sect974126151477530532535583584also435562seealsoDependent

SubjunctiveAspect17sect9a94ndash95535539546565ndash7

SubjunctiveMood17sect9124ndash5382383ndash4385424426428ndash30476477479481n

SubjunctiveSelectorsect9d583584SubjunctiveTense18

sect9203225226227268andn333344365also345

Subjunctive-ImperativeAspectsect94649ndash50559SubordinateClauseSup594610613seealsoDependentsentenceSubsequentMoodsect9477481485

also487Suffix10

sect3passimSyllable9

sectsect23passimalso194195Supsect14596

Syllabicconsonant7sect1b30243263

Syntax9Supsect11612ndash13also594

TK22ndash25seealsoespeciallysect5apassimTenseTenseParticles1617ndash18

sect9cpassimSupsect8609ndash10

Time(-Reference)Demonstrative17sect8c473ndash4

Tone8ndash9sect2apassim

ToneClassAdjectives12sect4c145414460also416

ToneClassNouns11sect4bpassim

ToneClassVerbs10sect4aiipassim

Tone-StressseeProminenceTransitiveDerivativeVerbsect4aiii66221291315411TransitiveVerb1097229230n316337363ndash5369424430TransitiveVerblsquotobersquo366Tremblingt406nTribalnames22368688176210221256303377574TriliteralRoots290andn501nTriradicalVerbsSupsect61604ndash5

also606607608

Umlaut5sect1a28596185108141142370405444446447also415419420451andn491492496497ndash8

UmlautbySemi-vowelsect1b143444Unexplodedfinalplosivesect1b194263406UniradicalVerbSupsect62605

Variphone(Optionalvariant)sect1b62253263272300Velarization723537nVerb10

sectsect5d9passimSupsectsect6ndash9604ndash12

VerbComplex10112074171andn172178181ndash2184187207208n211213217225227n250282342361362434501andn519n582583

VerbConjugationsect9passimVerbofState465Verblsquotobersquo18

sect10b5379100128155190203216andn227241251260286297310327334345365385ndash6385n433483ndash5543ndash6567

also115ndash16150157246338468488501546548ndash9Supsect5603

Verblsquotobeabsentlackingrsquo5581191367andn389435436andn486488Verblsquotohaversquo18

sect106100204217251268286327334345366386399433484544ndash6567589also549

VerbalAdjectiveseeAdjectivalVerbVerbalDerivativeseeDerivativeVerbVerbalNoun1122

sect4bpassimalso17128333834646554357659I597ndash8

VerbalNounrelatedtoImperative197andn221andnVerbalSuffixedPronounSup602603Vocabulary84161164ndash6299

Supsect12613also594

Vocative602nVoice1117ndash18

sect9apassimseealsoActiveApplicativePassiveQualitativeVoiceVoiceQuality4

sect1a28140141402ndash4402n444nalso415seealsoBreathyCreakyHardHollowVoice

Vowel3ndash5sect1apassimSupsect12595

VowelCategory5sect1a27ndash28404ndash5444ndash7497ndash8also451ndash2457461463477482seealsoCategoryHarmonyCategoryChange

VowelChange246295296303356372ndash3405446475476490seealsoAblautCategoryChangeUmlaut

VowelclosureseeFinalclosureVowelHarmony5

sect1apassimseealsoCategoryHarmonyFullHarmonyVowelLength4ndash5

sect1apassimVowelQuality4

sect1apassimVowel-colouredbreath4nseeSemi-mutevowelVowel-lesstonesect286

WeakAffix5403405WeakVerbs(lsquoschwachenVerbarsquo)501WordGroup1920ndash21517529WordOrder19

sectsect121314passimalso46484975151179282284299seealsoSyntax

WordShape9sect3passim

ZeroCopula(Juxtaposition)18sect10a527899128154190203216240260296310326333345366385400432483

484544545559

Cover

Half Title

Title Page

Copyright Page

Table of Contents

Introduction

1 MORU-MANGBETU

2 BONGO-BAGIRMI

3 and 6 SERE-MUNDU and BANDA-GBAYA-NGBANDI

4 MBA

5 ZANDE

7 BUA

8 SOMRAI

9 EAST SAHARAN

10 MIMI

11 MABA

12 TAMA

13 FUR

14 DAJU

15 NYIMANG

16 TEMEIN

17 KATLA

18a KOALIB-MORO ampc

18b TEGALI-TAGOI

19 KADUGLI-KRONGO

20 NUBIAN

21 BARYA

22 KUNAMA

23 BERTA

24 TAB1

25 GULE

26 KOMA

27 DIDINGA-MURLE

28 BAKO

29 TEUSO

30 NILOTIC

31 PARANILOTIC

32a CUSHITIC

32b OMETO

32c GELEBA

34 IRAQW

35 MBUGU

36 SANYE

Supplement33ETHOPIC

INDEXES


EASTERNAFRICA


ANTUCKERANDMABRYAN














EASTERNAFRICA

BY

ANTUCKERANDMABRYAN

Withasupplementon


WOLFLESLAU


bythe


1953



KUALALUMPURHONGKONG




AfricanInstitute

CONTENTS



INTRODUCTION





(AFRI-CANSEMITIC33)














THECRITERIA




1Phonetics




































narrowrealization











NILOTICsectIb








2ToneandStress









therelevantsyllable



3WordShape



followingcomponents

4StructuralElements























4cAdjectives




5Number

5aNouns




SpecialCategory


5bAdjectives



5cPronouns


5dVerbs
























7Case









8Pronouns

8aPersonal





















8dRelative





8fIndefinite


9VerbConjugation

9aAspectMoodVoice























(iv)Possession






11bNon-verbal




Postposition




Aux=AuxiliaryVerb


classifyingcriteria





13aNounPossessor1















15Miscellaneous


























ANOTEONCUSHITIC



































inffuenceofiandu)





centralvowel



mayalsooccur




MArsquoDI

1bConsonants






Comparealso






































Verbsinthistense)









Causative

IntensiveRepetitive


Neuter-passive












NotevowelPrefixin







MArsquoDIandinLENDU












5aNouns








reduplicationaswell






Person



accordingtodialect



8Pronouns8aPersonal



(ii)SubjectofVerb


alsoSeesect9)



inthePluralinLESE






Comparethus

(v)ReferringPronoun















Pronounsε













































CompoundNouns


































values1











1bConsonants

























































2





PronounSeesect8a






































(ii)Imperativeforms









11a)



















































1Phonetics















by



4bNouns






workedoutButnote









SpecialCategory


Plural

5bAdjectives




5cPronouns


5dVerbs








Dualdistinction)





Vowela-1ore-

8bInterrogative2



CfGBAYAKAKA


CompareTOGBOabove

8cDemonstrative






sense


Alsocontainedin














Infinitive











































1Phonetics




noteonsect4b)








conjugations2


Causative


Directional







Examples







Notealso




5Number






























Seefurthersect10a

Statusconstructus1


ClassSuffix






















Boeckrsquodo)

Adjectivalforms



Inanimate






ExamplesfromdeBoeck

Precedingforms













11Negation





















precedingAdjectives
















5THEZANDEGROUP








ZANDE1









rhinoceros











LowandFalling












function
















distinguishes

















8bInterrogative2

Pronominalforms





else-where














accordingtoAspect



DisyllabicStems




1stAspect




hasaPrefixa-1






existenceinaplace







ismuchused













Noun)










7THEBUAGROUP













8bInterrogative

8cDemonstrative







NotealsoinBUA



ANOTEONDAI
















8SOMRAIGROUP








1Phonetics

1aVowels













1bConsonants






2ToneandStress












3WordShape


4StructuralElements

4aVerbs








studied






givenhere)




4bNouns

VerbalNouns















5Number

5aNouns





WithQualifier

5bAdjectives









7Case



8Pronouns

8aPersonal










TEDA


KASHIRDA

KANURI




8bInterrogative




Relative

8eReflexive


9VerbConjugation

















9cTenses








TenseSuffix)



ZAGHAWA




11ANegation

(a)Verbal




13aNounPossessor
























10MIMI

Nodataavailable

11THEMABAGROUP


































(ii)ToneClasses






































8aPersonal






havingStemvowelaei






(lsquousrsquo)































andiIamnottired















mbortuambemyslaves











12THETAMAGROUP



1PhoneticsIaVowels




known






TAMAarrskyrain



Grammaticaltone












4bNouns







follows

5bAdjectives




5dVerbs








Examples


8Pronouns8aPersonal





















9cTenses








Notealso















andAdjective




13FUR

Sources



kick




ur-shuturr-bury




3WordShape



























controlled













7Case






























followingtheVerb




relationship





















14THEDAJUGROUP















investigated















p22





















































15THENYIMANGGROUP





1bConsonants






























ofSubject)egrdquo

















endings














invariouspositions


nԑ


CategoryNouns

















16THETEMEINGROUP







2ToneandStress





















p22



variouslycombined































17THEKATLAGROUP








1bConsonants




















































9cTenses








11Negation11aVerbal























1PhoneticsIaVowels
















2bStress




4StructuralElements




















4cAdjectives
















6GenderandConcord




















8Pronouns8aPersonal
















































8Pronouns














9VerbConjugation

















13aNounPossessor















inT-T





















w y




Vowel



obuŋgukuagufi

2ToneandStress









honey



4aVerbs












(ii)NounFormatives




5Number




KATCHA


categories)








5bAdjectives





















8Pronouns8aPersonal


















Aspects)





(ii)Imperative


DefiniteAspect












Postpositione















20THENUBIANGROUP

SourcesNileNUBIAN




HillNUBIAN



1PhoneticsIaVowels




understood






Compare



beennoted



2ToneandStress

2aTone






FADICCASeesect4a




















NounAgent















5cPronouns









FADICCA






nagrave














HILLNUBIAN-KADARU












DONGOLA1
























21BARYA1(BAREA)


22KUNAMA






2ToneandStress

















23BERTA





1bConsonants





alsooccur



























(iv))














2ToneandStress

























na


25GULE

Nodataavailable

26THEKOMAGROUP


























Nouns from Verbs























KOMAsect8c)







Foruseofbaseesect15






















VerbStem







11Negation



































1bConsonants









4StructuralElements









5Number






























Pluralelementk




Examples


8dRelative

Examples





















DIDINGA and MURLE










28BAKO

Nodataavailable















































































id-withotherVerbs

































type1







SHILLUK

ComparewithLANGO




















significance




unlessfollowedbyh)













Seealsosect4b(ii)














NUER



LANGO

LUO



LANGO



LUO


4cAdjectives


(ii)



23

5aNouns












notCompare


















8aPersonal





























































NUERabove)



Tense


Subjunctive

11bNon-verbal


pa


Observation






























































significant




category






















Compare


















oftheStemvowel


CompareinMAASAI


languages


Seealsosect2b















beenrecorded






NotealsoinPAumlKOT









Suffixes














-t5Number

































































=neutraltone







unchanged8dRelative









Observation








11Negation11aVerbal

11bNon-Verbal








































32aCUSHITIC






1Phonetics







longconsonants3






























Stressbelow)

















duacuter-ta-na


















(ClassIonly)


















GALLA




























found





Compareforexample












8c(iii))





Pllowoo-ri



criteria





Case


bothtogether






form








Case)






(Accusative)























SOMALI)
















ofDemonstrative












9dIndicators1







































WithDeterminative




















PluralStem

32bOMETO




1Phonetics1aVowels









alsooccur









5Number5aNouns










8Pronouns8aPersonal



8bInterrogative















occurs


juxtaposition












Verbs(seesect9c)











being































9VerbConjugation









11Negation














































34THEIRAQWGROUP1





































































agreementsSeesect8c



















































































Sub-GroupD


























































35MBUGU



36SANYE



SUPPLEMENT


ByWLESLAU



INDEXI

LANGUAGESANDPERSONS








602n612613





577n578n581n



























MVUrsquoBA31





























INDEXII

LINGUISTIC













































sect8a41167179180182n211248321341342353378sect947




sect1a405446447498also457461463477482





sect5a178235304461463509510576also183407











sect9bpassim







































sect1b170313314499




















sect1a243403497498also540


sect1a142300356498571also361













Gerund1118330334andn507n542574








































sect4aiii3567197264316411452453also80239n255n






















also590



sect1b62143239n407571also17n421
























also457nSup598612







sect14passimalso83276278279293306310320351366391

NumeralVerb278



















sect6466













sect6466also471n

















sect10passimalso145





































sect8dpassimalso421


























Sten9sect3passim












sect9203225226227268andn333344365also345


also487Suffix10













also606607608










sect106100204217251268286327334345366386399433484544ndash6567589also549




Supsect12613also594















484544545559

Cover

Half Title

Title Page

Copyright Page

Table of Contents

Introduction

1 MORU-MANGBETU

2 BONGO-BAGIRMI


4 MBA

5 ZANDE

7 BUA

8 SOMRAI

9 EAST SAHARAN

10 MIMI

11 MABA

12 TAMA

13 FUR

14 DAJU

15 NYIMANG

16 TEMEIN

17 KATLA


18b TEGALI-TAGOI

19 KADUGLI-KRONGO

20 NUBIAN

21 BARYA

22 KUNAMA

23 BERTA

24 TAB1

25 GULE

26 KOMA

27 DIDINGA-MURLE

28 BAKO

29 TEUSO

30 NILOTIC

31 PARANILOTIC

32a CUSHITIC

32b OMETO

32c GELEBA

34 IRAQW

35 MBUGU

36 SANYE

Supplement33ETHOPIC

INDEXES


ANTUCKERANDMABRYAN














EASTERNAFRICA

BY

ANTUCKERANDMABRYAN

Withasupplementon


WOLFLESLAU


bythe


1953



KUALALUMPURHONGKONG




AfricanInstitute

CONTENTS



INTRODUCTION





(AFRI-CANSEMITIC33)














THECRITERIA




1Phonetics




































narrowrealization











NILOTICsectIb








2ToneandStress









therelevantsyllable



3WordShape



followingcomponents

4StructuralElements























4cAdjectives




5Number

5aNouns




SpecialCategory


5bAdjectives



5cPronouns


5dVerbs
























7Case









8Pronouns

8aPersonal





















8dRelative





8fIndefinite


9VerbConjugation

9aAspectMoodVoice























(iv)Possession






11bNon-verbal




Postposition




Aux=AuxiliaryVerb


classifyingcriteria





13aNounPossessor1















15Miscellaneous


























ANOTEONCUSHITIC



































inffuenceofiandu)





centralvowel



mayalsooccur




MArsquoDI

1bConsonants






Comparealso






































Verbsinthistense)









Causative

IntensiveRepetitive


Neuter-passive












NotevowelPrefixin







MArsquoDIandinLENDU












5aNouns








reduplicationaswell






Person



accordingtodialect



8Pronouns8aPersonal



(ii)SubjectofVerb


alsoSeesect9)



inthePluralinLESE






Comparethus

(v)ReferringPronoun















Pronounsε













































CompoundNouns


































values1











1bConsonants

























































2





PronounSeesect8a






































(ii)Imperativeforms









11a)



















































1Phonetics















by



4bNouns






workedoutButnote









SpecialCategory


Plural

5bAdjectives




5cPronouns


5dVerbs








Dualdistinction)





Vowela-1ore-

8bInterrogative2



CfGBAYAKAKA


CompareTOGBOabove

8cDemonstrative






sense


Alsocontainedin














Infinitive











































1Phonetics




noteonsect4b)








conjugations2


Causative


Directional







Examples







Notealso




5Number






























Seefurthersect10a

Statusconstructus1


ClassSuffix






















Boeckrsquodo)

Adjectivalforms



Inanimate






ExamplesfromdeBoeck

Precedingforms













11Negation





















precedingAdjectives
















5THEZANDEGROUP








ZANDE1









rhinoceros











LowandFalling












function
















distinguishes

















8bInterrogative2

Pronominalforms





else-where














accordingtoAspect



DisyllabicStems




1stAspect




hasaPrefixa-1






existenceinaplace







ismuchused













Noun)










7THEBUAGROUP













8bInterrogative

8cDemonstrative







NotealsoinBUA



ANOTEONDAI
















8SOMRAIGROUP








1Phonetics

1aVowels













1bConsonants






2ToneandStress












3WordShape


4StructuralElements

4aVerbs








studied






givenhere)




4bNouns

VerbalNouns















5Number

5aNouns





WithQualifier

5bAdjectives









7Case



8Pronouns

8aPersonal










TEDA


KASHIRDA

KANURI




8bInterrogative




Relative

8eReflexive


9VerbConjugation

















9cTenses








TenseSuffix)



ZAGHAWA




11ANegation

(a)Verbal




13aNounPossessor
























10MIMI

Nodataavailable

11THEMABAGROUP


































(ii)ToneClasses






































8aPersonal






havingStemvowelaei






(lsquousrsquo)































andiIamnottired















mbortuambemyslaves











12THETAMAGROUP



1PhoneticsIaVowels




known






TAMAarrskyrain



Grammaticaltone












4bNouns







follows

5bAdjectives




5dVerbs








Examples


8Pronouns8aPersonal





















9cTenses








Notealso















andAdjective




13FUR

Sources



kick




ur-shuturr-bury




3WordShape



























controlled













7Case






























followingtheVerb




relationship





















14THEDAJUGROUP















investigated















p22





















































15THENYIMANGGROUP





1bConsonants






























ofSubject)egrdquo

















endings














invariouspositions


nԑ


CategoryNouns

















16THETEMEINGROUP







2ToneandStress





















p22



variouslycombined































17THEKATLAGROUP








1bConsonants




















































9cTenses








11Negation11aVerbal























1PhoneticsIaVowels
















2bStress




4StructuralElements




















4cAdjectives
















6GenderandConcord




















8Pronouns8aPersonal
















































8Pronouns














9VerbConjugation

















13aNounPossessor















inT-T





















w y




Vowel



obuŋgukuagufi

2ToneandStress









honey



4aVerbs












(ii)NounFormatives




5Number




KATCHA


categories)








5bAdjectives





















8Pronouns8aPersonal


















Aspects)





(ii)Imperative


DefiniteAspect












Postpositione















20THENUBIANGROUP

SourcesNileNUBIAN




HillNUBIAN



1PhoneticsIaVowels




understood






Compare



beennoted



2ToneandStress

2aTone






FADICCASeesect4a




















NounAgent















5cPronouns









FADICCA






nagrave














HILLNUBIAN-KADARU












DONGOLA1
























21BARYA1(BAREA)


22KUNAMA






2ToneandStress

















23BERTA





1bConsonants





alsooccur



























(iv))














2ToneandStress

























na


25GULE

Nodataavailable

26THEKOMAGROUP


























Nouns from Verbs























KOMAsect8c)







Foruseofbaseesect15






















VerbStem







11Negation



































1bConsonants









4StructuralElements









5Number






























Pluralelementk




Examples


8dRelative

Examples





















DIDINGA and MURLE










28BAKO

Nodataavailable















































































id-withotherVerbs

































type1







SHILLUK

ComparewithLANGO




















significance




unlessfollowedbyh)













Seealsosect4b(ii)














NUER



LANGO

LUO



LANGO



LUO


4cAdjectives


(ii)



23

5aNouns












notCompare


















8aPersonal





























































NUERabove)



Tense


Subjunctive

11bNon-verbal


pa


Observation






























































significant




category






















Compare


















oftheStemvowel


CompareinMAASAI


languages


Seealsosect2b















beenrecorded






NotealsoinPAumlKOT









Suffixes














-t5Number

































































=neutraltone







unchanged8dRelative









Observation








11Negation11aVerbal

11bNon-Verbal








































32aCUSHITIC






1Phonetics







longconsonants3






























Stressbelow)

















duacuter-ta-na


















(ClassIonly)


















GALLA




























found





Compareforexample












8c(iii))





Pllowoo-ri



criteria





Case


bothtogether






form








Case)






(Accusative)























SOMALI)
















ofDemonstrative












9dIndicators1







































WithDeterminative




















PluralStem

32bOMETO




1Phonetics1aVowels









alsooccur









5Number5aNouns










8Pronouns8aPersonal



8bInterrogative















occurs


juxtaposition












Verbs(seesect9c)











being































9VerbConjugation









11Negation














































34THEIRAQWGROUP1





































































agreementsSeesect8c



















































































Sub-GroupD


























































35MBUGU



36SANYE



SUPPLEMENT


ByWLESLAU



INDEXI

LANGUAGESANDPERSONS








602n612613





577n578n581n



























MVUrsquoBA31





























INDEXII

LINGUISTIC













































sect8a41167179180182n211248321341342353378sect947




sect1a405446447498also457461463477482





sect5a178235304461463509510576also183407











sect9bpassim







































sect1b170313314499




















sect1a243403497498also540


sect1a142300356498571also361













Gerund1118330334andn507n542574








































sect4aiii3567197264316411452453also80239n255n






















also590



sect1b62143239n407571also17n421
























also457nSup598612







sect14passimalso83276278279293306310320351366391

NumeralVerb278



















sect6466













sect6466also471n

















sect10passimalso145





































sect8dpassimalso421


























Sten9sect3passim












sect9203225226227268andn333344365also345


also487Suffix10













also606607608










sect106100204217251268286327334345366386399433484544ndash6567589also549




Supsect12613also594















484544545559

Cover

Half Title

Title Page

Copyright Page

Table of Contents

Introduction

1 MORU-MANGBETU

2 BONGO-BAGIRMI


4 MBA

5 ZANDE

7 BUA

8 SOMRAI

9 EAST SAHARAN

10 MIMI

11 MABA

12 TAMA

13 FUR

14 DAJU

15 NYIMANG

16 TEMEIN

17 KATLA


18b TEGALI-TAGOI

19 KADUGLI-KRONGO

20 NUBIAN

21 BARYA

22 KUNAMA

23 BERTA

24 TAB1

25 GULE

26 KOMA

27 DIDINGA-MURLE

28 BAKO

29 TEUSO

30 NILOTIC

31 PARANILOTIC

32a CUSHITIC

32b OMETO

32c GELEBA

34 IRAQW

35 MBUGU

36 SANYE

Supplement33ETHOPIC

INDEXES














EASTERNAFRICA

BY

ANTUCKERANDMABRYAN

Withasupplementon


WOLFLESLAU


bythe


1953



KUALALUMPURHONGKONG




AfricanInstitute

CONTENTS



INTRODUCTION





(AFRI-CANSEMITIC33)














THECRITERIA




1Phonetics




































narrowrealization











NILOTICsectIb








2ToneandStress









therelevantsyllable



3WordShape



followingcomponents

4StructuralElements























4cAdjectives




5Number

5aNouns




SpecialCategory


5bAdjectives



5cPronouns


5dVerbs
























7Case









8Pronouns

8aPersonal





















8dRelative





8fIndefinite


9VerbConjugation

9aAspectMoodVoice























(iv)Possession






11bNon-verbal




Postposition




Aux=AuxiliaryVerb


classifyingcriteria





13aNounPossessor1















15Miscellaneous


























ANOTEONCUSHITIC



































inffuenceofiandu)





centralvowel



mayalsooccur




MArsquoDI

1bConsonants






Comparealso






































Verbsinthistense)









Causative

IntensiveRepetitive


Neuter-passive












NotevowelPrefixin







MArsquoDIandinLENDU












5aNouns








reduplicationaswell






Person



accordingtodialect



8Pronouns8aPersonal



(ii)SubjectofVerb


alsoSeesect9)



inthePluralinLESE






Comparethus

(v)ReferringPronoun















Pronounsε













































CompoundNouns


































values1











1bConsonants

























































2





PronounSeesect8a






































(ii)Imperativeforms









11a)



















































1Phonetics















by



4bNouns






workedoutButnote









SpecialCategory


Plural

5bAdjectives




5cPronouns


5dVerbs








Dualdistinction)





Vowela-1ore-

8bInterrogative2



CfGBAYAKAKA


CompareTOGBOabove

8cDemonstrative






sense


Alsocontainedin














Infinitive











































1Phonetics




noteonsect4b)








conjugations2


Causative


Directional







Examples







Notealso




5Number






























Seefurthersect10a

Statusconstructus1


ClassSuffix






















Boeckrsquodo)

Adjectivalforms



Inanimate






ExamplesfromdeBoeck

Precedingforms













11Negation





















precedingAdjectives
















5THEZANDEGROUP








ZANDE1









rhinoceros











LowandFalling












function
















distinguishes

















8bInterrogative2

Pronominalforms





else-where














accordingtoAspect



DisyllabicStems




1stAspect




hasaPrefixa-1






existenceinaplace







ismuchused













Noun)










7THEBUAGROUP













8bInterrogative

8cDemonstrative







NotealsoinBUA



ANOTEONDAI
















8SOMRAIGROUP








1Phonetics

1aVowels













1bConsonants






2ToneandStress












3WordShape


4StructuralElements

4aVerbs








studied






givenhere)




4bNouns

VerbalNouns















5Number

5aNouns





WithQualifier

5bAdjectives









7Case



8Pronouns

8aPersonal










TEDA


KASHIRDA

KANURI




8bInterrogative




Relative

8eReflexive


9VerbConjugation

















9cTenses








TenseSuffix)



ZAGHAWA




11ANegation

(a)Verbal




13aNounPossessor
























10MIMI

Nodataavailable

11THEMABAGROUP


































(ii)ToneClasses






































8aPersonal






havingStemvowelaei






(lsquousrsquo)































andiIamnottired















mbortuambemyslaves











12THETAMAGROUP



1PhoneticsIaVowels




known






TAMAarrskyrain



Grammaticaltone












4bNouns







follows

5bAdjectives




5dVerbs








Examples


8Pronouns8aPersonal





















9cTenses








Notealso















andAdjective




13FUR

Sources



kick




ur-shuturr-bury




3WordShape



























controlled













7Case






























followingtheVerb




relationship





















14THEDAJUGROUP















investigated















p22





















































15THENYIMANGGROUP





1bConsonants






























ofSubject)egrdquo

















endings














invariouspositions


nԑ


CategoryNouns

















16THETEMEINGROUP







2ToneandStress





















p22



variouslycombined































17THEKATLAGROUP








1bConsonants




















































9cTenses








11Negation11aVerbal























1PhoneticsIaVowels
















2bStress




4StructuralElements




















4cAdjectives
















6GenderandConcord




















8Pronouns8aPersonal
















































8Pronouns














9VerbConjugation

















13aNounPossessor















inT-T





















w y




Vowel



obuŋgukuagufi

2ToneandStress









honey



4aVerbs












(ii)NounFormatives




5Number




KATCHA


categories)








5bAdjectives





















8Pronouns8aPersonal


















Aspects)





(ii)Imperative


DefiniteAspect












Postpositione















20THENUBIANGROUP

SourcesNileNUBIAN




HillNUBIAN



1PhoneticsIaVowels




understood






Compare



beennoted



2ToneandStress

2aTone






FADICCASeesect4a




















NounAgent















5cPronouns









FADICCA






nagrave














HILLNUBIAN-KADARU












DONGOLA1
























21BARYA1(BAREA)


22KUNAMA






2ToneandStress

















23BERTA





1bConsonants





alsooccur



























(iv))














2ToneandStress

























na


25GULE

Nodataavailable

26THEKOMAGROUP


























Nouns from Verbs























KOMAsect8c)







Foruseofbaseesect15






















VerbStem







11Negation



































1bConsonants









4StructuralElements









5Number






























Pluralelementk




Examples


8dRelative

Examples





















DIDINGA and MURLE










28BAKO

Nodataavailable















































































id-withotherVerbs

































type1







SHILLUK

ComparewithLANGO




















significance




unlessfollowedbyh)













Seealsosect4b(ii)














NUER



LANGO

LUO



LANGO



LUO


4cAdjectives


(ii)



23

5aNouns












notCompare


















8aPersonal





























































NUERabove)



Tense


Subjunctive

11bNon-verbal


pa


Observation






























































significant




category






















Compare


















oftheStemvowel


CompareinMAASAI


languages


Seealsosect2b















beenrecorded






NotealsoinPAumlKOT









Suffixes














-t5Number

































































=neutraltone







unchanged8dRelative









Observation








11Negation11aVerbal

11bNon-Verbal








































32aCUSHITIC






1Phonetics







longconsonants3






























Stressbelow)

















duacuter-ta-na


















(ClassIonly)


















GALLA




























found





Compareforexample












8c(iii))





Pllowoo-ri



criteria





Case


bothtogether






form








Case)






(Accusative)























SOMALI)
















ofDemonstrative












9dIndicators1







































WithDeterminative




















PluralStem

32bOMETO




1Phonetics1aVowels









alsooccur









5Number5aNouns










8Pronouns8aPersonal



8bInterrogative















occurs


juxtaposition












Verbs(seesect9c)











being































9VerbConjugation









11Negation














































34THEIRAQWGROUP1





































































agreementsSeesect8c



















































































Sub-GroupD


























































35MBUGU



36SANYE



SUPPLEMENT


ByWLESLAU



INDEXI

LANGUAGESANDPERSONS








602n612613





577n578n581n



























MVUrsquoBA31





























INDEXII

LINGUISTIC













































sect8a41167179180182n211248321341342353378sect947




sect1a405446447498also457461463477482





sect5a178235304461463509510576also183407











sect9bpassim







































sect1b170313314499




















sect1a243403497498also540


sect1a142300356498571also361













Gerund1118330334andn507n542574








































sect4aiii3567197264316411452453also80239n255n






















also590



sect1b62143239n407571also17n421
























also457nSup598612







sect14passimalso83276278279293306310320351366391

NumeralVerb278



















sect6466













sect6466also471n

















sect10passimalso145





































sect8dpassimalso421


























Sten9sect3passim












sect9203225226227268andn333344365also345


also487Suffix10













also606607608










sect106100204217251268286327334345366386399433484544ndash6567589also549




Supsect12613also594















484544545559

Cover

Half Title

Title Page

Copyright Page

Table of Contents

Introduction

1 MORU-MANGBETU

2 BONGO-BAGIRMI


4 MBA

5 ZANDE

7 BUA

8 SOMRAI

9 EAST SAHARAN

10 MIMI

11 MABA

12 TAMA

13 FUR

14 DAJU

15 NYIMANG

16 TEMEIN

17 KATLA


18b TEGALI-TAGOI

19 KADUGLI-KRONGO

20 NUBIAN

21 BARYA

22 KUNAMA

23 BERTA

24 TAB1

25 GULE

26 KOMA

27 DIDINGA-MURLE

28 BAKO

29 TEUSO

30 NILOTIC

31 PARANILOTIC

32a CUSHITIC

32b OMETO

32c GELEBA

34 IRAQW

35 MBUGU

36 SANYE

Supplement33ETHOPIC

INDEXES

Linguistic Analyses: The Non-Bantu Languages of North-Eastern Africa

Documents

Transcript of Linguistic Analyses: The Non-Bantu Languages of North-Eastern Africa