Lecture 6: The Reformation

Ann T. Orlando

April 11, 2007

Introduction

Papal Crises in Late Middle Ages Martin Luther Other reformers

Calvin Anabaptists Henry VIII

Catholic Response Ignatius Loyola Council of Trent 16th Century World-Wide Missionary Activities

Papal Status as of 1303

Pope Boniface VIII Unam Sanctam encyclical stating Pope is over king Philip IV ignores Encyclical; Captures Boniface and humiliates him Boniface dies 1303

Boniface’s successor Tension between Roman families and French over who

should be Pope Clement V was elected through French influence and lived

in France, beginning of Avignon Papacy

Avignon Papacy

During this period (1309-1377), Papacy dependent on France Some of Popes in this period were guilty of nepotism as well as

simony Catherine of Sienna (1347-1380)

Mystic who was very popular; educated by Dominicans Able to end warring family factions in Italy Pressured Pope Gregory XI to return to Rome, which he did in

1377 Declared a doctor of Church in 1970

Bridget of Sweden (1303-1373) Mother of Queen Catherine of Sweden After becoming a widow, moved to Rome, founded an order

(Brigittines) devoted to poor of Rome and politics of returning Pope to Rome

Great Western Schism

Urban VI succeeded Gregory XI Managed to alienate both French and Romans Cardinals who had elected Urban abandoned him and

elected a new pope, Clement VII who moves back to Avignon

Everyone in Western Europe chooses sides France, Scotland back Clement England and HRE (Germany and Spain) back Urban Italian city states changed sides frequently

Rival Popes needed funds Simony Sale of indulgences

Conciliar Movement

In 1394 theologians at University of Paris suggest a council to elect Pope

Council gathers at Pisa in 1409, and both Popes are asked to resign Takes steps against simony Elects Alexander V Now there are three Popes: Rome, Avignon, Pisa

Another Council at Constance in 1414-1418 Haec Sancta: Council of Bishops pre-eminent over Pope Elect Martin V, end of Great Schism

Council of Ferrara-Florence 1438-1445 Constantinople under threat from Ottoman Turks seeks help Formula for reunion of East and West Leads to enhanced stature of Pope Eugene IV in Rome

Popes of 15th and 16th Centuries Pius II (1458-1464) issues Execrabilis, that no council is over the Pope,

repudiates Council of Constance Alexander VI (1492-1503), most notorious Borgia Pope Julius II (1503-1513), leads armies in battle to solidify Papal States, decides

to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica; Old St Peter’s built by Constantine in very bad condition What had been largest church in Christendom now a mosque

Leo X (1513-1521), “Now that God has given us the Papacy, let us enjoy it.” Popular joke is ROMA = Radix Omnia Malorum Avaritia (Avarice the Root of

All Evil) Note, however, that these same Popes were also patrons for some of the

most important artists of Renaissance and Baroque These same Popes were champions of learning and encouraged

establishment of major libraries, including Vatican library And arguably the worst of them, Alexander VI, should be given some

measure of redemption for declaring that Indians had souls Popes in very weakened political situation after Avignon papacy; reliant on

sale of indulgences and simony for funds

Political Situation Early 16th C Byzantine Empire destroyed; Powerful Ottoman Turks in control of Eastern and

Southern Mediterranean Spain newly unified after expulsion of Muslims France and England in uneasy truce after Hundred

Years War France and HRE in occasional battles over eastern

France (or western Germany) Strong National Rulers

Francois I of France Charles V HRE (Spain, Germany, Netherlands) Henry VII in England

German Reformation

How it started: 1517, Albrecht of Mainz wants to be Archbishop Albrecht buys his archbishopric from Rome (Leo X); Rome needs

the money in part to help pay for rebuilding of St. Peters Rome authorizes the preaching of a special indulgence in

Germany, with the money to go to Albrecht to repay him Martin Luther (1483-1546)

Responds to this situation with 95 Thesis Go far beyond denouncing sin of simony and corruption;

fundamentally calls into question Rome’s primacy and theology of indulgences; denounces scholasticism

German princes, especially Fredrick the Wise of Saxony, support Luther against Rome and against HRE Charles V

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

Luther was influenced by humanism; studied Biblical languages and the early Church Fathers, especially Augustine

Driven by internal and external events Internal struggle

As a young Augustinian monk, Luther struggles to appease God for his sins

Finally realizes that nothing he can do can appease God; Salvation must be God’s free gift that one accepts by faith

Lutheran Theology: Three Solas Sola Scriptura

Rejection of philosophical developments; Scripture is all that one needs Scripture should be available to everyone, unmediated; Luther translates

Bible into German, although with his own interpretation built into it Return to original Biblical languages for Biblical study; reject any OT

books not written in Hebrew (deutrocanonical books; i.e., most philosophical books)

Very important that everyone can read Sola Fides

Faith in Jesus Christ is necessary and sufficient for salvation Universal priesthood of all believers

Sola Gratia Only God’s grace can save you Only two sacraments: Baptism and Eucharist Accepts Real Presence, but not transubstantiation as a way to describe

it

Luther-Erasmus Debates on Free Will Replay of Pelagian controversy Erasmus writes a book, called On Free Will,

like Augustine wrote early in his career In response Luther writes a book called On

Bondage of Will, makes points similar to Augustine against Pelagius on need for grace, predestination

As in Pelagian controversy, how does one interpret Paul’s Letter to Romans?

John Calvin (1509 - 1564)

Accepted Luther’s maxim “Sola Scriptura, Sola Fides, Sola Gratia) and extended it Accepted double predestination (as defined by

Augustine) Rejected real presence in Eucharist

Established a ‘holy’ city in Geneva: Calvinism, had an extensive influence on Protestant

movement, especially in Scotland (Presbyterians), France (Huguenots) and England (Puritans)

Note that all reformers looked to Augustine as their ‘patron saint’

Anabaptists (Radical Reform) Opposed infant baptism; rather baptism

should be accepted when one accepted faith in Jesus Christ

Luther was both opposed to them Considered themselves completely separate

from State; did not believe that all professing Christians were part of Church

Politically and religiously exclusive; thus persecuted by all others as a threat to civil unity

Reformation in England

Henry VIII initially opposes Luther, remains faithful to Rome Henry married Catherine of Spain in 1509 (daughter of Ferdinand

and Isabella, aunt of Charles V) marriage yields no male heir Pope Clement VII refuses to annul marriage Note the request comes in 1527, just after Charles V had sacked

Rome and Clement not eager to further provoke Charles Henry declares himself head of Church in England 1532 Thomas More and other executed 1535 Very little doctrinal disagreement between Henry VIII and Rome

Religious Map of Europe c. 1560

Catholic Response: Jesuits Jesuits (Society of Jesus) founded by

Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) NOT founded to counter Reformation; but

charter put Jesuits on front lines against Reformers

Education very important in Jesuit belief Jesuits very focused on work among

people Jesuit life-style in many ways opposite that

of a monastery

Key Points of Jesuit Charter (1541) Vow not to accept ecclesiastical dignities; Special relationship to Pope Increased probations. The novitiate is prolonged from one

year to two, with a third year, which usually falls after the priesthood. Candidates are moreover at first admitted to simple vows only, solemn vows coming much later on;

The Society does not keep choir; It does not have a distinctive religious habit; It is also said to have been the first order to undertake

officially and by virtue of its constitutions active works such as the following:

foreign missions, at the pope's bidding; the education of youth of all classes; the instruction of the ignorant and the poor; ministering to the sick, to prisoners, etc.

Catholic Response: Council of Trent Called by Pope Paul III Lengthy, intermittent (1545-1563)

Pope initially reluctant to call council because of bad experiences with councils (especially Council of Constance) in 15th C

Purpose was both to address reform of practice and to uphold Catholic doctrine

Developed in several sessions Jesuits play a major theological role at Trent;

encouraged explicit statement of Catholic doctrine in opposition to Protestant views

Key Theological Statements from Trent Scripture and tradition Sacraments are effect through performance of

sacramental action, “ex opere operato” Affirmed Mass as sacrifice and transubstantiation Affirmed 7 sacraments Good works together with faith brings about

salvation Affirmed indulgences and intercession of saints

Revived Catholic Spirituality Teresa of Avila 1515-1582

Pioneered major reforms of monastic orders (male and female) Special relationship with John of Cross Encouraged renewed devotion of Catholics in opposition to

Protestants First woman declared a doctor of Church (1970)

John of Cross 1542-1591 Follower of Theresa of Avila Mystic and writer of popular devotional works

Francis de Sales 1567-1622 Educated by Jesuits Argued against Calvinists; bishop in absentia of Geneva Wrote popular devotional works; On Devout Life very influential

Expansion of Spanish and Portuguese Culture 16th C Voyages of discovery

Driven by economics Religion followed economics

Jesuits and Franciscans were primary Catholic missionary orders

Many saw colonization of new world (Western Hemisphere) as a way to escape turmoil of old world