Lingua2009_A[1]

LINGUAA. Linguistics

YEAR VIII / 2009

2008 EuropEan YEar of IntErcultural DIaloguE

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ContentsI. theory & Methodologythe paradIgM shIft - froM InstruCtIon to learnIng

Alina Preda, Adriana Fekete 7ralIs et non ralIs dans lIMparfaIt

Sergiu Zagan-Zelter, Diana Zagan-Zelter 15teaChIng adult learners dIffICultIes and rewards

Kovcs Rka 23Marele dICIonar roMn-polon Ca un text Cultural

Joanna Porawska 33esqueMas de ruMano. graMtICa y usos lIngstICosla IMportanCIa del aprendIzaje de la Morfologa en el proCeso de adquIsICIn del ruMano por estudIantes extranjeros

Jos Damin Gonzlez-Barros 45Cross-Cultural dIMensIons of foreIgn language teaChIng and assessMent

Ioana Nan 51the sts projeCt BuIldIng an e.s.p. Corpus

Adrian Ciupe 57self evaluatIon as a MetaCognItIve strategy In the Context of BeC hIgher

Ana Maria Pascu 71ConversatIon analysIs In an oral BusIness CoMMunICatIon Course

Emilia Plcintar 81CoMpletIng the InCoMpleteInterCultural awareness raIsIng and BusIness dIsCourse

Bir Enik 91la CoMunICaCIn puBlICItarIa

Timea Tocalachis 103

Lingua A. Linguistics

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the role of language In BrandIng.the use of plaIn language as a tool for BrandIng

Kelemen Antonia Izabella 111exploItIng pICtures In MotIon

Kovcs Rka, Gabriela Ioana Mocan 117

II. varIaBaBe-BolyaI unIversIty at the european unIversItIes deBatIng ChaMpIonshIp

Ana Maria Pascu 127fIfth Corpus lInguIstICs ConferenCe

Adrian Ciupe 128tBlt 2009 tasks: Context, purpose, and use.

Veronica Armau, Ioana Nan 129

III. revIewsMarele dICIonar roMn-polon n Contextul dezBaterIlor de lIngvIstIC Integral

Mircea Borcil 133dICIonar Contextual de terMenI traduCtologICI franCez-roMn

Alexandra Viorica Dulu 137MarIana Istrate, nuMele proprIu n textul naratIv

Denisa Ionescu 139

I. theory & Methodology

They say that variety is the spice of life, so it should come as no surprise that variety may well be the secret of successful learning. This secret began to unravel on September 11, 1956, on the second day of an MIT symposium, organised by the Special Interest Group in Information Technology. It was there and then that the history of blended learning started being written. As Kai Peters and Mario Weiss (2006) note, it was the first time that a symposium had been held that drew together a broad range of people whose interests covered various areas of study, from psychology, philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, to physics, neuroscience, information and

the paradIgM shIft - froM InstruCtIon to learnIng

Alina Preda, Adriana Fekete*

Der Begriff integriertes Lernen, im englischen Blended Learning (direkt bersetzt, gemischtes Lernen) bezeichnet einen zustzlichen Teil an dem Lernprozess, wobei Vorteile durch die Verbindung verschiedener Medien und Methoden gesteigert und Nachteile vermindert werden knnen. Dieses neue Konzept verbindet die Effektivitt und Flexibilitt der elektronischen Lernformen mit den sozialen Aspekten der Face-to-Face-Kommunikation. Es bezeichnet damit eine Lernform, die eine didaktisch sinnvolle Verknpfung von traditionellem Klassenzimmerlernen und modernen Formen von E-Learning anstrebt. Besonders wichtig ist es, dass das eine ohne das andere nicht funktioniert - die Prsenzphasen und die online Phasen mssen also optimal aufeinander abgestimmt sein. Die Qualitt eines hochwertigen integriertes Lernangebotes kennzeichnet sich durch ein, durch allen Phasen des Lernprozesses gehendes Curriculum, eine Wahl des Mediums, welches die Strken der jeweiligen Phase voll zur Geltung bringt, ein Programm, das dem Lernenden mglichst viel Freiraum einrumt (Lerntempo, Eingangskanle, soziale Bindung, Module, usw.) und eine Didaktik, die dem Spa am Lernen Prioritt einrumt. Der zentrale Aspekt des integrierten Lernens ist die Vor- bzw. Nachbereitung in Prsenzveranstaltungen. Insbesondere die Nachbereitung sichert somit einen gewissen Lerntransfer, den klassische Prsenzveranstaltungen nicht leisten knnen.

metakognitive Fhigkeiten, Lehrprozessen, Lernprozessen, Mediendidaktik, kooperative Lernformen, E-Learning, integriertes Lernen

* Babe-Bolyai University


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computer science. Each and every one of these different experts had become aware that only by drawing together these various disciplines could they make progress in their respective fields. Thus, they began the search for a unified science that would discover the representational and computational capacities of the human mind, and their structural and functional realization in the human brain (Miller, 2003: 144). Eventually, they succeeded in defining a new area of cognitive processes, which over time came to be known as cognitive science (Peters and Weiss, 2006: 79). The term cognitive science was coined by Christopher Longuet-Higgins in 1973, and in the same decade the journal Cognitive Science and the Cognitive Science Society were founded.

This rapidly evolving interdisciplinary study aims to establish whether and how intelligence may be modelled computationally, and thus focuses on issues pertaining to learning and development; language acquisition and processing; memory, attention, perception and action. Over the years, cognitive sciences have made it possible to conceive of new ways of structuring information, and have pointed out that the traditional linear approach to information structuring may be replaced by a novel view which opens new opportunities for mass customisation in learning and communication (Peters and Weiss, 2006: 79). One of the main advantages of such an approach lies in the fact that it overcomes the frustration one feels when, in an attempt to structure information, one finds that certain items do not fit into neatly defined categories and, consequently, cannot be represented into simple hierarchical filing systems (Peters and Weiss, 2006: 79).

Peter and Weiss (2006) outline the history of the new approach to information structuring, starting from the 1990s when Yahoo started with a number of high-level categories which later expanded, then subcategories were introduced, which, in turn, spawned more sub-categories and categorization was replaced by links between data entities described in terms of properties and classes, and their relations. Finally, Google really made it work since on Google the search forms the basis for the result, not the other way around (Peters and Weiss, 2006: 80). These revolutionary ontological structures have been used in innovative e-learning applications with important results, their efficiency being guaranteed by the fact that linear learning engagements and hierarchy-based interfaces are abandoned in favour of learning interfaces where links, relationships and information bridges predominate, interfaces that generate a learning flow which is individualized (Peters and Weiss, 2006: 81).

Employed by companies such as Airbus to help employees prevent back injuries, but also by the European Society of Cardiology, for instance, e-learning was also adopted by various corporations, medical centres, important banks, human resource consulting firms, county councils, adult learning inspectorates and universities, such


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as Ashridge Business School, which, in 2004, launched an on-line MBA module. But, as Andrew Ettinger and Viki Holton (2004: 22) show, due to significant barriers encountered in implementing e-learning, the initial wild enthusiasm was later replaced by a more cautious approach, or even by reluctance and rejection. The barriers included the considerable investment and resources required, the cultural change supposed to take place in the case of both trainers and learners, the enormous amount of time needed to develop such a platform, the various technological problems and, last but not least, the loneliness of the e-learners. Here is a systematised chart of the most significant advantages and disadvantages identified by various researchers in the field, such as Kurtus (2004), as well as Ettinger and Holton in light of their 2004 research on the impact of e-learning:

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

potentially efficient training programme controversial topic

time-saving for users due to: on-line guides and book-reviews overviews of various subjects and skills links to recommended websites

practical difficulties in implementing it: financial problems time-related issues mentality hurdles staff-training difficulties

technology is advancing at high speed technological problems may arise

cost-effective training for large groups high development costs (initially)

creative ways to motivate learners requires a profound cultural change

can cover the basics efficiently not appropriate for all types of training

focus on individual learning lack of a supportive environment

the where and when are flexible as the setting is free from time and place constraints

cannot replace good classroom training and the buzz experienced at the end of a fruitful classroom discus-sion

allows for an adjustable learning pace does not allow for discussions with peers

individualized learning flow loneliness of the e-learner

different ways of presenting knowledge can have a negative second-class image

Consequently, over time, the term e-learning has fallen into disgrace, being

subject to negative interpretations and associated with technical problems, monotony, dullness and boredom. Thus, out of the need to overcome this negative image, blended learning has surfaced as a better approach to the process of teaching and learning. Just like e-learning, blended learning uses interfaces where the response to questions of preferred learning styles, knowledge levels, job functions and language needs determine the order, style and flow of the learning engagement (Peters and Weiss, 2006: 81). However, a blended approach implies the use of both classroom


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and e-learning activities, both diagnostic tests interpreted by a tutor, and self-administered ones, direct guidance as well as on-line coaching. This variation is welcome and highly appreciated by the learners, as it fosters many different but equally efficient ways of accessing knowledge: far from being isolated behind the computer screen, as they are bound to be in a strict e-learning course, learners may thus benefit from the enhanced potential of blended learning approaches, which allow for real interaction, face-to-face communication and socialising as well, in an environment where learning is truly valued. Establishing a common-ground between traditional and e-learning, paving the way from instruction to learning, blended learning gives learners access to the best of both worlds.

Thus, as Donald P. Buckley (2002: 29) pointed out, at the beginning of this new millennium, we are in the midst of a profound change, as our generation has the first opportunity to enable an educational transition from a reliance on metaphors about how people learn to an emphasis on pedagogies founded on an understanding of the cognitive development of learning. This transition is likely to reach the proportions of a paradigm-shift, according to Barr and Tagg, as the traditional instructional paradigm, which stresses the delivery of content as the principal product of education, gives way to the learning paradigm, which emphasises the need to ensure that the content is being delivered within powerful learning opportunities (Buckley, 2002: 30). Learning-centered instructional technology in tune with the cognitive development of learning may offer a solution to poor student-learning outcomes. Thus, Buckley (2002: 30) outlines the four essential factors required by such a transition: a learning - centered technology that will lead to the formation of learning-centered communities can only be implemented if transformational faculty development is coupled with institutional change based on efficient course-management systems.

According to Buckley (2002: 30-32), the pedagogical feature set needed in order to create the desired learning-centered technology includes:

an interactive environment that may prompt the students to construct knowledge, to learn with understanding by exploring and interpreting the content area

varied information formats that activate different kinds of learning opportunities which, being enabled by different parts of the brain prevent the students from perceiving the instructional process as monotonous and make full use of the sensory-rich nature of instructional technology

electronic communication that offers opportunities for teamwork and cooperative learning


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formative assessment, which, whether structured or open-ended, encourages mindful engagement by allowing the students to reflect on their understanding before tackling new issues, and to develop metacognitive skills

authoring tools, which promote the construction of knowledge and allow students to benefit from a wide array of information formats and associated cognitive styles

research simulation, essential because critical inquiry is an acquired skill, since the part of the brain responsible with the search for alternative evidence and with the insightful interpretation of valuable evidence may have evolved from perceptual regions of the brain; therefore, a lot of practice is needed, if the students are to develop robust epistemological skills earlier in their academic experiences

The need for such a learning-centered technology can be the catalyst for transformational faculty development, which, nevertheless, requires more than the occasional workshop; it requires recurrent development cycles in which innovative products and pedagogies are fashioned, used and refined (Buckley 2002: 32). Since faculty communities are made of content experts trained in critical inquiry, these gifted educators still need training in the cognitive development of learning, if they are to succeed in using the new instructional technology. By exploring learning-centered and inquiry-oriented teaching styles, the faculty will find it stimulating to create and promote small projects and technology-assisted student activities that promote student learning with understanding. However, since the focus should be not on technology, but on learning, the goal is finding the simplest possible entry into this technology-assisted world of learning (Buckley 2002: 33). Given that collections of learning modules are available on-line, the authoring efforts of the faculty can be directed, from the start, towards the development of pedagogies and activities that exploit the available learning modules (Buckley 2002: 36). Course management systems offer at least three classes of tools that promote student learning with understanding:

web-based content delivery tools, which foster the transition from pure lecture to learning activities such as problem-based and case-based experiences;

communication tools that support team-work, foster cooperative learning and thus allow the faculty members to step away form center-stage, and assume the role of facilitator;

on-line assessment tools, which, in time, will lead to the development of routine formative assessment systems, based on a web-based homework system, which allows for accurate assessment of students progress and learning needs and


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ensures a competency-based learning standard by providing real-time feedback to students (Buckley 2002: 36-37).

Not surprisingly, the students see technology as a natural part of their learning environment, as they use the Internet not only for leisure and socialization, but for school work and school research as well. The generation gap between students and faculty is probably widened by the fact that the former are more Internet-savvy than the latter. What Diana Oblinger stated in 2003 about North American students is true of our students now: thus, although most students have grown up with technology, lack of hardware resources in universities, old equipment and filtering software limit students in-school use of technology. Oblinger (2003: 40-42) summarizes the ten attributes that Jason Frand has identified as characteristic for the current information-age mindset:

The students see the computer as an assumed part of life, consider the Internet as superior to television, acknowledge that reality is no longer real, as digital images can be altered

and an e-mail sent from someones address may not have come from that person; believe that doing is more important than knowing, and thus value results

and actions much more than the mere accumulation of facts prefer a trial-and-error approach to solving problems to the traditional

logical, rule-based approach see multitasking as the natural response to information overload prefer typing to handwriting think that staying connected is essential, and make sure that they are in

touch with their friends, family and peers via cell phones, PDAs and computers (the Internet, e-mail, Yahoo! Messenger, Hotmail MSN, Skype, chat-rooms, blogs, etc.)

tend to manifest zero tolerance for delays, having a strong demand for immediacy and expecting responses to be quick

find it increasingly difficult to make the distinction between creator/owner and consumer in a file-sharing cut-and-paste world, living under the impression that if something is digital, it is everyones property (Oblinger 2003: 40-42)

Consequently, the new students, being the product of a technologically imbued environment, require faculty able to deal with their new demands and with their novel needs:

The teachers should


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be able to point out the meaning of authoring in cyberspace and the techniques of avoiding plagiarism when doing research on the Internet;

have the ability to use information technology so as to facilitate cooperative learning and encourage students to work collaboratively;

employ varied information formats, making use of web-based content-delivery tools, a web-based homework system and on-line assessment tools

offer a wider scope of learning situations use the most appropriate techniques for each type of learning activity deliver what the students need gather together all the important topics previously discussed thus creating a

virtual knowledge repository offer students the necessary time to reflect on all the information presented offer pro-active support to the learners be aware that, by helping others while sharing experience and knowledge,

the students will gain at least as much as they give, enriching the input of innovative ideas and techniques of study, thus significantly increasing learning efficiency, which will ultimately benefit the group as a whole

encourage students to pursue and maintain active membership of discussion forums and on-line groups relevant to their area of study, enabling meetings with like-minded peers, in the classroom and on-line (by written electronic communication e-mails, or via synchronous communication, in a videoconference or in discussion forums)

be enthusiastic, able to motivate students to start and continue a discussion

use group dynamics appropriately, ensuring the desired learning outcomes offer face-to-face and on-line training meetings offer students real-time feedback and provide links to diagnostics

The ever more impressive advances in technology and the information-age mindset characteristic of the younger generation, together with recent research in cognitive science pointing towards the efficiency of learning interfaces that generate an individualized learning flow have resulted in a rapid growth of interest in computer-assisted learning and teaching. While e-learning as such failed to fulfil the original promise, a more appropriate solution has been found: blended-learning, a learner-oriented approach that integrates e-learning strategies within traditional classroom activities, promoting learning with understanding and encouraging student-autonomy. By the end of this centurys second decade, blended learning will, most


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probably, have been accepted by most, if not all of the people closely involved with training, as a powerful learning tool, extremely efficient in knowledge management.

ReferencesBuckley, D. P. (2002). In Pursuit of the Learning Paradigm Coupling Faculty Transformation and Institutional

Change, EDUCAUSE, January/February, Vol. 37, 2002. Available at: http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/erm0202.pdf; Retrieved on 3 September, 2007.

Ettinger, A. and V. Holton (2004). E-Learning A Challenging Journey Started Research Findings from Ashridge

Business School, The 9th International Telework Workshop, Crete, Greece: 6th 9th September 2004. Available at: http://www.ashridge.org.uk. Retrieved on 15 June, 2007.

Ettinger, A. and V. Holton (2004). E-learning: revolutionary or evolutionary? Available at: http://www.ashridge.org.

uk. Retrieved on 15 June, 2007.

Miller, G.A. (2003). The Cognitive Revolution: A Historical Perspective, Trends inCognitive Sciences, Vol 7 (3), March, 141-144.Oblinger, D. (2003). Boomers and Gen X-ers Millennials Understanding the New Students, EDUCAUSE, July/August, Vol. 38, 2003. Available at: http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/erm0342.pdf; Retrieved on 4 September,

2007.

Peters, K. and M. Weiss (2006). Understanding Computes: Cognitive Science and Learning, Convergence, Vol 7 (1), February. Available at http://www.ashridge.org.uk. Retrieved on 14 June, 2007.

1. IntroductionDans ce travail, nous analysons le problme de limperfectivit de limparfait

et la relation qui existe entre lincomplet, linaccompli ou limperfectif et le phnomne de lellipse. Dans notre dmarche, nous nous appuyons sur les procds anaphoriques dont on recourt souvent quand on utilise une phrase avec un verbe limparfait, sur la relation troite entre le pass simple et limparfait dans le discours narratif et sur la possibilit de complter la partie non ralise de limparfait. Dans le chapitre 2, nous montrons quil est possible de saisir la totalit en sappuyant sur une partie et dans le chapitre 3, nous montrons que limparfait permet de renvoyer une partie de la phase interne dune situation, sans apporter dinformation sur la partie qui nest pas dcrite. Le chapitre 6 prsente la possibilit que la partie qui nest pas ralise devienne ralisable et des situations quand la partie qui semble ralise soit

ralIs et non ralIs dans lIMparfaItSergiu Zagan-Zelter, Diana Zagan-Zelter*

In this paper, we study to what extent the unaccomplished part of the French imparfait can become accomplished and situations when the part that appears to be accomplished (due to inferences), is in fact unaccomplished. We focus on elements such us anaphora, essential properties of the imparfait and ellipsis to show that this French tense allows the reference to an internal phase of a situation without providing information about the part that is not described. In this respect, considering the relation pass simple imparfait as a background for our study, we argue that the unaccomplished part of the imparfait is in direct relation with the phenomenon of ellipsis.

ellipsis, anaphora, aspect, imperfectivity, narration.



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en ralit non ralise. Avant cela, nous abordons la relation pass simple- imparfait qui est dfinitoire pour notre tude.

2. Les proprits essentielles de limparfait temporelLimparfait a la particularit de traduire des actions ou des tats passs, sans les

enclore dans les limites de leur ralisation, sans les prsenter comme ayant eu de commencement ni de fin. (Wagner, 1939 : 320) Limparfait a t schmatis par Holger Sten (1952) de la manire suivante:

( ) ( )

Ce quon observe dans ce schma est labsence de la dlimitation initiale et finale, le manque de contrainte dans des espaces bien dlimits en ce qui concerne la ralisation des actions.

Limparfait temporel (exceptant limparfait dans les conditionnelles), a deux proprits essentielles : la premire est son caractre anaphorique (ainsi nomm parce que la rfrence temporelle de la phrase limparfait est construite par rapport un autre vnement, quil sagit de reconstituer) et la seconde proprit est aspectuelle (limparfait semble dcrire un vnement en train de se produire). Berthonneau et Kleiber (1993) soutiennent la thse anaphorique et considrent que limparfait, la diffrence du pass compos, contient un manque. Lexistence dimparfaits dits narratifs met en discussion le problme de limperfectivit de limparfait. Ainsi, les vnements mentionns en Le lendemain, Paul tlphonait Marie sont prsents comme stant produits plutt quen train de se produire. Mais dans une phrase comme Quand je suis entr il y a deux minutes, Paul tlphonait Marie, rien nindique que Paul ait lheure actuelle termin la conversation au tlphone. La caractrisation de limparfait comme un tat englobant cre une imperfectivit possible: ltat peut se continuer aprs la fin de lvnement. La proprit dimperfectivit peut expliquer la thse selon laquelle le temps navance pas avec limparfait.

Dans lexemple: Paul entra. Marie tlphonait. nous notons x < y le fait que x dbute avant y et x y le fait que dbut (x) dbut (y) et fin (x) fin (y). Nous comprenons par cela que Marie ne peut pas cesser de tlphoner avant que Paul nentre. Mais, si nous considrons la situation: Paul tlphona. Marie entrait. et que nous tenions compte de la reprsentation avec x et y, nous pouvons dcouvrir une situation assez bizarre: la fin (x) fin (y) peut signifier que Marie continue entrer mme aprs que Paul cesse de tlphoner. Une telle possibilit peut tre accepte si nous introduisons en discussion le phnomne de lellipse: Marie peut


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tre la secrtaire qui entre et sort rgulirement. Par limparfait alors, on annonce non seulement une partie dun vnement, mais aussi une partie dune situation habituelle; laide de lellipse, de la partie, on saisit lhabituel, cest--dire la totalit. Un autre aspect que nous voulons soutenir est en opposition avec lide selon laquelle le temps navance pas avec limparfait. Dans lexemple ci-dessus, le temps avance si on saisit lvnement dans sa totalit ou dans son aspect rptitif. La reprsentation dbut (x) dbut (y) signifie que Marie entrait toujours, mme avant le coup de fil.

3. Lellipse aspectuelle (le cas de limparfait)Limparfait de rupture apparat en gnral aprs le pass simple et entre ces

deux moments cest lellipse explicite qui prdomine: Lorsque le notaire arriva avec M. Geoffrin [...] elle les reut elle-mme et les invita tout visiter en dtail. Un mois plus tard, elle signait le contrat de vente et achetait en mme temps une petite maison bourgeoise ( Maupassant 1999 : 292). Paul Imbs (1968) considre que laction dcrite par limparfait ne fait plus partie de la narration proprement-dite parce que la trame des vnements est finie. Cet imparfait de rupture qui suit lellipse, fonctionne comme une extension de la narration au-del des vnements dj accomplis.

Dans La Pipe en sucre de M. Rolland, Carl Vetters montre quil y a une relation entre limparfait narratif et lellipse narrative: Deux semaines aprs, on lui coupait les deux jambes, et le deux fvrier suivant, deux chevaux la menrent au cimtire. (Caudal & Vetters, 2005 : 54). Tout le monde comprend que la personne est morte et est conduite au cimtire pour tre enterre et non pas pour se promener. On peut donner deux autres exemples, de James H. Chase:

Le Vautour attend toujours et de Simenon: Tout Simenon: Il grommela, mit le contact et la Morris dmarra. Dix minutes plus tard, les deux hommes se trouvaient dans une petite chambre chichement meuble, claire par une ampoule poussireuse et sans abat-jour qui pendait lamentablement du plafond sale. (Caudal & Vetters, 2005 : 54).

Il lui donna le numro de limmeuble, endossa son pardessus et quelques instants plus tard, il y avait une silhouette sombre de plus marcher pas rapides dans le brouillard. Ce ne fut quau coin du boulevard Voltaire quil trouva un taxi. Les avenues, autour de lEtoile, taient presque dsertes. (Caudal & Vetters, 2005 : 54).

Dans ces deux exemples dellipse, il sagit dun trajet pendant lequel il ne se passe rien de significatif. Personne nest surpris de constater quun personnage qui finit par trouver un taxi au boulevard Voltaire se trouve, dans la phrase suivante, dja du ct de la place de lEtoile.


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Dans le contexte narratif, limparfait permet de renvoyer une partie de la phase interne dune situation, sans apporter dinformation sur la partie qui nest pas dcrite. Caudal et Vetters (2005) ont nomm ce phnomne ellipse aspectuelle. Le contexte narratif ne contredit pas le contenu aspectuel de limparfait mais il ajoute linformation aspectuelle qui na pa t donn par ce temps. Limparfait exprime un type particulier du point de vue imperfectif et renvoie une sous-partie de la phase interne, de sorte que la phase rsultante et le changement dtat associ font lobjet dune ellipse aspectuelle. Cest le contexte qui permet dinfrer que la phase rsultante a t atteinte. Voil un exemple de La nuit du carrefour de Simenon: Quelques instants plus tard, Maigret descendait (e1) lescalier, traversait (e2) le salon aux meubles disparates, gagnait (e3) la terrasse ruisselante des rayons dj chauds du soleil. (Caudal&Vetters, 2003: 55) On constate que cest e2 qui permet dinfrer que e1 a atteint sa borne de droite et quune transition a eu lieu. En effet, Maigret ne peut pas tre en train de traverser le salon tant quil nest pas arriv en bas de lescalier. Or, laffirmation que Maigret est en train de traverser le salon est prise en charge par le narrateur, mme si linfrence quil a effectivement travers le salon nest pas explicite, mais infre son tour sur la base de e3. Autrement dit, limparfait a sa valeur scante normale et sature une partie de linterval (qui ne comprend pas la borne de droite); lautre partie (avec la borne de droite) nest pas explicite par limparfait. On pourrait dire quelle fait lobjet dune ellipse narrative et le contexte est celui qui permet dinfrer que la borne de droite a t atteinte.

4. Imparfait au dbut et la fin du rcit Berthonneau et Kleiber (Berthonneau & Kleiber 1993) considrent quil est

difficile de commencer un rcit par une phrase limparfait isole. Cest pour cela quune phrase comme Il y avait dabord ce visage allong par quelques rides verticales, telles des cicatrices creuses par de lointaines insomnies, un visage mal ras, travaill par le temps (Ben Jelloun 1985 : 7) demande le recours laspect anaphorique de limparfait, aussi bien quune analyse de son aspect elliptique. Le mot dabord oblige le lecteur dadmettre lexistence dun personnage dans sa totalit, tout en le forant de se fixer sur un aspect qui exclut une grande partie du portrait.

On trouve limparfait au dbut dun rcit, quand la trame vnementielle nest pas encore mise en place et quil sagit simplement dindiquer au destinataire quil est question de donnes passes: Il tait une fois... . Limparfait de fin de rcit et vu par Paul Imbs (1968) prsente les vnements comme des moments (nous prfrons le terme moments celui dtats utilis par Imbs, parce que expliquer limparfait de rupture en termes dtat est inexact, - cela reprend la vieille conception de limparfait


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duratif) dans lesquels le narrateur voit les hros installs, et caractrise latmosphre finale du drame. On peut comparer cet imparfait la fin du rcit avec la dernire image dun film qui devient une photo fixe et sur laquelle saffiche le gnrique, pour que le spectateur prouve la sensation floue et agrable dune histoire termine qui continue lui faire impression. Le lecteur continue complter la dernire image du livre avec des choses qui se sont dj passes, la diffrence du lecteur qui lit une premire phrase comme Il tait une fois et qui doit complter lespace libre au fur et mesure.

5. La relation pass simple imparfaitDans lexemple Le 12 septembre 2003, il pleut / il pleuvait Birmingham,

on dcouvre le fait que le pass simple et limparfait sont anaphoriques. Dans cette commune ncessit dun support temporel, le pass simple marque le point dincidence au temps du procs pleuvoir (sans pour autant indiquer prcisment la localisation temporelle de ce point), alors que limparfait ne le marque pas. Dans La nuit vint. M. Marambot se coucha son heure ordinaire et sendormit. Il fut rveill par un bruit singulier. Il sassit aussitt dans son lit et couta. (Labeau 2007 : 29), nos connaissances du monde nous demandent de poser entre lendormissement et le rveil ultrieur un certain temps. Le pass simple franchit cette ellipse sans le concours dun circonstant. La scution sendormir < tre rveill demande que ce second procs soit reprsent partir de son point dincidence au temps. Limparfait, lui, ne peut franchir cette ellipse par ses propres vertus et exige un adjuvant du type x temps plus tard: La nuit vint. M. Marambot se coucha son heure ordinaire et sendormit. Il ? tait rveill / Deux heures plus tard, il tait rveill par un bruit singulier. Il sassit aussitt dans son lit et couta. (Labeau, 2007 : 29) Lexplication aspectuelle est qu la mme demande cotextuelle de reprsentation du procs partir de son point dincidence du fait de la succession, limparfait, de par son instruction [ - incidence], rpond ngativement.

6. La perfectivit / limperfectivit de limparfait Selon Dospinescu (Dospinescu 2000), tant quun autre vnement ne vient pas

arrter le cours de lvnement, limparfait reste ancr dans le pass par sa partie dj ralise et, pour sa partie non ralise mais ralisable (peut-tre), ouvert sur le prsent de lnonciation avec lequel il peut interfrer: - Tu fais quoi maintenent? / - Je lis, enfin je lisais. [= je ne lis plus, je rponds la question mais je peux reprendre ensuite la lecture] (cest nous qui soulignons). La possibilit que la partie qui nest pas ralise devienne ralisable tient dun contexte plus large: sil sagit dun examen pour


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la prparation duquel un tudiant consacre beaucoup de temps et que la question vienne juste avant le dpart vers la facult (il sagit de deux collgues qui vont ensemble la facult), il est possible que la partie qui manque ne soit jamais ralisable: ltudiant passe lexamen et suit une carrire dans un autre domaine et il ne continue plus la lecture du livre. Mais, si ltudiant choue lexamen, il est possible quil reprenne la lecture du livre. Cest pour cela que nous considrons que cette partie non ralise est une ellipse, dont la rcupration tient du contexte.

Prenons lexemple suivant:Quand je regardai vers le magasin, elle traversait la rue.Nous proposons quatre possibilits de schmatiser le signifi de limparfait et

dtablir sil sagit dun procs peru dans toute sa dimension ou non. Soit A et B deux points qui signifient le parcours dune personne qui traverse une rue. Soit X un point au milieu de ce parcours. La flche reprsente le parcours de la personne, tel quil est peru par celui qui regarde.

A B

Dans la premire situation, on peut voir que tout le processus est vu par celui qui regarde. En b., on voit seulement le parcours X B et on infre que la personne a

Quand je regardai vers le magasin, elle traversait la rue.

Nous proposons quatre possibilits de schmatiser le signifi de limparfait et

dtablir sil sagit dun procs peru dans toute sa dimension ou non. Soit A et B deux

points qui signifient le parcours dune personne qui traverse une rue. Soit X un point au

milieu de ce parcours. La flche reprsente le parcours de la personne, tel quil est peru

par celui qui regarde.

A B

a. X b. c. d. Dans la premire situation, on peut voir que tout le processus est vu par celui qui

regarde. En b., on voit seulement le parcours X B et on infre que la personne a

parcouru la priode A X avant que celui qui regarde ne voie. En c., celui qui regarde,

mme sil na pas vu tout le parcours, infre que la personne va aboutir B. En d., on

peut reprer la personne au milieu du trajet A B et dinfrer que la personne a travers

et va traverser la rue. En fait, il se peut que les choses se passent dune autre manire

pour les points b., c. et d. Pour b., la personne peut remplir seulement le segment X B si

elle doit aller de B X pour rcuprer un objet quune autre personne a jet du point B.

Ainsi, la personne part de B, arrive X et retourne B avec lobjet rcupr. Le segment

A X na t jamais parcouru, donc en ralit, traversait [AB] = traversait [AB - AX].

En c., il se peut que la personne qui traverse, se souvienne de quelque chose et retourne.


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parcouru la priode A X avant que celui qui regarde ne voie. En c., celui qui regarde, mme sil na pas vu tout le parcours, infre que la personne va aboutir B. En d., on peut reprer la personne au milieu du trajet A B et dinfrer que la personne a travers et va traverser la rue. En fait, il se peut que les choses se passent dune autre manire pour les points b., c. et d. Pour b., la personne peut remplir seulement le segment X B si elle doit aller de B X pour rcuprer un objet quune autre personne a jet du point B. Ainsi, la personne part de B, arrive X et retourne B avec lobjet rcupr. Le segment A X na t jamais parcouru, donc en ralit, traversait [AB] = traversait [AB - AX]. En c., il se peut que la personne qui traverse, se souvienne de quelque chose et retourne. Alors, traversait [AB] signifie traversait [AB - XB]. En d., il est possible quune personne soit laisse au milieu de la rue par une voiture et quelle monte dans une autre voiture. Cest le cas o la personne ne traverse pas la rue et le trajet pourrait tre reprsent par traversait [AB] = traversait [ - AB].

7. Conclusion Dans le chapitre antrieur, nous avons propos quatre possibilits de schmatiser

le signifi de limparfait et dtablir sil sagit dun procs peru dans toute sa dimension ou non. Nous avons montr le fait que les infrences naident pas toujours remplir les espaces libres et quon peut utiliser un verbe limparfait qui dnote le mouvement pour faire rfrence un manque total de mouvement. Avant cette dmonstration, nous avons tudi des problmes comme: les proprits essentielles de limparfait temporel, lellipse aspectuelle, lutilisation de limparfait au dbut et la fin du rcit et bien sr, la relation parfait simple imparfait.

Bibliografie: Ben Jelloun, T. (1985). LEnfant de sable. Paris: Seuil.Berthonneau A.-M. & Kleiber G. (1993). Pour une nouvelle approche de limparfait: limparfait, un temps

anaphorique mronomique , Langages, 112, 55-73.Caudal, P. & Vetters, C. (2005). Que limparfait nest pas (encore) un prtrit. P. Larrive & E. Labeau

(ds.), Nouveaux Dveloppements de limparfait - Cahiers Chronos, 14, Amsterdam/Paris/New York : Rodopi, 49-82.

Dospinescu, V. (2000). Le Verbe. Iasi: Junimea.Imbs, P. (1968). Lemploi des temps verbaux en franais moderne. Essai de grammairedescriptive. Paris: Klincksieck.Jayez, J. et all. (1998). Le temps des vnements. Paris: Kim. Labeau, E. & Larrive, P. (2005). Nouveaux Dveloppements de limparfait. Amsterdam / Paris / New York: Rodopi.


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Labeau, E., Vetters, C. & Caudal, P. (2007). Smantique et diachronie du systme verbal franais. Rodopi.Maupassant, G. (1999). Une vie. Paris: Hachette.Sten, H. (1952). Les temps du verbe fini (indicatif) en franais moderne. Copenhague: Munksgaard.Sthioul B. (1995). Imparfait et focalisation. Genve: Universit de Genve.Touratier, C. (1996). Le systme verbal franais. Paris: Colin.Wagner, R.-L. (1939). Les phrases hypothtiques commenant par si dans la langue franaise des origins la fin du xv-me sicle. Paris: Droz.Wunderli, P. (1980). Du mot au texte. Tbingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.

IntroductionTeaching adult learners can be described as a complex process involving

the intricate, mutually complementary and many-sided relationship between the learners and the teacher. At the same time, it can be considered a lucrative field with rewards accompanied by frustrations that would have either positive or negative impact on the classroom actors. Teaching adults requires not only the sound knowledge of management skills and teaching techniques, but also a certain degree of flexibility, sensitiveness and empathy towards adult learners and the language itself. In such an interdependent environment, an effective teaching-learning process could come into being, provided the instructor is able to find equilibrium between the sides and manages to combine the above practices for the common goal of both learners and the teacher.

That is why questions like How can adult learners be taught effectively?, How can they be led once again into the world of learning?, How can their language

teaChIng adult learners dIffICultIes and rewards

Kovcs Rka*

Der vorliegende Artikel befasst sich mit Aspekten des Fremdsprachenunterrichts fr Erwachsene. Da erwachsene Lerner schon ber ein reiches Sprachrepertoire verfgen, knnen frhere Spracherfahrungen als eintrgliche Quellen verwendet werden, die den Lernprozess erleichtern knnen. Im Sinne des Erwachsenenunterrichts sollte die Aufgabe des Sprachlehrers nicht nur darin bestehen, die Bedrfuisse der Lernenden zu erkennen, sondern auch ihre Lernerwartungen mit den Zielsetzungen des Unterrichts zu verbinden. Im Folgenden werden die Englischkurse fr Anfnger im Rahmen des Lingua-Sprachzentrums dargestellt und gleichzeitig Erfolge und Schwierigkeiten sowohl der erwachsenen Lernenden als auch des Lehrers hervorgehoben. Es werden Beispiele geliefert, wie die Lernhindernisse berwunden und die Kursteilnehmer zum erfolgreichen Lernen ermuntert wurden.

Erwachsenenunterricht, Bedrfnisse, Zielsetzungen, kommunikative Fhigkeiten, Schreiben, Grammatikunterricht, Hindernisse, Erfolge.



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awareness be raised?, How can adults be motivated, encouraged, evaluated and even monitored? or How can the needs of adults be identified and their expectations met during the classroom activities? sound familiar to and should be a subject of concern for every language teacher engaged and interested in adult teaching. This is but a short list of challenges and dilemmas regarding the feelings of teachers involved in teaching adult learners.

However, the course instructors uncertainty, doubts and anxiety about the learning-teaching process can even triple once he or she is confronted with further issues of great significance, such as gaining the sympathy of the students, preparing the lessons, highlighting the language, selecting the materials or, last but not least, the impact of the topics on the adult learners and on their feelings. Will they like me? Do the subjects relate to their interest and speak to them evoking an immediate response? Can the issues lead to a personal reaction? These are a few of the many concerns and problems teachers would face.

Besides the above-mentioned obstacles, language teachers can often experience other difficulties, mainly when teaching foreign languages to adult learners at beginner level. Since these students have no command of the foreign language and yet they are endowed with communicative competencies, having a particular language background and possessing a well-formed world awareness, the teachers job and responsibilities towards both the students and the language are much more complicated and varied.

Needs assessmentIn order to avoid any potential pitfalls or to prevent any problems from occurring,

language teachers have to be fully aware of the different needs adult learners may have. For achieving this, teachers have to establish connections between the needs and aspirations of the students and the objectives of the course with the aim of providing not only a pleasant and enjoyable class atmosphere but also a useful, interactive learning-teaching medium.

Thus, in order to respond positively to the adult learners expectations, the first step to be taken both by the teacher and the teaching establishment is to recognise and identify the needs of adult students. Since many of the learners have only a vague idea of the objectives they would like to achieve by learning a foreign language, it is vital for them to form an idea about the language course and the teaching establishment. It is therefore of utmost importance for the future learners to try and specify their objectives concerning the studied language and furthermore to match these objectives to those of the teacher, language course or teaching institute. In this first stage of


25

looking for and recognising the own objectives, the students may also learn about their personality, thereby becoming aware of certain characteristics of it. Knowledge of their own identity may play an important role in determining their behaviour and attitude towards the teaching-learning process, as well as in their selection of learning methods. When realising these objectives, the students should also ask themselves about the areas where they wish to use the foreign language or about the skills they intend to acquire.

Following the specification of the learning objectives, assessment should occupy a major position and should be integrated in the learning material. In this way, students will have the opportunity to check and evaluate their adopted strategies, as well as the application of these techniques. Assessing the progress, comparing the newly acquired knowledge to the previous one and receiving constant motivation from the instructor would encourage the learners, leading them to success. Nevertheless, during the course, the objectives of the adult students may change and at the same time alterations may take place in their identity. Therefore, the aforementioned factors might have a decisive part in the continuation of the course. The more clearly the objectives are defined and the more effectively the teaching/learning strategies are implemented, the better chances the students have to acquire the foreign language.

In addition to the identification of the students expectations, it is also extremely useful, and even advisable, for a teaching establishment to improve its knowledge of the future learners. Tailoring the needs of the learners to those of the teaching institute would prove to be the source of a fruitful collaboration in the long run. That is why, in order to satisfy the changing needs of the students, teaching establishments and staff should also be characterised by a high degree of adaptability and flexibility offering onward consultancy or advisory service in order to better meet the demands of all parties (Richterich, Chancerel 1980: 17-42).

Teaching a foreign language to adult learners at beginner level means the consideration and application of a wide range of new classroom approaches and techniques. However, a course instructor may rightfully ask these questions: Do the students already have some previous knowledge in the foreign language? or Can the students knowledge of their mother tongue be exploited in a way to enhance success? Owing to the fact that adult students have already a certain level of fluency in more than one language and that they regularly use it in everyday life with some degree of self-confidence, they are able to constantly grasp at their invaluable linguistic resources taking full advantage of them for their own benefit. Thanks to the already existing linguistic resources and language skills, students can speed up the process of learning the foreign language. Apart from that, learners anxiety may be reduced, confidence and motivation may be added to the class activities, and thus students can


26

be helped to contribute to the lesson in a variety of ways, depending on their previous language experience.

As long as the learners linguistic resources are utilised, many difficulties might be overcome, while problems and misunderstandings might be solved. Because the above resources may be well exploited by both the teacher and the students, the different aspects of language learning like the teaching of vocabulary, pronunciation, comprehension, grammar and writing, to name but a few, may be facilitated, thus providing the learners with sufficient exposure to new language items. Alternatively, students may be encouraged to develop their ability to relate to topics, to predict, deduce and infer, compare and get meaning from contexts or give meaning to situations. In a nutshell, the personal contribution to the class would definitively arouse the learners interest, curiosity and motivation towards the foreign language (Nicholls, Hoadley-Maidment 1988: 80-85).

In addition to these resources, the students mother tongue and cultural heritage could turn out to be generous aids in understanding and identifying the language difficulties students may face. Being aware that a persons way of thinking and feeling is rooted in their mother tongue could help the teacher not only in error correction but also in understanding the communication difficulties students might undergo.

It is common knowledge that, at the initial stages of learning a foreign language, the students repertoire is limited to those few utterances already learned and that they must constantly think in their mother tongue before or while speaking. Even when having a simple conversation learners become aware of what they actually mean only after delivering the message. Therefore, in order to understand essential information or to structure their ideas, students may often need to think in or use their mother tongue; moreover, in certain cases, they would also need explanations in their native language. In this sense, teachers will manage to better monitor the process of referring back to mother tongue equivalents and supervise the way students would sort out their ideas and apply learning strategies of their own (Nicholls, Hoadley-Maidment 1988: 97-103).

As opposed to the previous idea, according to which adult students could benefit from their linguistic repertoire, it should also be noted that adult learners experience could be a drawback as well, a hindering factor in the learning process. Indeed, adult learners past experiences could play an important role in their learning activity, but at the same time they could have a negative impact on the learning techniques and strategies adults would implement. To put it simply, negative learning experiences could constantly remind adult students of their past failures. That is why adults may frequently approach learning tasks with preconceived ideas or even preconceptions that would prevent them from reaffirming the objectives or simply from choosing the


27

most appropriate and effective learning strategies. In other words, since adult learners can never start with a totally blank mind, negative experiences may hold adults back, discourage and deter them from forming or improving their own learning styles.

In addition, other barriers to learning could be emphasised, some of which are external in nature, being caused by domestic and financial difficulties, while others are of internal nature, arising from psychological or physiological problems. When considering factors like adult learners personal identity, life goals, marital status, families, sex, personal finances, their disposal over free time, the balancing of full-time work with part-time studies, timetable, etc., we could draw the conclusion that enrolling for a language course may not only affect their domestic environment and everyday life or lead to subsequent changes in the students personal identity, but could also result in alterations in behavioural and emotional adjustments in family life. All these negative outcomes may go together with the other barriers created by the teacher himself/herself. Hence, the teachers personality, his/her personal attitude towards the students, the choice of teaching techniques, the lack of empathy or attention, and imperfections in the teaching environment may also be regarded as negative points that could be sometimes crucial in the learners decision of continuing or completing the language course (Huddleston, Unwin 2002: 79-107).

As a consequence, we could ascertain that teaching adult learners may pose challenges and difficulties, but also provide perspectives and opportunities to every language teacher. Nearly all the time teachers may get the impression of tiptoeing on a minefield, where they can constantly witness as well as experience situations with hidden difficulties, unexpected joy, and where instructors have to pay attention, be patient and open-minded or show sensitiveness and understanding towards the students attitude. Teaching adult students is a complicated process, so it is not possible to follow absolute rules that would insure success. However, it is worth bearing in mind that teaching itself is not a personality contest where instructors should aim for popularity; it is rather success that would derive from the teachers competence and knowledge of handling the situation, from knowing what to do (Lewis, Hill 1993: 10-16).

Sharing my teaching experienceWhen teaching English language to beginner adult students at the Lingua language

school of the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, course instructors may encounter several difficulties, which however could be well managed and even overcome, as long as the teachers pay enough attention to them and come up with an answer to the challenges.


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Teaching SpeakingAs far as speaking is concerned, we could observe that beginner students often

run into difficulties when having to speak freely or express their views about subjects. Since they have only limited language resources, it can be difficult to convince them to speak or use their productive skill in a meaningful way. Thus, at the early stages of the language class, adult students are generally confused using a kind of mixture of English and their mother tongue. In addition, the lack of self confidence or the awareness that they have no precise knowledge of the grammar rules could be regarded as serious impediments in the learning process.

In spite of the difficulties adult students would face, it is vitally important to give them speaking tasks that would encourage and provoke them to use the language at their command. Getting students to have free discussions or take part in role-plays would stimulate their interest and motivate them to develop their spoken communication skills. This element of real life may help them to understand what communicating in English really feels like. Besides this, good speaking activities can be highly motivating provided all the students participate fully, and the feeling that they belong together or have the same aims would give them enormous confidence and satisfaction (Harmer 1998: 87-96).

In what follows, we would present some speaking tasks that proved to be creative, stimulating and popular among the students attending the Lingua language courses at beginner level. In the first unit International English, the students learned about countries and nationalities. The next class, they received several cards with foreign names on them and in pairs they had to guess each others nationalities and countries they were from. The aim of this exercise was not only to practise the already acquired structures, but also to encourage spoken fluency and successful communication. Later on the learners were given the pictures of certain personalities and their task was first to present these famous people, and second to write short paragraphs about them. By the use of such cards or pictures the students managed to overcome their anxiety of getting involved in the topic or discussion more easily.

Another case in point would be the unit Food and Drink, where the students learned the special vocabulary of communicating in a restaurant, of ordering food and drink and of writing a menu. Several practice activities followed the presentation of the new language, their aims being accuracy and the correct manipulation of language patterns. At this stage, the students were also provided with menus and they had to role-play simple conversations in a restaurant. By putting the language in context, the learners managed both to practise the language and to acquire several


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key functions starting a conversation, inviting people, making suggestions, asking for help, asking for and offering things, agreeing and disagreeing, etc. - a foreigner would need when speaking English.

As a consequence of such activities, we could remark that the students managed not only to express their views in the form of a free discussion but also to get rid of their fears of using the English language. Since all the above activities involved an element of information gap and the demand that the students would interact in order to complete the tasks, the adult learners were highly motivated and strived to communicate. Under relaxing and motivating circumstances, the elements of frustration were offset by the interesting and engaging nature of the tasks.

Teaching WritingAnother area of concern for the teachers of English would be the teaching of

writing to adult students. It is again a widely held view among the language teachers that mastering the ability to write effectively should be a key objective for the learners. Due to the fact that writing can be used for a variety of purposes, ranging from being the background for grammar teaching to reinforcing the language to be taught, teachers should lay a special stress on both the development and improvement of the students writing skills.

As compared to oral communication, writing presumes different mental processes students would go through. Since writing is not time-bound, learners have more time to reflect upon their ideas and consult dictionaries or grammar reference sources so that they will use the language accurately. After going through all these phases, students could become better writers and could learn how to write in various genres using different registers.

When helping students to become better writers, teachers have a number of vital tasks to perform. First of all, learners need to be made aware of the writing conventions and genre constraints in specific types of writing. Second, teachers need to act as motivators and provokers, mainly because learners tend to be reluctant when expressing themselves in different contexts. Besides these roles, the teachers responsibilities would be to support and reassure the students, react to their written work and, finally, evaluate it (Harmer 2004: 31-43).

Next, we would like to highlight by means of a few examples how the adult students coped with the challenges of writing at the Lingua English courses. In order to encourage learners to write teachers should bring some energy and excitement in the process of writing. Successful activities could not be organised and performed unless a strong, engaging context is created. Thus, with the aim of generating motivation,


30

writing activities were combined with the use of visual aids (e.g. describing photos of family members) or students were often asked to carry out the writing task in groups, using a limited number of words. The latter method proved to be quite provoking, and the idea of competition added an extra incentive to the writing approach.

Teaching GrammarAnother important aspect closely linked to speaking and writing skills would

be the teaching of grammar. Since nearly all the students have a reluctant or even rejecting attitude towards grammar, language teachers have to come up with interesting and exciting class activities that would contribute not only to a better understanding of grammar rules, but also to encouraging students and wiping out their misconceptions.

As I have observed during my teaching experience, adult students prefer the deductive approach to the inductive one and in general are unfamiliar with learning grammar through texts. Although in real life we experience texts in their entirety and in their contexts of use, adult students tend to detach language from the context. It would seem they would rather analyse sentences in isolation than groups of sentences or even texts. Somehow they lose their self-confidence, get scared of a text or simply refuse dealing with contexts (Thornbury 1999: 69-90).

Moreover, their anxiety reaches a peak when having to handle grammar exercises embedded in speaking or writing tasks. At this stage, adult learners should not only be encouraged by their teachers but also be led into and adjusted to activities that combine grammar with other skills. In this context group work, dialogues and role-plays could be generous sources that would foster their learning and help them to get rid of their inhibitions when practising the English language.

As the above examples point out, adult learners reacted well to the set of interactive and challenging activities. Whats more, they turned out to be quite flexible and sensitive towards different tasks, despite the fact that at the early stages of the language course they needed to be carefully convinced and motivated to accept the new teaching methods and learn from these. Little by little, adult learners gained self-confidence and later on managed to successfully juggle with the foreign language.

ConclusionIn conclusion, we could take the view that teaching adult students is both

rewarding and frustrating feelings that are familiar to all those engaged in the teaching-learning process. It is not only the teachers who may encounter difficulties


31

or experience success, but also the adult learners who may go through positive and negative phases.

The key to a fruitful interaction and collaboration is the identification of the needs and their adaptation to and combination with the objectives to be set.

ReferencesHarmer, Jeremy (1998). How to Teach English. Essex: Longman.Harmer, Jeremy (2004). How to Teach Writing. Essex: Longman.Hopkins, Andy; Potter, Jocelyn (1994). Look Ahead. Classroom Course. Essex: Longman.Huddleston, Prue; Unwin, Lorna (2002). Teaching and Learning in Further Education. London, New York: RoutledgeFalmer.

Lewis, Michael; Hill, Jimmie (1993). Source Book for Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Oxford: Heinemann English Language Teaching.

Nicholls, Sandra; Hoadley-Maidmnet Elizabeth (1988). Current Issues in Teaching English as a Second Language to Adults. London, New York: Edward Arnold.Richterich, Ren; Chancerel, Jean-Louis (1980). Identifying the Needs of Adults Learning a Foreign Language. Oxford: Pergamon Institute of English.

Thornbury, Scott (1999). How to Teach Grammar. Essex: Longman.

Consideraii introductiv-teoretice. Pe baza acordului ntre Academia Polon de tiine (PAN) i Academia Republicii Socialiste Romnia, s-a elaborat i s-a publicat la Varovia, n 1970, primul Dicionar romn-polon. n acelai timp, la Institutul de Lingvistic din Bucureti au pornit lucrrile avnd ca scop elaborarea dicionarului polon-romn, dar el nu a fost publicat pn acum. n consecin, un mare dicionar polon-romn (m refer n aceast comunicare la seria dicionarelor mari), elaborat de vorbitori nativi de romn, nu exist nc. n aceste condiii, acum civa ani, cnd am aflat c o lucrare de acest fel a fost deja elaborat n mare parte de dr. Halina Mirska Lasota, o renumit specialist n domeniul limbii romne, am luat decizia s m ocup de actualizarea acestui dicionar i de editarea lui. Aceast

Marele dICIonar roMn-polon Ca un text CulturalJoanna Porawska*

Les linguistes, surtout ceux qui reconnaissent les bases anthropologiques dans leur recherche (parlant dans ce cas galement de lhistoire des mentalits), ont souvent constat que dun dictionnaire de la langue transparat la ralit au sein de laquelle celui-ci a t labor. Le dictionnaire reflte une langue et une culture non seulement par ce que lon peut y trouver, cest--dire une certaine liste de mots-titres et les dfinitions utilises, mais aussi par ce quil en manque. Le Nouveau Dictionnaire roumain-polonais (dition de lUniversit Jagiellonne, Cracovie, 2009) est un terrain intressant dinvestigations dans ce sens. Ses auteures, Halina Mirska Lasota et Joanna Porawska, se sont bases sur le premier corpus dexemples du dictionnaire, labor dans les annes 80 du sicle dernier, lont actualis et lont prpar pour la publication. Dans le processus de rdaction du Grand Dictionnaire roumain-polonais, toute une srie dexemples/contextes employs antrieurement ont t abandonns ou remplacs par dautres. Lanalyse de ces exemples nous permet dobserver les processus qui ont eu lieu dans la mentalit des Roumains et dans celles des Polonais, dans une priode relativement courte, de 1989 jusqu prsent, les processus tant conditionns surtout par les transformations sociales, les mutations idologiques et les changements politiques de ce temps

dictionnaire roumain-polonais, exemples, transformations

* Jagielloski University, Cracovia, Poland


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mare lucrare lexicografic (aproximativ 45 de mii de articole), la publicarea creia s-a renunat dup schimbarea situaiei economice a editurilor dup 1989, rmsese neterminat. Dup aproape un deceniu de munc de actualizare i editorial, dicionarul a aprut n anul 2009 la Editura Universitii Jagiellone, la Cracovia.

Lucrarea noastr se adreseaz n primul rnd publicului larg. Bineneles, un astfel de dicionar trebuie s cuprind i unii termeni de specialitate, chiar unele forme nvechite i regionalisme, necesare, de exemplu, celui care studiaz limba romn, celui care citete literatura romn veche i clasic, traductorului. El cuprinde i informaii de tip cultural, legate de istorie, politic, mitologie i religie (mai ales cea ortodox, de ex. denumirile srbtorilor) informaii fr care unele articole ar fi neinteligibile pentru polonezi. La actualizarea lucrrii am introdus anumite modificri, astfel nct dicionarul s devin user-friendly pentru cititor. Chiar dac nu se dovedesc a fi n perfect conformitate cu instruciunile tradiionale, deciziile noastre au fost determinate de ceea ce am putea numi adecvarea la cititor, urmnd binecunoscutul principiu al utilitii publice al lui E. Coeriu, dup care cercettorul nu are dreptul s se izoleze , ca ntr-un turn de filde, n sfera ngust a specialitii sale, vorbind exclusiv pentru i pe nelesul . (Munteanu 2005:37).

Credem c acest dicionar este menit s fie de folos n primul rnd cititorului obinuit, care nu posed nici cunotine filologice specializate, nici cunotine specializate n alte domenii. Nu am evitat, aadar, explicaiile de tip enciclopedic, atunci cnd le-am socotit importante pentru nelegerea unui anumit lexem de ctre cititorul polonez. Am ncercat s introducem i neologismele aprute n limba romn n ultimii 20 de ani. Actualizarea i revizuirea primei versiuni a fost ns o munc grea, dat fiind faptul c au existat puini specialiti (sau nu exist deloc; de exemplu juriti, politologi, dar i ingineri etc.) care s cunoasc bine ambele limbi. Numai cei care au astfel de competene - i lingvistice i ntr-un domeniu bine precizat - pot hotr dac echivalenele date sunt corecte sau nu. i vorbim despre situaia unor limbi pentru care nu s-au elaborat dicionare de specialitate bilingve, n ri n care resursele financiare pentru tiin sunt nc minime. n consecin, viitorii cititori care vor consulta n acest dicionar, de exemplu, termeni juridici, nu vor gsi ntotdeauna ceea ce au nevoie dat fiind faptul c nu am gsit specialiti care s cunoasc amndou sistemele juridice. Este mai simplu s stabileti un echivalent exact din domeniul medicinei, dect din domeniul juridic, chiar administrativ pentru c i realitatea difer n cele dou ri. Spre surpriza mea, chiar termenii botanici, cu toate c au i denumirile latine, revizuii dup 20 de ani, au suferit multe modificri.

O situaie aparte am avut la lexicul religios, unde am pornit de la ideea c termenii romneti trebuie tradui prin termeni din limbajul ortodocilor polonezi. Pentru c limbajul acestora este puin dezvoltat i puin descris n cadrul limbii polone


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(majoritatea polonezilor fiind catolici), corpusul acesta a cerut mult efort i timp (1). Aadar, am contiina c prima ediie a dicionarului nu este perfect (oare un dicionar poate fi perfect?), dar, cu timpul, va fi revizuit i ea.

Constatarea c limba mbtrnete i c, dup 20 de ani care s-au scurs de la culegerea materialului lexical, s-a schimbat realitatea i limba care o reflect, este un truism. n acest text nu m voi ocupa de totalitatea schimbrilor care trebuiau efectuate n procesul de actualizare, aceast munc fiind descris parial n articolul meu publicat anterior (Porawska 2006). Necesitatea introducerii noilor cuvinte i a noilor sensuri este evident, mai ales astzi, n lumea dominat de internet. Nici descrierea complex a elementelor fals prezentate existente n dicionarele publicate n Romnia i n Polonia din aceast perioad nu va constitui scopul prezentrii mele. Deformarea imaginii cultural-lingvistice a lumii, efectul ideologizrii din perioada trecut n amndou limbile este descris n cteva lucrri de sintez i ntr-o serie de articole (Zafiu 2007 i alii). E. Coeriu, n articolul su Limbaj i politic vorbea despre uzul lingvistic determinat de atitudinile i ideologiile politice, de valorile i nuanele speciale pe care cuvintele cele care aparin terminologiei politice ca atare, dar i multe din limbajul curent de obicei le dobndesc n cadrul unor anumite ideologii (Coeriu 2002:20); i, mai departe: n regimurile att de dreapta, ct i de stnga, termenul ajunge s fie folosit pentru [partidul unic], adic pentru ceva care ar prea s fie negarea ideii nsei de i apare n construcii care indic explicit aceast (, ) (ibidem).

Intenia mea este de a prezenta un fragment al imaginii cultural-lingvistice a lumii anilor 80 ai secolului trecut, aa cum transpare ea din descrierea lexicografic din primul corpus de exemple al dicionarului nostru. Mai precis, un fragment al acestei imagini, descris pe baza articolelor eliminate sau modificate de noi n timpul revizuirii, sau, cel puin, a celor care au cptat indicaia ist. i care s-au referit la limba de lemn, la limbajul politic i economic al epocii.

ncepnd cu Hasdeu, ineanu i Tiktin ca s enumr numai cteva nume de mari lexicografi romni, lingvitii au atras atenia c un dicionar de limb reflect i, n acelai timp fixeaz, nu numai o anumit etap a dezvoltrii lingvistice, ci i fragmente ale realitii i ale experienei umane. Din cauza acestei oglinzi a societii (2), pietrificate n limb i descrise sub form de dicionar, lucrrile lexicografice pot fi un cmp de investigaie interesant i un teren de analize, artnd imaginea cultural-lingvistic a lumii. Cercetarea de acest tip a cunoscut o dezvoltare deosebit n Polonia n ultimele decenii (exist deja o tradiie n domeniu, astfel nct putem vorbi despre un cognitivism polonez). Aceasta presupune, la modul general, privirea lumii prin prisma limbajului, interpretarea ei pe baza analizei datelor lingvistice,


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iar analiza datelor lingvistice permite reconstituirea acestor reprezentri, stabilirea modalitii n care un polonez interpreteaz lumea, observ trsturile lucrurilor i ale persoanelor, le stabilete ierarhia, precum i locul omului n cadrul acestui univers (Bartmiski, Panasiuk 1993:347). E. Coeriu spunea, n articolul citat anterior, c textele politice pot fi studiate ca orice text, n sens , adic n calitate de documente, ca surse de informaie istoric sau istorico-cultural, inclusiv n ceea ce privete concepiile i ideologiile politice (Coeriu 2002:24).

n aceeai ordine de idei, o opinie asemntoare formuleaz Mariana Ne ntr-unul dintre articole. Autoarea scrie, n concluziile analizei sale, referitoare la cercetarea operelor lexicografice: Dicionarele de limb constituie i un instrument util pentru studiul culturii i al civilizaiei la un moment dat, pentru c reflect evoluia acestora i, n continuare Evoluia limbii, evoluia lexicografiei i evoluia civilizaiei snt n interdependen (Ne 2005:455-470).

Cercetarea propus de mine se situeaz ntr-un cadru teoretic mai amplu al etnolingvisticii actuale, definit de E. Coeriu n aa fel nct ea s corespund unei (....), care s studieze n totalitatea sa contribuia cu privire la configuraia i funcionarea limbajului (Coeriu 1994:134) (3). Pornind de la corelaia limbaj cultur n aa conturat de E. Coeriu etnolingvistica propriu-zis sau lingvistica etnografic obiectul de studiu este limbajul , este vorba de fapte lingvistice ca fiind condiionate de despre lucruri (ibidem:135). Etnolingvisticii limbii i aparine, n mod cert, studiul faptelor unei limbi ca fiind motivate de cunoaterile (idei, convingeri, concepii, ideologii) despre (...) (ibidem:145).

Autorii dicionarelor bilingve cunosc, n general, nu numai limbile pe care le descriu, ci i realitatea vieii popoarelor care le folosesc. Regretata Halina Mirska Lasota, dup studii i doctoratul susinut n Romnia, a lucrat toat viaa la Agenia Polonez de Presa ca redactor responsabil cu rile socialiste (1956-1986), prednd concomitent limba romn la Universitatea din Varovia. Perioada ndelungat de contacte cu limbajul presei romneti din epoc i multe experiene personale, lucrarea ei tiinific din domeniul lingvisticii (4), efectuarea de numeroase traduceri, toate acestea constituie o garanie a excelentei cunoateri a ambelor limbi i, n acelai timp, a realitii anilor din perioada trecut. n corpusul iniial al dicionarului nostru apar cuvinte i contexte specifice epocii, multe provenind din presa romneasc a anilor 70-80(5). Materialul descris l constituie aa numitele solidariti lexicale (unitile sintagmatice), adic colocaiile care aparin discursului repetat (Lingvistica integral 1996:36) care au aprut ca exemple n materialul cules n anii 70 ai secolului trecut. Ceea ce a fost fixat n limb este (a fost), de asemenea, fixat n contiina social ntr-o perioad istoric concret (Bartmiski, Panasiuk 1993:373) Analiznd


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exemplele, contextele folosite anterior, aa cum apreau ele n presa epocii, modificate de noi n timpul revizuirii, putem contura deci i imaginea contiinei sociale a anilor 70-80 ai secolului XX, sau, cel puin, imaginea ei dorit de conductorii vremii.

Ilustraii practice. Grupul cel mai mare de exemple care au suferit modificri este din domeniul limbii de lemn a epocii, mai ales din domeniul politicii i, n al doilea rnd, din cel al economiei (6). Cel mai des am luat hotrrea de a schimba exemplul sau de a-l completa prin indicaia ist. sau polit., mult mai rar am eliminat articolul n ntregime. Contiina noastr lingvistic de dup anul 2000 ne-a determinat s schimbm contextele folosite anterior.

a. Realitatea politic. Aadar, activitatea Partidului Comunist (Romn n Romnia), numit muncitoresc n Polonia (Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza) a constituit o zon lingvistic foarte bine reprezentat n limbajul presei de atunci. Realitatea perioadei anilor 70-80 poate fi parial reconstituit, scond la iveal urmtoarele aspecte (7):

1. modul de funcionare a partiduluicongrs n (pl ~e) 1. zjazd m; kongres m; ~ de partid zjazd partyjny

; ~ tiinific kongres naukowy;I. ~ul Partidului Comunist RomnII. ~ de partid lrg|t, ~ta adj (mpl ~i, fpl ~te) rozszerzony, poszerzonys-a scos contextul plenara lrgitUrmeaz exemplele care arat:2. apartenena la partid:mmbr|u, ~ (mpl ~i, fpl ~e) I n , (..) II m, f czon/ek m, -kini f; ~u de sindicat

czonek zwizku zawodowegoI. ~u de partidII. ~u de sindicatcandid|t, ~t m, f (mpl ~i, fpl ~te) kandydat m, -ka f; ~t la preedinie kandydat

do urzdu prezydentaI. ~ de partidII. ~t la preedinieexclde I vt (excld) wyklucza; wycza; a ~ dintr-un partid wyklucza

z (jakiej) partiiI. a ~ din partidII. a ~ dintr-un partidepur| vt (~z) 2. przen. oczyszcza; usuwa; polit. a ~a rndurile funcionarilor

przeprowadzi czystk w szeregach urzdnikw


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I. a ~a rndurile partiduluiII. a ~a rndurile funcionarilor3. modul propagandistic de a gndi transpare din urmtoarele exemple: lni|e f (pl ~i) 11. linia f; punkt m; kierunek m; zarys m; n ~i generale

w oglnych zarysach; pe toat ~a na caej linii; polit. pe ~e de stat po linii pastwowej

I. pe ~e de partidII. pe ~e de statnvtr| f (pl ~i) 1. nauka f; ~a lui Hegel doktryna HeglaI. ~ marxist II. ~a lui Hegelnvm|nt n (pl ~inte) 2. nauczanie n; program de ~nt program m nauczania

s-a scos exemplul program de ~nt n politic evoli|e f (pl ~i) 1. ewolucja f; rozwj m; ~a gndirii filozofice rozwj myli

filozoficznejI. ~a gndirii marxiste II. ~a gndirii filozoficegndr|e f (pl ~i) 2. myl f; ~e umanist myl humanistycznaI. ~e marxistII. ~e umanist4. lupta pentru pace a lagrului comunist: lgr n (pl ~e) 1. wojsk. obz m; ~ de prizonieri obz jeniecki

s-a scos exemplul ~ socialist mennere fsing utrzymywanie (si) n, trwanie n; ~a ordinii zachowanie

n porzdku I. ~a pciiII. ~a ordinii altur| (~z) II vr a se ~a 2. przycza si, przystpowa; a se ~a micrii pentru

drepturile omului przycza si do ruchu na rzecz praw czowiekaI. a se ~a micrii pentru paceII. a se ~a micrii pentru drepturile omului5. atitudinea fa de (aa numita) lumea a treia:detept (detpt) I vr a se ~a 1. budzi si; rozbudza si; m-am ~t trziu

obudziem si pno; przen. natura se deteapt la via przyroda budzi si do ycia


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I. popoarele se deteapt la viaII. natura se deteapt la viacapituli|e f (pl ~i) polit. praw. kapitulacja f (= konwencja midzy pastwami,

z ktrych jedno zapewnia drugiemu ochron prawn jego obywateli)I. (= convenie impus unei ri semicoloniale de ctre o ar capitalist,

n virtutea creia aceasta obine anumite privilegii pentru cetenii si stabilii acolo)

II. (= convenie care asigur cetenilor unui stat anumite privilegii pe terioriul altui stat)

6. realitatea politic nou de dup 1989:guvrn n (pl ~e) rzd m; ~ de coaliie rzd koalicyjny

Articolul iniial a fost redactat fr context, s-a adugat : ~ de coaliie

fundi|e f (pl ~i) 2. fundacja f; Fundaia pentru Drepturile Omului Fundacja na

rzecz Praw Czowieka; Fundaia Cultural Romn Rumuska Fundacja KulturyNu au existat exemplele, am adugat: Fundaia pentru Drepturile Omului;

Fundaia Cultural Romn .integr|re f (pl ~ri) 2. ekon., polit. integracja f; ~area produciei integracja

produkcji ; ~are n structurile euroatlantice wczanie si do struktur euroatlantyckich; ~are european integracja europejska

I. ~area producieiII. ~are n structurile euroatlantice; ~are european intr vi (ntru) 7. zaczyna, rozpoczyna ; a ~ de serviciu rozpoczyna

dyur; am ~t n douzeci de ani rozpoczem dwudziesty rok ycias-a scos colocaia: a intra n cmpul munciinaionl, ~ adj (mpl ~i, fpl ~e) narodowy; venit ~ dochd narodowy; problem

~ kwestia narodowa ; minoritate ~ mniejszo narodowa; s-a adugat: minoritate ~nesupner|e f (pl ~i) nieposuszestwo n, nieulego f, niesubordynacja f; ~e

civil nieposuszestwo obywatelskies-a adugat: ~e civil7. experienele romneti sau cele poloneze: Dup experienele poloneze din 1981, cuvntul marial a cptat i exemplul

colocaia a introduce legea marial, iar activist a cptat indicaiile polit., peiorativ. b. Realitatea economic a anilor 80 transpare din urmtoarele exemple din

domeniul economic, n sens larg, care se refer la:


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8. proprietate:particulr, ~ (mpl ~i, fpl ~e) III m 1. osoba prywatna 2. waciciel m sklepu

, pot. inicjatywa prywatna, prywaciarz mAm scos indicaia nvechit ( dawn.) i exemplul: a cumpra de la particularieditr| f (pl ~i) wydawnictwo n; ~ de stat

wydawnictwo pastwowe s-a adugat: 9. impozite:hotr| (~sc) I vt 5. uchwala; I. parlamentul a ~t desfiinarea impozitelor parlament uchwali obnik

podatkwII. parlamentul a ~t mrirea impozitelor parlament uchwali podwyk

podatkwimpzit n (pl ~e) ekon. podatek m; ~ pe venit

podatek dochodowy s-a adugat: pe salariugrl| f (pl ~e) 4. przen. prg m (wyborczy, podatkowy) s-a adugat: fin. ~e de impozitare 10. cumprturi:gs| (~sc) III vr a se ~i 2. wystpowa (w przyrodzie)Contextul I. n magazine nu se gsete nimic a fost nlocuit prin:II. n Silesia se ~ete mult crbune gs| (~sc) 6. dosta; zdoby; kupi; am fost la magazin, dar n-am ~it

nimic convenabil byem w sklepie, ale nie udao mi si kupi niczego, co by mi odpowiadao

prima versiune:I. am fost la magazin, dar n-am ~it nimic a fost completat prin: II. nimic convenabil:cod f (pl czi) 8. kolejka f; ogonek m; ~ la cas kolejka do kasy; ~ pentru

bilete kolejka po bilety ; a face ~ sta w kolejce; a cumpra fr ~ kupowa bez kolejki

prima versiune:I. ~ pentru carne completat prin II. la cas; ~ pentru bilete


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nimer| (~sc) III vr a se ~i 2. pot. trafi si; citete tot ce se ~ete czyta wszystko, co si trafi

I. cumpr tot ce se ~eteII. citete tot ce se ~eteAm renunat la articolul nechezol din cauza absenei unui echivalent polonez.desfiin|re f (pl ~ri) zniesienie n, likwidacja f; ~area unui program likwidacja

programuexemplul:I. ~area cartelelor a fost nlocuit prin II. ~area unui program

***

Limba se transform sub influena schimbrilor de regim, att ca instrument al descrierii, ct i ca instrument implicat n aceste schimbri iar Percepia (...) lumii depinde de punctul de vedere adoptat (...) care decide modul de a vorbi despre evenimentele social-politice, influeneaz interpretarea fenomenelor, evaluarea i estimarea lor (trad. ns) (Kamiska-Szmaj 2001:7). Opinia citat a Irenei Kamiska-Szmaj, lingvist polonez care a descris limbajul politicii de dup 1989 n Polonia, i gsete confirmarea n materialul lingvistic analizat, referitor la trecutul comunist, n linii mari comun n Romnia i n Polonia. Autoarea observ, n continuare, c, dndu-i seama de compromiterea limbajului din epoca trecut i dorind s rmn pe scena politic, politicienii i ziaritii erau contieni de necesitatea de a-i schimba comportamentul comunicaional, n conformitate cu noul context politic.

Ciocnirea ntre formele vechi i cele noi este resimit mai ales n procesul de traducere, dicionarele bilingve care rspund necesitilor urgente ale vieii fiind aadar un teren de investigaie interesant i pentru analize de tip cultural-lingvistic. Autorii lor, care triesc, de obicei, n dou lumi create de limbile comparate, observ mai bine unele fenomene, iar realitatea i mpinge s introduc n dicionar unele forme i semnificaii care lipsesc din dicionarele unilingve. Bineneles, contextele care, n cazul dicionarului romn-polon, le-au nlocuit pe cele din anii 70-80, pot deveni cu timpul i ele un teren de cercetare. Ele vor fi probabil modificate n dicionarele viitoare, pentru c, nemaifiind oprimat de sistemul unui partid unic, realitatea se schimb repede, iar internetul influeneaz puternic cantitatea i calitatea comunicrii interumane.


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Note 1. Nici n dicionarele explicative romneti (adic punctul de plecare pentru munca noastr) acest domeniu nu a

fost bine elaborat. n anul 2000, Rodica Zafiu observa: Terminologia bisericeasc e lacunar i uneori chiar incorect

prezentat n multe dintre dicionarele noastre moderne; acest lucru e poate chiar mai evident pentru lexicul catolic

dect pentru cel ortodox (Zafiu 2000). i, n continuare, (...) n dicionarele de dup rzboi, ca efect al cenzurii

ideologice, prezena termenilor bisericeti (i cu att mai mult a celor catolici) e redus la minimum [ibidem].

2. cci nemic mai social ca limba, , fr care nu se pot asocia doi indivizi i s-ar

spulbera ntr-o clip orice comunitate uman (Hasdeu 1988:VII).

3. E. Coeriu atrage atenia, ntr-o comunicare prezentat n 1978, asupra faptului c etnolingvistica s-a dezvoltat pn acum ntr-un mod fragmentar, iar n cadrul programului i al geografiei lingvistice, s-a acordat atenie n principal relaiei dintre limbaj (n special: lexic) i cultura popular . (...) ns aceasta

este insuficient, deoarece condiionarea limbajului prin i prin depete cu

mult ceea ce a fost considerat pn acum ca atare (Coeriu 1994:133).

4. Halina Mirska Lasota (1930-2006) a susinut n 1974, la Facultatea de Limb i Literatur Romn a Universitii

din Bucureti, teza de doctorat intitulat Aspectul verbal n limba romn (pe baza comparaiei ntre limba polon i limba romn), conductorul tezei fiind prof. Alexandru Graur.5. Unele explicaii din interiorul articolelor se datoreaz experienei ndelungate de via a Halinei Mirska Lasota.

Acest factor important la autori de dicionare (vrst i experien) nu poate , totui, nlocui existena operelor

lexicografice cuprinznd , mai ales, cuvintele din limba de lemn din perioada comunist n Romnia, unde strinul

ar putea gsi formele nechezol, obsedantul deceniu, patrioi, petreui etc.6. n prezentul articol nu m ocup cu termenii specializai, tiinifici din domeniul economiei ci, mai degrab de

formele din limbajul general, de fiecare zi.

7. Pentru a uura lectura prezint schimbrile efectuate sub forma unei scheme, n care apare articolul citat (sau un

fragment al lui) n forma lui actual, iar sublinierile au fost introduse de mine pentru nevoile acestui text, pentru

a pune n relief fragmentele modificate. Cifrele romane sunt folosite dupa modelul urmtor: I pentru exemplul

anterior, II pentru contextul actual.

Bibliografie 1. Bartmiski, J. Panasiuk. (1993). Stereotypy jzykowe, (in:) Encyklopedia Kultury Polskiej XX wieku t. 2. Wspczesny jzyk polski. coord. J. Bartmiski , Wrocaw , 363-387.2. Coeriu, E. (1994). Lingvistic din perspectiv spaial i antropologic. Chiinu: tiina.3. Coeriu, E. (2002). Limbaj i politic, Identitatea limbii i literaturii romne n perspectiva globalizrii, volum ngrijit de Ofelia Ichim i Florin-Teodor Olariu, Iai: Editura Trinitas, 17-40.

4. Kamiska-Szmaj, I. (2001). Sowa na wolnoci. Jzyk polityki po 1989 roku. Wrocaw:Wydawnictwo Europa. 5. Hasdeu B.P., Studii de lingvistic i filologie 1, p. VII, Bucureti:Editura Minerva, 1988.6. Lingvistica integral. Interviu cu Eugeniu Coeriu realizat de Nicolae Saramandu. (1996). Bucureti:Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne.


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7. Munteanu, E. (2005). Introducere n lingvistic. Iai: Polirom.8. Ne, M. (2005). Urbanizare i dicionare, Limbaje i comunicare: Colocviul Internaional de tiine ale Limbajului: ediia a VII-a, Suceava Cernui, 2-5 oct. 2003, vol. VII, Ed. Universitii Suceava, pp. 455-470.9. Porawska, J. (2006). Problemele elaborrii noului dicionar romn-polon, Identitatea cultural romneasc n contextul integrrii europen, volum ngrijit de Marius-Radu Clim, Ofelia Ichim, Laura Manea, Florin-Teodor Olariu, Iai: Editura Alfa, 291-296.

10. Sownik rumusko-polski (1970). Warszawa: Pastwowe Wydawnictwo Wiedza Powszechna, red. Jan

Reychman.

11. Zafiu, R. (2000). Lexicografice i bisericeti, Romnia literar, nr.46, 22 noiembrie.12. Zafiu, R. (2007). Limbaj i politic. Bucureti: Editura Universitii din Bucureti.

Para el estudio del rumano en Espaa, el ao 1976 represent, sin duda alguna, un hito importante ya que fue entonces cuando comenzaron los cursos de esta lengua en la Escuela Oficial de Idiomas de Madrid. Las Escuelas Oficiales de Idiomas son centr

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