Levy - Social Histories of Anarchism

8/12/2019 Levy - Social Histories of Anarchism

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Social Histories of AnarchismAuthor(s): CARL LEVYSource: Journal for the Study of Radicalism, Vol. 4, No. 2 (FALL 2010), pp. 1-44Published by: Michigan State University PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41887657.

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CARLEVY OLDSMITHS,NIVERSITYF ONDON

Social Histories of Anarchism

Introduction:OverviewThis rticle s a synopticverview f larger roject n the ocialhistories fanarchism romhe ighteenthenturyothepresent. hespecifichemes fthis rticle re a discussion f theperiodizationfanarchism s an ism, nideology riginatingnnineteenth-centuryurope,nd ts elationshipoanddifferencesithmoregeneralibertarian r noncoercivemodes ofbehaviorandorganizationoundnall human ocieties. econdly,hedisseminationof anarchismand syndicalism) hroughoutheglobeand thus he role oftheGlobal South n thehistoryf anarchismwill be surveyed. his articlefocuses n theperiodofclassical narchism1860sto1940s)and thereforediscussesthedifferencesetweenpreanarchismnd classical anarchismon theonehand, nd classical narchism ndpostanarchismn theother.Once that s established, hich nturn etsthe context or he deologyof classicalanarchism,he articleproceedsto examinethe disseminationand reception fanarchismfrom he 1880s to 1914 in many waystheheyday f narchism s a globalmovement,nwhich tcompetedwith,ndat times hallenged,hehegemonyf socialdemocracy. hischallengewasmostsuccessfully ountedwhere narchismmergedwithor lived undertheprotectiveoverof the yndicalistmovement. hus, discussion ftherelationshipsmonganarchism,yndicalism,nd theglobalization f theJournalorhetudyf adicalism,ol.,No., 010,p.-44.SSN930-1189. 010 ichigantateniversityoardf rustees.llightseserved. 1

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2 Carl evylabor movementn theperiod1880-1914s pursued.But anarchism lso"punched ver tsweight" y having he besttunes: narchist ulture ndanarchist ractices eeped ntothe broader ocialist nd labor movementsthroughopularforms f ociabilityn theone hand andthe lose relation-shipofavant-gardeiteraturend thefigurativertson theother. hus thesociology nd socialhistoryfpatternsfneighborhoodnd recreationalembeddedness f narchistubculturesrediscussedntandemwith reviewof he iteraturen therelationshipsmong he ntelligentsia,narchism,ndbohemia.The article oncludeswith review fthegrowingiteraturenthedisseminationndreceptionfclassical narchismntheGlobal South.Standardccounts f narchismMaxNettlau,ames oll, eorgeWoodcock,andPeterMarshall)ombine enditionsfhistoriesf deas, oliticaliography,and accountsofpolitical nd social movements. utmy project eekstocollate ndemploy heoutpouringfpublished ndunpublishedcademicwritingn the ocialhistoryf narchism,product f he xplosive rowthofhigher ducation ince the1960sand theaccompanyingnnovationsnhistoriography,he ocial ciences,nd thehumanities.y mployingimilarmethodologiesndasking imilar uestionsbout narchism hat avebeenposed nkindred ields f ocial, ocialist,nd aborhistories,narchisms nolonger pproached s a context-less,historicaltudynsocialpathology.ntheir ecentmagisterialccount,MichaelSchmidt nd LucienvanderWalthavebeen nspired y hismethod.However heyimit heir roject o "classstrugglenarchism,"ssentiallyariationsnsyndicalistndpeasantformsof narchism.1lthough hey aveproduced n impressivelobalmappingof spects f lassical narchism,heir erms freferenceretoo imited ndsectarian ormy astes. willreturn o theirmportantontributiono themapping f lassical narchismn theGlobalSouth aternthis rticle.nanycase,full ngagement ith ther isciplinesnthe ocialsciences,s recentlysuggested yDavideTurcato,s still obe carried ut on a global cale.2

Overviewof the ProjectThus his rticles abouthistoricaleriodizationnd definitionaloundaries,thedisseminationfmodesoforganizationnd the ntersectionsf deas ndcultures,layed utwithin he mperial arve-out ftheglobeandthrough



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 3the ircuits fcapital nd aborthat mbraced tby1914.Anarchism as analternativeorm fmodernity,hichmountedn themost horough aycriticism f mpire ndnation-stateut imultaneouslyaspart ndparcelof heprocesses fmodernizationndglobalization, hich wept heglobebefore914.na broader roject, hich his rticle eviews,cover ndividualfields f tudyhat elpone situatenarchismnthisarger ramework,omeofwhich published arliernmy areer,whileothers waitpublication: The notions f primitive"ocietyneighteenth-ndnineteenth-centuryEurope nd theorigins fthe sm, narchism A socialhistoryfanarchistdeology Thedisseminationndreceptionfanarchism3 Labormovements,narchism,ndsyndicalism4 Internationalism,ationalism,nd anarchism5 The Global South nd anarchism Peasant adicalismnd anarchism The ntelligentsia,rtists,ohemianurbanquarters,ndanarchism6 The socialandcultural istoryf anarchist errorism7 The self-educatednd anarchism8 Feminism,ntifeminism,nd anarchism The socialorigins fcommunism: he narchist oots9 Spanish xceptionalism10 Anarchismfter945: he ducatedmiddle lasses, ew ocialmovements,and varieties fcountercultureMyfuture im is to synthesize ublished nd forthcoming orks n asummarymonograph,he structuref which s anticipatednthis rticle.As a partisan fa magpie pproach, employ hemethodological ool bestsuited or he ask thand; nthis ense he nterprises nspiredy ibertarianpragmatism,heres no masterheory,hough chronologicalnd definitionalbounded narrative s present.Each subfield equires differentypeofmethodology rawnfrom he social sciences,history,r the humanities.Forexample,QuentinSkinners ontextual pproach, inguistic iscourseanalysis, einhart osellecks conceptual istory,"r ThomasDixons "wordhistory"maybe appropriateor he nvestigationftheconstructionftheism,anarchism. heflourishingields fnationalism rdiasporastudies,



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4 Carl evyoraspects fglobalpolitical conomy re useful or he tudy fthethemenationalism, nternationalism,nd anarchism.11ndeed at theEuropeanSocial ScienceHistory onference,eldinLisbon n 2008,severalpanelswere devoted o approaching hehistory fanarchism n muchthe sameway s suggested ere.Thuspanellistsmployed ocialmovementheory,12sociologicalheories f ollective iolence ndrepression,13oucauldianocialtheory,14heories fgeographical pace,15ndnetworkheory.16But beforewe engagewith heseapproaches, discussion f historicalperiodizations inorder.Classical Anarchism:Definition nd PeriodizationTheperiodization fanarchisms a controversialubject.Thus nstandardaccounts,narchisthoughtndanarchist-ype ocialorpoliticalmovementsarevariouslydentifiednclassicalGreece, ncient hina,medieval urope,CivilWarEngland, ndRevolutionaryaris.17n the otherhand, nothergroup fhistorians f deas andpolitical hilosophersssert hat narchism,as a self-consciousdeology,s a product fnineteenth-centuryuropeanpoliticsndthought. eorge rowderdentifieshekey ttributesf narchistpolitical houghts itsantistatism,tsperfectionism,nd itsscientism.18tis an ideology ormedn theaftershockfthe FrenchRevolutionnd thedynamics frevolutionndrestorationhat onsumedFrench olitics ntil1871.t salsoshapedby he mergent lobal conomynd the ombined ndunevendevelopmentfcapitalismnEurope.AnarchismsthecumulativereworkingfRousseau,Comte, ndHegel through he enses ofGodwin,Proudhon,Bakunin, nd Kropotkin.Bythe ate nineteenthenturyheclassical narchist anon and itsassociatedpracticeswereembedded n aself-consciouslynarchistmovementwithvariations n the central heme(Individualism,ollectivism,ommunism,ndSyndicalism). ne canalsosituate narchismxternallyn a continuum etween iberalismnd statesocialism. n turn, ypes fanarchism re situatednternally ydifferingattitudesoward heeconomy ndorganization.19But all types fanarchism ad a commondrivefor future ithout hestate, commitmento theautonomy ftheindividual, nd a questforvoluntary onsensus:anarchistsmightbe children fRousseau in their



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 5perfectionismnd their mphasis n education o teachhumanbeingstobehave n a libertarian anner,ut t east ntheorynarchists id notforceus to befree. ndoubtedlynreally xistingocial movementsexcept hosecomposed fpacifists),narchists ehavedmore ike ibertarianocialists,nthat iolence, ven the urgical iolence dvocatedbyErricoMalatesta, orexample,nvolved oercion nd/or illing. hus anarchists ctive n socialmovementsntheclassicalphasewere n theory hilosophicalnarchists,but in practice ibertarian ocialists: ndeed thiswas acknowledgedbyMalatestaat several occasions and byworthy dversaries uch as LouisPost, n American fficialnvolvednfreeingmprisonednarchistsnthewake ofAmericasRed Scare of1919.20s abstractdeology,narchismmayhaveas its thesis iberalism nd as its antithesisocialism,whileawaitinga satisfactoryynthesis. et as applied ideology,t is socialismsspurned,abused, nd gnoredoyal pposition,maintainingvigilant eatheryeforthe mergencefnew forms fhierarchy,entralization,ndmonopolies fpower, roperty,r otherntangibledvantageswithin heLefttself ndinanypostrevolutionaryovernment.21Classical narchism as no onger iable rattractivefterhe panish ivilWar nd the econdWorldWar,n the ontextf heCold Waror thewelfarestate nda mass onsumerociety. ere he tudent,he tudentropout,ndtheuniversityecturereplaced he narchist easant, he narchistrtisan,and themobile emiskillednarchist orker. heanarchistmovement astransformedrom einga movement isproportionatelyomposedof theself-educatedoonecomposed f hosenpossessionf considerablemountof ocialand cultural apital. ndustrial ragrarian narchismwasreplacedbypostmaterialist,cological, rpostmodernnarchism. he celebrationfsciencewasreplaced y aundiced rdismissivettitudeoward cience ndtechnology.narchism as no longer revolutionaryroject ut series fprovocativeeformistcts whetherf practical ent as inthe xample fthework f ColinWard22)ras partof studentnd new socialmovementsfrom he1960sonward, nd morerecentlyince the1980sthesymbolic rguerrilla ctions ofgreen narchistsnd antiglobalizationctivists,r inthe ntellectualisputationsfpostmodernnarchistsn theacademy. orpost-modernnarchists,progressivedeologicalnarrative as discounted.Nevertheless,uriously,hese ame advocatesofa postmodernistakeonanarchismemonstratedurprisingeverenceor hepastby laiminginkages



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6 Carl evywith he lassical narchistegacyStirnerndBakunin), hile thernarchistssince he1950s ad been nspired y lassical narchismsnarcho-feminism,itsforaysntoecology,mostnotable ntheworkofMurray ookchin, ndattemptstestablishingrban nd rural ommunal xperiments.23Employing rowder approach, ne can create n idealtypicalmodel ofclassical narchism.hus ntistatism,erfectionism,nd scientismreusefulideologicaldiscriminators,lthough ne might uestion, s RuthKinnadoes,theexactdosagesofthese hreengredientsnthe narchistrew ndthepigeonholingfthewell-known nd moreobscurefiguresf"classicalanarchism."24he analytical hilosopherPaul McLaughlinsuggests hatclassical narchismsssence s foundn ts cepticismbout uthority.25utSamuel Clarknotes hat lassical narchists erenotradical ceptics f allauthority,ndthey ought n ethicalustifiableorm f uthority.The classical narchistshouldnotbeconfusedwith he o-calledUtopiansocialists f hefirsthirdf henineteenthentury.or hemost art lassicalanarchists haredwithMarx a critical iew ofsocialist rcommunitarianutopias.26 ropotkins topiawas based on engagementn themundaneworld ffields, actories,ndworkshops,oupledwith sober ppreciationof he nductive-deductivecientific ethod nd nottheMarxianHegeliandialectic,whichhefeltwasUtopiannthepejorativeenseoftheword.Hisanarcho-communistolitics, hich y he atenineteenthenturyadbecomethemainstream narchist iew,was foundedon small actsof ibertarianmutualism layed ut ncivil ociety,nderliningis belief hat evolutionwas possiblebecause institutions fpresent-day,verydayifeharboredthe seedsofan anarchist uture. husKropotkin ombined hereformistscepticismfEdwardBernstein,hecautionof theempirical cientist,ndthe eal oftherevolutionary.27Butwhateverormffutureocietal rrangementtimulatedhe narchists'imaginations, o anarchistoulddeny heneed to do awaywith hestate.Ifthis s thecase,theconceptof anarchism s a context-lessnd timelessideology ausesproblemsfonewants o embrace hefamilyree pproachto studyingheorigins, volution, nd dissemination f a self-consciousdoctrinealled anarchism."t svery ifficultobe antistatistf hemodernstate orm oes not xist ndthe oncepts alien otheprevailingulture. hemodern tate s themost ffectivendcompact ngine fpowerdevisedbyhumankind as a product ffeudal urope.Recent esearch asargued hat



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 7ancientristinetatesMinoan, umerian,gyptian,ndusValley,ellow iver,Mesoamerican,nd Peruviantates)weregenerallyucceeded y varietyfother orms frule; nd thusfor housands fyears, nce thepristinetatedeclined,mpirewithout centralmodern ation-stateore, uilds, ity-statecommunes,eligiousraternities,verseas radingompanies,nd universalreligious rganizationonstituted ostformsfgovernancenEurasia ndvast reasofAfrica nd theAmericas efore urope's arlymodern eriod.28Ifwe turn o so-calledprimitiveocieties,when HaroldBarclay, ierreClastres, r David Graeber29 iscuss stateless ocietiesor "peoplewithoutgovernment,"hese nthropologistsre at theirmost nterestinghentheysituate hese ocieties n a scale from oercion oconsensus, ot on a scalewhich measures hedegreetowhichtheyhaveapproximated "statelesssociety"-nonsensicaln thegivencontexts,lbeitrecentlyamuel Clarkprovidedus with foodfor hought hrough n interestinghilosophicaldiscussion fthe uxtapositionfrules ndmethods hat overn stateless"SudaneseNuersocietywith hat fSpanish narchists.30

To repeat:classical anarchismwas a critiqueof themodernstate,critique fthe most effectiveonstellationfpowerhumanbeingshaveever onstructed.31he egaciesofclassical narchismmayhave nfluencedpostmodernheories f nformalmicropower,nd such nsightsan indeedcan be recycledo their ourceby ocial historiansfclassical narchism oanalyze tspolitical conomy,tsforms fconviviality,32herolesofgenderandsexuality,33nd thehidden nformalower tructuresf hemovementitself,ut focusednalysisf lassical narchism ithintshistoricalontextneeds o stick o antistatisms one of hekeydiscriminators,ven f lassicalanarchists idnot gnore ther orms fhierarchyndpower slavery,hepatriarchalamily,heChurch,mongothers).34The most nterestingistorical nthropological orkretraces ow thestate ame to see tself s a state nd act ike state,nd theprocess ywhichit then ggrandizeddjacent ones n which he tate ormwas inchoate rnonexistent.ames cotthasanalyzed hedisastrousnteractionfthehighmodern tate nd ts grarian interland,romheSovietUnionto Brazil- adiscussiono which his rticle eturns hen tdiscusses omparativetudiesofpeasant narchism. is morerecentnarchist istoryocuses nZomia,an area ofhighlands tretchingrommodernnortheasternndia throughSoutheastAsiaand southern hina, n which cottrelates ow a varietyf



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8 Carl evygroupsorevolvingthnicities)led romtate-controlledalleysnd remainedoutof hereach f he nfrastructuralower f hemodernizingtate ntil hesecond half fthe wentiethentury.35n a similar ashion, eter inebaughand Marcus Redikerdescribe n fascinating etail thepirate anarchist"confederacies f theeighteenth-centuryaribbean panishMain,whereasothers averelated hehistoryfMaroon orrunaway laverepublicsntheCaribbean nd Brazil.36nall of hese ases the deology f narchismsnotpresentalthough earlyointhepirateonfederacies);ather,heyre tudiesof he ransitionone,where fullyledged orld ystemfnation-statesndtheglobalmarket rerapidlyhangingherulesofthe sovereigntyame,"and nthis especthese tudies re nterestingalfwayouses. ndeed,whenI discuss he ocial andgeopolitical ases for he elf-consciousdeologicalanarchism fMexicanor Ukrainian uralmovements f he arly wentiethcentury,heparallels o thethemes f center ndperiphery,lobalmarket,and state ower revery uggestivendeed.Let us turn o Crowder other wodiscriminators,erfectionismndscientism.hese wo re nterlinkedowhat asbeen alled he Enlightenmentproject."s itpossible o associate henoncoercive hilosophies,deologies,andmovements fpreanarchismo thesediscriminators?s classical nar-chism spunkymillenarianeftoverrom nolder ra, s GeraldBrenan rEricHobsbawmfamouslyrgued ntheir ccounts fSpanish narchism?37Does aninvocation f he deology f narchism ave nypurchaseneitherNormanCohnsportrayalfmedievalChristianmovementsnEurope38rindeedPatriciaCronesoriginal nd fascinatingccountofninth-centuryMuslim anarchist"hinkersnBasra?39Anarchisms ism s notonly ational,sTurcato rgues40;t srationalistIt is unthinkable ithout hepopularization fthe scientificmethod ndtheEnlightenment.he postanarchistsre rightwhenthey dentifyhemainstreamf lassical narchismn ts cientificndpositivist etanarrative(although heymaybewrong o bedismissive f hisnheritancend tohavecaricaturizednarchistositivismnthebargain).Classical narchists ereprogenitorsfmodernity. heywerequite iterallyMax Weber alter go,perhaps eductive nd embarrassing embers fthefamily,utdefinitelysharinghe amegeneticode.41hus he panishnarchists ere otprimitiverebels, s EricHobsbawmfamouslyuggested;heywerepart ndparcel fthesocialist ntellectual ebateof the atenineteenthentury. obsbawm



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 9narrates n evolutionarytory, falsegenealogy,oprove heeffectivenessandmodernityfhispreferredarietyfMarxism.42However,we shouldtakecare not to be overlyealousboundary uardsbetween hereligious nd secular worlds.The notionthat heEnlighten-ment ndits ntellectualhildrenweredivorced rom eligion y militantsecularism s now argely ebunked.And therelationshipetween eligionand modern science is far more complexthan we supposed. Thus the"precursoro anarchism,"WilliamGodwin,was a dissenting hristian,Muggletoniannarchist,nd indeed a WhigConstitutionalistfan oddsort.43esidesbeinga thorough nti-Semite nd antifeminist,roudhonwas a religious ocialist, lapsedCatholicatheist.44akunin, an-Slavist,radical emocrat ndpopulist, odswrestlingartner, as also a "religious"Freemason.45n thisrespectthe religious-secularnterface f classicalanarchism ould be elucidatedbyan engagementwithJonathansraelsstudy f theRadical Enlightenment,46regory laey work on Utopiansocialism nd cosmopolitanism,47r Maurizio sabellas discussionof the"Liberal nternational"fpost-Napoleonicxiles,whosemodesofoperation,sensibilities,nd nteractions ithhost ommunities stablished hemodelfor uture ommunitiesfnationalist,narchist,nd syndicalistiasporasin thenineteenthndearly wentiethenturies.48

Havingmplied heboundary etween reanarchismnd classical narchismisporous houldnot onvince s toadopt hefashionableoncept fpoliticalreligion o understand lassical anarchism.49ohn anticipatedt,and itsappropriatenessnthe medieval ontextmaybe questioned, utsurelytstranspositiono ater ras s anexample f he ort f cademicbad faithndmentalaziness,whichNoamChomsky emolishednhis famous tudy ftheNewMandarins.50ndeed ncontrasto NormanCohnsargument,helatest etailed tudy f social revoltnmedievalEurope circa1200-1425)demonstrateshat,whereas eligioushemesmayhavebeen noticeablentheearlymodernperiod, hesewerenot so prevalent uring he medieval rawhenrevolutionaryovements eremotivatedy secular lust oriberty"with trongnticlerical vertones.51or were lassical narchistsmotivatedby "religious"eliefn thenatural oodness fhumanbeings r ayearningtoreturn o a goldenEdenicprimitive ast, s a recent orensicnalysis he



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10 Carl evylapsedCalvinistGodwinand the scientific ropotkin emonstratesuiteconvincingly.52

CycleswithinClassical Anarchism nd the Varieties of AnarchismAs a distinctivedeology ndsetof ocialpractices,narchisms theproductof he raof heFirstnternational1864-1876)ndtheParisCommune1871).Indeed,well-defined arxist nd anarchistdeologies re not evident ntilthe ate1870s nd even 1880s.Thepolitical houghtfProudhon, akunin,andKropotkinecame fleshwhenadoptedbysocialmovements,nmuchthe ame manner hatGerman nd other ocialdemocrats oundMarxianorEngelsianscientificocialism" ongenial o their rowingolitical artiesafter880.53na parallel ashion o the pread, eception,ndappropriationofMarxism, ertain ocial movements n France, taly, nd Spain werepredisposed o anarchist atherhanMarxistdeology ecausecantonalistor communal-based orms f radicalism nticipatednarchismn action.Therefore he evolutionof anarcho-collectivistnd anarcho-communistdoctrines lourished ithin heseuniquely eceptiveubcultures.54But venwithin lessreceptivenvironmentuch s theUnitedKingdom,the thical narchism f ateVictorian ritainwasclosely nd nsome casesdirectlyinked o themuchbroader raditionf thical ocialism.Anarchismas"voluntaryism"a term hennvogue)couldbedigestednceviolencewasabsented romhemenu.WilliamMorriss eliefs whichwavered etweena libertarianocialism hatwas for ll intentsndpurposes narchismnda fierce ttack n "anarchism"s a synonym or errorismexemplifyisconfusion ut also anarchismsongenialityo currents fBritish ocialismandradical iberalism.)55imilarly,ntheUnited tates, ildedAgepost-CivilWarradicalismwas not hat issimilar ohome-grownnarchism;ndeed oparaphraseheAmericannarchist,enjamin ucker,narchists eremerelyunterrifiedefFersonianemocrats.56n thisrespect heterm anarchist"sless nterestinghan he ermscollectivism"federalist,"Internationalist"asinbeing member ftheFirstnternational),r"communist."ycontrast,the erm libertarian"ecamepopular t the urn fthe enturyo ndicatea broadersubculture nd styleoflife,which ncludedboth the artistic"bohemias"Greenwich illage, chwabing,Montmartre,itrovia,mong



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 11others) nd the narchist ounterculturesffree chools, ree exualunions,antimilitarism,ommunes,ndcooperatives.57fter he urn f he entury,syndicalisment narchismhe nstitutionalover ndvitalityo remain artof broadradical ppositional orcegainst ocialdemocracy ntil heFirstWorldWar nd theBolshevik evolution,r until 939 nthe ase ofSpain.Thisfirstake n the ycles f lassical narchismemonstratestsproteanqualities. narchismurvivedhroughmutationnd creativepplication,utis thisvery ifferentrom arallelhistoriesfthe pread nd disseminationof Marxism nd socialism?As IrvingHorowitz uggestedn the1960s,contextual nd situationalnalysis whichtakes ntoaccount ocial,eco-nomic, ndpolitical ircumstances is themostfruitfulpproach ostudytheorigins nd mutationfthe ub-ismswithin narchismindividualism,collectivism,ommunism,yndicalism) uring ts classicalperiod.58OrsBenjaminFranks uggests, ne could adoptMichael Freedensapproachto thestudy f deologies nwhich each ideologyhas core, djacent, ndperipheral oncepts,nd thusCrowder definitionould serve s a centralunitofanalysis, iving oherence o classical anarchism utallowing tsconstituentchools he ibertyo follow ariations n these ore ttributes.59

The Dissemination nd Receptionof Anarchismfrom he 1880s to 1914: IntroductionIt s remarkablehathistoriansorgothat requentognitive issonance sthedefault osition fthemindsofhumanbeings.We are able to hold twocontradictoryorldviewsn ourheads imultaneously;his scertainlyhe asewhenone nvestigateshe ocialuniverse f narchism efore 914.Activistswereable,for xample, o declare ndividualist nd antiorganizationalistanarchism s their inal oalwhilebeingthe most oyalmembers f tradeunionorganizations.ocial organizationllowedfor heflourishingf theindividual ersonality,hey rgued.60his s oneof hereasons hat chmidtand van der Walts strict efinition f classical narchism s classstruggleanarchisms unsatisfactory.t leads themto claim thatGodwin, Stirner,Proudhon,ndTuckermayhave een ibertarianrmutualistutnot narchistbecausetheywereeither ottotallynticapitalistr, nthecase ofStirner,antipatheticoanyform f ocialism.61f course here s a validdiscussion



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12 Carl evyto be had aboutwhen narchism ecame a self-consciousocialmovement,when he mergentdeologywasreflectedn amassmovement f narchists.Although roudhon sed anarchismn tsmodern ense,hisfollowers eremutualists,nd it is only n the ate 1860s that socialmovement alled"anarchism"rrives n thescene,accompanied s we have seenby manyvariations n the heme. utSchmidt nd van derWalthaveoverlooked hewaymilitants nd theoreticiansven within classwaranarchism" ove avarietyf ntellectualegacies frommutualismo ndividualism)nto heirideology. heir pproach s also two-dimensionalytheir ismissal f theglobalculturalntelligentsia,ho arelargely verlooked ecausethey reconsideredmere"lifestylenarchists." utthe boundariesbetweenclassstrugglenarchism nd this ifestylenarchism,rphilosophicalnarchism,arenot asily rawnwithout istortingnd mpoverishinghe ocialhistoryofclassical narchism,s I hopethis rticlewill how.Measuringhe ffectsfthesevarietiesf narchismnpolitical ulturesis made moredifficultythe nformalityf anarchist rganization. enceone must ook at the appropriate ources:club,caf,and public housesubcultures,62ertain uraldistricts rurbanquarters,63hediasporaratherthan hehomeland.64t s alsoworth earingnmind hat nedid nothave obe a signed-upmember f nanarchistroup o be affectedy ts nfluence;in Italy, or xample, twasperfectlyossibleto votesocialistbut be verysympatheticoanarchismndanarchistmilitants.65ssocialist artychoolsandpamphletsecamemoreprominentntheyears efore 914, oundariesmayhavebecome morerigid, utanarchist nd libertarianeresies eepedthrough arty arriers,ither hroughheeffect fnotable ndividuals,heforce-fieldf yndicalism,r ongstandingnarchistounterculturalnstitu-tions nd symbolstheParisCommune, spectsofhistoryndpractice fMay Day, ndanarchistongs, or xample).66The narchist ovementut ts eeth uringhe irstnternational,nd fter1889, Second nternationalomposedofnational arliamentaryocialistsat firstmarginalized heanarchistsn theearly1890sand finally xpelledthem n 1896.But whatremains nderstudieds theBermuda riangle fanarchist istory,henhybrid rganizationsfrevolutionaryocialists ndcollectivists erenotable nGermany,he LowCountries, rance, nd theUnited tates romhe ate1870s o the arly 890s theGermanJungenndlocalists, he French ollowers fAllemaneorBrousse, hePartito peraio



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 13italiano and American upportersf theChicago dea). These movementswere uspicious fparliamentaryocialism, ritical f ntellectualeadership,andsupportivef ocalism nd forms frevolutionary unicipal ocialism.Much oftheprehistoryf yndicalisman be foundhere, utwestill ack asyntheticverview f thisperiod;rather t s seen as an interlude etweenthe ra oftheFirst nd Second nternationals.67Anotherycle f lassical narchism an be tracednthedevelopmentndevolution f thepractice f terrorismnd assassinations.We canpinpointtwo lusters f ctivity-nthe ate1870s ndearly 880s, nd the1890s,withoutliers tretchingntothe earlier wentiethentury in Barcelona, aris,BuenosAires, ndRussia.68Within pain,Julin asanova has charted hedialecticbetweenforms fmassviolenceand terrorismnd wider ocialmovementsver neighty-yearpan 1860sto 94os).69Thusiolence n theSpanishmovementan be detectedn clandestinend decentralizedorms fterrorassassinationsndbombings),ural nsurrectionsndrural r urbanmassorganizing,nd on occasion,full-fledgednsurrectionaryoments(1909,1917, 933-1934,nd1936).70Modes of terrorism re finally etting erious historicaltreatment;thespreadof a subterraneaniteraturend "practicalmanuals"has beenundertaken. uthKinnahaspublished vast ollection f erroristamphletliterature.71artinMillers broader contextual ccount of terrorism ndRichard ensens agisterialverview f narchistssassinationsre ssential,72and StevenMarkshas charted he preadofthe Russianmethod" oothermovements.73he evolution fconcepts,hepropaganda ythedeed fromdemonstrativeural r urban cts obombing ndassassination),he ffinitygroup ndinsurgentocalizedforms f truggle"skirmishing")ave beentraced.74ikewise, hereciprocal xchange f anarchistmodes ofviolencebetweenFenians,Narodniks, nd Bengalinationalists as been studied.75Inthis espect he tudy fdiaspora ndrefugee etworks as becomeveryfashionable ecause ofattemptso compareand contrast ontemporaryglobal slamistnetworkswith hose of classicalanarchism,nd thereforeanarchist tudies s receiving upportfrom hemostunlikely ources.76Historical ymmetriesresent hemselves o political cientists,esultingin comparisonsbetween talian anarchistsn London in the1890sandAlgerianslamistsntheLondon of the1990s, rcomparisons f differentglobalwavesof errorismrom he narchist ave to the slamistwave.The



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14 Carl evybombing fWallStreety n Italian narchist n 16September920- whichwas thebloodiest erroristttackn New YorkCity efore/11,ccurringustseveralhundredmeters rom /11GroundZero- is the ubject fBeverlyGage recentmonograph, brilliantlyesearched ook that etailshow awenforcementgencieswerehobbledby ncompetencend grandstandingxenophobia. n the endthebomber,MarioBuda,died inhis bed decadeslater.77udahas been dentifieds the inventor"f he arbomb, lbeithisbomb wasplacedin a horse-drawn agon.78ExceptforRussia, narchisterrorismookfew ivesduring his ra,farlessthan he errorismfnationalists or xample, et tcaught hepopularandliterarymaginationnthemostdramatic ashion,nd formuchofthepublic,thebomb-throwingerrorist ecame theimageof the anarchist.Thus it is necessary o examine themagnifyingffect f the rise of themass circulation ress, hesearch for ensation nd bohemian exoticisminmodern ife, nd the pectacularmeanings iven o anarchist ombingsand assassinations hat ccurunderthegaze of modernurbannewspaperreader.79ndoubtedly,aris nthe1890swouldbe an excellent asestudy.80Butwedo have a very ntertaining,ell-researchedndpopularlywrittenbookbyAlexButterworth,hosupplies swith pen portraitf hismurkyworld f ournalists,olice pies, nternationalowerpolitics,nd anarchistexilesbefore 914.81The ParisCommune 1871) nd theFirstWorldWar 1914-1918)re ignalevents n thehistoryf classical narchism,nd intraditional ccounts fthepersistencefanarchism,painis theexception o the rule.A reviewof the iteraturen Spanishanarchismwould deserve n article n itself.In anycase popularnationalism,he interventionistocial state, nd therise ofBolshevism,t s argued, ookthe wind out of the sails of thegoodshipAnarchy ut seemedto avoidSpain.82t s definitelyhecase thatnextgenerationf narchistsndsyndicalistsn Southern urope barringpain)sawmany ecruitsmigrate o internationalommunism.One reasonthattheCNT-FAI [Confederacin acionaldelTrabajo-Federacin narquistaIbrica]faced differentonstellationfforces s that panish ommunismwasrupturedytheemergencefthePOUM [PartidoObreroUnificacinMarxista].)83 or should theunique interactionfCatalannationalism,intellectuals,ndsyndicalistrganizersnBarcelona eforgottenhenonedeals with heSpanish ase,as Angel mith emonstrates.84



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 15However, nyonewho studiesmemoir iterature r the internationalanarchistmovements ewspaperswill sensea gestalt hift rom he1920sto the1940s.85 evertheless,he cumulative ffect f ocal and national fstudies f yndicalismnd anarchism uring he nterwareriodpresentsmorenuancedpicture. he nterplayfwartime ndpostwar narchist ndsyndicalistetworks ithnewerbut related rganizationsfshopstewardmovements nd councilcommunists as been noted n the iterature;hespikeof anarchistctivityastedfrom oughly917 o1924.86urthermore,theupstart olsheviks ada fightn their ands: narchistsnd ibertariansyndicalistsetained greater resencen local political ulturesnFranceand evenGermany ar ongerntothe1920s nd1930s hanhaspreviouslybeenthought. evertheless,younger eneration, hichmight ave beenattractedo anarchismrsyndicalisms movements ore adical han ocialdemocratic arties r tradeunions,werewooed bythecommunists,ndthus hetruebelievers tarted onderinghequestions ffreedomnd therole of the ndividualmore ntenselynlight f the nroadsof fascism nd

communismnthe nterwareriod.They skedthemselves: hatwas at thecore of anarchist elief?Andthey nticipatedhepolemics ssociatedwiththedisenchantedGod thatdied" ex-Communistsfthe1950s.87Ihave lreadymentionedhe ycle f ibertarianounterculturalnarchism,which will eturno ngreat etail nder he ubricf ntelligentsia,ohemia,andAnarchism. ut before hatwe must ook moreclosely tsyndicalismand anarchism.

Disseminationbefore1914: LaborMovements,Anarchism,nd SyndicalismInternationalizedatternsfcapital nd abor ay t thebottom f hemasssupportfor heFirst nternational,specially heattachment fEnglish,Belgian, nd French radeunionists.A wave ofglobalization, eaching napogeebefore urownera,occurredn theperiod1880to1914.ndividualanarchistssing heir wnnetworksfor xample, rricoMalatesta r EmilePougetn Londonduring he1890s)andpolitical efugeesromhegenericrevolutionaryrganizationsf the BermudaTriangleperiod (see above)were thepioneerswho shaped the ideologiesand repertoiresfaction,



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16 Carl evywhich ameto be known s syndicalismnthe arly wentiethentury.88heanarchistslayed prominentartnthegenericnternationalistyndicalism,in which ntimilitarismnd industrial radeunionismweredisseminatedbya new mobileproletariatf aborers,ransportationorkers,nd someskilled rtisans,mostnotablytalians, paniards,Russians, candinavians,Britons,rish,ndYiddish-speakingewsfvariousnationalities.heywerepartof the vast abormigration etweenEurope,theAmericas, nd theso-calledWhiteDominions f heBritishmpire. hisreached crescendojustas a series f nternationaltrikesurged hroughheglobal economy,clustered roundtheperiodof the RussianRevolution f1905 o1914,ndwas interwoven ith peninsurrectionsuch as Barcelonas TragicWeek"in1909and centraltaly'sRed Week" n1914.89The threemost relevant ields fstudy re thepolitical ultures orgedfrom ccupational roupsminers,andless aborers,eamen,umberjacks,tailors,s examples),uburbs r districtsf itiesBarcelona, urin, uenosAires, ampa, aterson,mong thers),nddiasporic ommunitiesItalians,Jews,nd others).Largermentalmaps are needed. Associated tudiesbyBenedictAnderson, osMoya,DavideTurcato,r RichardJensen90an beused astemplatesogiveus a broader icture f heradiation f trike avesand demonstrate ow anarchismndsyndicalism ere nergized ythesecosmopolitan rganizers,ntellectuals,nd workers.

Intelligentsias,Bohemia,and AnarchismOne muststartwithhistory f therelationshipf self-educatednd theeducatedmiddle classes within narchism. arlier n mycareer, lookedat thiswithin he context f socialismbefore 914, utwe need a similareffort or narchism.91very inceMax Nettlau laimed t was so,manyhistorians ave arguedthatclassicalanarchismhad a higherpercentageof self-educatedctivists hanthe socialism of the Second Internationaland indeedthat narchists erekeenondenouncing hepredominancefbourgeoiseadersnsocialist olitical artiesnd formerroletarianareeristsin socialist radeunions.92 nd although ome local case studies eem toprove heanarchists' oint, t would useful o havea global amalgamationofthestatistics, hichone couldgarner rom hewidevariety f national



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 17and local studies nd biographical ictionaries ow available.Associatedwith hiswouldbean atlasof narchist lobalculture-songs, ashions,ndrituals formanyof thesewere theprovince f the anarchist utodidact.In a similar ein, narchistsn the Modern Schoolmovement nd withinturn-of-the-centurytirneriteircles resent nterestingasestudies f heinterweavingf the self-educatednd theformallyrained.Paul Avrichssensitivetudy f theModern School movements unsurpassed, ut onecouldgofurther field ndexamine, or xample, herelationshipetweentheworking nd middle class followers fprovincial narchist-orientedFuturismnpre-FirstWorldWar taly.93But even iftheirnumbersmayhave been limited, ntellectuals ndprofessionals ere mportantntheanarchistmovement. here re severalways oapproach his: herelationshipfanarchism otheemergentocialsciences, learlys a "problem"o be solved CesareLombroso nd allthat);buttherewas also an anarchistriminologyromoted yPietroGori thatsimplynvertedhefirstremises fLombroso work, et emainedweddedtopositivistssumptionsndmentality.94n an nterestingomparativetudy,RichardBachJensenxplainshow, fter 900,the more iberalGiolittianregimen Italydrew line underthe terroristanicof the1890sby usingLombrosos heorieso medicalize narchist efendants:ttempted oliticalassassinationsesultednthedefendantseingdeclared nsane nd shuntedoff oasylumsnstead fbecomingpoliticalmartyrs,hereas nSpainthestrict nforcementf he aw ed toa cycle f ssassinations,xecutions,ndrevengettacks.95

Anarchismwas a sourceof nspirationorbourgeois ociologistsMaxWeber nd RobertMichels). ndeed fWeber anticapitalistuelling artnerwas KarlMarx,Weberused anarchists s foils for hapinghis politicalsociology.96narchistswereprecursorso the theoreticiansf theelites,andinBakuninswritingsneglimpsesnearly ersion f heories f ocialand cultural apitaland a prophetic iscussionof a "New Class" of RedApparatchiksnd authoritarianechnocraticcientists.97Anarchism nd moderngeography eservea greatdeal morestudy.EliseReclus was a pioneergeographerwho combined universal ioticapproachwith n anarchist ritique fspatialpowerand has recentlyt-tractedherenewednterest fradicalpostmodern ociologists. ropotkinpioneered he dea ofgarden ities;his manifoldnfluences n anarchism



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18 Carl evyand anarchist-influencedrbanplanning ndtheory ave beencharted yStevenMarks n hisstudy f theglobal nfluence f Russian ulturenthenineteenthnd twentiethenturies.98Thisleads us to the well-studied ield f bohemia. n the beststudiesthe nteraction fthe elf-educatedndtheformallyrained rtist s at thecrux ofthestory. hus thepoliticaleconomy thecabaret, or xample)of a districtsuchas Montmartre)s interlacedwith he ife ndmodes ofoperation f the artist nd therelationshipetweenhis/herdaring"workand the need for citywidertmarketsuchas Paris), nwhichbourgeoiscritics uch s Felix non cted s mediators etween ourgeoisocietyndillicit narchistctivity,s wellas arbiters ndpatrons fnew schoolsof rtandartmarkets;he pproach ouldbe extended o NewYorksGreenwichVillage,for xample." Alan Antliif stunning ook on modernism ndanarchism s a triumphf ntellectualnd arthistorynd is one ofthebestexamplesof a thrivingiteraturen thehistory f artthat xamineshowanarchism erved s a musetoPost-Impressionists,uturists,adaists, ndsome Surrealists.100n anycase,heretooglobalmapsare needed. nmuchthesamewaythat narchistserved s messengersfsyndicalistdeologyand itsrepertoirefsocialaction,mobile rtists ndself-educatedctivistspercolated hroughnternational ohemia. The political conomyofthe"professional"narchistournalist r thefull-timepeakersdirectlyinkedto thismilieu.Journalismnd iterature ere entral o theirives, ndbothfamousEmmaGoldman ndCarloTresca mong hem) nd esser-knowncomradeswere art f nterlockingntebellum orlds fglobalbohemia ndinternationalyndicalism.101Anarchism nd theGlobal SouthTherelationshipf anarchismo the colonial andpostcolonialworld s ascomplexand multilayereds theconceptof theGlobal South tself. herecentworksofSchmidt nd van derWalt and theforthcomingditedoverview fclassstrugglenarchism,aborradicalism,ndsyndicalismnthe olonial ndpostcolonial orlds reuniquelymportantontributionsothefield.102spreviouslymentioned,he preadof yndicalismntheearlytwentiethenturyollowed hecircuitsf nternationalapital ndempire.



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 19There re now a considerable umber f studies fdiasporic ommunitiesof he narchists ased nentrepotmperial itiessuchasMarseilles, unis,Alexandria, ong Kong, ndTokyo)103nd thethrivingmigrantnarchistand syndicalist ommunitiesn Argentina, razil, Cuba, Australia, ndSouthAfrica.104Anotherparallel iteraturenvolves he debate about thereception fanarchism s an ism. Thus some historians fJapan nd China assert hatradicals n thesecountrieswere attracted o anarchism s ismbecause ofdomestic nd religiousdioms and traditions hatpredisposed hemto it(Neo-ConfucianismndTaoism,mong thers). ther istoriansave rguedthat narchismwas attractiveo radicalsbecause of tsforeignmodernity,preciselyecause twas a modernEuropean deology, hichfacilitatedhemobilizationf hemasses gainstocal elites nd"foreignevils."105ut hisargumentan be placedwithin he broaderdebateover the nteraction fWesterncience nd deologywith arieties fpreviouslyegemonicodifiedforms fknowledge.106

Indeed, hemost trikingecent ontributiono this ebate s Sho Konishistudy fthe ojournofRussianPopulist ev Mechnikov o theJapan ftheMeiji shin,what s knownnEnglish s the MeijiRestoration." echnikovdeveloped concept fmutual id inked o a debunkingf ocialDarwinism,whichformed hebasis ater fKropotkinsnarcho-communism.onishiargues hatMechnikovnterpretedheJapanese aikoku otas theopeningof the nation o theWest, ut as an internal apanese ractice ounded nmutual idandequity, hichwas an alternativeoad tomodernityhatwasnotentirelyeliantnWestern nowledge. his stoundingrticleuggestsa reversal f hefeedbackoop: Kropotkinitenarchismsheavily eliant na conceptof mutual id originally evelopedbya fellowRussianradicalsdigestionfJapaneseulturendthought. n theother and, tevenMarksreminds s howJapanesenarchistsn theearly wentiethentury asilyincorporated olstoyn to theirforms f anarchism ecause his thoughtwas congenial o a Zen Buddhist utlook. n turn,JapaneseKropotkiniteanarcho-communistsriticizedheJapanesetates rogramfmodernizationbydeployinghe ubversivelipsidef he ameWestern ulture hat he tateeliteswere o keen on importingntoJapan.107In a similarfashion n India, Gandhis anarchism mployedTolstoy,Thoreau, nd the AmericanTranscendentalistso create form f rooted



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20 Carl evycosmopolitanismhat econciled heuniversalwith he pecificityf ndianvillage ife.As MustaphaKamal Pasha demonstrates,andhispolitics fnonviolencemergedTolstoyanChristianity ithahims a conceptthatlentpositive onnotations o nonviolence nd formed heconcept fgoodconduct, disciplined ractice fconductingnesduty, hichwasa modeofbehaviorGandhifound bsent nmainstreamWestern ivilization.108Theeastern hores f heMediterraneanrovide s with nother ase tudy.Herethepolyglotndcosmopolitan ttoman mpire erved s the ettingin which slam,minorityeligions,nd modern sms xperience complexpatternf nteraction.nAlexandria, communityfEuropean narchistslived nproximityo theEgyptian ationalistmovement, hich ombinedMazzinian hemeswith revival f slam.The talian rricoMalatesta aisedgroup f x-Garibaldian olunteersofightlongsideUrabi nd hisEgyptianinsurgentsgainst heBritishn1882, uthe realized hat hat heEgyptianfellahpeasant)had ittlencommonwith narchistsntheEuropean uartersofAlexandria.109he modernizationfEgyptwith herise f he otton ashcrop,factories,nd thebuilding f the Suez Canal stimulated n exodusfrom he ountrysidento gyptianities,ven semploymentpportunitiesattractedrtisans,aborers,hopkeepers,nd the educatedmiddle classesfrom herest f heOttoman mpire,taly,rance,ndthe berian eninsula,aswell s from heHapsburg nd RussianEmpires.Here, oo,globalizationled tothegrowthfpockets f narchistndprotosyndicalistctivity,hichhas ongbeen overshadowedn thehistoriographyf heorigins f ocal andpan-Arabnationalism,nd nteleologicalashion as gnoredhese pisodesofcosmopolitan nd internationalisturrents fradicalism hat ar withnationalist,an-Arabist,r slamist istorical arratives.Thus we have thepioneeringworkofAnthony ormanon thePopularUniversityf Alexandria.110ut we now know a greatdeal more since thelandmark ublication f Ilham Khuri-Makdisis stonishingomparativeaccount of threenodal cities Beirut,Cairo,and Alexandria), study fvarieties f secularradicalism n theEasternMediterraneann theperiod1860-1914,nwhich narchist ationalistulture,ndparticularlyheSpan-ish anarchist ducationalist ranciscoFerrer, layedan important ole.111She demonstrates owItalian,Greek, r EasternEuropeanJewishadicalartisans nd intellectualsnteracted ith ndigenous nti-imperialistndsocial radicals.WhereasChristianminorities ended o be closerto these



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 21secular nd anarchistadicals, everthelessrade nion olidarity,ementedbya struggle gainst ntrepot apitalists, issolved ome of the sectarianboundaries etweenMuslim nd non-Muslim nd overcame thermentalboundaries hat eparated he denizensof theEuropeanquarters rom herest fthepopulation.If here asan"anarchistevant,"here assurelylso an "anarchistacific"as BenedictAnderson as shown s.112ndersons iographyfJos izal, hemartyredilipino evolutionaryndnovelist,harts is close contactswithSpanish nd other uropean narchistsnthe1890s nd how he combinedTagalog,panish,ther uropean ultures ith ilipino ationalism. ndersonpresentsswith series f artographiesf narchismnd radical ationalismthat tretchrom ast Asia to theMediterraneannd areboundtogether ythe ogicandlogistics fSpanish nd other uropean mperialisms.Rizal and theChinese anarchist ovelistBa Jinwhose adoptednamespellsout thefirstetters fBakunin ndKropotkin)rearchetypaliminalintellectuals hose ives re case studies fhybridity.113n the otherhand,it mustbe asked to what xtent narchismwas ustanother urocentric rOrientalistdeologynwhich,onsciouslyrunconsciously,he irstremisesof the dominantglobal racial hierarchywerereproducedbyEuropeancomradesthemselves? hus themesfrompostcolonial iteraturemaybefruitfullypplied o the tudy fanarchismntheGlobal South.Another pproachto studyinghe Global Southemploys omparativestudiesofpeasantradicalism.114hemostuseful ase studymight e thepeasantmovementsnSpain,Mexico,Korea-Manchuria,ndUkraine, hereextensive rimary esearch as been done. Here the mageof the GlobalSouthelides ntothebinominal, eriphery,nd semiperiphery,o perhapswe travel rom dward aidtoBarrington ooreand mmanuelWallerstein;that s,we travel rom ostcolonialismocomparative ural ociology ndglobalpolitical conomy.n thesefour ases,ruralpeasant ocietyies ona contested rontiernwhich he effectsf closer ntegrationo theglobalcapitalistmarket,hough art fdaily ife,were oncurrentlyesistedhoughcommunalquestsfor elf-sufficientlternatives. lder bonds ofpaternalobligationwerecollapsing, utnewer,morepowerful orms f staterulewere tymiedrcompromisedy he ffectsf ivil nd/ornternational ar.Structuralauses, owever,o not xplainwhy adical easantmovementsturn oward narchism; easantmovements hosenationalist,eligious,r



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22 Carl evysocialist lternativesnmany ther ases.Therefore,oexplain he mergenceofopenly narchistmovements,gencys akey ariable, utnotonly gencyin the form f anarchisteadership t the head ofa givenmovement, utrathern embedded tratum f narchistctivistsnthe ountrysidergingtheiresspoliticized eighborsntimes fdistressnddisruption.115heexactrelationshipeaders nd cadreshave to eachother,he overall elationshipbetween ity nd countryside,nd theurban and ruralcultural odes ofradicalism aryneachofthese ases. Thusmanyyears goTemmaKaplandemonstratedow hepeasantnarchistsfAndalusiawere loselyonnectedto artisans nd intellectualsn nearby owns,howdisruptivemarketplacerelationswere mportantn shaping he worldviews of small cultivatorswho weredominated ycommercialmonopolists,o that t first akuninistcollectivismratherhan utrightnarcho-communism)eshednicelywiththeserural narchists.116

Duringtherevolutionaryra in Mexico (1910-1920), he followers fEmiliano apata nthe outh f he ountryived ntensionwith yndicalist-orientednarchistsnMexicoCitywhohad cast heirotwith he evolutionarycentral overnment,nd thusurban narchist orker attalions oughthepeasantradicals fthe south.Thepeasant narchistmovementsfMexicowere omposedofa coalition f ndiancommunities,mallrancheros,nddisplaced peasantswhose demandscould not be reconciledwithurbananarchist orkers. he atter ad staked ut their olitical pacewithin henational apital nwhichMexicoCitysrevolutionaryovernmentffordedthem political pportunitytructure. nd thusurbanworkernarchistswere rightenedy herumors f ootingnother ities,whichhad followedthetriumphf somepeasant rmies lsewherenMexico.117The anarchists fUkrainewere variation n theruralGreen radicalismof Civil War Russia 1918-1921),oundparticularlynthe owerVolgaval-ley. ince the ate nineteenthentury,krainehad become a majorglobalbreadbasket,nd the hardcurrencyarnedbythe Ukrainiangraintradehelpedfund he xpansion nd modernization f heRussian rmedforces.ThusUkrainian andswerenotmarginalo thefate f heRussian mpire rto therhythmsfglobalpolitical conomy. ut fter ears fworld nd civilwar, hebreakdown fthe entral tate,nd thedisappearance fthe argerlandowners, krainian narchistsliketheGreens)gained upport rom



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 23distressedopulaceby dvocatingheusageof hemirthe ocalcommunity)as a vehicle o free hemselves rom he internationalmarketplace,romforeign,ationalist,ndWhite rmies, ndequallyfrom heBolshevik edArmy, hose forced rainrequisitions erefeared nd detested.Howeverinthis ase,unlikeMexico, narchistnd local heroNestorMahknowas aconduit furban oliticalulture, hichwas filteredhroughcircle furbananarchistdvisors,o that hedivision etween ountrysidend radical itywas ess obvious han nMexico.Althoughheurban-basedRedArmywasdetested,t was also an ally gainst he Whites. n turn,Makhnos decisivevictoriesver heWhite rmies avedBolshevikMoscow wice romonquestbycounterrevolutionaries.118In the Manchurian-Korean ase, the "KoreanMakhno,"Kim Chua-Chin,was able to takeadvantage f the breakdown f thestateorder nManchuria ntheperiodbeforets nvasion y mperialJapanese orcesn1931. largeKoreanpopulation traddlingheManchurian- oreanborder,anti- apanese eeling,an-Koreanism,nd socialradicalism nfluencedyanarcho-communismllowed hisarmy emporarilyo seize large wathesofterritoryetween 929 nd1931.119GivingheGlobalSouth tsdueweightnthehistoryf lassical narchismwill hereforeevolutionizeurunderstandingf tsgeographicalmorphol-ogyand indeed,deepenour knowledge f theoriginsofkeyaspectsofthe deology tself. husSpaindoes not ook so exceptionalfwe view theentire loberatherhanonly ts northern alf.Thelargest anarchist"ityinthe world n 1910was not Barcelonabut BuenosAires120;tier f citiesintheGlobal Southpossessednoticeable narchist ndsyndicalistoliticalsubculturesCanton,Havana,Lima,Montevideo, iodeJaneiro,o Paulo,Shanghai, nd Tokyo); n the first hreedecades of the twentiethentury,anarchist-dominatedradeunions nArgentina,razil,Peru, nd Mexicowere roportionallyore ominantn their espectiveountries verallabormovementshan heir amous ousin, he panishCNT.121Moreenerally,neofthemajordifferencesetween he ocialist econd nternationalnd theglobal narchistndsyndicalist ovements efore 914wasthis:whereas heanarchistndsyndicalistsad a massbaseintheGlobalSouth, he ocialistsoftheSecond nternationalacked one and indeedpointedlygnored argeswathes fthe nformallyolonized nd colonialworlds.122



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24 Carl evyConclusionInthis rticle havefocussed nthe uestions f hedefinitionf narchism,itsperiodization,nd tsgeographicalissemination.have dopted restric-tivedefinitionf narchism,hus mphasizinghe smof narchism. havenotemployed narchism o mean a general ibertarianrend rsensibilityinall human ocieties or ll historicalpochs. haveadopted definitionof narchismdvancedby nhistorian fpolitical hought,ut realize hatsuch a definitionlwaysneeds to be morenuancedwhenoneconfrontshemessy oundaries f ocialhistory.Several hemesnthis verviewequire urthertudy. hus heboundariesbetweenreanarchismndclassical narchism eedmore esearch,articularlytherelationshipetween he egacies frevealed eligionn apsedbelieverswho had turned o anarchism. ow did thethoughtndmentalhabits frevealedreligion ffect he formationf classical anarchismtself? husa good start s MichaelLwy sensitive reatment fthepreciseroles ofmillenarianismnd anarchismnpeasantmovementsuringhenineteenthand twentiethenturies. orhimthemillenarianraditionstransmutednmodern narchistmovements yrationalist,iterate,ndcalculatingocialactors,n whichfaith s translatednto secularpassion.123e also need agooddealmore nvestigationf heorigins fmodern ntistatism,hat s tosay, he inkages etween raditionsf decentralized orms fgovernanceand customaryelf-rulend adjudication,whichpreceded hepresence fthemodern tate.

Finally here s thedissemination fanarchism ntheGlobalSouth.TheinteractionfEuropeandeologiesincludingnarchism)withnative radi-tionshasgiven ise o anexcitingew iteraturehat raws ponpostcolonialstudies. ut t lsodraws n the ransnationalnddiasporic urn nregionalandworld istory.nthis egardhe tudyf hedisseminationndreceptionof narchismnd tskindred octrineyndicalismeserves he ttentionfa wider pectrumfhistorians nd historicalociologists.But here s also theutilityf nanarchistmethod rsensitivitynwritingglobalorEuropeanhistorytself.o,for xample, ropotkinsnterestnthecommunes ndguilds fmedieval urope nticipatesrecent ath-breakingaccountofsocialrevoltsnmedievalEurope.EchoingKropotkinwithoutacknowledging is influence, amuel Cohn Jr. rguesthat,bytheearly



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 25fourteenthentury,hegrowth fguildcommunities ndpeasantmilitiasand the oncomitantoweringf axes lunted he rrogancefmagnatesndmitigatedgainst egimes ased onwar, iolence, ndplunder,hus hiftingthebalance ofpowerfromwarlord lites o morepeaceful nddemocraticconstellationsfpower. ut hese ecentralizedndpeaceful orms f elf-rulewere ollowedy backlashnwhich nensuing rowthf he arlymodernstate evamped more ffectiveersion ftheearlier eign fwarlords ndwitnessed he revival f hierarchical nd authoritarianmethods nd thediminution r eliminationf hepowers f ommunes, ity-states,nd othershared onesof overeignty.124hus o recallJamescott,n anarchist ethodwillhelpunderstand ow constellationsfpolitical ower earn o ook andact ikestates,ndhow free ones such as Zomia aregradually igested yempowered djacent tates.125But it would also be possibleto envisage history fmodernityhatemphasizes dialecticalmovement etween hepost-Westphaliantate ndwavesofworldwide osmopolitan rotestmanifestedhroughheperiodiccollective reakdown f the nternationalondominium f suchsovereignbodies.Thus ince he ighteenthentury,lobalhistoryas recordedwavesof civilor industrial nrest, opularantimilitarismr warweariness,ndacute nterconnectedivilwars126hat aveblindsided heputative anopticalpredictive apacities f theearlymodern, apitalist,r communist tates(1789-1793,820-21,830, 848, 871: he ra of heFrenchRevolutionnd tsaftermath;905-1914:heSyndicalistevolt nd thefirst ussianRevolution;1917-1924:WorldWar ndrevolution;944-1947: heResistance nd WorldWar;1968: tudent, itizens,nd workers evolts;ven1989-1991:hefall fcommunism). ut heretoo,the same backlashresponseCohn detectednearlymodern urope s writargen nternationalociety,o that hallengesto thestateform nd the nternationaltate ystemtself re followed yinnovation nd reinforcementf statepowerovercontested eographicalspaceand thehumanbody tself. wo recent xampleswill uffice.In Jeremiuri innovativetudy f theorigins f the dtentes etweenChina and theUnited tates nd between heU.S.S.R. nd theUnited tatesintheNixonera,heargues hat hegreat owersreacted o theeruption fgrassrootsublicprotestEastandWest)by eizing he nitiative,eparatingpoliticsfromglobal civilsociety, eassertinghepowerof thestate, ndendingthegreatdisruptions f the1960s.127ythetwenty-firstentury,



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26 Carl evyin responseto theunstoppablemigratory lowof forced nd economicmigrants, ation-states fthe Global North, nd increasinglythers, remore ikely o fit heir borders" round the ceaseless and spontaneousflow fpeoplerather hanbe boundbyborderpostsor ines drawn nthesand or on maps.128A comparative lobal social history f anarchismhelpsus define heparametersf narchisms deology,ut tmightlso serve istoriesf he iseanddevelopmentf he tate. heanarchistmaginationnspires pproachesthat ranscend he onstraintsfbothMarxist nd realist ccounts fglobaland internationalistories ecause thighlightsherole of the unintendedeffectsf ubalternmovements,uch s students rmigrants,or ettinghetempoofmajorhistoricalhange.This anarchist akeon methodologicalindividualism ounterbalances he circularfunctionalisteasoning hatone finds ll too oftennstudies hat veremphasizeigid ocial class andcompetitivetate lite nalyses rdependtoo muchondeterminisioliticaleconomy ndgeopolitics.129

Much ofwhathas been discussed n this rticle hares hefirstremisesof the transnationalurn n global history nd itssubset, ransnationallaborhistory;nd tocomplete circle freciprocalnfluences,he tudy fanarchist nd aborcosmopolitanismuring heera ofglobalization efore1914has been an inspirationor istorians ndsociologistseeking o makesenseof henew order f abormilitancyn the ndustrialized lobalSouth,whichhas arisen incethe1960s.130n turnmodelstakenfrom he tudy fcultural iasporashave been helpful o historians f classical anarchism.JosMoya promises study f themigratoryatternsf talian, panish,and RussianJewishnarchists hopliedback and forthcross heAtlantic,an "Anarchist tlantic" irectlynspired yPaulGilroy "BlackAtlantic."131Thus the socialhistoryfanarchism ffersmuch to theburgeoningieldsof ransnationalndglobalhistories,nd in turn hesefieldswill nrich hehistoriographyf narchism.



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 27NOTESPreviousersionsf his aper ere ivent he eventhuropeanocial cience istoryConference,niversityf isbon26 ebruary-iarch008);he ermanistoricalnstitute,Rome,July008; narchisttudiesetwork,oliticaltudiesssociation,oughboroughUniversity,-6 eptember008;choolfHistory,elshistoryndArchaeology,niversityof angor,October008; oliticaldeologiesesearcheminar,epartmentf oliticsndInternationalelations,niversityf xford,February009;nd he epartmentf oliticsSeminar,oldsmiths,niversityfLondon,7March009. wouldike o hankariousmembersf he udiencet heseonferencesnd eminars.heditorialoardf he ournalfor he tudyfRadicalismnd heirnonymouseviewersuppliedsefulnd upportivecriticismo n arlierersionf hisaper,nd heyhoulde hanked.he sual aveatspply

1.For he tandardccounts,eeMaxNettlau,ShortistoryfAnarchismLondon:Freedom,996); eorgeWoodcock,narchism:HistoryfLibertariandeas ndMovementsHarmondsworth,K:Penguin,986,nd d.);Jamesoll,he narchists(London:KP,979,nd d.); eter arshall,emandinghempossible:HistoryfAnarchismLondon:arperPerennial,007,ndd.). orMichaelchmidtnd ucienanderWalt,eeBlack lame: he evolutionarylass oliticsf narchismnd yndicalism(Edinburgh,K:AKPress,009).2.Davideurcato,MakingensefAnarchism:he xperimentsith evolutionf rricoMalatesta,talian xilenLondon,889-1900"Ph.D. iss.,imon raserniversity,2009);ndDavide urcato,Introduction,akingense fAnarchism,"nHistoryfLibertariandeasvol. ,The mergencef he ew narchism1939-1977y d.RobertGrahamMontral:lack ose ress,009),v-xxiv.3.Carl evy,MalatestanExile,"nnaliella ondazioneuigiinaudi51981):45-70;Carl evy,MalatestanLondon:he ra f ynamite,"hetalianisted. .SponzandA.Tosi,A enturyf talianmigrationnBritain880 o 980s,"specialupplement)13 1993):5-42.4.Carl evy,Currentsf talianyndicalismefore926,"nternationaleviewf ocialHistory5 2000): 09-50.5.Carl evy,Anarchism,nternationalismndNationalismn urope,860-1939,"ustralianJournalf oliticsndHistory0, 2004): 30-42.6. Carl evy,MaxWeber,narchismndLibertarianulture:ersonalityndPowerPolitics,"nMaxWebernd he ulturef narchy,d. amWhimsterBasingstoke,K:Macmillan,999),3-109.



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28 Carl evy7.Carl evy,The narchistssassinn talianistory:870so1930s,"nAssassinationsandMurdernModerntaly:ransformationsn ocietynd ultureeds. tephenundleand ucia inaldiNew ork: acmillanalgrave,007),07-21.8. Carl evy,ramscind he narchistsNew ork:YU/Bergress,999).9.Carl evy,ramscind he narchists.10.Carl evy,Italiannd panishnarchismompared:ation,egionnd atriotism,1860-1945,"orthcoming.11. orummaryf heseields,ee homasixon,henventionf ltruism:akingoralMeaningsnVictorianritainOxford:xfordniversityress,008).have ried yhand trealizingome f hesebjectsn studyhats relatedo he ocial istoriesof narchism;eeKtSovversivismo':he adicaloliticalulturefOthernessnLiberalItaly,"ournalf oliticaldeologies2, 2007): 47-61.12.B.Altena,How bouthe istoryfAnarchisms Nationalocial ovement?,"eventhEuropeanocial cienceistoryonference,niversityf isbon,6February-iarch2008.13. .Romanos,Analyzingnarchistobilizationna Highlyepressiveontext:he

Spanishase,"eventhuropeanocial cienceistoryonference.14.Davideurcato,Makingense fAnarchism,"eventhuropeanocialcienceistoryConference.15. .Goyens,Socialpacend he racticefAnarchististory,"eventhuropeanocialScienceistoryonference;ndhiswonderfulonograph,eer ndRevolution:heGermannarchistovementnNew orkity1880-1914Urbana:niversityfllinoispress,007).16.Turcato,Makingense fAnarchism."17.Marshall,emandinghempossible.uth inna ritesnterestinglyn he istoriographyofnarchism;eeher narchism:Beginner'suideOxford:neWorld,005),nd heincisiveommentsy chmidtnd an erWalt,lacklamey7.18.G.Crowder,lassicalnarchism.he oliticalhoughtfGodwin,roudhon,akuninndKropotkinOxford:larendonress,991). good ccountf he oliticalconomyfclassicalnarchismsfoundnRobertnowles,oliticalconomyromelow:conomicThoughtnCommunitariannarchism,840-1914London:outledge,004).19.A.Skirda,acinghenemy:HistoryfAnarchistrganizationromroudhonoMay1968Edinburgh,K:AKPress,002).20.For good verviewfMalatesta,eePaulNursey-Bray,Malatestand heAnarchistRevolution,"narchisttudies, 1995):5-44.21.David orland,emandinghempossible:umanaturend oliticsnNineteenth-Century



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 29Social narchismLondon:assell,997),99.22.ColinWard,narchynActionLondon:reedomress,973);tuart hite,MakingAnarchismespectable?he ocial hilosophyfColinWard,"ournalf oliticalIdeologies2, 2007):1-28.23. give summaryn Anarchism,"ncartancyclopediaLondon: ebster'snternational,Microsoftncarta,ttp://encarta.msn.com/enclyclopediay004). heres vastiteratureon ostwarnarchismnd ostanarchism.eeDavid pternd amesoll,ds., narchismTodayLondon: acmillan,971); ichardombin,heOriginsfModerneftism(Harmondsworth,K:Penguin,975); .J. hlrich,d.,Re-inventingnarchy:hatare he narchistshinkingheseays London:KP,979); urrayookchin,NewSocialMovements:heAnarchicimension,"nForAnarchism:istoryTheoryndPracticeed.David oodwayLondon:outledge,989),59-74;oddMay,he oliticalPhilosophyf oststructuralnarchismCollegetation:ennsylvaniatate niversityPress,994); . urkisndJ. owen,ds., wenty-Firstenturynarchism:northodoxIdeasor NewMillenniumLondon:assell,997);aulNewman,rom akuninoLacan: nti-Authoritarianismnd he islocationf owerLanham:exington,001);Lewis all, ostmodernnarchismLanham:exington,002); avidGraeber,TheNew narchists,"ew efteview3 2002): 1-73;.M.Sheehan,narchismLondon:Reaktionooks,003); . urkisndJ. owen,ds., hangingnarchism:narchistTheorynd racticen GlobalgeManchester,K:Manchesterniversityress,004);J. .Day, ramscisDead:Anarchisturrentsn he ewestocialMovementsLondon:Plutoress,005); enjaminranks,Postanarchism:Criticalssessment,"ournalfPoliticaldeologies2, 2007): 27-46;.Katsiaficas,he ubversionf olitics:uropeanAutonomousocial ovementsnd he ecolonializationf verydayifeEdinburgh,K:AKPress,ewd., 007); riGordon,narchylive nti-AuthoritarianoliticsromPracticeoTheoryLondon:lutoress,008); .Amstert l., ontemporarynarchistStudies:nntroductorynthologyf narchyn he cademicLondon:outledge,009);Graham,istoryf ibertariandeasvol. ; aulNewman,he oliticsf ost-narchism(Edinburgh,K:Edinburghniversityress,010).24.Ruthinna,The narchistanon,"narchisttudies, 1997):7-7 .25.PaulMcLaughlin,narchismndAuthority:PhilosophicalntroductionoClassicalAnarchismAldershot,K:Ashgate,007).26.Samuellark,ivingithoutominationAldershot,K:Ashgate,007).27.Ruthinna,Anarchismnd he oliticsfUtopia,"nAnarchismndUtopianismeds.Laurenceavis ndRuth innaManchester,K:Manchesterniversityress,009),221-40.



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30 Carl evy28.Samuellark as verysefulummaryf heiteraturen he volutionf hetatendthe tateystemromhe ourteentho he wentiethenturies.eeClark,ivingithoutDomination75-106; ichel ann,heourcesf ocial owervols. nd Cambridge,UK:Cambridgeniversityress,993);ndJohnarwin,fteramerlaine:he lobalHistoryf mpireLondon:enguin,llenane,007).29.Pierrelastres,ocietygainsthetateBoston:IT ress,989);avid raeber,ragmentsof nAnarchistnthropologyChicago:ricklyaradigmress,004); aroldarclay,People ithoutovernmentAnAnthropologyfAnarchyLondon:reedomress,ewed., 006).30.Clark,ivingithoutomination109-38.31. ee he ife's orkfMichel annn he riginsnd evelopmentf he tatend heconceptf nfrastructuraleach.32. .Gemie,Counter-Community:nAspectfAnarchistoliticalulture,"ournalfContemporaryistory9 1994):49-67.33. .Gemie,Anarchismnd eminism:Historicalurvey,"omen'sistoryeview,3 1996):14-44; .Nash,efyingale ivilizationWomennd hepanishivilWar

(Denver:rdenress,995);ichardleminson,narchism,ciencend exEugenicsnEasternpainBern:eteraing,000);M.Ackelsberg,reeWomenf pain:narchismand he truggleor he mancipationfWomenEdinburgh,K:AKPress,ew d.,2004).34.Clark,ivingithoutomination97.35.J. .Scott,eeingike State: ow ertainchemesomprovehe uman onditionHave ailedNewHaven,T:YaleUniversityress,998);ndJ. .Scott,he rt fNot eing overned:nAnarchististoryfUplandoutheastsiaNewHaven,T:Yale niversityress,009). lso onsulternandairie'studyf adakhorslightlydifferentpproach,hichtressesimilarcologicalactorssfoundnZomia,ut oesontogive fascinatingescriptionf hemethodsf onflictesolution,hichavesurvivednterferencey oth hendiantatend he uddhistierarchy,nd ringsomind ropotkinsiscussionf he ifferencesetweenustomaryracticesnd tateenforcedaw; eace ndConflictnLadalch:he onstructionf Fragile ebfOrder(Amsterdam:rill,007).36.PeterinebaughndMarcusediker,heMany-Headedydra:he iddenistoryfthe evolutionarytlanticLondon:erso,000); .Land,Flyinghe lacklag: evolt,Revolution,nd he ocial rganizationf iracyn heGoldenge,"'anagementOrganizationalistory2, 2007): 69-192;lark,ivingithoutomination101-103.37. ric obsbawm,rimitiveebels:tudiesnArchaicormsf ocialMovementsn he



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 3119thnd 0th enturiesManchester,K:Manchesterniversityress,rdd., 971),ch. ; ndGeraldrenan,hepanishabyrinthCambridge,K:CambridgeniversityPress,antod., 990).ornoverviewf his iscussion,eeM.G.Duncan,SpanishAnarchismefracted:hemesndmagesnMillenarianndRevisionistiterature,"Journalf ontemporaryistory3, 1988):23-46.38.N.Cohn,he ursuitfhe illennium:evolutionaryillenariansndMysticalnarchistsof heMiddlegesLondon:imlico,ev.d., 993).39.Patriciarone,Ninth-Centuryuslimnarchists,"ast Present692000): -28;ndHaroldarclay,Islam, uslimocietiesndAnarchy,"narchisttudies0, 2003):5-18.40.Turcato,MakingensefAnarchism..41.Whimster,axWebernd he ulturefAnarchism.42.Clark,ivingithoutomination121-26;obsbawm,rimitiveebels.43.Peter arshall,illiamodwinNew aven,T:Yale niversityress,984).44.Forpioneeringttempto iscussheelationshipetweenevealedndrganizedeligionsandnarchism,eeReligiousnarchism:ewerspectivesAlexandrehristoyannopoulos(Newcastlepon yne: ambridgecholarsublisher,009). .Vincent,ierre-JosephProudhonnd he isefRevolutionaryyndicalismBerkeley:niversityfCaliforniaPress,984).45.The atestiographyfBakuninowngradeshe sychosexualpproachavoredypreviousiographers;eeM.Leier,akunin:he reativeassionNew ork:t.MartinsPress,006). or he rthodoxpproach,eeE. H.Carr, ichaelakuninLondon:Macmillan,937);ndAileenelly,ikhailakunin:Studyn hesychologynd oliticsofUtopianismOxford:xfordniversityress,982). owever,eiermaynderstatethe reanarchistnfluencesn he narchisthasefBakuninsife.46.Jonathansrael,adicalnlightenment:hilosophynd he akingfModernity,650-1750(Oxford:xfordniversityress,001);ndJonathansrael,nlightenmentontested:PhilosophyModernitynd hemancipationfMan,670-1752Oxford:xfordniversityPress,006).47.G.Claeys,Reciprocalependence,irtuend rogress:ome ourcesf arlyocialistCosmopolitanismnd nternationalismnBritain750-1850,"n nternationalismn heLabour ovement,830-1914vol. , ds. . anHolthoonndM.van er indenLeiden,NL: .J.rill,988).48.M. sabella,he isorgimenton xile:talianmigrsnd he iberalnternationaln hePost-NapoleonicraOxford:xfordniversityress,009).49.Markedgwick,Al-Qaedand he aturefReligiouserrorism,"errorismnd olitical



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32 Carl evyViolence16, 2004): 95-814;ichelurleigh,arthlyassionsThe onflictetweenReligionnd oliticsromhe renchevolutiono he reat arLondon:arperollins,2005);Michaelurleigh,acredauses:eligionnd oliticsromheuropeanictatorstoAIQaeda London:arperollins,006).50.Noam homsky,mericanowernd he ewMandarinsLondon:hattondWindus,1969).51. .L.Cohn r.,ustor iberty:he oliticsf ocial evoltnMedievalurope,200-142(Cambridge,A:Harvardniversityress,006).52. .Clark,Anarchismnd heMythf he rimitive:odwinndKropotkin,,>tudiesnSocialnd oliticalhought5 2008): -25.53. ric obsbawm,The ortunesfMarx'snd ngelsWritings,"nHistoryfMarxism,vol. ,MarxismnMarxysay,d. ric obsbawmBloomington:niversityfndiana,1982);ranco ndreucci,The iffusionfMarxismn taly uringheNineteenthCentury,"nCulture,dentitynd olitics:ssaysorric obsbawm,ds. aphaelamuelandGarethtedman-onesLondon:KP,983);rancondreucci,lmarxismoollettivo:Socialismo,arxismocircolazioneellede alla econdalla erzanternazionaleMilan,IT:Francongeli,986);arl evy,Introduction:istoricalnd heoreticalssues,"nSocialismnd hentelligentsia870-1914,d.Carl evyLondon:KP,987),-10.54.David tafford,romnarchismoReformism:Studyn he oliticalctivitiesf aulBrousse870-1890London: eidenfeldndNicolson,971);arolineahm,ropotkinand he isef evolutionarynarchism,872-1886Cambridge:ambridgeniversityPress,989); eorgesenwein,narchistdeologynd heWorking-ClassovementnSpain,868-1898Berkeley:niversityf aliforniaress,989); .S.Vincent,etweenMarxismnd narchism:enotalnnd rencheformistocialismBerkeley:niversityof aliforniaress,992); unioernicone,taliannarchism,864-1892Princeton,J:Princetonniversityress,993).55. discussvoluntaryism"n MalatestanExile."ee lsoJohnuail, he low urningFuse: he ostWorldf ritishnarchismLondon:aladin,978); .Bevir,The iseof thicalnarchismnBritain,885-1900,"istoricalesearch:ulletinf henstituteofHistoricalesearch9, 691996): 43-65;uth inna,Williamorrisnd he rtof ocialismCardiff,K:Cardiffniversityress,000);M.Thomas,narchistdeasand ounter-CulturesnBritain,880-1914:evolutionsn verydayifeAldershot,K:Ashgate,005); uthinna,Williamorrisnd he roblemf nglishness,"uropeanJournalf oliticalhought,1 2006): 5-99. or carefulnalysisfBritishublicopinionnd narchism,eeH.Shpayer-Makov,AnarchismnBritishublic pinion1880-1914,"ictoriantudies1, 1988):87-516.



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Social istoriesfAnarchism 3356.J. .Martin,enAgainsthe tateDeKalb,L:Adrian llen ssociated,953);. M.Schuster,ativemericannarchism:Studyf eft-WingmericanndividualismNewYork:aCapo,970);aul vrich,nAmericannarchist:he ifefVoltarineeCleyre(Princeton,J: rincetonniversityress,980); .Brooks,AmericanndividualistAnarchism:hattWas ndWhytFailed,"ournalf oliticaldeologies, 1996):75-95-57.ngeneralee, emie,Counter-community";nd .Gemie,Historians,narchismndPoliticalulture,"narchisttudies, 1998):53-59.good xamplef he narchists'countercommunityemainsaul vrich'studyf heModernchool,he odernchoolMovement:narchismnd ducationn he SPrinceton,J:rincetonniversityress,1980). lso ee he ecenttudyf he ffectsfFerrerseachingsn broaderandofmilitantreethinkersnd ocialistsefore914;.Laqua,"Laque,mocratiquetsociale?'ocialismnd reethinkers'nternational,"abouristoryeview4, 2009):253-73.ecentxamplesf exualoliticsre heila owbotham'sagisterialiography,Edwardarpenter:Lifef ibertynd oveLondon:erso,008);ndGingerrosts"'LovesAlwaysree':narchism,ree nionsndUtopianismn dwardianngland,"

Anarchisttudies7, 2009): 3-94.n rt,iterature,narchism,nd ohemia,ee .WHerbert,he rtistnd ocial eform:rancend elgium,885-1900New aven,T:Yale niversityress,961);eg arr,narchismn rance:he ase f ctave irbeau(Manchester,K:Manchesterniversityress,977); . ubin,ealismnd ocial isionnCourbetnd roudhonPrinceton.J:rincetonniversityress,980);.Tsuzuki,dwardCarpenter844-1929:rophetfHumanellowshipCambridge:ambridgeniversityPress,980); . .Halperin,elix non:esthetendAnarchistnFin-de-Siclerance(New aven,T:Yale niversityress,989);atriciaeighton,e-orderinghe niverse:PicassondAnarchismPrinceton,J:rincetonniversityress,989); ichardonn,AnarchismndCulturaloliticsn in-de-SicleranceLincoln:niversityfNebraskaPress,989); . .Hutton,eo-Impressionismnd he earchorolid round:rt,cienceandAnarchismnFin-de-SicleranceBaton ouge:SUPress,994); .Berghaus,FuturismndPolitics:etweennarchistebellionndFascist eactionProvidence,RI:Berghan,996); .Varias,aris nd he narchists:esthetesnd ubversivesuringthe in-de-SicleBasingstoke,K:Macmillian,997); .Weir,narchyndCulture:The estheticoliticsfModernismAmherst:niversityfMassachusettsress,997);Whimster,axWebernd he ulturefAnarchy;.Gemie,Octave irbeaund heChangingaturefRight-ingoliticalulture:rance870-1914,"nternationaleviewof ocial istory43 1998):11-35;.Sweetman,xplosivects:oulouse-Lautrec,scarWildend elixnonnd he rtf narchyfhe in-de-SicleNew ork:asic ooks,



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34 Carl evy1999); .Kadler,osaic odernism:narchism,ragmatism,ultureBaltimore:ohnsHopkinsress,000);Kinna,Williamorris;.Antliff,narchistodernism:.rt,Politicsnd he irst mericanvantardeChicago:niversityf hicagoress,001);Thomas,narchistdeasnd ounter-Culturesn ritain;avid oodway,narchisteedsBeneathhe now:eft-LibertarianhoughtndBritish ritersromWilliamorrisoColinWardLiverpool,K:Liverpoolniversityress,006).58. Irvingorowitz,heAnarchistsNewYork: ellPublishing,964), 0-55; inna,Anarchism:Beginnersuide20.59.B.Franks,The eginningsnd nds f hechism." unpublishedaper)-8;MichaelFreeden,deologiesnd oliticalheory:ConceptualpproachOxford:xfordniversityPress,996);ndMichaelreeden,deology:VeryhortntroductionOxford:xfordUniversityress,003).60.Levy,ramscind he narchists,0-41.61. chmidtnd an erWalt,lack lame18-19.62.For ecentxampleseeGoyens,eer ndRevolution;.DiPaola,Club narchiciiLondra:ociabilit,olitica,ulturarociet toria8, 2005): 53-72;hrisalhamsstudyf hetreets,eighborhoods,uburbs,nd narchisteartlandsf arcelona,lassCulturendConflictnBarcelona898-1937London:outledge,005);ndRomanDucoulombier,esAnarchistesontreaRpublique.ontributionYhistoirees seauxsousaTroisimepublique1880-1914)Rennes:ressesniversitaireseRennes,008).63.For omexamples,eeLevy,ramscind he narchists;eromeintz,he narchistsof asasViejas2nd d. Bloomington:ndiananiversityress,004); .Rider,ThePracticefDirect ction:he arcelonaent trikef 931"nFor narchism:istory,Theory,ractice,d.David oodwayLondon:outledge,989),9-108;.Smith,d.,Red arcelona:ocial rotestnd abour obilizationn he wentiethenturyLondon:Routledge,002); hrisalham,Anmaginedeography:deology,rbanpacendProtestn he entref arcelona'sChinatown,'835-1936",nternationaleviewf ocialHistory0, 2005): 73"97-64.Davideurcato,Italiannarchisms Transnationalovement,"nternationaleviewof ocial istory2, 2007): 07-44;ndC.Bantman,InternationalismithoutnInternational?,"evueeigeePhilologied'Histoire4, 2006): 61-83.65.Carl evy,Italiannarchism,870-1926,"nFor narchism:istory,4-45.66.For heegacyf he arisommune,ee vaCivolani,anarchismoopoaComune,casi talianospagnoloMilan,T:Francongeli,981); auriziontonioli,Bakunintraindacalismoivoluzionarioanarchismo,"nAzioneirettaorganizzazioneperaia.Sindacalismoivoluzionarioanarchismoraa ineell'Ottocentol ascismoManduria,



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Levy - Social Histories of Anarchism

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