Legends for Figures - Faith, Reason and Earth History, 3rd ... · Legends for Figures - Faith,...
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Legends for Figures - Faith, Reason and Earth History, 3rd edition.
This DVD includes a jpg of every illustration in the book, plus supplementary pictures to
accompany a number of the illustrations in the geology chapters. Also included are
powerpoint presentations of five of the research projects described in chapter 19, and a
powerpoint with chapter 10.
Figure 1.1. Diagrammatic illustration of the distribution of chipmunk species in the
United States. Each symbol is in the middle of the geographic range of a species.
Figure 1.2. Pieces of glass "discovered" by archaeologists.
Figure 1.3. Hypotheses of the shape of the vase (A, B, and C), and the original vase
(D).
Figure 1.4. Relationship of science to true and false theories. Some theories in each
category can be tested, and some cannot. Of course we do not know what percent are
in each category.
Figure 2.1. Cross-bedded sandstone showing a cross section of the the sloping cross-
bed surfaces, and (A) the horizontal flat top surface of the lower set of cross-beds. This
surface was exposed by erosion of the cross-beds that were above it.
Figure 2.2. Crossbedded sandstone in the Navajo Sandstone, Zion National Park.
Figure 3.1 A brief summary of the history of science in its cultural, political, and religious
context. Intertwining of branches represents flow of scientific information between
cultures.
2
Figure 3.2. Diagram of mechanisms used in Ptolemaic astronomy to explain the
movements of planets, including the retrograde (backwards) motion of some planets.
Figure 3.3. Comparison of the geocentric theory and the heliocentric theory as
understood by Copernicus.
Figure 5.1. Arrangements of rocks on hillsides, for evaluation of the claim that they
resulted from design.
Figure 6.1. A diagrammatic representation of the relationship between theories and
data. In this diagram and in Fig. 6.3, the height of the stippled area at any given date
represents the amount of data available at that time. Horizontal lines represent the life
span of various theories. A theory's life span ends by "collision" with accumulating
evidence that contradicts the theory, or by radical alteration (a scientific revolution,
represented by a vertical line in Fig. 6.3) into a new theory which is not contradicted by
the available evidence.
Figure 6.2. A cross-section through three graded sedimentary beds. In each bed, the
larger particles are at the bottom, and the smaller particles at the top.
Figure 6.3. A diagrammatic representation of the change from the shallow water theory
of graded bed deposition to the turbidite theory. This change occurred through a
scientific revolution stimulated by the accumulation of new data.
3 Figure 6.4. An approach to the relationship between science and religion that provides
constructive interaction between them, without inappropriate interference of one with
the other.
Figure 6.5. Two ineffective ways to try to keep science and religion separate. (A) Keep
the two in separate “compartments” and not try to analyze how they interact. (B)
Science determines facts, and religion provides spiritual meaning. In this approach
science actually becomes the standard for evaluating religious concepts.
Figure 7.1. A representative protein, composed of a chain of amino acids.
Figure 7.2. Left: The structure of DNA, with its pairs of bases (bases are adenine [A],
guanine [G], cytosine [C], and thymine [T] between the two strands of the double helix.
T always pairs with A, and C always pairs with G. DNA separates to form single-
stranded DNA, and a single strand of messenger RNA forms along the DNA pattern (in
RNA the thymine is replaces by uracil [U]). Then transfer RNA molecules with their
attached amino acids recognize the sequence of bases on the messenger RNA, find
their proper place, and bring the amino acids into position so they can join to form a
protein. Right: A sample of RNA codons (codon = a sequence of three bases that
codes for a specific amino acid, or indicates start or stop the construction of a protein).
Figure 7.3. The protein kinesin, which “walks” along a microtubule, carrying a vesicle
full of some chemical toward its destination.
Figure 7.4A. A model of the structure of ATP synthase, the biomolecular machine that
makes ATP.
4 Figure 7.4B. Cross-sections through ATP synthase, showing three steps in the
synthesis of ATP.
Figure 8.1. Speciation within lizards and within mice compared with megaevolution -
evolution of major groups from a common ancestor. Each animal symbol represents
one species. Microevolutionary changes occur within each species.
Figure 8.2. A few of the numerous mutations in fruit flies (genus Drosophila) that have
been produced in the laboratory.
Figure 8.3. A few of the many varieties of domestic animals. The Rock Dove is a wild
species. All of the other varieties of pigeons, chickens and dogs shown here have been
produced by selective breeding.
Figure 8.4. Geographic ranges of chipmunks, (a) without geographic isolation and (b)
with geographic isolation.
Figure 8.5. An interracial human family, a California chipmunk species (left), and a
Korean chipmunk (right), photographed on Sorak San.
Figure 8.6. Embryonic development and stripe patterns of the zebras Equus burchelli
and Equus grevyi.
Figure 8.7. Three salamander life cycles: (A) a species with gills and tail fin retained
into an aquatic adult life; (B) a species with an aquatic larva that loses its gills and fin in
the transition to a terrestrial adult form; (C) a fully terrestrial type that loses its gills and
fin when it hatches from the egg.
5 Figure 8.8. A representation of the total genome of a species, and the core of vital
genetic information necessary for life.
Figure 8.9. Two lovebird phylogenetic trees. A: a conventional Darwinian tree. B: a
tree based on microevolution and speciation beginning with the most genetically
advanced species.
Figure 8.10. A. A reasonable expectation for the pattern of evolution, with small
changes gradually resulting, through time, in the origin of new phyla. B. The pattern
seen in the fossil record, with virtually all phyla present in early Cambrian sediments.
The diversity of phyla is highest at the beginning of the fossil record. This is compatible
with independent origins of major groups, followed by speciation within groups.
Figure 8.11. Comparison of rates of evolutionary change, expressed in units called
Darwins. The rates of change seen in modern experiments and rates of change seen
after animals colonize new islands is orders of magnitude faster than rates of evolution
calculated from the fossil record (dependent on radiometric dates).
Figure 9.1. Several species of Darwin's Finches and giant tortoises from the Galapagos
Islands.
Figure 9.2. The 13 species of chipmunks from California, and the eastern chipmunk,
Tamias striatus.
Figure 9.3. Geographic ranges of chipmunks in California.
Figure 9.4. Several species of voles in the genus Microtus.
6 Figure 9.5. Several genera of voles. The genera Lemmus and Dicrostonyx are
lemmings from the arctic region.
Figure 9.6. Relatives of the voles, the round-tailed muskrat (Neofiber alleni) and the
muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus).
Figure 10.1. The geologic column and the standard geologic time scale. Large and
small asterisks indicate major and minor mass extinctions in the fossil record.
Figure. 10.2. Increase in plant production that levels off as genetic limits are reached.
Dotted line is hypothesized increase that would be possible after an additional time
period for more accumulation of mutations.
Figure 10.3. The theory of genetic evolution by gene duplication.
Figure 10.4. The relationship between amount of “junk DNA” (non-coding DNA) and
the sturctural complexity of organisms.
Figure 10.5. Two series of mutations, using letters to symbolize nucleotides in DNA,
with a meaningful phrase representing a functional protein. There are two mutations in
each step, except one mutation in the last step in (A). In (A) a series of mutations
converts one gene into a new gene producing a protein with a different function.
Almost all mutations make a positive alteration toward the new gene. Example (B) is a
series of truly random mutations. Some mutations are constructive changes toward the
new gene, but unless the new gene is already functional and selected for, those
constructive changes are just as likely to change again, away from the “goal.” Evolution
of a new gene and protein would involve many more mutations, but the principle would
be the same: example (B) is a far more probable series of events.
7
Figure 10.6. A lower Cambrian trilobite in the order Redlichiida, family Paradoxididae.
Antennae added from another trilobite. Conjectural color scheme patterned after the
living mantis shrimp.
Figure 10.7a. An analogy from an automobile factory. The Darwinian process of
random mutations (the red spark) that change some instruction in the computer,
changing the size of the product.
Figure 10.7b. An analogy from an automobile factory, continued. A complex control
system, analogous to the 21st century understanding of the genetic system with its
multiple layers of genetic control and response to the environment.
Figure 10 Supplement - Powerpoint summarizing Darwinism and the state of the
evidence.
Figure. 11.1. Homologous limb bones in four kinds of mammals.
Figure 11.2. Analogous structures - the wings of a butterfly, bird, bat, and pterosaur.
Figure 11.3. A diagram showing the number of amino acid differences in cytochrome c
obtained from different species of animals, plants, and microorganisms.
Figure 11.4. Phylogeny of vertebrates, based on the structure of the cytochrome c
molecule.
Figure 11.5. A phylogenetic tree of the eutherian mammals (includes all mammals
except marsupials and monotremes), based on study of amino acids. Numbers
8 indicate nucleotide replacements needed to account for the observed amino acid
differences.
Figure. 11.6. Comparison of various types of embryos, as used by Haeckel to support
his theory of recapitulation.
Figure 11.7. (A) Reptile and (B) bird leg bones, and (C) bird leg bones that resulted
from the experimental separation of the tibia and fibula.
Figure 11.8. Several vestigial organs in humans, and vestigial hind limbs in a whale.
Figure 11.9. Sequence of additions to a house, reconstructed from the historical
remnants of this series of events.
Figure 11.10. The structure of the Panda's foot, with its unique thumb (radial
sesamoid). Close-up drawing on the right.
Figure. 11.11. Principal animal phyla arranged in the ascending scale of complexity.
Figure 11.12. An example of the hierarchical arrangement of life.
Figure 11.13. Ecological equivalents on four continents. The same ecological niche is
often filled on different continents by unrelated animals. The animals on each row are
ecological equivalents.
Figure 11.14 A & B. Stratigraphic distribution of major groups of animals in the fossil
record, showing distribution of extant (still living) and extinct forms, and the stratigraphic
ranges of dinosaur families.
9 Figure 11.15. The skeleton and the arrangement of wing feathers for Archaeopteryx
and a modern bird.
Figure 11.16. Upper: the reptile Thrinaxodon, a part of the therapsid line of reptiles that
are interpreted as ancestors to the mammals; lower: homologous bones in the lower
jaw and ear of a therapsid reptile, a living mammal, and Morganucodon, one of the
presumed intermediates.
Figure 11.17. The Rhipidistian fish Eusthenopteron compared to the primitive
amphibian Ichthyostega.
Figure 11.18. The stratigraphic distribution of whales in the fossil record, and the theory
of the evolution of whales from land mammals.
Figure 11.19. The theory of the evolution of horses.
Figure 11.20. Average brain size of several groups of fossil hominids.
Figure 12.1. The cytochromes percentage of sequence difference matrix.
Figure 12.2. The genetic distance between bacterial cytochrome and other organisms
is nearly equal; the same relationship for wheat and for silkworm, with organisms above
them on the phylogenetic scale.
Figure 12.3. Time of evolutionary divergence of mammals and cartilaginous fishes,
based on paleontological data, relaxin A and relaxin B.
10 Figure. 12.4. A - C. Three alternative phylogenetic trees for four animal taxa. D. an
unrooted tree (indicates relationships, but does not indicate which are ancestral and
which are descendent groups).
Figure 12.5 A, B. "Phylogenetic trees" for animals and wheeled vehicles.
Figure 12.6. Skulls of several vertebrate groups, showing progressive simplification of
the skull bones.
Figure 14.1. A sequence of sedimentary rock formations, in the Grand Canyon.
Figure 14.2. A canyon that formed in one rainy season, after a short new road changed
the drainage pattern.
Figure. 14.3. A major difference between the two geological theories is in the
magnitude of water action on the earth in the past (average rate of erosion and
sedimentation), and the resulting amount of time involved in shaping the geological
structure of the earth.
Figure 14.4. Sediment accumulations along the length of a mountain stream, showing
(A) boulders high in the mountains where stream energy is sometimes very high; (B)
smaller rocks farther downstream where the ground slope and resulting water energy is
lower; (C) sand deposit on the plain below the mountains.
Figure. 14.5. Summary of the relationship between sediment texture (grain size),
sedimentary structures (ripples and other patterns that form in the layers of sediment -
shown here in cross section), and the depth and velocity of water flow that will produce
those features.
11 Fig. 14.5 Supplement 1 – a cross-section view of upper Tertiary climbing ripples in Anza
Borrego Desert State Park in southern California.
Fig. 14.5 Supplement 2 – fossil wave ripples, also from Anza Borrego.
Fig. 14.5 Supplement 3 – another set of fossil wave ripples.
Fig. 14.5 Supplement 4 – modern wind ripples and avalanches on a desert sand dune.
Fig. 14.5 Supplement 5 – cross-bedded Navajo Sandstone from Zion Natl. Park.
Fig. 14.5 Supplement 6 – a modern desert dune field, the Algodones Dunes, in
southern California.
Fig. 14.5 Supplement 7 – modern wave ripples, in Lake Powell, Utah.
Fig. 14.5 Supplement 8 – Triassic current ripples, Utah.
Figure 14.6. (A) details of depositional environments involving fluvial processes -
flowing water in rivers, streams, and floodplains. (B) Continental and marine
depositional environments.
Figure 14.7. A reconstruction of an Ordovician sea bottom scene, based on an
assemblage of fossils, including trilobites, snails, corals, seaweeds, and straight-shelled
nautiloid cephalapods.
Figure 14.8. Sandstone in Anza Borrego Desert National Monument, with features
indicating it was deposited in a relatively high energy environment of the braided stream
type.
Fig. 14.8 Supplement 1 – upper Tertiary sandstone with conglomerate lenses, in Anza
Borrego.
Figure 14.9. Photos of (A) modern mudcurls, (B) fossil mudcurls (cross-section, and
surface view in inset), (C) modern mudcracks (dessication cracks) and (D) fossil
mudcracks (top - bottom surface of sand that filled the cracks; bottom - cross-section of
sand-filled cracks in shale).
12 Fig. 14.9 Supplement 1 – a cross-section view of upper Tertiary mudcracks (desiccation
cracks), in Anza Borrego.
Figure 14.10. Maps of North America during successive geologic periods (showing
approximately every other period). Shaded areas have been interpreted as being under
water at the time those sediments were deposited. Paleoenvironmental interpretation
of eastern Canada (the Canadian shield) is very speculative since it has almost no post-
Precambrian sediment.
Figure 14.11. Diagram illustrating the sinking of geologic basin as sedimentary layers
accumulate in the basin, from time A to time C.
Figure. 14.12. Cross sections through several types of mountains.
Figure. 14.13. Cross-cutting relationships illustrating how a sequence of geological
events can be determined. (1) A granite base was present, then (2) several
sedimentary layers were deposited on the level granite base before (3) an uplift raised
the granite and sediments to form a mountain. Subsequent sediments formed after the
uplift are horizontal. (4) Three of these new sedimentary layers formed and then (5)
were cut by a dike of molten rock. (6) Another dike then cut across the sediments and
the first dike. Then (7) more sediment was deposited, and (8) all of the sediments
shifted along a fault.
Figure 14.13 Supplement 1 – a fault in Pleistocene volcanic ash near Kingman,
Arizona.
Figure 14.13 Supplement 2 – The Paunsagunt Fault, just east of Bryce Canyon
National Park, Utah. Several thousand feet of vertical displacement.
Figure 14.14. Map of Glacial Lake Missoula and the Channeled Scablands which were
carved by the Spokane Flood, initiated by the failure of a glacial dam.
13 Figure. 14.15. Cross-sections through the (A) Rocky Mountains and (B) the
Appalachian Mountains, showing the apparent original shape, and the current shape of
the mountains after erosion. The magnitudes of the original uplifts were approximately
equal, but the Appalachians are lower because they are more eroded.
Figure 14.16. A complex sequence of sediments, called a Bouma sequence.
Figure. 14.17. Cross-sections illustrating: (left) a V-shaped river valley, and (right) a U-
shaped glacial valley.
Fig. 14.17 Supplement 1 – the valley in Yosemite Natl. Park, California, shaped by
Pleistocene glaciation.
Fig. 14.17 Supplement 2 – a similar glacially carved valley in Banff Provincial Park,
Canada. The lake is Peyto Lake.
Fig. 14.17 Supplement 3 – a glacially carved valley in Alaska.
Fig. 14.17 Supplement 4 – an active glacier in Alaska.
Figure. 14.18. The arrangement of moraines in a glaciated valley. Each glacial branch
begins in an amphitheater-shaped cirque.
Fig. 14.18 Supplement 1 – glacial moraines along the sides of a glaciated valley in
Alaska.
Figure. 14.19. The maximum distribution of Pleistocene glaciation.
Figure. 14.20. North-south cross section through the Grand Staircase in northern
Arizona and southern Utah, showing the sedimentary rocks that form the geologic
column in that area.
Fig. 14.20 Supplement 1 – two of the steps in the Grand Staircase: the Vermillion Cliffs
and White Cliffs, southern Utah. In the distant background are the Grey and Pink Cliffs.
14 Fig. 14.20 Supplement 2 – the White Cliffs and Pink Cliffs; the Grey Cliffs are mostly
hidden behind the White Cliffs in this photo.
Fig. 14.20 Supplement 3 – the Vermillion Cliffs, White Cliffs, and Pink Cliffs. The
Cretaceous Grey Cliffs are again partly hidden behind the White Cliffs.
Fig. 14.20 Supplement 4 – the Cretaceous Grey Cliffs. The Cretaceous sediments are
softer, and don’t make as distinct a cliff as the others.
Fig. 14.20 Supplement 5 – the bottom step of the Grand Staircase – the Paleozoic
formations ending at the Mogollon Rim, central Arizona.
Figure 16.1. The structural relationships between continents and oceans. Numbers
indicate density of the rocks.
Figure 16.2. The area of North America that was covered by marine sediments (cross-
hatched) by the end of the Paleozoic. The Canadian shield consists of exposed
Precambrian rocks.
Figure 16.3. Distribution of (A) some widespread Paleozoic formations, (B) a map of
some of the Tertiary sedimentary basins of Wyoming, and (C, D) maps of two modern
river sedimentary basins. All to the same scale.
Figure 16.4. Sedimentary layers tilted up along the flank of a folded mountain.
Fig. 16.4 Supplement 1 – the Waterpocket Fold, in southern Utah: an example of
sedimentary formations folded and partly eroded away.
Figure 16.5. Cross-section illustrating the formation of an overthrust. The sedimentary
layers are pushed from the left, buckle to form an overthrusted mountain, and erode to
the modern form of the mountain (see Fig. 17.19).
15 Figure 16.6. Photo of overthrusted strata in the Canadian Rockies. Sediments above
the thrust fault have moved toward the right, over the top of younger strata below the
fault. Subsequent erosion has removed part of the sediment, leaving these remnants.
Figure 16.7. The ecological zonation model (or biome succession), showing the
relationship between a hypothetical preflood landscape and the sequence in which the
fossils were preserved in the geological column.
Figure 16.8. Representative types of animals, showing their theorized presence or
absence at different times in earth history under A) interventionist theory with all basic
life forms present from the creation event, and B) conventional geological theory.
Shaded area includes animal types present early in earth history but not preserved in
the fossil record at that time. Figure is diagrammatic, and does not imply that any given
animal type was just the same all through history.
Figure 16.9. Five backyard mud flows, and the geologic column.
Figure 16.10. An example of fossil zonation: several arbitrarily numbered ammonite
zones in the Upper Cretaceous. The vertical lines are species ranges, showing the
beginning and end of the range of that species in the fossil record. The lines with
arrows at the upper end are species whose stratigraphic ranges extend into higher
levels. Each zone is characterized by the presence of one or more specific ammonite
species, and the absence of other species.
Figure 16.11. The distribution of the (left) the Colombia River Basalt in northwestern
United States, and (right) a large basalt field in the Deccan Plateau in India.
Figure 16.12. A: the Eocene Green River Formation, consisting mostly of finely
laminated lake sediments, containing millions of fossil fish and other vertebrates. Inset
– close up of laminations (scale in cm). B: the Eocene Bridger Formation in Wyoming
16 which contains numerous vertebrate and invertebrate fossils. The curved lines outline
the approximate boundaries of an ancient river channel. Three cross-sections of the
channel are still in place, surrounded by flood plain deposits.
Figure 16.13. Pleistocene lakes that filled basins in western United States at the end of
the ice age.
Figure 16.14. A mineral water spring in Death Valley National Park, showing (A) its size
in the Pleistocene, (B) its smaller size at a later time, forming a second tufa deposit at a
lower elevation, and (C) its very small size today, forming only mineral deposits along a
small stream in a new gulley and on the stream side vegetation. The first two tufas
have mostly eroded away. Photos in A and B have been altered to reconstruct the
estimated extent of tufa deposits at early stages. Photo C shows the actual remaining
deposits today. Stage A probably had several other springs feeding the developing tufa
deposit.
Figure 16.15. Stratigraphic distribution of fossil bird and mammal tracks and body
fossils.
Figure 16.16. Two bird-like tracks from Paleozoic sediments.
Figure 16.17. Old shorelines (arrow) of ancient Lake Bonneville, north of Salt Lake
City, Utah.
Fig. 16.17 Supplement 1 - the Pleistocene Lake Bonneville on the edge of Salt Lake
City, with housing developments built on the shore platform.
Fig. 16.17 Supplement 2 – modern shorelines produced by lowering water levels in
Walker Lake, Nevada.
Figure 16.18. Roman ruins near Naples, Italy, showing evidence of submergence and
more recent rise above sea level.
17
Figure 16.19. Distribution of vegetation types in eastern North America during the ice
age, and current distribution.
Figure 16.20. Modern and Pleistocene distribution of the arctic shrew and the muskox.
Figure 16.21. (A) Slump on modern desert sand dune, and (B) ancient slump in
sandstone; (C) modern ripple marks, and (D) ancient ripple marks in sandstone.
Figure 16.22. A meandering river in Bolivia, with former meanders that now form
oxbow lakes.
Fig. 16.22 Supplement 1 – a meandering river near the San Rafael Swell, Utah.
Fig. 16.22 Supplement 2 – a braided river in Utah.
Figure 17.1. The radioactive decay curve, illustrating the concept of the half life. The
horizontal bars show the parent/daughter isotope ratios, which are interpreted as
indications of age of the rocks.
Figure 17.2. The process that produces 14
C and incorporates it into plants and animals.
Figure 17.3. Model of the changing level of 14
C in the atmosphere and its effects on the
apparent age of organisms.
Figure 17.4. Graph of isotopic ratios used to plot an isochron line. Each dot is from an
individual measurement. If the points fall on essentially a straight line, as they do here,
the isochron line is then drawn through the points and extended to the vertical axis.
18 Figure 17.5. Magnetic reversals in late Cenozoic rocks. During times of normal polarity
the north and south magnetic poles are in the same positions as today. During
reversed polarity the positions of the north and south magnetic poles were reversed.
Figure 17.6. Isoleucine racemization rate constant versus associated fossil age as
published in the literature.
Figure 17.7. Fossils from the Eocene Green River Formation. Upper right: fly larvae
and fish fry from shallow water environment; lower right: crocodile coprolite (fossil
dung), surface and cross-section views; lower left: one of the oldest known fossil bats.
Fig. 17.7 Supplement 1 – these three supplements are more fossils from the Eocene
Green River Formation, in Wyoming.
Fig. 17.7 Supplement 2 – a mass mortality layer of the fish Knightia.
Fig. 17.7 Supplement 3 – fish coprolites (fossil dung)
Figure 17.8. Layers of snow in Great Basin National Park, representing individual
storms in one season.
Figure 17.9. A laccolith north of St. George, Utah. Red Jurassic sediments (partly
covered by trees) can be seen below the laccolith which forms the upper part of the
mountain.
Figure 17.10. The fit between the continents before the formation of the Atlantic
Ocean. Also shows the distribution of mesosaurs on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
Figure 17.11. The continental plates and spreading ridges where ocean floor is
forming.
19
Figure 17.12. A cross-section through a portion of the earth's crust, showing the
presumed movement of magma that moves the continents and produces new ocean
floor.
Figure 17.13. The total number of reefs reported in the scientific literature in each
geological period.
Figure 17.14. Cross-section through a stromatolite. The cyanobacteria began growing
on the rock surface at the bottom of the photo, and formed layer after layer on top of
this.
Figure 18.1. Sequence of increasing levels of catastrophic processes.
Figure 18.2. Cross-section through a turbidity flow and the resultant turbidite.
Fig. 18.2 Supplement 1 – a series of Tertiary turbidites near Ventura, California. The
entire formation has been tilted nearly vertical.
Fig. 18.2 Supplement 2 – a close-up view of the above turbidites.
Figure 18.3. Relationship between sedimentation rates and the time span over which
the measurements were taken. (A) A graph of the average sedimentation rates from
Sadler, on the same log/log scale that he used. (B) A graph of the same data, but with
time plotted on a linear
Figure 18.4. Comparison of two models to explain the shortage of sediment in the
geological column. Diagrams in box portray the hypothesized original amount of
sediment deposited, for each model, and (center) the observed sedimentary record. In
the Brett and Baird model there were successive episodes of sedimentation followed by
20 the erosion of part of the sediment before the next sedimentation event. Extensive
burrowing by animals obliterated some contacts between sediment layers so that
individual layers can’t be distinguished. In the Brand model no sediment erosion is
assumed except where indicated by definite evidence of such.
The sequences of drawings above and below the box portray the sequence of
events in each model. Numbers indicate depositional events, and arrows indicate
erosion of the sediment outlined with dotted lines.
Figure 18.5. Expected (A-D) and actual (E) deposition and erosion patterns at time
gaps in the geological record. (A) A series of successive sedimentary deposits. (B)
Erosion occurs when the sediments are exposed to water drainage. (C) Sedimentation
resumes, filling and preserving the old erosional channels. (D) A second cycle of
erosion and deposition. (E) The more usual pattern seen in the geological record,
without significant erosion at presumed time gaps. These are hypothetical diagrams
with variable vertical exaggeration depending on the erosional conditions.
Figure 18.6. Sedimentary layers in southeastern Utah (clear) and time gaps (black)
between the layers. Ages given are in millions of years, according to the geological
time scale. Only the names of the major sedimentary formations are given. Vertical
exaggeration is about 16x. The horizontal distance is about 200 km, and the total
thickness of the layers (clear areas) is about 3.5 km.
Fig. 18.6 Supplement 1 – the contact between the lower/middle Triassic Moenkopi
Formation and the upper Triassic Shinarump Formation, in southern Utah. This contact
is interpreted to represent a time gap of 10-30 million years.
Fig. 18.6 Supplement 2 – a similar contact between the Permian De Chelly Sandstone
and the upper Triassic Shinarump Formation, in NE Arizona. This contact is interpreted
as a time gap estimated at 50-80 million years.
Figure 18.7. A diagrammatic re4presentation of the geological history of the Rocky
Mountain region in North America, in cross-section view. A: widespread, persistent
21 sedimentary layers, as is typical of much of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic. B: uplift of the
Rocky Mountain ranges, and deposition of lower Mesozoic sediments. Examples are
the Green River and Bridger formations (see Fig. 16.12). C: erosion of part of the
Mesozoic sediments and local deposit of Pliocene to Pleistocene sediments. A channel
in an intermountain basin represents the primary modern fluvial analogue. Compare
this figure with Figure 16.3, an aerial view of the same features shown here in cross-
section.
Fig. 18.7 Supplement 1 – coal seams in Wyoming, an example of a geological deposit
that uniformly covers a very large geographical area.
Figure 18.8. A. Actual characteristics of the turtle assemblage in the Eocene Bridger
Formation. B. Expected characteristics of a fossil turtle assemblage if it accumulated
over an extensive time period, showing complete turtle shells, partial shells, and
disarticulated shell bones.
Fig. 18.8 Supplement 1 – an Eocene fossil turtle from the Bridger Formation in SW
Wyoming.
Fig. 18.8 Supplement 2 – another fossil turtle from the Bridger Formation, in the
process of eroding out of the ground and falling apart.
Fig. 18.8 Supplement 3 – digging fossils from a mudstone layer in the Bridger
Formation.
Figure 18.9. A photograph of the Straight Cliffs, and a cross-section through the cliff.
Fig. 18.9 Supplement 1 – another view of the Cretaceous Straight Cliffs, in Utah.
Fig. 18.9 Supplement 2 – the Straight Cliffs, showing the formations below it, emerging
below the cliff, at the right side of the photo.
Figure 18.10. Representative trace fossils of invertebrate animals, including (A)
burrows in the sediment; (B) crawling traces or trails of trilobites; (C) fully bioturbated
(level 4 in Fig. 18.13); D, E little or no bioturbation (level 1 in Fig. 18.13).
22 Figure 18.11. Relationship between bioturbation (animal traces) and sediments. In (A)
the sediments were deposited rapidly and there was no time for bioturbation, or else
erosion removed the tops of sedimentary units, removing the traces. In (B) some time
for bioturbation after some of the units were deposited. (C) indicates more time after
some units were deposited. Almost all of (D) and all of (E) have the original
sedimentary structures removed by bioturbation, as would be expected if the deposits
were produced slowly, under conditions favorable to animal life (after Bromley36
).
Fig. 18.11 Supplement 1 – an example of laminated sediment with no bioturbation, from
Colorado.
Fig. 18.11 Supplement 2 – the Cretaceous Ferron Sandstone in Utah, with rare
burrows.
Fig. 18.11 Supplement 3 – sediment with vertical escape burrows; not enough burrows
to destroy the sediment layering.
Fig. 18.11 Supplement 4 – partly burrowed laminated sediment from the Eocene Green
River Formation, Wyoming. This burrowing only occurs in the GRF at the edges of the
fossil lake.
Figure 18.12. Examples of the distinct bedding, or layering often evident in sedimentary
rocks. (A) Permian limestone, Northern Arizona; (B) Triassic sandstones and
mudstones, Northern Arizona; (C) Cambrian limestone, Utah; (D) Pennsylvanian and
Permian limestones, sandstones and shales, Grand Canyon, Arizona.
Fig. 18.12 Supplement 1 – The following three photos are examples of bedded rocks
undisturbed by bioturbation. This one is rhythmic bedding in Anza Borrego
(rhythmites).
Fig. 18.12 Supplement 2 – a typical view of the Jurassic Summerville Formation, Utah.
FsFig. 18.12 Supplement 3 – the well-preserved Paleozoic bedded rocks in the Grand
Canyon, Arizona.
Fig. 18.12 Supplement 4 – bedded Paleozoic limestone in Banff Provincial Park,
Canada.
23
Figure 18.13. A: the distribution of bioturbation through the geological column, showing
the stratigraphic location of sections studied by Brand and Chadwick. B: quantitative
distribution of bioturbation in the Triassic Moenkopi Formation, which is about average
for the formations that we studied. C: bioturbation in part of the Cretaceous Mancos
Shale, the highest level of bioturbation found in our study.
Figure 18.14. Stratigraphic distribution of fossil amphibian and reptile tracks and body
fossils. *Other reptilia = non-dinosaurs.
Fig. 18.14 Supplement 1 – Allosaur dinosaur trackway at the Paluxy River, Texas.
Fig. 18.14 Supplement 2 – normal trackway of a Permian tetrapod (four-footed
vertebrate) in the Coconino Sandstone, Arizona.
Fig. 18.14 Supplement 3 – the same type of trackway as above, but the animal is
drifting sideways while walking.
Fig. 18.14 Supplement 4 modern lizard tracks on a desert sand dune, California.
Fig. 18.14 Supplement 5 – a dinosaur track, Utah.
Fig. 18.14 Supplement 6 – bird tracks in the Eocene Green River Formation, Utah.
Fig. 18.14 Supplement 7 – a cast of small fossil cat tracks in an upper Tertiary deposit,
Texas.
Figure 18.15. Extinctions in the fossil record. Width of the shaded figure indicates
number of genera of animals in the fossil record at that level. Each place where the
figure gets narrower is a mass extinction.
Figure 18.16. Observers reaching wrong conclusions because of missing some
important evidence.
Powerpoints – Powerpoint presentations of five of the research projects described in
chapter 19 – research based on a biblical worldview.
Coconino Sandstone
24 Taphonomy of fossil turtles in the Bridger Formation
Taphonomy of fossil whales in Peru
Formation of the Cambrian Tapeats Sandstone in the Grand Canyon
Yellowstone fossil forests
Table 18.1 Supplement 1 – a debris flow in upper Tertiary deposits, in Anza Borrego,
California.
Table 18.1 Supplement 2 – another upper Tertiary debris flow in Anza Borrego.