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Learning by Viewing: cartoons asforeign language learning materialfor children‐‐a case studyJaana Jylhä‐Laide a

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Journal of Educational Television, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1994 93

Learning by Viewing: cartoons asforeign language learning materialfor children—a case studyJAANA JYLHä-LAIDEDepartment of English, University of Jyväskylä, Finland

Jaana Jylhä-Laide works as a teacher of English and Swedish in aFinnish comprehensive school. Her research interests include using tele-vision and video in second/foreign language learning.

Initial OutlineThe general attitude among second language researchers toward the potential oftelevision in language learning is critical because the medium is considered to lacktwo prerequisites of successful language acquisition: modified input and interaction.It has been argued that the lack of these features leads to a situation where thelearner receives incomprehensible input and has, because of the ephemeral nature oftelevision, too little time to process it. On these grounds, television has been claimedto be helpful only in the maintenance of a language skill already acquired. Thebeginning language learner would, according to this view, be able to learn only a fewisolated words or phrases. However, video as a medium has seldom been differenti-ated from television in language learning research. Instead, these media are oftentreated as synonyms both in theory and in practice.

This study, however, deals with a case where a Finnish girl has acquired a secondlanguage by watching English language cartoons on video, without any formallanguage teaching or other contacts with the language. The girl was six years oldwhen she started to spend a lot of time watching cartoons, videotaping them andreviewing the same programmes several times. Within a couple of years, shemanaged to acquire a good command of English in the areas of listening and oralproduction skills. Analogous cases have not, at least to the knowledge of the presentwriter, been reported in the literature of second language acquisition.

The present study describes and analyses the girl's language learning process andthe learning outcome. The purpose is to find out whether the learning has followedthe rules of naturalistic language acquisition. Therefore, attention is paid to theinput that the learner has received, i.e. to the language of the cartoons that she hasviewed. The present investigation also aims to examine whether the video-based

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learning context, unlike the criticised television viewing situation, exhibits the basicelements of the naturalistic learning situation: modified input, interaction, contex-tual or non-linguistic information, and the learner's previous knowledge of theworld. Both video and television viewing contexts are analysed and compared withthe naturalistic learning situation to assess the similarities and differences betweenthese learning contexts.

Features of cartoons facilitating language

The simplified visual representation and the recurrent plot typical of cartoons helpto elicit children's interest in them. The comparison of various programmes viewedby the girl implies that the language of at least some cartoons contains sim-plifications that are not found in programmes aimed at adult audiences, but arefrequently used in caretaker speech and foreigner talk. The analysis of the cartoonsviewed by the learner indicates that they feature the following modifications: (1) thecartoons contain features that effectively capture the viewer-learner's attention, (2)they present a strong picture-word interconnection, which corresponds with the'here and now' principle of 'modified' registers, (3) the dialogue of the cartoons ischaracterised by sentences that are simple and complete, (4) the dialogue containsvery few disfluencies, (5) repetition is used frequently, and (6) the rate of speech isrelatively low in some cartoons. These adjustments are used in modified speechstyles to make the input more comprehensible for the learner. It could be assumedthat they, when present in television programmes, serve a similar function for theviewer-learner. In other words, watching cartoons may offer input that is, at least tosome extent, modified.

Advantages of video

The video medium offers two advantages over broadcast television: firstly, theviewer-learner is not dependent on transmission time, but can watch the tape whenit is most convenient for her and, secondly, the learner has the possibility to controlthe recorded program by stopping and winding the tape according to her personalneeds and interests. In other words, the use of the video medium enables the learnerto control the learning context and thus to create a situation which is, at least tosome degree, interactive. The possibility to review the programmes or parts of themgives her as much 'extra' processing time as she needs and thus enhances efficientuse of both the visual and linguistic input of the programmes. The video mediumoffers the viewer-learner the possibility to negotiate meanings in a similar way as inthe naturalistic learning situation: by reviewing the parts that she found difficult shewas able to 'ask for clarification' and to induce repetition. When reviewing a familiarprogramme the learner may also receive feedback on what he has learned during theprevious viewings.

Because learning by viewing requires several reviewings of the same programmes,it could be assumed to suit small children especially well—they seem to enjoywatching the same cartoons several times in the same way as they enjoy listening to

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Learning by Viewing 95

the same books read to them over and over again. As far as designing languageteaching programmes for young language learners is concerned, cartoons seem to bea format that attracts especially preschool as well as primary schbol-aged children.Fascinating stories and adventures together with the clear form of presentationtypical of cartoons attract child-viewers attention and make them highly motivatedto understand the programmes. Combined with the efficient use of the possibilitiesoffered by the video medium, cartoons can create a motivating language learningcontext.

On the basis of the case studied here it could be assumed that even smallchildren are able to study by themselves as well as to monitor their own learning.Therefore, further research is needed to establish the most successful format oflanguage teaching programmes for children's self-studying. Attention should also bepaid to the use of the video medium and how it could be taught to young viewers.

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Conference presentationThe study reported here was carried out by Jaana Jylha-Laide and SirpaKarreinen at the Department of English, University of Jyvaskyla.

ABSTRACT Many language learning researchers share a critical attitude towards thepotentials of television in language learning as it is considered to lack two basic elements ofnaturalistic language learning: modified input and interaction. However, television andvideo are seldom differentiated in this criticism.

The study reported here deals with a case where a Finnish girl acquired a foreignlanguage by watching English language cartoons on video, without any formal languageteaching or contacts with native speakers. The investigation of the programs suggests thatsome cartoons contain language that can be suitable for a beginning foreign languagelearner. Further, cartoons seem to be characterized with several features that make them asuitable format for language learning programmes aimed at child audiences. Anotherimportant finding is that the video viewing situation radically differs from the televisionviewing situation as it offers the viewer-learner a possibility to control the programme andthus to create an interactive relationship with the medium.

The general attitude among second language learning researchers toward the poten-tials of television in language learning has been critical for two reasons. Firstly, thelanguage of television programmes is claimed to be too difficult for a beginninglanguage learner to comprehend. Secondly, the medium is considered to lackinteraction, which is regarded as a prerequisite of successful language learning. This,it has been argued, leads to a situation where the learner hears language that isincomprehensible to her, and has, because of the ephemeral nature of television, toolittle time to process it. However, television and video as media are seldomdifferentiated in language learning research. This case study deals with a Finnishgirl, here referred to as Laura, succeeded in acquiring a second language bywatching English language cartoons on video. As Laura seemed to have 'broken therules' of language acquisition, her learning process was analysed in order to find outwhether it had followed the rules of naturalistic language acquisition. The emphasiswas mainly on two features: (1) the qualities of the cartoons, especially the languagein them, and (2) the video viewing situation as a learning context. The study wasexploratory by nature as analogous cases have not, at least to the knowledge of theresearchers, been reported in the literature of second language acquisition. There-fore, generalisation of the results is problematic. Another limitation of the study isthat very little is known of the first stages of Laura's language learning process.

Methods

Data on Laura's behaviour and characteristics were collected by observations andinterviews between the spring of 1988 (when Laura was 8 years old) and the autumnof 1990. A WISC-R test was administered to her to find out whether she wasespecially talented in some field, which could have contributed to her learning of

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Learning by Viewing 97

English. The information of the early stages of Laura's acquisition of English wasbased on the recollections of her mother and her previous class teacher. Further,language tests and recorded conversations with Laura provided material for theanalysis of her skills in English. Among the language tests were listening comprehen-sion and vocabulary tests by Takala (1982), a vocabulary test by PitkSnen (1992),and the Bilingual Syntax Measure (BSM) by Burt et al. (1975). The data on theinput that Laura had received (i.e. the language of the programmes) were collectedby videorecording several episodes of The DJ Kat Show on broadcast television (SkyChannel) and analysing six cartoons: Captain Caveman, Sport Billy, Transformers,The Gobots, Super Chicken and Tom Slick. Information about Laura's viewing habitsand her way of using the video medium were collected by observation and inter-views.

Laura's story

Background

Laura is a Finnish girl who comes from a family of four. The mother works as amember of the staff in a university language (not English) department and the fatheris a trained nurse. Both are Finnish. Laura also has an elder sister. The family doesnot have any English-speaking relatives or friends, and Laura has never visited anEnglish-speaking country. At school she is an average pupil who manages allsubjects but does not show any special talents. The WISC-R test shows that Laurais very good at perceiving entities and thinking logically. Her social skills seem to bewell developed and she is good at interpreting implications embedded in interac-tional situations. The level of her verbal skills could be regarded as low average.

Cartoons as a hobby

Laura's interest in cartoons arose at the age of six, as soon as cable TV wasintroduced in the neighbourhood in the autumn of 1986. Watching and recordingEnglish language children's programmes became her favourite leisure activity, herdaily viewing time being two to three hours in the spring of 1988. The programmeshe liked most, The DJ Kat Show, consisted of several rather short live and animatedseries. Laura preferred cartoons and normally videotaped them for later viewing.After several reviewings she began to select and view only those parts whichinterested her at that moment. She used to rewind the tape whenever she cameacross a word or an utterance that she did not understand, trying to find out themeanings herself. She had the habit of memorising what each of the characters said,and later, when reviewing, she went through each line in her mind before it actuallycame up in the program and checked whether she had remembered right. Finally,she learned the programmes by heart.

Skills in English

Laura started to use English words in her speech within a year after the introductionof the cable TV. At first she could remember single words, and later produce longer

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98 J. Jylhd-Laide

sequences. After Laura had taken the initiative, her mother began to use Englishwith her when discussing everyday matters. Within a couple of years, Laura's use ofEnglish was far beyond mere imitation of single words and phrases. Both the testresults and the conversations carried out in English with her showed that she wasable to use English creatively, and that her skills in the areas of speaking andunderstanding spoken English were outstanding. She seemed to have been able toacquire the English grammar and an almost native-like pronunciation of AmericanEnglish, mastering many sounds that are often problematic for Finnish learners ofEnglish. The results of the Bilingual Syntax Measure (BSM) indicated clearly thatshe could be placed in the fifth, i.e. the highest level of proficiency, which is definedby Burt et ah in the BSM Manual as follows:

Proficient English: Children in Level 5 demonstrate native or near-nativeproficiency in English. They control most of the basic grammatical struc-ture of English, and their speech is comparable to native English speakerstheir own age.

Learning the correct pronunciation and intonation may have been easier for Laurathan for pupils taught at school. When watching the programmes, she has been ableto hear the correct model from the beginning, whereas in classroom languagelearning the teacher is normally a non-native speaker of the language, and learningoften based on written texts. Having acquired the language by viewing, Laura hadnot learned to read or write English. (A detailed description of Laura's skills inEnglish is provided by Jylha-Laide and Karreinen, 1993.)

Cartoons as language learning programmes

When talking to a language learner, for example to a child learning her mothertongue, we tend to simplify our language in order to make it easier for the listenerto comprehend. The language of television programmes is often regarded as toodifficult for a beginning language learner as it is considered to lack similarmodifications. Because cartoons have functioned as the major source of English forLaura, the language of these programmes was analysed and compared with sixdifferent features typical of mothers' speech to their children (often referred to ascaretaker speech): attention-getters, 'here and now', sentence structure, rate ofspeech, fluency and repetition.

Attention-getters

Various types of attention-getters, such as Look! and Hey! or mentioning the child'sname, are used in caretaker speech to indicate to the child that he ought to listen(Clark & Clark, 1977). In addition, paralinguistic features such as high pitch andexaggerated intonation also efficiently draw the children's attention and indicate thatthe utterances are addressed to them. Garnica (1977) maintains that high-pitchedpeaks in an utterance may mark the most salient part of it so that it stands out, thusguiding the child's attention. Wright and Huston (1983) claim that also in television

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Learning by Viewing 99

viewing 'anything that enhances attention in general, or especially selective attentionto central content, should enhance comprehension and recall'. In cartoons, certainproduction techniques, such as visual and auditory effects, are often used tohighlight certain elements of the programme. For example, lively or loud music, aswell as peculiar voices are thought to attract and maintain children's attention(Huston & Wright 1983). Among the most efficient attention-getters are rapidcharacter action, sound effects and visual special effects. Further, there is a strongconnection between the use of salient features with central content and a higher levelof recall of this content. Narration, however, compared with dialogue, seems toresult in lower attention (Calvert et al. 1982). The attention callers embedded incartoons may have been useful for Laura as the learner's level of attention, accordingto Fillmore (1976), determines, for instance, how well the learner is able to use thecontextual information as an aid in comprehension of the language.

'Here and now'

When talking to small children, adults tend to speak about something that isconcrete, that can be seen in the immediate context, trying to avoid difficult andabstract words. They often name and describe objects that the child is interested in,for example toys, and talk about the relations between the objects. This 'here andnow' principle helps the child to interpret the linguistic input (Clark & Clark, 1977).The same may also be applied to interpreting television content: children are able tounderstand television content better when it is presented in both visual and verbalmodes than when expressed in either of them alone (Calvert et al. 1982). Also in thecartoons that Laura has watched the meanings of words or sentences are usuallymade clear with the help of the picture: there are plenty of occasions where the wordthat is mentioned, often naming an object, is simultaneously accompanied by thecorresponding reference on the screen (see also Rice, 1984). For example, when oneof the characters talks about footprints in the snow, a corresponding picture is seen onthe screen at the same time. It may be assumed that such a strong picture-wordconnection has enabled Laura to efficiently draw on the context for help ininterpreting the meaning of a word.

Sentence structure

The language spoken to first language learners is usually simplified so that mostutterances are complete, fluent and grammatical, whereas incomplete and abbrevi-ated sentences typical of adult-adult conversation are rare (Cross, 1977). Sentencestructure is normally restricted to simple sentences, whereas embedded structuresand conjunctions are seldom used. Similarly, well-formed, short and simple sen-tences are typical when we talk to foreigners (Hatch, 1983a; Fillmore, 1976; Long,1981). This feature is likely to make the processing of speech easier for the learner(Hatch, 1983a).

The investigation of Laura's cartoons implies that they mostly contain short andcomplete sentences; exclamations and short imperative forms occur frequently. It's

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100 J. Jylha-Laide

the snow wolf!, Let's go!, Run! and What's that? represent the type of utterances thatare commonly used. This finding is backed up by Rice's study (1984) in which shefound that Bugs Bunny, a cartoon, contained more complete sentences than care-taker speech. In addition, the mean length of utterances (MLU) used in this cartoonwas close to that found in caretaker speech, whereas a programme aimed at adultsdiffered from the cartoon in these respects. According to Fillmore (1976), abeginning language learner can make use of sentences like these as they can belearned as unanalysed wholes: the learner does not have to know the exact meaningof the expressions, but can still acquire the appropriate use of them, i.e. when,where, and for what purpose they can be used.

Rate of speech

A slower rate of speech is typical when we talk to foreigners or small children. Thisshould give the learner more processing time, and can at the same time mark theboundaries of the major constituents of a sentence more clearly, thus making themessage easier for the listener to comprehend (Clark & Clark, 1977; Hatch, 1983a).Comparison between Cross's (1977) and Rice's (1984) studies implies that the rateof speech in cartoons is close to that used by caretakers, whereas the highest measureof the overall rate of speech is found in a programme directed to adults. However,the analysis of the different cartoons that Laura has watched suggests that the rateof speech can differ greatly from programme to programme. As slow rate of speechhas been found to enhance comprehension, the similarity of caretaker speech andsome cartoons in this respect would suggest that the language of these programmescould be easier for the viewer-learner to comprehend.

Fluency

Caretaker speech is well formed and fluent, and regarded as highly intelligiblebecause the amount of unanalysable speech is small. This seems to be useful for alearner, as Cross (1978) found an interdependence between the language learningrate and the intelligibility of the speech directed to children. It seems that therepresentation of information in Laura's cartoons is fluent concerning the linguisticinput, although these findings contradict the results of Rice's (1984) study. InLaura's programs, the fluency of speech in the cartoons appears to be good, thestuttering and false starts typical of adult-adult conversation being extremely rare. Inaddition to the fluency of speech, the overall representation of information is clearand fluent. This simplicity of the visual representation of information typical ofcartoons may contribute to the fact that children find them appealing as they areeasier for young viewers to comprehend. Further, certain production techniques canbe thought to comprise a part of the overall simplicity of representation typical ofcartoons as these techniques can be used to parse the flow of visual and auditoryimages. Features like flashbacks, instant replays and skips forward can function assegmental markers of time; similarly, for example, dissolves at major scene changescan mark changes in place. These production techniques used in cartoons can be

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Learning by Viewing 101

regarded as the grammar and syntax of television, since they can mark breaks incontent and changes in scene, and are also used as bit and programme boundaryorganisers (Huston & Wright, 1983; Wright & Huston, 1983).

Repetition

A modification that is also typical of caretaker speech is that various focusingoperations, for example repetition, are used frequently. Similar features can also befound in foreigner talk (Clark & Clark, 1977; Hatch, 1983a). By repeating orexpanding the learner's or their own utterances, the speakers can give the learnermore time to process the information and thus ensure comprehension (Cross,1977). Hatch (1983a) adds that repetition may also clarify the relationships ofsyntactic forms. In children's word learning from television, the number of repeti-tions, together with clear presentation of information, is of crucial importance (Rice& Woodsmall, 1988).

On the basis of the analysis of Laura's favourite cartoons it would seem that,although Rice (1984) found only a relatively small amount of focusing operations(e.g. repetition) in the cartoon that she examined, these operations may, in fact, beused more often in some cartoons than in others. It could be assumed that the highamount of focusing operations, especially the repetition of certain words, and therecurring short utterances typical of cartoons analysed in this study would help theviewer-learner to comprehend the linguistic input in the same way as they help alearner in face-to-face interaction. In Laura's case the use of video has multiplied thenumber of repetitions.

Summary

Many researchers have regarded the language of television programmes as un-modified, and therefore unintelligible for a beginning language learner. Even theresearchers who are of the opinion that the level of difficulty of the dialogue variesaccording to the programme type, tend to regard cartoons as worthless for alanguage learner. However, Laura's favourite cartoons feature linguistic adaptationswhich are frequently used in modified registers in order to make the input morecomprehensible for the learner. It could be assumed that they, when present intelevision programmes, serve a similar function for the viewer-learner. In otherwords, watching cartoons has offered Laura a possibility to receive input that hasbeen, to some extent, modified.

Learning by viewing vs. naturalistic language learning

Naturalistic language learning, for example a child's learning of the mother tongue,takes place in face-to-face interaction, where the learner is an active participant. Inorder to interpret the language the learner can draw on contextual informationreceived in parallel to linguistic input as well as on her own previous knowledge.Similarly, the viewer-learner also has these sources of information available. But

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television differs from naturalistic learning situations in that it seems to lackinteraction, which has been regarded as a prerequisite of language learning. It isseldom realised, however, that there are certain significant differences betweentelevision and video viewing situations.

Contextual information and previous knowledge

Naturalistic learning. Concerning the comprehension of linguistic messages, Klein(1986) emphasises the significance of the contextual information, which is receivedtogether with the linguistic input. It is important for the learner to know who isspeaking to whom, when, and where, as well as to observe both the speaker and thehearer, their reactions and their 'body language', i.e. their gestures, facial expres-sions, etc. For instance, if the speaker says a word simultaneously pointing at anobject, the learner may infer the connection between the word and its reference onthe basis of all the information. According to Fillmore (1976), situationally deter-mined utterances are relatively easy for the learner to comprehend on the basis of thecontext.

In addition to the context, the learner also uses the knowledge which is found inmemory when interpreting linguistic messages (Fig. 1). This previous knowledge isderived from several sources: the speaker-listener's knowledge of the mother tongueand any other language, together with her discourse history (Sajavaara, 1981,1987).Unlike a child acquiring her first language, the second language learner alreadyknows one linguistic system and also has more previous knowledge of the world andmore mature cognitive capacities. Her history as a user of the mother tongue hasprovided her with some knowledge of communicative situations, on the basis ofwhich she can form expectations of how people behave and what they can say in aparticular situation. According to Fillmore (1976), the amount of previous knowl-edge determines the learner's ability to make use of the context.

Television and video. Video, as well as television, has an inherent ability to representinformation via two channels, auditory and visual. Thus, both these media canprovide the viewer-learner with contextual information similar to what a learnerwould get in a naturalistic situation. She can see the characters and observe their useof voice, facial expressions, together with their hand and body movements, as wellas the setting. Like a learner in a naturalistic learning situation, the viewer-learnercan draw conclusions on the basis of this information and guess the meaning of anutterance even if she does not understand the linguistic message as such. Accordingto Wright and Huston (1983), the dual modes of representation can be of crucialimportance especially for young viewers as the processing of abstract verbal mes-sages is often difficult for them (Figs 2 and 3).

Programme types differ from each other in the amount of contextual informationthey offer to the viewer: a news broadcast, for example, contains only few contextualclues, whereas animation conveys visual information through recurrent simplifiedforms and basic shapes. Compared with real-life scenes, a scene in a cartoon isreduced to the essential. Therefore, it seems appropriate to conclude that Laura has

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Learning by Viewing 103

c Previousknowledge

_ — — —\

C CL Speaker, ^*^

"—-—~_

Context

Feedback (T^

f*" PreviousV^^^ knowledge

, Listener' ~y J

FIG. 1 The naturalistic learning situation

been able to make good use of the contextual information in interpreting thedialogue.

In addition to contextual information, the viewer-learner can also useher previous knowledge in analysing the language of the programmes. One partof the viewer-learner's previous knowledge consists of her experiences as aviewer, i.e. schemas. Dorr (1986) claims that television requires that the viewersuse schemas and other experience-based knowledge about what people are like,how things work, and the normal course of events, in order to interpret the content.For instance, when a viewer has a schema of a birthday party, she can predictthat certain things (e.g. a cake, games, presents) are likely to appear in theprogramme and attend to it selectively according to her expectations. She mayalso have some expectations of what the characters are likely to say in a situationlike this (e.g. congratulate, or thank for presents). If the content of a pro-gramme is anticipated by the viewer the information is easier for her to memoriseand recall.

Cartoons are characterised by the predictability of both the characters' behaviourand the situations (Rice, 1984). In a particular cartoon series, the plot is recurrentand the characters always act in the same way in a certain situation. This can helpthe viewer-learner to predict what is likely to happen in the future episodes and thusalso to increase her comprehension of them. In Laura's case, the extensive viewingand the replay facility on her video have made her a media-literate viewer. Thismeans that she has gathered a large amount of previous knowledge (concerning boththe programme type and the 'grammar' of the medium), which she has probablybeen able to exploit efficiently in the interpretation of the programmes.

Interaction

Naturalistic language learning takes place in face-to-face communication where thelearner is an active participant in a conversation and has the role of a speaker-lis-tener. Because the learner's linguistic skills are limited, her conversational partnermust make modifications concerning both input and interaction in order to avoidtrouble in communication and to get over the problematic points (Wells, 1981;Long, 1981). For instance, by asking questions of the learner, the conversational

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FIG. 2 The television viewing situation

partner can ensure the continuity of communication and give the learner a possibil-ity to participate. Another way of making comprehension easier is for theparticipants to negotiate meanings. Ensuring mutual understanding is often theresponsibility of the more competent participant, who frequently checks whether thelearner has understood the message and responds accordingly by either continuingwith the topic or by repeating and/or further modifying the misunderstood parts ofinput (Long, 1981). Also the learner herself can induce appropriate modificationsfrom the more competent partner by signalling that she has not understood themessage. Hatch (1983b), for instance, stresses the importance of negotiating mean-ing as the only way for the learner to receive language that is simplified to the extentthat she is able to process it.

Feedback from the conversational partner enables the learner to see how well sheis succeeding in her use of language (Wells, 1981). The partner's request forclarification, for example, is a signal for the learner that she has failed to make herselfunderstood. Often, the learner may form hypotheses about how the languagefunctions. By trying them out in her speech and attending to the feedback she canget information about the correctness of these hypotheses and, if necessary, changethem (Clark & Clark, 1977) (Fig. 1).

Television viewing. When watching television the viewer-learner is not able toparticipate in conversation but has the role of an observer (Fig. 2). Fillmore (1976)argues that if the observer makes use of the contextual information and if theutterances are situationally determined, she has a fairly good possibility to guesswhat the speaker means. However, Fillmore maintains that mere observing cannotresult in extensive language acquisition. In face-to-face communication the learneris able to influence the input that she receives from her conversational partner. Thetelevision viewer cannot create an interactive relationship between herself and theTV set because she is not able to influence the flow of information in any way. Asa consequence of the non-responsive nature of broadcast television the viewer-

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Learning by Viewing 105

FIG. 3 The video viewing situation

learner has no 'conversational partner to talk with' and cannot ask for repetition norreceive feedback. Because of the ephemeral nature of broadcast television and thelack of interactional modifications, the processing time that the learner has may betoo short for her to deal with the flow of information. This is likely to lead to thelearner's failure to respond to the input that she receives (Hatch, 1983b).

Video viewing. The video medium offers two advantages over broadcast television:(1) the viewer-learner is not dependent on transmission time, but can watch the tapewhen it is most convenient for her, and (2) the learner has the possibility to controlthe recorded programme by stopping and winding the tape according to her personalneeds and interests. She can choose whether to watch the whole programme or toconcentrate on certain parts of it, and can also decide the order in which she wantsto see these parts. (See also Crooks, 1990; Crooks & Kirkwood, 1988).

Even though the video viewer cannot influence the language of the programmein itself any more than can the viewer of broadcast television, she is able to influencethe flow of information, i.e. to induce repetition. The advantage of repetition is thatthe viewer-learner does not have to process all the information on the basis of oneviewing (Cross, 1977; Palmer, 1971). By replaying the programme, the viewer-learner also becomes familiar with the content and the dialogue. She has a possibilityto signal the video medium that she has not understood and 'ask' this forclarification. As the video medium cannot automatically react to the viewer-learner'sneeds, the learner herself has to take care that she receives enough modifications tobe able to comprehend. For a viewer-learner, the video medium can have the roleof a 'conversational partner' with whom she is able to 'negotiate meanings'.

The repetition facility on video also makes it possible for the learner to receivefeedback. If the viewer-learner wants to receive feedback from the medium, she muststick to the dialogue of the programmes, the spontaneous use of the languagecharacteristic of face-to-face communication, is impossible for the viewer-learner.However, she is not necessarily dependent on one single programme; it may be

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assumed that watching new programmes can offer her a possibility to test thehypotheses that she has formed earlier during her viewing history. When watchingnew programmes, the learner may come across familiar words or structures in a newlinguistic context, which may provide her with further information about theirmeanings and the ways in which they can be used. Palmer (1971) claims that ' ...wherever the viewer can be induced to form an hypothesis which is later confirmedor denied on the screen, the learning experience involved is equivalent to that gainedthrough actual two-way communication'.

Conclusion

The results of the present study imply that off-air cartoons and the video mediummay have been adequate means to lead to Laura's acquisition of a foreign language.The analysis of the programmes showed that the language embedded in theprogrammes was modified much in the same way as caretaker speech and foreignertalk. Further, the analysis of both the television and video viewing situations revealedconsiderable differences in the potentials of the two media to function as the basisfor successful language learning. In a video-based learning context, as opposed totelevision viewing, the learner seems to be able to bring about interactionalmodifications, which are thought to be of crucial value in language learning. Thus,it could be argued that even though cartoons contain several features that aregenerally considered to enhance language learning, without accompanying interac-tional modifications they may be of little use for a viewer-learner.

Although learning by viewing seems to have worked well for Laura, generalisingthe results of a case study is always problematic. Therefore, further studies areneeded in order to find out what role the different elements of the learning contexthave, to investigate the language learning process in detail, and to find out whethersuccessful use of this particular method requires certain learner characteristics. Itcould be assumed, for instance, that learning by viewing would be easier for a learnerwho has a good ability in guessing and drawing conclusions.

As the learner, in order to bring about interactional modifications, musthave solitary control over the medium and, hence, a possibility for personaluse of a video recorder, the learning by viewing method could be thoughtto be suitable for self-study. On the basis of Laura's case it could be assumedthat even small children are able to study by themselves as well as to monitortheir own learning. For learners who are rather shy in big groups, the non-threatening atmosphere of the viewing context, which does not involve the risk-taking element of face-to-face communication, may be a 'safe' way of learning.As learning by viewing requires several reviewings of the same programmes, it couldbe assumed to suit small children especially well since they seem to enjoy watchingthe same cartoons several times in the same way as they enjoy listening to the samebooks read to them over and over again. Further research is necessary in order toestablish the most successful format of language teaching programmes for children'sself-studying as well as for other use, for instance classroom teaching. Attention

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Learning by Viewing 107

should also be paid to the use of the video medium and how it could be taught toyoung viewers.

Laura's case proves that even a beginning language learner may benefit fromviewing 'ordinary' television programmes, in the case of young learners, at least fromprogrammes aimed at their own age group. As far as designing language teachingmaterial for young learners is concerned, cartoons seem to be a format that attractsespecially preschool and primary school-aged children. Fascinating stories andadventures together with the clear form of presentation typical of cartoons attract thechild-viewers' attention and make them highly motivated to understand the pro-grammes. The clear presentation of information—both visual and aural—also helpsthe viewer-learner in her comprehension by enabling her to make use of thecontextual information. An important element of a successful language learningprogramme is the language itself: it should be relatively simple and closely connectedwith the contextual information. In a programme series the episodes could be alsolinguistically built upon the previous ones so that the same linguistic features wouldcome up several times. This would guarantee at least some repetition, which couldthen be multiplied by the use of the video medium. It is possible that if the plot ofa series continued in each episode from where the previous one ended, the child'sinterest in the program could be maintained efficiently. In general, it is importantthat language learning materials are designed in co-operation with experts onprogram designing and language learning.

Correspondence: J. Jylhä-Laide, Oktaavintie 20, SF-69600 Kaustinen, Finland.

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BURT, M. K., DULAY, H. C. & HERNÁNDEZ CHÁVEZ, E, (1975) The Bilingual Syntax Measure (NewYork, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich).

CALVERT, S. L., HUSTON, A. C., WATKINS, B. A. & WRIGHT, J. C. (1982) The relation betweenselective attention to television forms and children's comprehension of content, Child Develop-ment, 53, pp. 601-610.

CLARK, H. H. & CLARK, E. V. (1977) Psychology and Language: an Introduction to Psycholinguistics(New York, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich).

CORDER, S. P. (1978) Language-learner language, in: J. C. RICHARDS (Ed.) Understanding Secondand Foreign Language Learning: Issues and Approaches (Rowley, Massachusetts, NewburyHouse).

CROOKS, B. (1990) The potential of non-broadcast television technologies for learning and the implica-tions for educational television design and research. Paper presented at Tel-Aviv Seminar on ETVBroadcasting Research in the Nineties, Tel Aviv, Israel, March 1990.

CROOKS, B. & KIRKWOOD, A. (1988) Video-cassettes by design in Open University courses. Paperbased on a presentation given at the annual conference of the Educational Television Associ-ation, York, April 1988. Also published in Open Learning 3.

CROSS, T. G. (1977) Mothers' speech adjustments: the contribution of selected child listenervariables, in: C. E. SNOW & C. A. FERGUSON (Eds) Talking to Children: Language Input andAcquisition (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).

CROSS, T. G. (1978) Mothers' speech and its association with rate of linguistic development inyoung children, in: N. WATERSON & C. SNOW (Eds) The Development of Communication(Chichester, John Wiley and Sons).

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DORR, A. (1986) Television and Children: a Special Medium for a Special Audience (Beverly Hills,California, Sage Publications).

FillMORE, L. W. (1976) The second time around: cognitive and social strategies in second languageacquisition. PhD dissertation, Stanford University.

GARNICA, O. K. (1977) Some prosodic and paralinguistic features of speech to young children, in:C. E. SNOW & C. A. FERGUSON (Eds) Talking to Children: Language Input and Acquisition(Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).

HATCH, E. M. (1983a) Psycholinguistics: a Second Language Perspective (Rowley, Massachusetts,Newbury House).

HATCH, E. M. (1983b) Simplified input and second language acquisition, in: R. W. ANDERSEN(Ed.) Pidginization and Creolization as Second Language Acquisition (Rowley, Massachusetts,Newbury House).

HUSTON, A. C. & WRIGHT, J. C. (1983) Children's processing of television: the informativefunctions of formal features, in: J. BRYANT & D. R. ANDERSON (Eds) Children's Understandingof Television: Research on Attention and Comprehension (New York, Academic Press).

JYLHÄ-LAIDE, J. & KARREINEN, S. (1993) Play it again, Laura: off-air cartoons and video as ameans of second language learning: a case study, in: K. SAJAVAARA & S. TAKALA (Eds) Finnsas Learners of English: Three Studies, Jyvaskyla Cross-Language Studies, 16, pp. 89-146 (Depart-ment of English, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland).

KLEIN, W. (1986) Second Language Acquisition (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).LONG, M. H. (1981) Input, interaction, and second-language acquisition, in: HARRIS WINITZ

(Ed.) Native Language and Foreign Language Acquisition (New York, New York Academy ofSciences).

PALMER, E. L. (1971) Sesame Street: shaping broadcast television to needs of the preschooler,Educational Technology, 11, pp. 18-22.

PITKÄNEN, E. (1992) Finnish schoolchildren's English vocabulary at the beginning of their Englishstudies. A Licentiate thesis in English philology, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland.

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Notes on group discussionThe general tenor of the discussion was that the case study research reportedconfirmed individuals' personal experience of various kinds that cartoons haveconsiderable potential as an educational approach to teaching languages. Thefollowing points were raised by group participants.

A comparison was made with the situation in Wales and Scotland where youngchildren watch broadcast cartoons in English and may also watch some of the samecartoons in Welsh or Gaelic.

The use of television to teach Gaelic in Scotland was described. Following theBroadcasting Act, the ITC was instructed to set up a Gaelic Television Commission,charged with commissioning a range of programmes to be made in Gaelic. Thesewould naturally include most types of programmes available hitherto in English—children's programmes, cartoons, etc. Thus children will be able to view suchprogrammes, perhaps sometimes the same programmes, in both Gaelic and English.

The question of whether language development, when fostered by cartoonwatching, differed in any way to natural language development was raised.

Parallels were drawn between the findings reported and the findings of anotherstudy on the use of videocassettes to teach French to adults, such as the importanceof the videocassette control facilities to enable the learner to stop, start and replayas he or she wishes and the correspondence between words and pictures.

Cartoon visuals have a sub-text that children are aware of that tends to underliea whole series, leading to predictability. One group participant gave his observationsof his children predicting what will happen next in support of this. He suggested thatthe predictability of the context would aid the learning of new words.

The familiar characteristics of cartoons, for example, their simple format, use ofrepetition and music are likely to give children a sense of security which wouldbenefit their learning. The Gaelic Playgroup Association (an important body for thepreservation of the Gaelic language) is well aware of the potential of simple format,as in bright, repetitive programmes such as Dotoman, made by the BBC in Gaelic.

The emphasis given to 'previous knowledge' in the models of the learningsituations offered by Jaana Jylha Laide in her presentation led to the suggestion thata viewing in the child's own language first, before the viewing in the foreignlanguage, would lead to increased learning.

A recurrent theme in the discussion was the importance of replay so that thechild could get to the stage of having learnt the cartoon by heart.

Many of the group, while appreciating the evidence provided by the single casewished to see the study followed up with a comparative or extended study.

BERYL CROOKS

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