By: Shiney M. Abraham

a procedure or process for attaining an object: as a (1) : a systematic procedure, technique, or mode of inquiry employed by or proper to a particular discipline or art (2) : a systematic plan followed in presenting material for instruction

b (1) : a way, technique, or process of or for doing something (2) : a body of skills or techniques

Objective oriented activities and Objective oriented activities and flow of information between teachers flow of information between teachers and studentsand students

Lectures are probably most useful for giving a general introduction to a topic area, delivery of information, give broad overviews of content which is then followed by more active individual work from students to practice the material in more depth. . It is Most Effective Common method in

teaching lower cognitive levels of knowledge and comprehension. The lecture itself does not teach the

students to analyze; it merely illustrates the process.

Advantages Disadvantages

1. The lecture can be used in any size class and is often the

only option in large classes.

1. The lecture is a teacher-centered, which does not allow for differences in student learning styles or rates

2. A well-presented lecture can be motivating to the students and inspire them to pursue a topic on their own.

2. Minimal student participation (promotes passivity in students).

3. The instructor has total control over what occurs in class

3. Learning from lectures depends on the students' abilities to take notes.

4. Because the lecture is teacher-centered, it tends to promote one-way communication

Viewed by students as a complete learning experience; think lecturer presents all they need to know

Lowenstein and Bradshaw, 2001

Formal Expository Provocative

Formal lecture In a formal setting the lecturer delivers a

well-organized, tightly constructed, highly polished presentation

Preparation is time consuming Ignores the interactive dimension of

teachingSometimes fails to motivate students

Variation on Formal LectureLecture/Recitation

During a formal lecture, the lecturer stops and asks students to respond to a particular point or idea by reading or presenting materials he/she had prepared for class.

Expository lectureLess elaborate than the formal lectureFaculty does most of the talking, questions

from students are periodically allowed

Provocative Instructor does most of the talking but

challenges students knowledge and values with questions Lecture-practice Lecture-discussion Lecture-lab

Begin well in advance of the presentation date

Organize your thoughts and information Write down what you want to say Practice saying it Time yourself – realize that it will take

more time to present in front of a class then at home

First five minutesTeacher outlines the objectives,

outcomes, and expectations held for the participants Identify what learner should gain Make a connection between what the lecture

material is and real life Outline the key concepts to be addressed Describe rules of operation and establish open

atmosphereStudents decide whether to trust the

speaker to do what was promised and whether to attend to the lecture

Body of lectureContains the critical information the learner

needs to knowMust be well organized with smooth

transitions between topicsContains

General themes that tie together as many topics as possible

Sufficient depth and complexity Testimonies and exhibits to support main points

Conclusion (last 5 minutes) Interaction deserves closure Conclusion should tie the introduction

and the body together Contains a review of key points or topics

covered May offer suggestions related to the

application and transfer of knowledge

It is techniques used for pulling

knowledge and ideas. It can be

applied as a small groups or larger

group discussion composed of 5 to

7 individuals assigned to discuss a

certain topic within certain time

limit

Discussion serves best when the

students have a background in the

content of the discussion.

It is used when the instructor wants

the students to practice analysis and

evaluation or to examine opinions.

The discussion is a common method

for allowing exploration of attitudes.

Advantages Disadvantages 1. The students are actively

involved in processing information and ideas

1. Discussion can be very time consuming and unfocused unless the instructor makes an effort to direct the flow.

2. students can share their experiences and participate in

making decisions.

2. An instructor often has difficulty

in getting the students involved

3. It provides means of communication and feedback between the lecturer and the learner.

3. Class size must be restricted.

1. Recitationa. Teacher asks questions and the students

answerb. Questions based on readings, lectures,

labs, etc…c. Purpose is to determine student

understanding and to clarify misunderstanding

d. Low-level questions too often used; becomes drill and review

e. Should allow demonstration of understanding and application to new situations

f. Questions should be prepared in advance and sequenced

g. Call on volunteers as well as non-volunteers

2. Guided Discussiona. Help students construct knowledge for

themselvesb. Students must have base knowledge

to work fromc. More varied interaction pattern than

recitationd. Pace is slower with more development

of ideas, clarification of pointse. Questions should aim at higher

cognitive levelsf. Students should interpret, explain,

apply, illustrate, generalize, conclude (Wilen, 1990)

2. Reflective Discussiona. Open expression of ideasb. Introduce topic and ask initial question, but

allow it to go where it willc. Excellent approach to controversial ideas:

AIDS, cloning, nuclear testing, etc…d. Conflicting laboratory data can be a good

topice. Indisputable facts are not good discussion

topicsf. Challenge students to think critically and

examine beliefs, attitudesg. No set interaction patternh. Not imperative that all students speak upi. Still rests on students having enough

background knowledge

In deductive (rule-driven, top-down) teaching the teacher introduces and explains the concept and the rules relating to it. Then the teacher lets students to practice the new concept.

GENERAL RULE > EXAMPLES > PRACTICE

It gets straight to the point, and can therefore be time-saving.

It confirms many students' expectations about classroom learning, particularly for those learners who have an analytical learning style.

Teacher explanation is often at the expense of student involvement and interaction.

Explanation is seldom as memorable as other forms of presentation, such as demonstration.

Encourages the belief that learning is simply a case of knowing the rules.

In inductive (example-driven, bottom-up) teaching the teacher gives students the data and lets students draw their own conclusions from the data. The students notice how the concept is used and figure out, and verbalise the rule.

EXAMPLES > PRACTICE > GENERAL RULE(Stern, 1992)

Learners discover for themselves. Utilizes HOTS Students are more actively involved in

the learning process, rather than being simply passive recipients.

Challenge the learners. If the problem-solving is done

collaboratively, learners get the opportunity for extra practice.

The time and energy spent in working out rules may mislead students into believing that rules are the objective of language learning, rather than a means.

The time taken to work out a rule may be at the expense of time spent in putting the rule to some sort of productive practice.

Students may hypothesise the wrong rule, or their version of the rule may be either too broad or too narrow in its application.

  It can place heavy demands on teachers in planning a lesson. They need to select and organize the data carefully so as to guide learners to an accurate formulation of the rule, while also ensuring the data is intelligible.

An inductive approach frustrates students who, by dint of their personal learning style or their past learning experience (or both), would prefer simply to be told the rule.

The end