Life and Culture in Life and Culture in Eighteenth-Century Eighteenth-Century

EuropeEurope

The Agricultural RevolutionThe Agricultural Revolution

Traditional Agricultural ProductionTraditional Agricultural Production In the early 1700’s peasants living in In the early 1700’s peasants living in

village communities farmed much of the village communities farmed much of the land in western Europe.land in western Europe.

Peasant farmers used an open-field system Peasant farmers used an open-field system that included these characteristics:that included these characteristics:

Animals grazed on the common or open landsAnimals grazed on the common or open lands Villagers divided the remaining land into long, Villagers divided the remaining land into long,

narrow strips. Fences and hedges did not divide narrow strips. Fences and hedges did not divide this open land.this open land.

Peasants traditionally used a two or three Peasants traditionally used a two or three field system of crop rotation. This system field system of crop rotation. This system was intended to restore exhausted soil. In was intended to restore exhausted soil. In practice, it meant that one third to one-half practice, it meant that one third to one-half of the land was allowed to lie fallow on any of the land was allowed to lie fallow on any given year.given year.

Innovations in the Low CountriesInnovations in the Low Countries Reasons for Low Country leadership in Reasons for Low Country leadership in

farming.farming. The Low Countries were the most densely The Low Countries were the most densely

populated region in Europe. Dutch farmers populated region in Europe. Dutch farmers were thus forced to seek maximum yields were thus forced to seek maximum yields from their lands.from their lands.

The Low Countries contained a growing The Low Countries contained a growing urban population that created demand for urban population that created demand for farm products.farm products.

New innovations in the Low CountriesNew innovations in the Low Countries Enclosed fieldsEnclosed fields Continuous crop rotationContinuous crop rotation Use of manure as fertilizerUse of manure as fertilizer Planting a variety of cropsPlanting a variety of crops Use of drainage to reclaim marshesUse of drainage to reclaim marshes

English AgricultureEnglish Agriculture Agricultural innovatorsAgricultural innovators

Charles “Turnip” Townsend advocated Charles “Turnip” Townsend advocated continuous crop rotation using turnips, continuous crop rotation using turnips, wheat, barley, and clover.wheat, barley, and clover.

Jethro Tull invented a seed drill that allowed Jethro Tull invented a seed drill that allowed for sowing crops in a straight row.for sowing crops in a straight row.

Robert Bakewell pioneered selective Robert Bakewell pioneered selective breeding of livestock. breeding of livestock. videovideo

The enclosure movementThe enclosure movement English land owners consolidated previously English land owners consolidated previously

scattered pasture lands into compact fields scattered pasture lands into compact fields enclosed by fences and hedgesenclosed by fences and hedges

The new enclosed farmland enabled landowners The new enclosed farmland enabled landowners to rapidly implement agricultural innovations. to rapidly implement agricultural innovations. This encouraged the development of market-This encouraged the development of market-oriented agricultural production.oriented agricultural production.

The enclosure movement forced many poor rural The enclosure movement forced many poor rural people to move to cities and work in factories.people to move to cities and work in factories.

Test Tip:Test Tip: The enclosure movement has generated a The enclosure movement has generated a

number of multiple choice questions on the number of multiple choice questions on the AP Euro exam. It is important to remember AP Euro exam. It is important to remember that during most of the 18that during most of the 18thth century, the century, the enclosure of common land primarily took enclosure of common land primarily took place in the Low Countries and England. place in the Low Countries and England. Peasants in France and Germany Peasants in France and Germany successfully resisted the enclosure of their successfully resisted the enclosure of their open fields.open fields.

The Population ExplosionThe Population Explosion

Factors limiting population growthFactors limiting population growth Periodic crop failures caused widespread Periodic crop failures caused widespread

famine.famine. Epidemic diseases such as bubonic Epidemic diseases such as bubonic

plague decimated Europe’s populationplague decimated Europe’s population Frequent wars destroyed crops and Frequent wars destroyed crops and

spread contagious diseases. For spread contagious diseases. For example the Thirty Years War reduced example the Thirty Years War reduced the population of Germany by 1/3the population of Germany by 1/3

Factors promoting population growthFactors promoting population growth The agricultural revolution produced a The agricultural revolution produced a

more abundant food supplymore abundant food supply The POTATO became a key food staple The POTATO became a key food staple

during the 18during the 18thth century. 1 acre of century. 1 acre of potatoes could feed a family for a year.potatoes could feed a family for a year.

Advances in transportation reduced the Advances in transportation reduced the impact of local crop failuresimpact of local crop failures

1818thth century wars were fought by century wars were fought by professional armies with specific professional armies with specific geographic and economic objectives. As geographic and economic objectives. As a result, 18a result, 18thth century wars were less century wars were less destructive than the 17destructive than the 17thth century century religious wars.religious wars.

It is important to note that medical It is important to note that medical advances did not play an important role advances did not play an important role in 18in 18thth century population growth. century population growth.

Population statisticsPopulation statistics Europe’s population increased from 120 Europe’s population increased from 120

million in 1700 to 190 million in 1800million in 1700 to 190 million in 1800 The population of England rose from 6 The population of England rose from 6

million in1750 to more than 10 million in million in1750 to more than 10 million in 1800.1800.

The population of France increased from The population of France increased from 18 million in 1715 to 26 million in 178918 million in 1715 to 26 million in 1789

Life in the 18Life in the 18thth century century

Marriage and the familyMarriage and the family Most young married European couples lived in Most young married European couples lived in

nuclear families. Large multigenerational nuclear families. Large multigenerational households were not the norm.households were not the norm.

Most couples postponed marriage until they Most couples postponed marriage until they were in their mid-to late twenties.were in their mid-to late twenties.

Couples delayed marriage in order to acquire Couples delayed marriage in order to acquire land or learn a trade.land or learn a trade.

A combination of parental authority and strict A combination of parental authority and strict laws exercised tight control over marriagelaws exercised tight control over marriage

Patterns of marriage and the family after Patterns of marriage and the family after 17501750 The growth of the cottage industry increased The growth of the cottage industry increased

income and helped young people become income and helped young people become financially independent.financially independent.

As income rose, arranged marriages declinedAs income rose, arranged marriages declined Increased mobility reduced parental and Increased mobility reduced parental and

village controlsvillage controls Young peasant women increasingly left home Young peasant women increasingly left home

to work as domestic servants.to work as domestic servants.

Child rearingChild rearing Because of the high mortality rate among Because of the high mortality rate among

infants, parents were reluctant to become infants, parents were reluctant to become emotionally attached to their children.emotionally attached to their children.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau encouraged parents Jean-Jacques Rousseau encouraged parents to provide a warm and nurturing to provide a warm and nurturing environment for their childrenenvironment for their children

Upper-middle class parents began to place Upper-middle class parents began to place a greater emphasis on child rearing.a greater emphasis on child rearing.

Increased life expectancyIncreased life expectancy During the 18During the 18thth century, the life spans of century, the life spans of

Europeans increased from 25 to 35 years.Europeans increased from 25 to 35 years. New foods such as the POTATO combined with New foods such as the POTATO combined with

better farming techniques improved the diet of the better farming techniques improved the diet of the poor.poor.

Improvements in sanitation and the beginning of Improvements in sanitation and the beginning of the science of immunology reduced death rates. the science of immunology reduced death rates. Edward Jenner performed the first smallpox Edward Jenner performed the first smallpox vaccination in 1796. The conquest of smallpox was vaccination in 1796. The conquest of smallpox was the greatest medical triumph of the 18the greatest medical triumph of the 18thth century. century.

The rise and fall of The rise and fall of witchcraftwitchcraft

Witchcraft persecutionsWitchcraft persecutions During the 16During the 16thth and 17 and 17thth centuries, centuries,

between 100,000 and 200,000 people between 100,000 and 200,000 people were officially tried for witchcraft.were officially tried for witchcraft.

Between 40,000 and 60,000 people Between 40,000 and 60,000 people were executed for it.were executed for it.

Elderly, widowed women were the most Elderly, widowed women were the most likely to be accused of witchcraft.likely to be accused of witchcraft.

Reasons for the growth of European witch Reasons for the growth of European witch hunts. Oh that hunt? hunts. Oh that hunt? Religious reformers stressed the great powers Religious reformers stressed the great powers

of the Devil. The Devil’s diabolical activities of the Devil. The Devil’s diabolical activities reinforced the widespread belief in witchcraft.reinforced the widespread belief in witchcraft.

Women were believed to be weak and thus Women were believed to be weak and thus susceptible to the Devil’s temptations. susceptible to the Devil’s temptations.

Religious wars and economic uncertainty Religious wars and economic uncertainty caused great social and economic stress. caused great social and economic stress. Older, widowed women usually lacked power Older, widowed women usually lacked power and thus became convenient scapegoats. and thus became convenient scapegoats.

Reasons for the decline of witchcraftReasons for the decline of witchcraft Religious wars finally came to an end, thus Religious wars finally came to an end, thus

restoring social stabilityrestoring social stability Protestants emphasized the concept of supreme Protestants emphasized the concept of supreme

God, thus making the Devil seem less God, thus making the Devil seem less threateningthreatening

The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment emphasized reason and uniform laws of nature. emphasized reason and uniform laws of nature. Support for superstition and witchcraft declined Support for superstition and witchcraft declined as educated Europeans turned to rational as educated Europeans turned to rational explanations of natural events.explanations of natural events.

Test Tip:Test Tip: APEuro test writers have devoted a APEuro test writers have devoted a

number of multiple choice and free number of multiple choice and free response questions to witchcraft. It is response questions to witchcraft. It is important to remember that witchcraft important to remember that witchcraft trials and executions most often trials and executions most often affected elderly widows. Make sure that affected elderly widows. Make sure that you study the reasons for both the you study the reasons for both the growth and decline of witchcraft.growth and decline of witchcraft.

Major Artistic StylesMajor Artistic Styles

RococoRococo Rococo style reached its peak during the Rococo style reached its peak during the

reign of Louis XV 1715-1774reign of Louis XV 1715-1774 Artist depicted lighthearted and Artist depicted lighthearted and

frivolous scenes of “nobles at play”frivolous scenes of “nobles at play” Paintings featured light-colored pastelsPaintings featured light-colored pastels Architecture featured highly decorated Architecture featured highly decorated

interior ceilings interior ceilings

Antoine WatteauAntoine Watteau“Pilgrimage to Cythera”“Pilgrimage to Cythera”

Francois BoucherFrancois Boucher“Cupid a Captive”“Cupid a Captive”

Jean-Honore’ FragonardJean-Honore’ Fragonard“The Swing”“The Swing”

Neoclassical ArtNeoclassical Art Supplanted Rococo during the 1780sSupplanted Rococo during the 1780s Key figures were depicted as classical Key figures were depicted as classical

heroesheroes Works portrayed the classical virtues of Works portrayed the classical virtues of

self-sacrifice and devotion to the stateself-sacrifice and devotion to the state Compositions emphasized the Greek Compositions emphasized the Greek

ideals of restraint, simplicity and ideals of restraint, simplicity and symmetry.symmetry.

Jacques-Louis DavidJacques-Louis David“The Oath of Horatii”“The Oath of Horatii”

Jean-Antoine HoudonJean-Antoine Houdon“Voltaire Seated”“Voltaire Seated”

Thomas JeffersonThomas Jefferson“Monticello”“Monticello”