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Lectures on Solar Electricity By Engr Tanveer ul Haq
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Transcript of Lectures on Solar Electricity By Engr Tanveer ul Haq
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Engr. Tanveer ul HaqChairman PEN Community
MS Electronics Scholar in GIKI
B.Sc Electrical Engg. From UCE&T BZU
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Lecture 01:- Energy From Sun
Lecture 02:- Introduction to Solar Cells
Lecture 03:- Electronic Structure of Semiconductor
Lecture 04:- How solar cells work?
Lecture 05:- Typical Device Structure
Lecture 06:- Losses in Solar Cell
Lecture 07:- Silicon Solar Cell Technology
Lecture 08:- Typical Cell Fabrication Process
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Lecture 09:- Structure of a Photovoltaic System
Lecture 10:- Photovoltaic Engineering
Lecture 11:- Power Conditioning and Control
Lecture 12:- Sizing of Photovoltaic System
Lecture 13:- Concentrating Photovoltaic
Bibliography And References
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Lecture 01
Engr. Tanveer-ul-Haq
Energy From Sun
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Contents
Solar Power
Solar Constant
Irradiance
Aerosols
Solar Radiation in Atmosphere
Air Mass
Solar Spectrum
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Solar Power
The luminosity of the Sun is about 3.86x10^26watts. This is the total power radiated out intospace by the Sun. Most of this radiation is in thevisible and infrared part of the electromagneticspectrum, with less than 1 % emitted in the radio,UV and X-ray spectral bands.
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Solar Power
The sun’s energy is radiated uniformly in alldirections. Because the Sun is about 150 millionkilometers from the Earth, and because the Earthis about 6300 km in radius, only 0.000000045% ofthis power is intercepted by our planet. This stillamounts to a massive 1.75x10^17 watts.
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Solar Constant
For the purposes of solar energy capture, wenormally talk about the amount of power insunlight passing through a single square meterface-on to the sun, at the Earth's distance fromthe Sun. The power of the sun at the earth, persquare meter is called the solar constant and isapproximately 1370 watts per square meter(W/m^2).
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IrradianceThe total power from a radiant source falling on a
unit area is called Irradiance.
When the solar radiation enters the Earth’satmosphere, a part of the incident energy isremoved by scattering or absorption by airmolecules, clouds and particulate matter usuallyreferred to as aerosols.
Aerosols
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Solar Radiation in Atmosphere
• Direct or Beam Raidiation
• Diffuse Radiation
• Albedo
• Global
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Direct or Beam Radiation
The radiation that is notreflected or scattered andreaches the surface directlyin line from the solar disc iscalled direct or beamradiation.
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Diffuse RadiationThe scattered radiation which reaches the ground is
called diffuse radiation.
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AlbedoSome of the radiation may reach a receiver after
reflection from the ground is called Albedo.
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GlobalThe total radiation consisting of these three (Direct,
Diffuse & Albedo) components is called global.
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Air Mass
A concept which characterises the effect of a clearatmosphere on sunlight is the air mass, equal tothe relative length of the direct beam paththrough the atmosphere. One clear summer dayat sea level, the radiation from the sun at zenithcorresponds to air mass 1(abbreviated to AM1);at other times, the air mass is approximatelyequal to 1/cosθz, Where θz is zenith angle.
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Solar SpectrumThe extraterrestrial spectrum, denoted by AM 0, is important for satellite
application of solar cell. AM 1.5 is a typical solar spectrum on the Earth’ssurface on a clear day which, with total irradiance of 1KW/m2, is used forthe calibration of solar cells and modules.
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Introduction to
Solar Cells
Lecture 02
Engr. Tanveer-ul-Haq
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What are Solar Cells?
Solar cells represent the fundamental power
conversion unit of a photovoltaic system.
They are made from semiconductors, and
have much in common with other solid-state
electronic devices, such as diodes,
transistors and integrated circuits. For
practical operation, solar cells are usually
assembled into modules.
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Different type of solar cells
• Monocrystalline Solar Cell
• Polycrystalline Solar Cell
• Amorphous Solar Cell
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Crystalline Solar Cell
Crystalline silicon hold the largest part of the
market. To reduce the cost, these cells are
now often made from multicrystalline
material, rather than from the more expensive
single crystal. Crystalline silicon cell
technology is well established. The modules
have a long life (20 years or more) and their
best production efficiency is approaching
18%.
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Monocrystalline Solar Cell
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• Monocrystalline silicon is the most efficient
• Works in low light condition
• Absorbs 18% of available sun light
• Most expensive type of solar cell
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Polycrystalline Solar Cell
• Most affordable in the market today
• Made of small silicon crystal mashed together
• It is durable and can be used for moderate
purposes
• Absorbs 15% of sun light available to it
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Amorphous Solar Cells
Amorphous technology is most often seen in
small solar panels, such as those in
calculators or garden lamps, although
amorphous panels are increasingly used in
larger applications. They are made by
depositing a thin film of silicon onto a sheet of
another material such as steel. The panel is
formed as one piece and the individual cells
are not as visible as in other types.
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Amorphous Solar Cells
The efficiency of amorphous solar panels is not as
high as those made from individual solar cells,
although this has improved over recent years to
the point where they can be seen as a practical
alternative to panels made with crystalline cells.
Their great advantage lies in their relatively low
cost per Watt of power generated. This can be
offset, however, by their lower power density;
more panels are needed for the same power
output and therefore more space is taken up.
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Amorphous Solar Cells
• Cheapest and lightest
• Absorbs 10% of light available
• Used for vehicles like boats
• Work best in intense sun light
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Some Other Types of Solar Cells
A variety of compound semiconductors can
also be used to manufacture thin-film cells (
for example, cadmium telluride or copper
indium diselenide). These modules are now
beginning to appear on the market and hold
the promise of combining low cost with
acceptable conversion efficiencies.
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Some Other Types of Solar Cells
A particular class of high-efficiency solar cells
from single crystal silicon or compound
semiconductors (for example, gallium
arsenide or indium phosphide) are used in
specialised applications, such as to power
satellites or in systems which operate high-
intensity concentrated sunlight.
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How Solar Cell Works
The solar cell operation is based on the ability
of semiconductors to convert sunlight directly
into electricity by exploiting the photovoltaic
effect. In the conversion process, the incident
energy of light creates mobile charged
particles in the semiconductor which are
separated by the device structure and
produce electric current.
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Electronic
Structure of
Semiconductor
Lecture 03
Engr. Tanveer-ul-Haq
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Semiconductor Physics
The principle of semiconductor physics are
best illustrated by the example of silicon,
a group 4 elemental semiconductor. The
silicon crystal forms the so-called
diamond lattice where each atom has four
nearest neighbours at the vertices of a
tetrahedron. The four fold tetrahedral
coordination is the result of the bounding
arrangement which uses the four outer
electron of each silicon atom.
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This crystal structure has a profound effect on
the electronic and optical properties of the
semiconductor.
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According to the quantum theory, the
energy of an electron in the crystal
must fall within well defined bonds. The
energies of valence orbitals which form
bonds between the atom represent just
such a band of states, the valance
band. The next higher band is the
conduction band which is separated
from the valence band by the energy
gap or bandgap.
Band Structure
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The width of the bandgap Ec - Ev is a very
important characteristic of the
semiconductor and is usually denoted by
Eg. This table gives the bandgaps of the
most important semiconductors for solar-
cell applications.
Material Energy gap (eV) Type of gap
crystalline Si 1.12 indirect
amorphous Si 1.75 direct
CuInSe2 1.05 direct
CdTe 1.45 direct
GaAs 1.42 direct
InP 1.34 direct
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Doping
A pure semiconductor (which is called
intrinsic) contains just the right number
of electrons to fill the valence band, and
the conduction band is therefore empty.
Electrons in the full valence band
cannot move - just as, for example,
marbles in a full box with a lid on top.
For practical purposes, a pure
semiconductor is therefore an insulator.
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Semiconductors can only conduct electricity
if carriers are introduced into the
conduction band or removed from the
valence band. One way of doing this is by
alloying the semiconductor with an
impurity. This process is called doping. As
we shall see, doping makes it possible to
exert a great deal of control over the
electronic properties of a semiconductor,
and lies in the heart of the manufacturing
process of all semiconductor devices.
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Suppose that some group 5 impurity atoms
(for example, phosphorus) are added to the
silicon melt from which the crystal is grown.
Four of the five outer electrons are used to
fill the valence band and the one extra
electron from each impurity atom is
therefore promoted to the conduction band.
For this reason, these impurity atoms are
called donors. The electrons in the
conduction band are mobile, and the crystal
becomes a conductor. Since the current is
carried by negatively charged electrons,
this type of semiconductor is called n type.
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A similar situation occurs when silicon is
doped with group 3 impurity atoms (for
example, boron) which are called
acceptors. Since four electrons per atoms
are needed to fill the valence band
completely, this doping creates electron
deficiency in this band. The missing
electrons - called holes - behave as
positively charged particles which are
mobile, and carry current. A semiconductor
where the electric current is carried
predominantly by holes is called p-type.
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Semiconductor junctions
The operation of solar cells is based on the
formation of a junction. The important
feature of all junctions is that they contain
a strong electric field. To illustrate how
this field comes about, let us imagine the
hypothetical situation where the p-n
junction is formed by joining together two
pieces of semiconductor, one p-type and
the other n-type.
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In separation, there is electron surplus in
the n-type material and hole surplus in
the p-type. When the two pieces are
brought into contact, electrons from the n
region near the interface diffuse into the
p side, leaving behind a layer which is
positively charged by the donors.
Similarly, holes diffuse in the opposite
direction, leaving behind a negatively
charged layer stripped of holes.
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The resulting junction region then contains
practically no mobile charge carriers, and
the fixed charges of the dopant atoms
create a potential barrier acting against a
further flow of electrons and holes.
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The potential barrier of a junction permits
the flow of electric current in only one
direction - the junction acts as a rectifier,
or diode. This can be seen in our example
where electrons can only flow from the p
region to the n region, and holes can only
flow in the opposite direction. Electric
current, which is the sum of the two, can
therefore flow only from the p-side to the
n-side of the junction (remember that it is
defined as the direction of flow of the
positive carriers!).
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I-V characteristic of a diode
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Light absorption by a
semiconductor
Photovoltaic energy conversion relies on
the quantum nature of light whereby we
perceive light as a flux of particles called
photons. On a clear day, about 4.4 x 1017
photons strike a square centimentre of
the Earth's surface every second.
Only some of these photons - those with
energy in excess of the bandgap - can be
converted into electricity by the solar cell.
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When such photon enters the
semiconductor, it may be absorbed and
promote an electron from the valence to
the conduction band. Since a hole is left
behind in the valence band, the absorption
process generates electron-hole pairs.
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Each semiconductor is restricted to
converting only a part of the solar
spectrum. The spectrum is plotted
here in terms of the incident photon
flux as a function of photon energy.
The shaded area represents the
photon flux that can be converted by
a silicon cell - about two-thirds of the
total flux.
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The nature of the absorption process also
indicates how a part of the incident
photon energy is lost in the event. Indeed,
it is seen that practically all the generated
electron-hole pairs have energy in excess
of the bandgap. Immediately after their
creation, the electron and hole decay to
states near the edges of their respective
bands. The excess energy is lost as heat
and cannot be converted into useful
power. This represents one of the
fundamental loss mechanisms in a solar
cell.
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How solar cells work?
Lecture 04
Engr. Tanveer ul Haq
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This diagram shows a typical crystalline silicon
solar cell. The electrical current generated in
the semiconductor is extracted by contacts to
the front and rear of the cell. The top contact
structure which must allow light to pass
through is made in the form of widely-spaced
thin metal strips (usually called fingers) that
supply current to a larger bus bar. The cell is
covered with a thin layer of dielectric material
- the anti-reflection coating, ARC - to
minimize light reflection from the top surface.
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Current in p-n junction under illumination
• This diagram shows a typical silicon solar cell
• Note the two possible electron energy bands:
LOW (black)- known as the valance band
HIGH (white)- known as the conduction band
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When light falls on the solar cell, energy from the photons
generates electron-hole pairs on both sides of the p-n
junction.
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• Electrons diffuse across the p-n junction to a lower
energy level.
• Holes diffuse in the opposite direction
• New electron-hole pairs continue to be formed while light
falls on the solar cell.
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• As electrons continue to diffuse, a negative charge
builds up in the emitter.
• A corresponding positive charge builds up in the base.
• The p-n junction has separated the electrons from the
holes and transformed the generation current between
the bands into an electric current across the p-n junction.
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• If an electrical circuit is made between the emitter and
base, a current will flow.
• The current continues to flow while the solar cell is
illuminated.
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Solar cells are essentially semiconductor junctions under
illumination. Light generates electron-hole pairs on both
sides of the junction, in the n-type emitter and in the p-
type base. The generated electrons (from the base) and
holes (from the emitter) then diffuse to the junction and
are swept away by the electric field, thus producing
electric current across the device. Note how the electric
currents of the electrons and holes reinforce each other
since these particles carry opposite charges. The p-n
junction therefore separates the carriers with opposite
charge, and transforms the generation current between
the bands into an electric current across the p-n junction.
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A more detailed consideration makes it possible to draw an
equivalent circuit of a solar cell in terms of a current
generator and a diode. This equivalent circuit has a
current-voltage relationship.
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• In solar cell applications this characteristic is
usually drawn inverted about the voltage axis,
as shown below. The cell generates no
power in short-circuit (when current Isc is
produced) or open-circuit (when cell
generates voltage Voc). The cell delivers
maximum power Pmax when operating at a
point on the characteristic where the product
IV is maximum. This is shown graphically
below where the position of the maximum
power point represents the largest area of the
rectangle shown.
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Efficiency of Solar Cell
The efficiency (n) of a solar cell is defined as the power
Pmax supplied by the cell at the maximum power point
under standard test conditions, divided by the power of
the radiation incident upon it. Most frequent conditions
are: irradiance 100 mW/cm2 , standard reference
spectrum, and temperature 25 0 C. The use of this
standard irradiance value is particularly convenient since
the cell efficiency in percent is then numerically equal to
the power output from the cell in mW/cm2.
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Typical Device Structure
Lecture 05
Engr. Tanveer ul Haq
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High Efficiency Silicon Solar Cell
The passivated emitter solar cell has beendeveloped at the University of New South Walesin Australia for operation under ordinarysunlight. The point contact cell of StanfordUniversity USA, has been designed for optimumoperation under concentrated sunlight.
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Gallium Arsenide Solar CellsThese are usually intended for operation on
satellite or in concentration systems.
The structure and band diagram of Gallium Arsenide Solar Cell
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Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell
The structure of amorphous Silicon p-i-n Solar cell
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Tandem Cell
Solar cells containing several p-n junctions arecalled Tandem Cell. Each junction is tuned to adifferent wavelength of light, reducing one ofthe largest inherent sources of losses, andthereby increasing efficiency.
The structure and spectral contribution of the tandem cell
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Power Losses in Solar Cell
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Fundamental Losses
Carrier generation in the semiconductor by lightinvolves considerable dissipation of thegenerated carrier energy into heat. In addition, aconsiderable part of the solar spectrum is notutilised because of the inability of asemiconductor to absorb the below-bandgaplight.
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Can these losses be reduced?
Yes, but not with a simple structure that we have inmind at the moment. Such a device is called atandem cell and represents a stack of severalcells, each operating according to the principlesthat we have described. The top cell must bemade of a high bandgap semiconductor, andconverts the short-wavelength radiation. Thetransmitted light is then converted by thebottom cell. This arrangement increasesconsiderably the achievable efficiency.
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Recombination
An opposite process to carrier generation isrecombination when an electron-hole pair isannihilated. Recombination is most common atimpurities or defects of the crystal structure, orat the surface of the semiconductor whereenergy levels may be introduced inside theenergy gap. These levels act as stepping stonesfor the electrons to fall back into the valanceband and recombine with holes as shown in nextfigure.
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Defect-assisted recombination of
electron-hole pair
An important site of recombination are also theohmic metal contacts to the semiconductor.
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What measure can one take to
minimise the recombination losses?
Surface recombination and recombination atcontacts which are considerable in theconventional silicon cell can be reduced byadapting the device structure of high efficiencysilicon cells. The external surfaces of thesemiconducter are here protected by a layer ofpassivating oxide to reduce surfacerecombination. The top layer of GaAlAs in theGaAs cell has similar purpose.
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The contacts are surrounded by heavily-dopedregions acting as ‘minority-carrier mirrors’ whichimpede the minority carriers from reaching thecontacts and recombination. Recombinationreduces both the voltage and current output fromthe cell.
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Collection Efficiency
The current losses can be grouped under the termof collection efficiency, the ratio between thenumber of carriers generated by light and thenumber that reaches the junction. Considerationof the collection efficiency affect the design ofthe solar cell. In crystalline materials, thetransport properties are usually good, andcarrier transport by simple diffusion issufficiently effective. In amorphous andpolycrystalline thin films, however, electric fieldsare needed to pull the carriers.
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Other Losses
Other losses to the current produced by the cellarise from light reflection from the top surface,shading of the cell by the top contacts, andincomplete absorption of light.
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Losses in Solar Cell
Lecture 06
Engr. Tanveer ul Haq
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Fill Factor
The short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltageare the maximum current and voltage respectivelyfrom a solar cell. However, at both of theseoperating points, the power from the solar cell iszero. The "fill factor", more commonly known by itsabbreviation "FF", is a parameter which, inconjunction with Voc and Isc, determines themaximum power from a solar cell. The FF is definedas the ratio of the maximum power from the solarcell to the product of Voc and Isc.
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Graphically, the FF is a measure of the "squareness"of the solar cell and is also the area of the largestrectangle which will fit in the IV curve. The FF isillustrated below.
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Series Resistance
The transmission of electric current producedby the solar cell involves ohmic losses. Thesecan be grouped together and included as aresistance in the equivalent circuit.
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Series Resistance
It is seen that the series resistance affects the celloperation mainly by reducing the fill factor.
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The power losses in Solar Cell
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Temperature Effect
This has an important effect on the power outputfrom the cell. The most significant is thetemperature dependence of the voltage whichdecreases with increasing temperature (itstemperature coefficient is negative). The voltagedecreases of a silicon cell is typically 2.3mV per ˚C.The temperature variation of the current or the fillfactor are less pronounced and are usuallyneglected in the PV system design.
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Temperature Effect
Temperature dependence of I-V characteristic of solar cell
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Irradiance Effect
The light generated current is proportional to theflux of photons with above bandgap energy.Increasing the irradiance increases, in the sameproportion, the photon flux which, in turn,generates a proportionately higher current.Therefore, the short circuit current of a solar cell isdirectly proportional to the irradiance. The voltagevariation is much smaller (it dependslogarithmically on the irradiance), and is usuallyneglected in practical application.
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Irradiance Effect
Irradiance dependence of the I-V characteristic of a solar cell
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Summery
The solar cell is a semiconductor device that convertsthe quantum flux of photons into electric current.When light is absorbed, it first creates electron-holepairs. These mobile charges are then separated bythe electric fields at the junction. The electricaloutput from the cell is described by the I-Vcharacteristic whose parameters can be linked tothe material properties of the semiconductor.
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Summery
Various solar-cell structures have been discussed inrelation to the principal power losses in a solarcell. In addition to the fundamental lossesassociated with light absorption, other losses,including recombination and losses dependent onthe structure of the device, have been analysed insome detail.
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SILICON SOLAR CELL
TECHNOLOGY
Lecture 07
Engr. Tanveer ul Haq
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INTRODUCTION
The technology based on crystalline siliconis the most reliable and most developedphotovoltaic technology at the presenttime. It is not simple, however, andrequire the use of sophisticatedequipment and complex technologicalprocess. Four major stages need to befollowed to make photovoltaic modulesfrom sand
1. From sand to pure silicon
2. Growth of silicon crystals
3. From wafer to solar cell
4. From cell to module
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FROM SAND TO PURE SILICON
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GROWTH OF SILICON CRYSTALS
Silicon is first melted at 1400˚C. A small
silicon crystal properly cooled is used as a
seed to start the crystallization process.
As the seed is pulled out silicon solidifies
at the interface with the melt and, if the
pulling is slow enough, the silicon atoms
arrange themselves according to the
crystallographic structure of the seed.
This yields an ingot of single crystal
silicon.
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THE BASICS OF CRYSTAL GROWTH
The degree of purity improves during the
growth process since impurities tend to
segregate towards the liquid phase. A
controlled amount of boron (or phosphorus)
is usually added to the melt to dope the
silicon p- or n-type.
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METHODS OF GROWING SILICON CRYSTALS
There are various methods of growing silicon
crystals.
The one that resembles most closely the basic
description is the Czochralski method which is
also the most common in industrial use.
The second method is float zone process. The
purest silicon is obtained by this process.
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CZOCHRALSKI METHOD
The cylindrical ingots aretypically 1 m long, 15 cmin diameter and 40 kg inweight. The growth rateis about 0.1-0.2 cm/min.To increase thethroughput, the cruciblecan be continuouslyreplenish with moltensilicon in some machines.Ingots up to 3.5 m longand 150 kg in weighthave been grown thisway.
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CZOCHRALSKI METHOD
Another recent development is the use of
magnetic fields to reduce the interaction
between the molten silicon and the
crucible, thus reducing the usual carbon
and oxygen contamination from the latter.
The state of art for solar cells made from
CZ silicon is 18% efficiency for 100 cm²
industrial cell, and 19% efficiency for a 49
cm² laboratory cell with a laser-grooved
metal grid.
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CZOCHRALSKI METHOD
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CZOCHRALSKI METHOD
Even though the CZ process is commonly used
for commercial substrates, it has several
disadvantages for high efficiency laboratory or
niche market solar cells. CZ wafers contain a
large amount of oxygen in the silicon wafer.
Oxygen impurities reduce the minority carrier
lifetime in the solar cell, thus reducing the
voltage, current and efficiency. In addition, the
oxygen and complexes of the oxygen with other
elements may become active at higher
temperatures, making the wafers sensitive to
high temperature processing.
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FLOAT ZONE METHOD
In this process, a molten
region is slowly passed
along a rod or bar of
silicon. Impurities in the
molten region tend stay in
the molten region rather
than be incorporated into
the solidified region, thus
allowing a very pure
single crystal region to be
left after the molten
region has passed.
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Typical Cell Fabrication ProcessLecture 08
Engr. Tanveer ul Haq
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Typical Cell Fabrication Process
To transfer a silicon
wafer into a solar cell,
the wafer is subjected
to several chemical,
thermal and deposition
treatments. The cross
section of a silicon cell
shows the different
layers that need to be
formed.
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Main steps of Fabrication Process
1. Surface texturing
2. p-n junction formation
3. Possible back P+ region formation
4. Front and back metal contacts
5. Antireflection layer deposition
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Surface Texturing
Surface texturing, either in combination with an
anti-reflection coating or by itself, can also be
used to minimise reflection. Any "roughening" of
the surface reduces reflection by increasing the
chances of reflected light bouncing back onto
the surface, rather than out to the surrounding
air.
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Surface Texturing
Surface texturing can be accomplished in a
number of ways. A single crystalline substrate
can be textured by etching along the faces of
the crystal planes. The crystalline structure of
silicon results in a surface made up of pyramids
if the surface is appropriately aligned with
respect to the internal atoms. One such
pyramid is illustrated in the drawing below.
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Surface Texturing
An electron microscope photograph of a textured
silicon surface is shown in the photograph
below. This type of texturing is called "random
pyramid" texture, and is commonly used in
industry for single crystalline wafers.
Electron microscope photograph of a textured silicon surface.
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Surface Texturing
Another type of surface texturing used is known
as "inverted pyramid" texturing. Using this
texturing scheme, the pyramids are etched
down into the silicon surface rather than
etched pointing upwards from the surface.
Electron microscope photograph of a textured silicon surface.
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Surface Texturing
Multicrystalline wafers cannot be textured by
using either of the above methods. However,
multicrystalline wafers can be textured using a
photolithographic technique.
Electron microscope photograph of a textured multicrystalline silicon surface.
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p-n junction formation
The wafers are usually p-type. The p-n junction is
then formed by thermal diffusion of n-type
impurity, usually phosphorus atoms diffuse into
silicon at a temperature of 900˚C or higher.
Figure shows a quartz diffusion furnace.
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P+ region formation
Although it is not absolutely necessary and
might be considered irrelevant for low-
efficiency cell, a back P+ region may be
formed to improve the cell performance.
This feature creates a back surface field that
decreases the chances of carriers
recombining at the back surface. The easiest
way to form it is by depositing an aluminum
layer and alloying it at about 800˚C, or even
diffusing it at about 1000˚C.
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Front and back metal contacts
Electrical contacts are usually formed by screen
printing. This technology is inexpensive, simple
and can be automated. The screen consists of a
mesh of wires imbedded in am emulsion. This
emulsion is photographically patterned and
removed from the places where metal is to be
deposited. A paste containing the metal is
squeezed through the screen onto the wafer.
Upon firing the organic solvents evaporate and
the metal powder becomes a conducting path
for the electric current.
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Screen printing
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Screen printing
Close up of a screen used for printing the front
contact of a solar cell. During printing, metal
paste is forced through the wire mesh in
unmasked areas. The size of the wire mesh
determines the minimum width of the fingers.
Finger widths are typically 100 to 200 µm.
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Screen printing
Close up of a finished screen-printed solar cell.
The fingers have a spacing of approximately 3
mm. An extra metal contact strip is soldered to
the bus bar during encapsulation to lower the
cell series resistance.
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Screen printing
Front view of a completed screen-printed solar
cell. As the cell is manufactured from a
multicrystalline substrate, the different grain
orientations can be clearly seen. The square
shape of a multicrystalline substrate simplifies
the packing of cells into a module.
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Screen printing
Rear view of a finished screen-printed solar cell.
The cell can either have a grid from a single
print of Al/Ag paste with no back surface
field(BSF), or a coverage of aluminium that gives
a BSF but requires a second print for solderable
contacts.
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Antireflection layer deposition
A thin layer of a transparent material which acts
as antireflection coating can be deposited
before or after the formation of the metal
contacts. This dielectric material has an
optimum value of refractive index between
those of silicon and glass. An antireflection of
silicon nitride is typically deposited using
chemical vapour deposition process (CVD).
Older cell designs use titanium dioxide (TiO2),
which provides a good antireflection coating
and is simpler to apply but does not provide
surface or bulk passivation.
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Antireflection layer deposition
Wafers being deposited with silicon nitride
antireflection coating giving a blue color.
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Lecture 09
Engr. Tanveer ul Haq
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The photovoltaic system consists of a number of partsor subsystem.
a. The photovoltaic generator with mechanicalsupport and possibly a sun tracking system.
b. Batteries (storage subsystem).
c. Power conditioning and control equipment,including provision for measurement andmonitoring.
d. Back up generator.
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The choice of how and which of these components areintegrated into the system is governed by variousconsiderations.
There are two main categories of systems,
1. Grid connected
2. Stand alone
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It consists simply of a photovoltaic generator alonewhich supplies DC power to a load whenever there isadequate illumination. This type of system iscommon in pumping applications. In other instances,the system will usually contain a provision for energystorage by batteries. Some form of powerconditioning is then frequently also included, as isthe case when AC current is required at the outputfrom the system. In some situation, the systemcontains a back-up generator.
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Grid connected systems can be subdivided into thosein which the grid merely acts as an auxiliary supply(grid back-up) and those in which it may also receiveexcess power from the PV generator (gridinteractive). In PV power stations, all the generatedpower is fed into the gird.
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Grid-Interactive systems use the light available fromthe sun to generate electricity and feed this into themain electricity grid. If at a particular moment intime more power is being produced than is requiredin the house, the extra power is sent back onto thegrid to be used by neighbouring households. At nightor when there is insufficient power being producedto supply the households needs, electricity is drawnfrom the grid in the same manner other householdsdo.
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The heart of the system is the photovoltaic generator.It consists of photovoltaic modules which areinterconnected to form a DC power-producing unit.The physical assembly of modules with supports isusually called an array.
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Most frequently, the cells in a module areinterconnected in series. The reason comes from theelectrical characteristics of an individual solar cell. Atypical 4-inch diameter crystalline silicon solar cell, ora 10cm×10cm multicrystalline cell, will providebetween 1 and 1.5 watts under standard conditions,depending on the cell efficiency. This power isusually supplied at a voltage 0.5 to 0.6 V. Since thereare very few appliance that work at this voltage, theimmediate solution is to connect the solar cell inseries.
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The number of cells in a module is governed by thevoltage of the module. The nominal operatingvoltage of the system usually has to be matched tothe nominal voltage of the storage subsystem. Mostof photovoltaic module manufacturers thereforehave standard configurations which can work with 12volt batteries. Allowing for some overvoltage tocharge the battery and to compensate for loweroutput under less-than perfect conditions, it is foundthat a set of 33 to 36 solar cells in series usuallyensures reliable operation.
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The power of silicon modules thus usually fallsbetween 40 and 60 W. The module parameters arespecified by the manufacturer under the followingstandard conditions:
Irradiance 1kW/m²
Spectral distribution AM 1.5
Cell Temperature 25˚C
Indeed, they are the same conditions as are used tocharacterise solar cells. The nominal output is usuallycalled the peak power of a module and expressed inpeak watts, W.
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The three important electrical characteristics of amodule are the short-circuit current, open circuitvoltage and the maximum power point as functionsof the temperature and irradiance.
The temperature and irradiance dependence of the module I-V characteristic
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Temperature is an important parameter of a PVsystem operation. The temperature coefficient forthe open circuit voltage is approximately equal to-2.3mV/˚C for an individual cell. The voltagecoefficient of a module is therefore negative andvery large since 33 to 36 cells are connected inseries. The current coefficient on the other hand, ispositive and small, about +6μA/˚C for a squarecentimeter of the module area.
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Accordingly only the voltage variation with temperatureis allowed for in practical calculation, and for anindividual module consisting of nc cells connected inseries in set equal to:
dVoc/dT= -2.3×nc mV/˚C
It is important to note that the voltage is determined bythe operating temperature of the cells which differsfrom the ambient temperature.
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As for a single cell, the short circuit current Isc of amodule is proportional to the irradiance, and willtherefore vary during the day in the same manner.Since the voltage is a logarithmic function of thecurrent, it will also depend logarithmically on theirradiance. During the day, the voltage will thereforevary less than the current. In the design of the PVgenerator, it is customary to neglect the voltagevariation and to set the short circuit currentproportional to irradiance:
Isc(G)=Isc(at1kW/m²)×G(in kW/m²)
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The operation of the module should lie as close aspossible to the maximum power point. It is asignificant feature of the module characteristic thatthe voltage of the maximum power point, Vm, isroughly independent of irradiance. The averagevalue of this voltage during the day can be estimatedas 80% of the open-circuit voltage under standardirradiance conditions. This property is useful for thedesign of the power conditioning equipment.
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The characterisation of the PV module is completed bymeasuring the Normal Operating Cell Temperature(NOCT) defined as the cell temperature when themodule operates under the following conditions atopen circuit:
Irradiance 0.8 kW/m²
Spectral distribution AM 1.5
Cell Temperature 20˚C
Wind speed > 1m/s
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NOCT (usually between 42˚C and 46˚C) is then used todetermine the solar cell temperature Tc during moduleoperation. It is usually assumed that the differencebetween Tc and the ambient temperature Ta dependslinearly on the irradiance G in the following manner:
Tc-Ta= (NOTC-20)G(kW/m²) /0.8
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Determine the parameters of a module formed by 34solar cells in series, under the operating conditionsG=700 W/m² and Ta=34˚C. The manufacturer’s valuesunder standard conditions are: Isc=3A; Voc=20.4;Pmax=45.9 W; NOCT=43˚C.
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1. Short circuit current
Isc(G)=Isc(at1kW/m²)×G(in kW/m²)=3×0.7=2.1A
2. Solar Cell temperature
Tc-Ta= (NOTC-20)G(kW/m²) /0.8
Tc=Ta+ (NOTC-20)G(kW/m²) /0.8
=34+(43-20)0.7/0.8=54.12˚C
3. Open circuit voltage
dVoc/dT= -2.3×nc mV/˚C
Voc(54.21)=20.4-0.0023×34×(54.12-25)=18.1
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4. We shall now determine the maximum power point using the simplifying assumption that the fill factor is independent of the temperature and the irradiance:
FF=45.9/3×20.4=0.75
Pmax(G,Tc)=2.1×18.1×0.75=28.5W
Thus, noting the manufacturer’s value of Pmax we see that the module will operate at about 62% of its nominal rating.
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Lecture 10Engr. Tanveer ul Haq
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A schematic diagram of a PV generator consisting ofseveral modules is shown. In addition tophotovoltaic modules, the generator contains by-pass and blocking diodes.
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The module are connected in series to form strings,where the number of modules Ns is determinedby the selected DC bus voltage, and the numberof parallel strings Np is given by the currentrequired from the generator.
Analysis assume that all the modules are identical.In practice, the module are not identical, andtheir parameters exhibit a certain degree ofvariability for two reasons:
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1. The solar cells and modules vary in quality as aresult of the manufacturing process. In general,the current produced by commercial modulessuffers a high degree of dispersion than thevoltage.
2. Different operating conditions may exist indifferent part of the PV array. For example onemust allow for different cleanness of differentparts of the PV generator, or some modules maybe obscured by a cloud which is covering only apart of the array.
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This variability of component parameters hastwo important effects:
Firstly, the output power of the generator is lessthan the sum of values corresponding to allthe constituent modules. This gives rise tomismatch losses. These losses can beminimised by forming series strings frommodules with similar values of short-circuitcurrent.
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Secondly, there is a potential for overheating the‘poorest’ cell of a series string. In somecircumstances, a cell can operate as ‘load’ forother cells acting as ‘generators’. Consequently,this cell dissipate energy and its temperatureincreases. If the cell temperature rises above acertain limit(85-100˚C) the encapsulating materialscan be damaged, and this will degrade theperformance of the entire module. This is calledhot spot formation.
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This effect is illustrated in figure, which shows a cell ina string which does not produce current, this canhappen, for example, when the cell is shaded. Theshading of one cell converting it into a diode underreverse bias– therefore eliminate the currentproduced by the entire string.
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Furthermore, the shaded cell will dissipate allthe power produced by the illuminated cellsin the string which can be considerable if thestring is large. The common technique used toalleviate this effect is to employ by-passdiodes which are connected across a block ofseveral cell in a string. This limits the powerwhich is dissipated in this block and providesa low-resistance path for the module current.
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An important problem that confronts the designerof an array is whether the modules are to bemounted at fixed positions, or their orientationswill follow the motion of the sun.
In most arrays, the modules are supported at afixed inclination facing the equator. This has thevirtue of simplicity, no moving parts and low cast.The optimum angle of inclination dependsmainly on the latitude, the proportion of diffuseradiation at the site and the load profile.
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By mounting the array on a two-axis tracker, up to 40%more of the solar energy can be collected over theyear as compared with a fixed-tilt installation. But thisincreases complexity and result in lower reliability andhigher maintenance costs. Single axis tracking is lesscomplex but yields a smaller gain. Where labour isavailable, the orientation may be manually adjusted toincrease the output. It has been estimated that, insunny climates, a flat plate array moved to face thesun twice a day and given a quarterly tilt adjustmentcan intercept nearly 95% of the energy collected with afully automatic two-axis tracking.
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Tracking is particularly important in systems which operateunder concentrated sunlight. The structure of thesesystems ranges from a simple design bases on sidebooster mirrors, to concentration systems which employsophisticated optical techniques to increase the lightinput to the cell by several orders of magnitude. Thesesystems must make allowance for an important fact thatconcentrating the sunlight reduces the angular range ofrays that the system can accept for conversion. Trackingbecomes necessary once the concentration ratio exceedsabout 10 and the system can only convert the directcomponent of solar radiation.
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Energy Stored Technology
Mechanical 1. Pumping water2. Compressed air3. Fly wheel
Electromagnetic Electric current inSuperconducting ring
Chemical 1. Batteries2. Hydrogen production
Some energy storage systems
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Although a variety of energy storage methods areunder consideration, the majority of stand alone PVsystems today use battery storage. The batteries inmost common use are lead acid batteries because oftheir good availability and cost effectiveness. Nickelcadmium batteries are used in some smallerapplications where their ruggedness, bothmechanical and electrical, is considered essential.However, their high cost per amount of energystored has prevented their wider use inphotovoltaic's.
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POWER CONDITIONINGAND CONTROL
Lecture 11
Engr. Tanveer ul Haq
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The Blocking DiodeWe know that a solar cell in the dark behave as a
diode. Without special precautions, this type ofnight-time operation of the photovoltaic generatorwill provide a discharge path for the battery. Thesimplest solution is to separate the generator andbattery by blocking diode. When the voltage at thebattery exceeds the voltage at the generator, thediode becomes reverse-biased and prevents thebattery discharge.
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Effect of Blocking Diode
During daytime operation, however, there will be avoltage drop across the blocking diode which shouldbe taken into account when designing the system.In system using modern PV modules where theseries resistance is low and the I-V characteristicapproaches the ideal curve, the battery dischargecurrent via the PV generator at night can be verysmall. The power dissipated at the blocking diodeduring daytime operation may exceed the night-time discharge losses. For this reason, the blockingdiode is sometimes omitted from the circuit design.
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Charge RegulatorMeasures must be taken to prevent excessive
discharge and overcharging of batteries. Varioustype of charge regulators are available that fulfillthis role. In small applications (up to 100W), a shuntregulator can be used to dissipate the unwantedpower from the generator. A commonimplementation is to use a transistor in parallel withthe PV generator which is set to conduct and divertcurrent from the battery at a certain thresholdvoltage value.
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Charge Regulator
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Charge RegulatorIn larger applications, it is advisable to
disconnect the battery from the generator bymeans of series regulator. This can be anelectromechanical switch (for example arelay) or a solid state device (bipolartransistor, MOSFET, etc) . The former deviceshave the advantage that they do notdissipate energy but their reliability can be aproblem in locations with high dust or sandoccurrence.
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Charge Regulator
The battery may be protected against excessive discharge by a charge limiter. This device is introduced between the load and the battery and acts as a switch which opens when the battery charge reaches a minimum acceptable level.
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DC/DC Converter
The variability of the power output from the PVgenerator will often operate away from itsmaximum power point. The associated lossescan be avoided by the use of maximum-power-point tracker which ensures that thereis always a maximum energy transfer fromthe generator to the battery.
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DC/DC Converter
The principles of the MPP tracker aredemonstrated in figure for the situationwhen the PV generator feeds power to aresistive load.
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DC/DC ConverterThe I-V characteristic of the generator and the
load, together with constant power curvesP=VI=constant is shown. It is seen that at theoperating point 1 the delivered power issignificantly below Pmax, the maximum powerof PV generator.
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DC/AC converter (inverter)
This is standard item of electronic equipmentwhich is used in many different applications.The input power is the DC power from thephotovoltaic generator or battery and theoutput is AC power used to run AC appliancesor fed into the utility grid. The efficiency ofthe inverters usually depends on the loadcurrent being a maximum at the nominaloutput power.
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DC/AC converter (inverter)
The majority of inverter for PV application canbe classified into three main categories.
First one are variable frequency inverters.These are used for stand-alone drive/shaftpower applications, almost exclusively in PVpumping system.
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DC/AC converter (inverter)
• Second are Self commutating fixed frequencyinverters. These are able to feed an isolateddistribution grid and, if equipped with specialparalleling control, also a grid supplied byother parallel power sources.
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DC/AC converter (inverter)Third are Line-commutated fixed-frequency
inverters. These are able to feed the grid onlywhere the grid frequency is defined byanother power source connected in parallel.The inverter will not work if such externalfrequency reference is lacking.
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DC/AC converter (inverter)
The advantages and draw back of these two inverter types are summarised.
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Alarms, Indicators and monitoring equipment
The system electronics should include someindicators which display the state of thesystem, or at least its main parameters. Themain indicators should display the low chargestate for batteries and the over charge.
In some instances, the user should be warnedabout the state of the system by an alarm.
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Sizing of a PV system, particularly a stand-aloneone, is an important part of its design. Sincethe capital equipment cost is the majorcomponent of the price of solar electricity,oversizing the plant has a very detrimentaleffect on the price of the generated power.Undersizing a stand alone system, on theother hand, reduces the supply reliability.
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The sizing of a system requires a knowledge of thesolar radiation data for the site, the load profileand the importance of supply continuity. Inaddition, other constrains on the design (forexample economic) must also be known, Thesizing procedure then recommends the size ofthe photovoltaic generator and battery capacitythat will be optimum for the application. It willalso allow the nominal characteristics of theelectronic components to be specified.
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The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out thetotal power and energy consumption of all loads that need tobe supplied by the solar PV system as follows:
1.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used.Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to getthe total Watt-hours per day which must be delivered to theappliances.
1.2 Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PVmodules.Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3(the energy lost in the system) to get the total Watt-hours perday which must be provided by the panels.
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Different size of PV modules will produce differentamount of power. To find out the sizing of PVmodule, the total peak watt produced needs. Thepeak watt (Wp) produced depends on size of the PVmodule and climate of site location. We have toconsider “panel generation factor” which is differentin each site location. For Thailand, the panelgeneration factor is 3.43. To determine the sizing ofPV modules, calculate as follows:
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2.1 Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PVmodules
Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PVmodules (from item 1.2) by 3.43 to get the total Watt-peakrating needed for the PV panels needed to operate theappliances.
2.2 Calculate the number of PV panels for the systemDivide the answer obtained in item 2.1 by the rated output
Watt-peak of the PV modules available to you. Increase anyfractional part of result to the next highest full number andthat will be the number of PV modules required
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An inverter is used in the system where AC poweroutput is needed. The input rating of the invertershould never be lower than the total watt ofappliances. The inverter must have the samenominal voltage as your battery.
For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be largeenough to handle the total amount of Watts youwill be using at one time. The inverter size shouldbe 25-30% bigger than total Watts of appliances.
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In case of appliance type is motor or compressorthen inverter size should be minimum 3 timesthe capacity of those appliances and must beadded to the inverter capacity to handle surgecurrent during starting.
For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, theinput rating of the inverter should be same as PVarray rating to allow for safe and efficientoperation.
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The battery type recommended for using in solar PVsystem is deep cycle battery. Deep cycle battery isspecifically designed for to be discharged to lowenergy level and rapid recharged or cycle charged anddischarged day after day for years. The battery shouldbe large enough to store sufficient energy to operatethe appliances at night and cloudy days. To find outthe size of battery, calculate as follows:
4.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day used byappliances.
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4.2 Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 forbattery loss.
4.3 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.2 by 0.6 for depth ofdischarge.
4.4 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.3 by the nominalbattery voltage.
4.5 Multiply the answer obtained in item 4.4 with days ofautonomy (the number of days that you need the systemto operate when there is no power produced by PV panels)to get the required Ampere-hour capacity of deep-cyclebattery.
Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)
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A house has the following electrical appliance usage:• One 18 Watt fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast
used 4 hours per day.• One 60 Watt fan used for 2 hours per day.• One 75 Watt refrigerator that runs 24 hours per day
with compressor run 12 hours and off 12 hours.The system will be powered by 12 Vdc, 110 Wp PV
module.
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Total appliance use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 24 x 0.5 hours) = 1,092 Wh/day
Total PV panels energy needed = 1,092 x 1.3= 1,419.6 Wh/day.
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2.1 Total Wp of PV panel capacity needed =1,419.6 / 3.4 = 413.9 Wp
2.2 Number of PV panels needed = 413.9 / 110 =3.76modules
Actual requirement = 4 modulesSo this system should be powered by at least 4
modules of 110 Wp PV module.
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Total Watt of all appliances = 18 + 60 + 75 = 153 W
For safety, the inverter should be considered25-30% bigger size.
The inverter size should be about 190 W orgreater.
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Total appliances use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)
Nominal battery voltage = 12 VDays of autonomy = 3 days
Battery capacity = [(18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)] x 3 (0.85 x 0.6 x 12)
Total Ampere-hours required 535.29 AhSo the battery should be rated 12 V 600 Ah for 3
day autonomy.
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PV module specificationPm = 110 WpVm = 16.7 VdcIm = 6.6 AVoc = 20.7 AIsc = 7.5 A
Solar charge controller rating = (4 strings x 7.5 A) x 1.3 = 39 A
So the solar charge controller should be rated 40A at 12 V or greater.
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Lecture 13Engr. Tanveer ul Haq
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Principle
In Concentrating Photovoltaics (CPV), a large area ofsunlight is focused onto the solar cell with thehelp of an optical device.
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By concentrating sunlight onto a small area, thistechnology has three competitive advantages:
1. Requires less photovoltaic material to capturethe same sunlight as non-concentrating pv.
2. Makes the use of high-efficiency but expensivemulti-junction cells economically viable due tosmaller space requirements.
3. The optical system comprises standard materials,manufactured in proven processes. Thus, it is lessdependant on the immature silicon supply chain.Moreover, optics are less expensive than cells.
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Concentrating light, however, requires direct sunlightrather than diffuse light, limiting this technology toclear, sunny locations.
Despite having been researched since the 1970s, it hasonly now entered the solar electricity sector as aviable alternative. Being a young technology, there isno single dominant design.
The most common classification of CPV- modules is bythe degree of concentration, which is expressed innumber of "suns". E.g. "3x" means that the intensityof the light that hits the photovoltaic material is 3times than it would be without concentration.
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Low
concentration
Medium
concentration
High
concentration
Degree of
concentration2 - 10 10 - 100 > 100
Tracking?No tracking
necessary
1-axis tracking
sufficient
Dual axis
tracking
required
CoolingNo cooling
required
Passive cooling
sufficient
Active cooling
reuqired in
most instances.
Photovoltaic
Material
High- quality
silicon
Multi-junction
cells
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Fresnel LensA Fresnel lens, named after the French physicist,
comprises several sections with different angles, thusreducing weight and thickness in comparison to astandard lens.
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Fresnel lenses can be constructed
in a shape of a circle to provide a point focus withconcentration ratios of around 500, or
in cylindrical shape to provide line focus withlower concentration ratios.
With the high concentration ratio in a Fresnel pointlens, it is possible to use a multi-junctionphotovoltaic cell with maximum efficiency. In aline concentrator, it is more common to use highefficiency silicon.
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Parabolic MirrorsHere, all incoming parallel light is reflected by the
collector (the first mirror) through a focal pointonto a second mirror.
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Parabolic Mirrors
The second mirror, which is much smaller, is also aparabolic mirror with the same focal point. Itreflects the light beams to the middle of the firstparabolic mirror where it hits the solar cell.
The advantage of this configuration is that it doesnot require any optical lenses. However, losseswill occur in both mirrors. SolFocus has achieved aconcentration ratio of 500 in point concentrator-shape with dual axis- tracking.
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ReflectorsLow concentration photovoltaic modules use mirrors to
concentrate sunlight onto a solar cell. Often, thesemirrors are manufactured with silicone-coveredmetal. This technique lowers the reflection losses byeffectively providing a second internal mirror.
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ReflectorsThe angle of the mirrors depends on the inclination
angle and latitude as well as the module design,but is typically fixed. The concentration ratiosachieved range from 1.5 - 2.5.
Low concentration cells are usually made frommonocrystalline silicon. No cooling is required.
The largest low-concentration photovoltaic plant inthe world is Sevilla PV with modules from threecompanies: Artesa, Isofoton and Solartec.
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Luminescent ConcentratorsIn a luminescent concentrator, light is refracted in a
luminescent film, and then being channelledtowards the photovoltaic material.
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This is a very promising technology, as it does notrequire optical lenses or mirrors. Moreover, it alsoworks with diffuse light and hence does not needtracking. The concentration factor is around 3.
There are various developments going on. For instance,Covalent are using an organic material for the film,whilst Prism Solar use holographic film.
Furthermore, this concentrator does not need anycooling, as the film could be constructed such thatwavelenghts that can not be converted by the solarcell would just pass thru. Hence, unwantedwavelenghts would be removed.
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CoolingMost concentrating pv systems require cooling.
Passive Cooling: Here, the cell is placed on a claddedcermaic substrate with high thermal conductivity.The ceramic also provides electrical isolation.
Active Cooling: Typically, liquid metal is used as acooling fluid, capable of cooling from 1,700°C to100°C.
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IQBAL. M., An Introduction to Solar Radiation, Academic,New York,1983.
LOF, G. O. F., DUFFIE, F. A. and SMITH, C.O., WorldDistribution of Solar Radiation, University of WisconsinReport No. 23, 1966.
LORENZO, E., Solar Radiation, in : Luque A., Solar Cellsand optics for Photovoltaic Concentration, Adam Hilger,Bristol, 1989, pp 268-304.
PAGE, J. K., The estimation of monthly mean values ofdaily total short-wave radiation on vertical and inclinedsurfaces from sunshine records for latitudes 40°N-40°S,in: Proc. United Nations on New Sources of Energy, Vol. 4,1961, pp. 378-390.
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PALZ, W., ed. European Solar Radiation Atlas, Volumes 1and 2 2nd edn. Verlag TUV Rheinland, Cologne, 1984.
GREEN, M. A., Solar Cells, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,NJ, 1982.
HERSH, P. and ZWEIBEL, K., Basic Photovoltaic Principlesand Methods, U.S. Government Printing Office,Washington, DC, SERI/SP-290-1448, 1982.
PULFREY, D. L., Photovoltaic Power Generation, VanNostrand Theinhold, New York, 1978.
VAN OVERSTRAETEN, R. And MERTENS, R., Physics,Technology and Use of Photovoltaics, Adam Hilger, Bristol1986.
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GREEN, M. A., Solar Cells, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,NJ, 1982.
HERSH, P. and ZWEIBEL, K., Basic Photovoltaic Principlesand Methods, U.S. Government Printing Office,Washington, DC, SERI/SP-290-1448, 1982.
PULFREY, D. L., Photovoltaic Power Generation, VanNostrand Theinhold, New York, 1978.
VAN OVERSTRAETEN, R. And MERTENS, R., Physics,Technology and Use of Photovoltaics, Adam Hilger, Bristol1986.
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• BOGUS, K. Space photovoltaics– present and future, ESABulletin 41, 70-77.
• HILL, R., Applications of Photovoltaics, Adam Hilger Bristol,1988.
• MARKVART, T. Radiation damage in solar cell, Journal ofMaterials Science: Materials in Electronics 1 (1), 1990:1-8.
• MAYCOCK, P-D. and STIREWALT, E. N., A Guide to thePhotovoltaic Revolution, Emaus, PA., 1985.
• BLOSS, W.H.,PFISTERER, F., KLEINKAUF, W., LANDAU, M.,WEBER, H. and HULLMAW, H. Grid-connected solarhouses, In: proc. 10th European Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConf., Lisbon, 1991: 1295-1300.
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Every care is taken to ensure that allinformation in these lectures are present andcorrect. But there may still be errors. If youfind an error or omission, please let us know,and we will correct it as soon as possibleafter verification.
Please give your feed back at [email protected]
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