Lecture 18: Planet of Slums

OutlineOutline

1.1. Inside a slum Inside a slum

2.2. The urban explosionThe urban explosion

3.3. Explaining slum growthExplaining slum growth

4.4. Slum languageSlum language

5.5. The future: what can be done?The future: what can be done?

1. Inside a Slum1. Inside a Slum

Javier Auyero

2. The Urban Explosion2. The Urban Explosion

UN: 3.2 billion urbanites 2007, nearly 5 billion UN: 3.2 billion urbanites 2007, nearly 5 billion 2030 2030 2030: 60% in cities 2030: 60% in cities Biggest increase: Asia and Africa - poorest, least-Biggest increase: Asia and Africa - poorest, least-urbanised, least able to cope urbanised, least able to cope By 2017: nearly 500 cities of 1m+By 2017: nearly 500 cities of 1m+2025: 8 cities 20m+ - Tokyo, Mumbai, Manila, 2025: 8 cities 20m+ - Tokyo, Mumbai, Manila, Dhaka, São Paulo, Mexico City, New York, and Dhaka, São Paulo, Mexico City, New York, and KolkataKolkata

Mega-City Growth:Mega-City Growth:A Developing-World Phenomenon…A Developing-World Phenomenon…

Africa, Asia catch upAfrica, Asia catch up

Growth of the Mega-CitiesGrowth of the Mega-Cities

3. Explaining slum growth3. Explaining slum growth

“People prefer urban squalor to rural hopelessness.”THE ECONOMIST

Dharavi, Mumbai

Kibera, Nairobi

Statistical HorrorsStatistical Horrors

In 2005 the number of slum dwellers worldwide exceeded 1 billion In 2005 the number of slum dwellers worldwide exceeded 1 billion ((one thirdone third of the world’s urban population) of the world’s urban population)Ethiopia, Chad, Afghanistan and Nepal: 90%+ of urban dwellers live Ethiopia, Chad, Afghanistan and Nepal: 90%+ of urban dwellers live in slumsin slums78.2% of the urban population of the world’s least developed 78.2% of the urban population of the world’s least developed countries live in slumscountries live in slumsMumbai is the global capital of slum dwelling (between 10 and 12 Mumbai is the global capital of slum dwelling (between 10 and 12 million people, with 1 million living on pavements)million people, with 1 million living on pavements)The poorest urban populations are in Luanda, Maputo and The poorest urban populations are in Luanda, Maputo and Kinshasa, where child mortality (under 5) exceeds 320 per 1000Kinshasa, where child mortality (under 5) exceeds 320 per 1000One quarterOne quarter of the world’s of the world’s urbanurban population live in absolute poverty population live in absolute poverty (“(“a condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human a condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information.” WHO, 1995)health, shelter, education and information.” WHO, 1995)Unless massive action is taken, by 2030 there will be Unless massive action is taken, by 2030 there will be 2 billion2 billion slum slum dwellers worldwide, and dwellers worldwide, and halfhalf of all urban dwellers will live in poverty of all urban dwellers will live in poverty

Qualitative horrorsQualitative horrors

We’re not just talking about poor people living in We’re not just talking about poor people living in classic shantytowns on the peripheries of Global classic shantytowns on the peripheries of Global South cities, but living on rooftops, in filled-in South cities, but living on rooftops, in filled-in airwells in the centre of buildings; in cages of airwells in the centre of buildings; in cages of wire netting erected to protect their few wire netting erected to protect their few belongings; on pavements; in former graveyards belongings; on pavements; in former graveyards (>1 million people in Cairo); on swamps, (>1 million people in Cairo); on swamps, floodplains, volcano slopes, unstable hillsides, floodplains, volcano slopes, unstable hillsides, rubbish mountains, chemical dumps, railroad rubbish mountains, chemical dumps, railroad sidings, desert fringes……sidings, desert fringes……

The new urban The new urban precariatprecariat (as opposed to (as opposed to proletariat) proletariat)

a) Rural-urban migrationa) Rural-urban migration

Today we are seeing dramatic urban growth without economic Today we are seeing dramatic urban growth without economic growth – no investment, no jobs, shrinking public sector, soaring growth – no investment, no jobs, shrinking public sector, soaring cost of land/living. Why are people moving?cost of land/living. Why are people moving?

People move for the People move for the opportunityopportunity, if not the job. There is always , if not the job. There is always somebody, 1 in 100, 1 in 1000, 1 in 10,000, who has made it. The somebody, 1 in 100, 1 in 1000, 1 in 10,000, who has made it. The alternative is subsistence agriculture – which runs the risk of alternative is subsistence agriculture – which runs the risk of starvation, or eviction by commercial agriculture/mechanization, or starvation, or eviction by commercial agriculture/mechanization, or devastation by climate change.devastation by climate change.

Other factors: people are displaced by wars and become refugees; Other factors: people are displaced by wars and become refugees; ‘natural’ disasters.‘natural’ disasters.

Almost impossible now to tell where city ends and the countryside Almost impossible now to tell where city ends and the countryside begins – in many parts of the Global South, people no longer have begins – in many parts of the Global South, people no longer have to move to the city; the city is growing so fast it moves to them. to move to the city; the city is growing so fast it moves to them.

““Urbanization has been radically decoupled from Urbanization has been radically decoupled from industrialization, even from development per se.” industrialization, even from development per se.” (p.13)(p.13)

Echoes Henri Lefebvre (1968) in Echoes Henri Lefebvre (1968) in La Revolution La Revolution UrbaineUrbaine, who argued that , who argued that urbanization had urbanization had supplanted industrialization as the major vehicle supplanted industrialization as the major vehicle of capital accumulation throughout the worldof capital accumulation throughout the world , to , to the point where we could one day see “the the point where we could one day see “the complete urbanization of the world.”complete urbanization of the world.”

b) Natural increaseb) Natural increase

Becoming an ever-increasing factor in Becoming an ever-increasing factor in slum expansion (now surpassing rural to slum expansion (now surpassing rural to urban migration)urban migration)

Rate of growth of births over deaths in Rate of growth of births over deaths in slums is increasing the population by tens slums is increasing the population by tens of thousands of people every yearof thousands of people every year

c) Structural Adjustment Policiesc) Structural Adjustment Policies

IMF/WB economic pre-conditions for the granting of loans. IMF/WB economic pre-conditions for the granting of loans. Beginning in the early 1980s: short, sharp macro-economic shocks Beginning in the early 1980s: short, sharp macro-economic shocks (currency devaluation to stop imports and encourage exports, (currency devaluation to stop imports and encourage exports, removal of state subsidies on foodstuffs, water, transport, removal of state subsidies on foodstuffs, water, transport, electricity), followed by economic deregulation, trade liberalisation, electricity), followed by economic deregulation, trade liberalisation, privatisation of public services.privatisation of public services.

Aim = Aim = to get the state out of the development processto get the state out of the development process - “the market - “the market will provide” via trickle-down. Governments were forced to radically will provide” via trickle-down. Governments were forced to radically downsize the public sector, with devastating consequences for the downsize the public sector, with devastating consequences for the urban poor (education, housing, water, food, sanitation, health care urban poor (education, housing, water, food, sanitation, health care etc etc)etc etc)

People have thus become marginalised by market-oriented People have thus become marginalised by market-oriented economic change, creating a new non-migrant, indigenous urban economic change, creating a new non-migrant, indigenous urban poor who are devoid of the incomes and basic human needs (and poor who are devoid of the incomes and basic human needs (and human rights) that perhaps their parents or grandparents had. human rights) that perhaps their parents or grandparents had.

““The weird logic of this economic programme seemed to The weird logic of this economic programme seemed to be that to restore life to the dying economy, every juice be that to restore life to the dying economy, every juice had first to be SAPped out of the underprivileged had first to be SAPped out of the underprivileged majority of the citizens. The middle class rapidly majority of the citizens. The middle class rapidly disappeared, and the garbage heaps of the increasingly disappeared, and the garbage heaps of the increasingly rich few became the food table of the multiplied rich few became the food table of the multiplied population of abjectly poor. The brain drain to the oil-rich population of abjectly poor. The brain drain to the oil-rich Arab countries and to the Western world became a Arab countries and to the Western world became a flood.”flood.”

Fidelis Odun Balogun (1995) Fidelis Odun Balogun (1995) Adjusted Lives: Stories of Adjusted Lives: Stories of Structural AdjustmentStructural Adjustment (Princeton U.P.) p.80 (Princeton U.P.) p.80

“The Washington Consensus”

The World Bank has pursued the same set of anti-poverty policies for almost 40 years. These have three elements:

• Broad-based economic growth• Development of human capital, primarily through education• Minimum social safety nets for the poor

But it has pursued these policies by rigidly adhering to neo-liberal economic orthodoxy (see Joseph Stiglitz 2002):

1. Privatisation – which tends to raise prices for the poor2. Capital market liberalisation – which can allow speculators to destabilise

countries’ economies, as has happened in Asia and South America3. Market-based pricing – which raises the costs of basic foods and fuel for the poor

and has caused rioting, particularly in South America, e.g. Bolivia, Ecuador and, recently, Argentina (economists should not be provoking riots around the world)

4. Free trade – which is governed by World Trade Organisation (WTO) rules that severely disadvantage poorer countries/producers

4. Slum Language4. Slum Language

The term ‘slum’ was first published in 1812 in a glossary of London The term ‘slum’ was first published in 1812 in a glossary of London slang by James Hardy Vaux, but was equated with ‘racket’ or slang by James Hardy Vaux, but was equated with ‘racket’ or ‘criminal trade’. ‘criminal trade’.

By the 1830s and 1840s, that use had shifted: the poor were now By the 1830s and 1840s, that use had shifted: the poor were now living in slums (infected by cholera epidemics) rather than practicing living in slums (infected by cholera epidemics) rather than practicing them.them.

In late-Victorian Britain, the term slum didn’t just describe poor In late-Victorian Britain, the term slum didn’t just describe poor areas; it was used pejoratively, a comment on the supposed moral areas; it was used pejoratively, a comment on the supposed moral degeneracy of those who dwelled in poor areas. Read anything by degeneracy of those who dwelled in poor areas. Read anything by Charles Dickens – is it by chance that he housed Fagin and the Charles Dickens – is it by chance that he housed Fagin and the Artful Dodger in a slum?Artful Dodger in a slum?

Worst of all, the official labelling of a poor area as a ‘slum’ can Worst of all, the official labelling of a poor area as a ‘slum’ can justify its demolition and clearance (such as in Haussman’s Paris, justify its demolition and clearance (such as in Haussman’s Paris, and in many slums in the Global South today)and in many slums in the Global South today)

Words are never innocent….Words are never innocent….

““What makes the word ‘slum’ dangerous is the series of What makes the word ‘slum’ dangerous is the series of negative associations that the term conjures up, the false negative associations that the term conjures up, the false hopes that a campaign against slums raises and the hopes that a campaign against slums raises and the mischief that unscrupulous politicians, developers and mischief that unscrupulous politicians, developers and planners may do with the term. ….I am complaining planners may do with the term. ….I am complaining about resuscitating an old, never euphemistic, about resuscitating an old, never euphemistic, stereotype; one that was long ago denounced as stereotype; one that was long ago denounced as dangerous and yet has now resurfaced in the policy dangerous and yet has now resurfaced in the policy arena.”arena.”

Alan Gilbert (2007) “The Return of the Slum: Does Alan Gilbert (2007) “The Return of the Slum: Does Language Matter?”, Language Matter?”, IJURRIJURR 31 (4) p.701. 31 (4) p.701.

UN operational definitionUN operational definition

A slum household is a household that A slum household is a household that lacks any one of the following lacks any one of the following five elements:five elements:

Access to improved waterAccess to improved water (access to sufficient amount of water for (access to sufficient amount of water for family use, at an affordable price, available to household members family use, at an affordable price, available to household members without being subject to extreme effort)without being subject to extreme effort)

Access to improved sanitationAccess to improved sanitation (access to an excreta disposal (access to an excreta disposal system, either in the form of a private toilet or a public toilet shared system, either in the form of a private toilet or a public toilet shared with a reasonable number of people)with a reasonable number of people)

Security of tenureSecurity of tenure (evidence of documentation to prove secure (evidence of documentation to prove secure tenure status, or de facto or perceived protection from evictions)tenure status, or de facto or perceived protection from evictions)

Durability of housingDurability of housing (permanent and adequate structure in non- (permanent and adequate structure in non-hazardous location)hazardous location)

Sufficient living areaSufficient living area (not more than two people sharing the same (not more than two people sharing the same room)room)

5. The future: what can be done?5. The future: what can be done?

The UN’s 1999 “Cities without Slums” initiativeThe UN’s 1999 “Cities without Slums” initiative

A major element of its A major element of its Millenium Development Millenium Development GoalsGoals campaign campaign

Two broad purposes:Two broad purposes:1)1) To publicise the seriousness of urban To publicise the seriousness of urban

problems, especially in the Global Southproblems, especially in the Global South2)2) To improve its ability to attract funding with To improve its ability to attract funding with

which to tackle the issuewhich to tackle the issue

““The Challenge of SlumsThe Challenge of Slums….is ….is mainly concerned with the shelter mainly concerned with the shelter conditions of the majority of the conditions of the majority of the urban poor. It is about how the poor urban poor. It is about how the poor struggle to survive within urban struggle to survive within urban areas, mainly through informal areas, mainly through informal shelter and informal income-shelter and informal income-generation strategies, and about the generation strategies, and about the inadequacy of both public and inadequacy of both public and market responses to the plight of market responses to the plight of the urban poor. But the report is the urban poor. But the report is also about hope, about building on also about hope, about building on the foundations of the urban poor’s the foundations of the urban poor’s survival strategies and about what survival strategies and about what needs to be done by both the public needs to be done by both the public and non-governmental sectors, as and non-governmental sectors, as well as by the international well as by the international community, if the goal of adequate community, if the goal of adequate shelter for all is to have any shelter for all is to have any relevance for today’s urban poor.”relevance for today’s urban poor.”

“The world’s biggest killer and the greatest cause of ill health and suffering across the globe is listed almost at the end of the International Classification of Diseases. It is given code Z59.5 -- extreme poverty.”

World Health Organisation (1995)

“Seven out of ten childhood deaths in developing countries can be attributed to just five main causes - or a combination of them: pneumonia, diarrhoea, measles, malaria and malnutrition. Around the world, three out of four children seen by health services are suffering from at least one of these conditions.”

World Health Organisation (1996; 1998).

Severe Deprivation of Basic Human Need

Almost a third of the world’s children have to live in dwellings with more than five people per room or which have a mud floor.Over half a billion children (27%) have no toilet facilities whatsoever.Almost 400 million children (19%) are using unsafe (open) water sources or have more than a 15-minute walk to water.About one in five children (aged between 3 and 18) lack access to radio, television, telephone, computers or newspapers at home.Fifteen percent of children under five years in the world are severely malnourished, almost half of whom are in South Asia.300 million children (14%) have not been immunised against any diseases, or have had a recent illness causing diarrhoea and have not received any medical advice or treatment.144 million children aged between 7 and 18 (11%) are severely educationally deprived - they have never been to school.

Source: UNICEF, 2004

Champagne glass of income distribution

The stem of the glass is getting thinner. In 1960 the income of the wealthiest fifth was 30 times greater than that of the poorest fifth; now it’s more than 80 times greater.

The cost of achieving universal access to basic social servicesThe cost of achieving universal access to basic social services

Need Need Annual costAnnual cost(US$ billions)(US$ billions)

Basic education for allBasic education for all 66

Basic health and nutrition Basic health and nutrition 1313

Reproductive health and family planning Reproductive health and family planning 1212

Low cost-water supply and sanitation Low cost-water supply and sanitation 99

Total for basic social services Total for basic social services 4040

The Price of Life?

The Cost of Food and Health for All

Over ten million of the world’s young children die each year and, in over half of these deaths, malnutrition is a contributory cause.

The cost of preventing these deaths is relatively small: $13 billion a year for ten years would provide basic health and nutrition for every person on the planet (UNDP, 1997).

By comparison, $30 billion was spent on pizza in the US in 2002 (Pizza Marketing Quarterly, 2003) and $12 billion on dog and cat food (Euromonitor International, 2003).

Can Can Economic GrowthEconomic Growth Halve Poverty by Halve Poverty by 2015?2015?

Developing Developing WorldWorld

East Asia East Asia and Pacificand Pacific

Eastern Eastern Europe and Europe and Central AsiaCentral Asia

Latin Latin America and America and CaribbeanCaribbean

Middle East Middle East and North and North AfricaAfrica

South AsiaSouth Asia Sub-Sub-Saharan Saharan AfricaAfrica

Annual growth rate Annual growth rate needed to halve world needed to halve world

poverty by 2015poverty by 2015

3.8%3.8% 2.7%2.7% 2.4%2.4% 3.8%3.8% 3.8%3.8% 4.7%4.7% 5.6%5.6%

Historical growth Historical growth 1960–19901960–1990

1.7%1.7% 3.3%3.3% 2.0%2.0% 1.3%1.3% 4.3%4.3% 1.9%1.9% 0.2%0.2%

Total growth needed to Total growth needed to halve world poverty by halve world poverty by

20152015

95%95% 70%70% 61%61% 94%94% 95%95% 117%117% 141%141%

How likely is it that the annual economic growth rate in Sub-Saharan Africa can be increased from 0.2% to 5.6% - a 28 fold increase?

Can Can RedistributionRedistribution Halve Poverty by 2015? Halve Poverty by 2015?

Developing Developing WorldWorld

East East Asia and Asia and PacificPacific

Eastern Eastern Europe Europe and and Central Central AsiaAsia

Latin Latin America America and and CaribbeanCaribbean

Middle Middle East and East and North North AfricaAfrica

South South AsiaAsia

Sub-Sub-Saharan Saharan AfricaAfrica

Poverty Poverty decline after a decline after a one standard one standard deviation deviation reduction in reduction in inequality inequality

67%67% 31%31% 42%42% 45%45% 34%34% 17%17% 62%62%

Source: Besley, T. and Burgess, R. (2003) “Halving global poverty.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 17 (3) pp. 3-22.

Why is nothing done?

Neoliberal Concepts of ‘Justice’

A neoliberal philosophical position equates justice and liberty with freedom from intentional coercion. Intentionality is seen as the key concept for defining ‘liberty’.

Neoliberals argue that, although the operation of the market may result in mass death and disease, since it is not the ‘intention’ of anyone that this should happen, no injustice occurs.

To take this argument about intentional coercion to its extreme would mean that a family starving in rural sub-Saharan Africa has more ‘freedom’ than e.g. Bill Gates’ family, as the African family are not being intentionally coerced into paying ‘taxes’.

Friedrich von Hayek

Hayek developed this argument to its logical conclusion, that societies had no obligation to meet the social and economic needs of people, as societies did not exist.

In his 1979 Heidelberg lecture, he argued that the word ‘social’ had no objective meaning as an adjective or a noun; he stated that nobody knows what the ‘social’ in fact is.

Hayek concluded that a social market economy is no market economy, a social constitutional state is no constitutional state, a social conscience is not conscience and that social justice is not justice.

Margaret Thatcher-Hayek!

In 1987, then UK Prime Minister, she spelt out Hayek’s argument in simple terms:

“I think we've been through a period where too many people have been given to understand that if they have a problem, it's the government's job to cope with it. 'I have a problem, I’ll get a grant.' 'I’m homeless, the government must house me.' They’re casting their problem on society. And, you know, there is no such thing as society. There are individual men and women, and there are families.”

Progressive tax and income policies, with income redistribution from ‘rich’ to ‘poor’ and from men to women (in addition to redistribution of income across an individual’s life span by taxing and reducing income levels in middle age balanced with then paying social benefits to increase income during childhood and old age).

Active labour market interventions to create higher quality jobs. Enforcement of minimum standards on wages and working conditions of the low paid within an international framework.

Universal social insurance and public social services - the ‘basic needs services’ – by introducing internationally agreed minimum levels of benefit

Greater accountability and increased social and democratic control over trans-national corporations and international agencies, to remedy the ‘democratic deficit’.

Effective and Efficient Anti-Poverty Measures

Some food for thoughtSome food for thought

Poverty is currently the world’s largest source of harm; it causes Poverty is currently the world’s largest source of harm; it causes more death, disease, suffering and misery than any other social more death, disease, suffering and misery than any other social phenomenon. Poverty is a bigger scourge of humanity than plague, phenomenon. Poverty is a bigger scourge of humanity than plague, pestilence or drought. Each year over 10 million children die from pestilence or drought. Each year over 10 million children die from preventable causes which go untreated due to poverty.preventable causes which go untreated due to poverty.

Yet there is no need for any person in the 21Yet there is no need for any person in the 21stst century, century, anywhere, to starve and rot in a slum, go without clean drinking anywhere, to starve and rot in a slum, go without clean drinking water, toilets or access to basic health care and education. water, toilets or access to basic health care and education. Providing poor people with all these things would not have any Providing poor people with all these things would not have any significant (or even noticeable) impact on the lifestyles of the ‘rich’. significant (or even noticeable) impact on the lifestyles of the ‘rich’. Poverty is not an ‘act of god’ nor ‘inevitable’. It is a political choice. Poverty is not an ‘act of god’ nor ‘inevitable’. It is a political choice. What is lacking is not sufficient money but the What is lacking is not sufficient money but the political willpolitical will to end to end poverty.poverty.

In addition, all over the world, there have been social movements In addition, all over the world, there have been social movements organised around fighting poverty and inequality. We’ll learn more organised around fighting poverty and inequality. We’ll learn more about these on Wednesday.about these on Wednesday.