MOTIVATION Intrinsic and Extrinsic Influences

by Ron Newman

In understanding the work of a designer we need to accept that the designer is playing to an audience; the market, on behalf of a client the provider of a service or a product. In the design process the designer needs to have an understanding of what MOTIVATES the end user so that the end design conveys the message – hits the spot..!  

Motivation is a psychological condition that arouses an individual to act towards a desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal directed behaviours. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological drive that compels or reinforces an action toward a desired goal. For example, hunger is a motivation that elicits a desire to eat. Motivation has been shown to have roots in physiological, behavioural, cognitive, and social areas.

Motivation can be a basic impulse to optimize well-being, minimize physical pain and/or maximizing pleasure. It can also originate from specific physical needs such as eating, sleeping and resting. Motivation is an inner drive to behave or act in a certain manner. It's the difference between waking up before dawn to pound the pavement or lazing around the house all day. These inner conditions such as wishes, desires, goals, activate to move in a particular direction in behaviour.

A class of theories about why people do things seeks to reduce the number of factors down to one and explain all behaviour through that one factor. For example marketing has been criticized for using self-interest as a mono-motivational theory. Mono-motivational theories are often criticized for being too reductive or too abstract. There  are  many  theories  about  mo0va0on  such  as  Machiavellianism  but  in  this  lecture  we  will  talk  mainly  about  Intrinsic  (internal)  and  Extrinsic  (external)  influences  

Intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for reward. Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. As an example students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly and work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities.

Intrinsic motivation Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they: attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as self-efficacy beliefs are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades.

Extrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome, whether or not that activity is also intrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behaviour, and the threat of punishment following misbehaviour.  

Extrinsic motivation Marketing and promotions are extrinsic motivators modifying internally driven behaviours. Competition is also an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives.  

Push and pull This model is best explained by discussing motivation within the marketing of tourism. Push factors determine the desire to go on holiday, whereas pull factors determine the choice of destination. Push motives are connected with internal forces, for example the need for relaxation or escapism, while pull factors are the external factors, such as landscape, cultural image or climate of a destination, that induces the traveller to visit a certain location.

Push and pull Push factors can be stimulated by external and situational aspects of motivation in the shape of marketing focussed on pull factors. Then again pull factors are issues that can arise from a location itself and therefore ‘push’ an individual to choose to experience it. A large number of theories have been developed over the years however there is no single theory that illustrates all motivational aspects of marketing to motivate people to travel.

Push and pull Many researchers have highlighted that because several motives may occur at the same time it should not be assumed that only one motive drives an individual to perform an action at a particular time, and therefore marketing and promotional material can supplement existing motivation or inherent motivation or provide more than one aspect of ‘pull’.

Incentive theory A reward, tangible or intangible, can be used with the intention of motivating for the behaviour to occur. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as delay lengthens. And so we can see that motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people. The two sources are intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, respectively.  

Reinforcers Reinforcement principles of behaviour differ from the hypothetical construct of reward. A reinforcer is any stimulus change following a motivated response that increases the future frequency or magnitude of that response, therefore the cognitive approach reinforced by effective marketing material is a way forward as in 1973 Maslow described it as being the golden pineapple.

Reinforcers Positive reinforcement is demonstrated by an increase in the future frequency or magnitude of a response due to in the past being followed contingently by a reinforcing stimulus such a marketing and promotion. Negative reinforcement involves a stimulus change consisting of the removal of an aversive stimulus following a response; in other word marketing arguing against a ‘negative’.

Reinforcers And finally positive reinforcement involves a stimulus change consisting of the presentation or magnification of a positive stimulus following a response which of course can be through Marketing and promotional material. From this perspective, motivation is mediated by environmental events, and the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs As we learnt in the previous lecture content theory of human motivation includes both Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Herzberg's two-factor theory. Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation. American motivation psychologist Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs consisting of five hierarchic classes. Maslow said people are motivated by unsatisfied needs.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as follows: Physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.) Safety/Security/Shelter/Health Belongingness/Love/Friendship Self-esteem/Recognition/Achievement Self actualization

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Basic requirements build upon the first step in the pyramid: physiology. If there are deficits on this level, all behaviour will be oriented to satisfy them. If you have not slept or eaten adequately, you won't be interested in your self-esteem desires. Then the second level, awakens a need for security. Motives then shift to the social sphere, Psychological requirements are the fourth level, while the top of the hierarchy is self-realization & self-actualization.

Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory In contrast to Maslow and starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Professor Steven Reiss has proposed a theory that found that there are 16 basic desires that guide nearly all human behaviour [25][26] and that motivate our actions and define our personalities: Acceptance, the need for approval Curiosity, the need to learn  25  “New  Theory  of  Mo0va0on  Lists  16  Basic  Desires  that  Guide  Us  .  Research  News  Ohio  State  2000-­‐06-­‐28.  Retrieved  2012-­‐06-­‐02    26  Reiss,  Steven  (March  5,  2002).  Who  am  I?  The  16  Basic  Desires  that  Mo8vate  Our  Ac8ons  and  Define  Our  Personali8es.  Berkley  Trade.  ISBN  978-­‐0425183403.

Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory Eating, the need for food Family, the need to raise children Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's clan/ethnic group Idealism, the need for social justice Independence, the need for individuality Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments

Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory Physical activity, the need for exercise Power, the need for influence of will Romance, the need for sex and for beauty Saving, the need to collect Social contact, the need for friends (peer relationships) Social status, the need for social standing/importance Tranquility, the need to be safe Vengeance, the need to strike back and to compete

Dr Alberto Alessi is the proprietor of the well known the Italian Design Factory ALESSI, a company that markets designed products worldwide, a company that takes the traditions and values of hand made objects and translates them, via management of the design process into mass production for the international mass market. Alberto Alessi said: “I had some convictions, some philosophical thoughts, on the role of objects in our actual society, the consumer society.”!

Alessi went on to say “We live in a society where all relevant material needs are fulfilled by the production of objects, but the big mass production industry didn't seem to have understood this. I believe, that in most cases, mass production industry goes on working simply to satisfy people's needs, instead of paying more attention to their wishes, to their desires." !

In this lecture you have seen images portraying promotions from various Olympic games as they are a good example of how graphic design can work towards motivating people to involve themselves in those events. The two images above are (left) Luck Hasegawa practicing his marshal arts in ‘free air’ on Sydney harbour, Australia and the second photo (right) is a group of ski instructors on a ridge in Serfaus-Fiss-Ladis in the Tyrol, Austria

The Colours of Benetton marketing campaign has, over time used photographic images to illicit emotional responses in the consumer, response that have then been shown to lead to retail sales of products.

MOTIVATION Intrinsic and Extrinsic Influences

by Ron Newman