Leading Assessment Literacy - Middletown Public Schools · 2013-01-07 · • Creates a ‘fixed’...

Leading Assessment Literacy

Cassandra Erkens, Solution Tree PLC Associate

Assessment Associate

Leading Assessment Literacy, © Erkens, 2012

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Applying Strategies for Assessment for Learning to Our Leadership Efforts

Strategy for

Assessment for Learning

Modeling It

Through Our Leadership Provide an understandable vision of the learning target.

Use models of strong and weak work—anonymous strong and weak student work, published strong (and weak, if available) work, and your own work.

Offer descriptive feedback instead of grades on in-class work as well as homework. Make your grading plan, (what work will be included in the final grade) clear to them at the outset.

Teach students to self-assess, keep track of learning, and set goals.

Design mini-lessons to focus on one aspect of quality at a time.

Teach students focused revision. Have them practice on other people’s work, on your work, and then on their own.

Engage students in self-reflection and sharing what they know.

(Chappuis, 2009)


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Understanding Assessment Summative Assessment What is it? What is its purpose? Who are the Users and what are the Uses for the data? The Value when Done Well:

The Dangers when Not Done Well:

Formative Assessment What is it? What is its purpose? Who are the Users and what are the Uses for the data? The Value when Done Well:

The Dangers when Not Done Well:

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Use Models of Strong and Weak Work Exploring Assessment Design

The following tasks engage learners in the same content, but in different ways. Read the tasks and identify the assessment purpose with levels of rigor and relevance for each as identified in the table below. Assessment 1: Research, write, and present a speech about a Greek god or goddess. You will be assigned a character for your speech. Your speech must include the following details: • Your Greek name • Your powers/ responsibilities

• Your family relationships

• Your symbol(s) - this could be several items, including tools, animals, and/or cities. Assessment 2: An archetype is defined as an original pattern or model from which all other things of the same kind are made. As we have discovered in class, Greek Mythology is a collection of stories and characters that both explain and reveal archetypal patterns to help us better understand the world about us. Working in teams, identify 3 Greek gods or goddesses whose archetypal pattern is alive and well in the world around you.

• Research your identified Greek deities so that you both understand their patterns and can even predict the ways they might think about unfamiliar or modern situations. (secondary research)

• Identify a list of interview questions for each archetype that would help elicit their understanding of their own patterns (without making them feel bad about their own answers to your questions).

Then, individually, identify current individuals in your life who seem to replicate those same archetypes. Using your interview questions, conduct an interview those individuals (consider Skype interviews if you are talking with family and friends beyond your neighborhood). Are the individuals you identified a match to that archetypal pattern? If not, why not? If so, what do they add to the archetypal pattern for today’s modern times? (primary research) Given all that you have learned from your primary and secondary research, generate a new and modern mythology – what would you name these characters in order to fit today’s world? What strengths, weaknesses, and lessons do your new mythological characters contributed to your understanding of how to navigate the future hurdles you will find in your own life? Develop a


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research paper with citations for your primary and secondary sources outlining your findings about archetypal patterns in today’s world. Return to your original team, share your individual findings and resulting research papers. Are there collective agreements in your findings? If so, create a few ‘modern’ or updated deities that illustrate your findings about archetypal patterns in today’s world and illustrate/define them through digital story-boarding. If not, create a video documentary detailing the lose of archetypes in modern society. For the 4 options of assessment purposes with accompanying levels of rigor and relevance outlined below, place a ‘1’ on the line that best represents task 1 and a 2 on the line that best represents task 2: Possession Students demonstrate ownership of declarative and procedural

knowledge. Requires basic retrieval and understanding. Rigor: Retrieval and Comprehension Relevance: Apply in discipline Execution Students use acquired knowledge and skills to create solutions to

problems, make informed, strategic decisions, and respond to the demands of daily challenges.

Rigor: Comprehension and analysis Relevance: Apply in discipline and across discipline Integration Students extend and refine knowledge to automatically and routinely

analyze and solve problems and employ solutions. Students must blend knowledge and skills with other disciplines in order to be successful.

Rigor: Analysis and knowledge utilization Relevance: Apply across discipline and in authentic structured challenges Construction Students use extensive knowledge and skill in dynamic ways to

construct new solutions to current complex known problems, to solve unanticipated problems, and to take action. Their efforts inform our understanding of the necessary knowledge and skills.

Rigor: Analysis and knowledge utilization with emphasis on synthesis and creation.

Relevance: Apply in authentic structured challenges and ill-structured challenges


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Quality Indicators for Common Assessments

© 2009 Cassandra Erkens When designing common assessments to provide extra time and support for struggling learners in your school, be sure the plans can satisfy the following criteria:

Design (accurate assessments)

1. The assessment is collaboratively developed. 1 2 3 4

2. The assessment is aligned with the priority standards. 1 2 3 4

3. The assessment is tied tightly to clearly identified learning targets within the power standards.

1 2 3 4

4. The assessment is designed for accuracy, aligned with the 5 keys for quality assessments.

1 2 3 4

5. The assessment is formative in nature, allowing students the opportunity to address their results and master their essential learning targets.

1 2 3 4

Delivery (effectively used)

6. All staff members are aware of and supportive of the plan. 1 2 3 4

7. The team delivers the common assessments in the same time frame. 1 2 3 4

8. The team’s focus is results-oriented by learning target to measure whether or not students are learning and the results empower learners in addressing their own gaps through the intervention strategies.

1 2 3 4

9. All of the team’s efforts – before, during, and after the assessment is given – are based on determining ways for teachers /staff to identify children needing interventions.

1 2 3 4

10. The team employs tools, processes, and policies that allow for student involvement in responding to the results (data interpretation, self-assessment, goal-setting, intervention planning, and reflection)

1 2 3 4

11. The team’s assessment plan promotes continued learning with formative opportunities and additional assessments to monitor for achievement.

1 2 3 4

12. Staff and procedures are in place to monitor the execution of the plan. 1 2 3 4

1- I don't know this means. 2 - I know what this means, but our team

hasn't implemented this practice. 3- Our team engages in this practice

regularly. 4- Our team employs this practice

purposefully and could share our work with others.


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Data

(monitoring achievement) 13. Practices and protocols are utilized to guarantee common data result from the use of

common assessments (scoring is calibrated to be alike). 1 2 3 4

14. The data are gathered and analyzed in a timely fashion. 1 2 3 4

15. The data are arranged in a manner that enables PLCs to target appropriate interventions for specific classrooms and students.

1 2 3 4

16. The data are arranged in a manner that enables PLCs to identify appropriate program (curriculum, instruction, and assessment) modifications.

1 2 3 4

17. The data report requires a display of the data, a reflection of team learning and a response plan to address the results with clearly determined ways for teachers /staff to respond to learners needing interventions.

1 2 3 4

18. The data are used to monitor progress toward achieving SMART goals. 1 2 3 4

19. The data are shared for school wide involvement to support learning when/as necessary.

1 2 3 4

20. The data are monitored for celebrations of student and teacher learning. 1 2 3 4


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Offer Descriptive Feedback (Adapted from Hattie & Timperley, March 2007)

Less Effective More Effective

Task Feedback VS Process Feedback • Addresses how well the tasks are

understood and performed. • Addresses the main processes and

skills needed to understand and perform tasks.

• Specific to a single task, activity, or event.

• Generalizable to past and future tasks, activities and events of like nature.

• Impossible to track improvement between assessments. Can only be used to track improvement within an assessment (e.g. first draft to last draft)

• Easy to track growth over time without requiring tremendous interventions or revisions on individual assessments.

• Only powerful when feedback can be used to for improving processes and self regulation skills.

• Most powerful for deep processing and mastery.

Self Feedback VS Self Regulation Feedback • Provides learner with personal

information about him/herself. Often positive in tone.

• Addresses – usually with questioning strategies – all of the skills required for learners to self monitor, direct, or regulate their own actions to improve their learning.

• Specific to the person and often past on a previous performance.

• Generalizable learning overall and future oriented with next steps.

• Creates a ‘fixed’ mindset, even when the comments are positive in tone.

• Creates a ‘growth’ mindset, even when the questions highlight opportunities for growth.

• Prevents risk taking for all ranges of learners.

• Improves risk taking for all ranges of learners and promotes learning literacy.


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Offer Descriptive Feedback Mr. Montenegro wants to integrate the idea of a more balanced assessment system in his classroom. He realizes that he currently is scoring all student work as summative, and he is concerned that he might be making kids who already understand their learning targets participate in work that is meaningless and unnecessary for them. He has approached you (in whatever role you fill: colleague, team leader, principal), excited with his new plan. He is not asking for feedback—he is simply sharing his new insight and practices with great pride and hope. With the beginning of each new unit, Mr. Montenegro will conduct a formative assessment, clarifying what students already know and what they need to know. Those students who clearly begin the unit understanding the content (determined by a 90% or higher passing rate) will be granted a “homework pass” for the unit, exempting them from all homework requirements during that time. They will, however, remain engaged in the classroom instruction with the rest of their peers. Offer descriptive feedback: What will you say to Mr. Montenegro?

• What do you like about his plan?

• What would you recommend he do differently in his plan?

• How will you make the feedback accessible so he will receive it and grow from it?


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Self Assessment: Are We Focusing on Learning? (Developed by Cassandra Erkens)

Current Practices Reward learners who accomplish tasks early with better grades, or make it harder (punitive) for learners who don't’ get it right the first time. Underpinning Beliefs Faster is smarter.

Desired Beliefs People learn at different rates. Mistake making is a valuable part of the

learning journey

New Practices Avoid penalizing mistakes with grades for formative work.

Create non-graded homework that is still required for data necessary to track progress target by target.

Current Practices Assigning exact same homework for all learners. Providing same responses (feedback or grades) following all assessments, even for learners who have nothing positive on which to build yet. Underpinning Beliefs Equality is more fair than equity. Everyone gets the ‘same’ at the same time.

Desired Beliefs Individual learners benefit from customized plans and responses.

New Practices Find ways and create systems to engage learners in self-

regulating and co-creating their appropriate instructional plans using their data for decisions and class standards for their plans.


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Self-Assessment: Are We Focusing on Learning? Current Practices Teachers rely heavily on the assessments provided in the curriculum materials. Underpinning Beliefs Tests are aligned to our standards. Formal test writers are assessment literate and

can create more accurate, reliable tests.

Desired Beliefs Educators need to be assessment literate. The best assessments are in the

moment, framed in teacher language, and closest to the student and his/her learning needs.

New Practices Teachers work to hone assessment literacy. Teachers create and

use formative assessments accurately, effectively, and frequently.

Current Practices Pick a practice that is misaligned with best practices in formative assessment: Underpinning Beliefs What are the underpinning beliefs?

Desired Beliefs What would we prefer educators believe or understand?

New Practices What new practices would be needed to support the desired

beliefs?


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Design Mini Lessons of Quality Common Assessment Reflections

1. Examine data, and identify areas for team discussion.

• As a team, which targets from the assessment require more attention?

• As a team, which students did not master which targets? o Beyond the numbers, look at samples of the students’ work for ‘error

analysis.’ Subdivide the ‘did not master’ student work into groupings of common errors.

o Identify the problem represented in each pile and for each, identify the possible solutions in the following areas:

Instructionally sensitive responses curriculum modifications / additions and supports for each

response o Looking at all of the identified ‘error’ piles, identify the following:

item analysis and proposed revisions to those items that contributed to the frequency of errors

overall curriculum and instruction modifications for future applications

• As a team, which students are ready for enrichment? o Again, look at samples of the students’ work this time seeking ‘accuracy

synthesis.’ In the aggregate representation of mastery, what knowledge, skills, and abilities are ready for refinement and extension?

o Identify possible instructional next steps in the following areas: next steps in progressions of the learning targets exemplars for future use

o Develop enrichment / extension option(s) that meet the following criteria: tied to the current learning targets, engaging, exciting, relevant to the core of the work

• As a team, which classrooms require additional support? What support is needed (curriculum, instruction, assessment) and how can we manage it collectively?

• As an individual teacher, which is my growth area, and how can I best improve? 2. What will be our team’s specific plan of action to address our findings and results?


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Inquiry Standard Common Assessment Data

Assessment Learning Targets

• I can define and identify quantitative data. • I can define and identify qualitative data. • I can create examples of and graphically display quantitative data. • I can create examples of and logically organize qualitative data. • I can manipulate quantitative data to be qualitative and qualitative data

to be quantitative.

Classroom Proficiency

Far Below Basic Below Basic Basic Proficient Advanced

0.00% 0.00% 6.67% 13.33% 80.00% Individual Classroom Results

Teacher A

Teacher B

Teacher C

Teacher D

Teacher E

Totals by Target

Defn. Quantitative

82% 89% 90% 86% 79% 85%

Defn. Qualitative

100% 75% 80% 81% 71% 81%

Display Quantitative

100% 100% 100% 100% 73% 95%

Organize Qualitative

97% 93% 96% 94% 82% 92%

Transpose Each Kind

100% 83% 86% 91% 80% 88%

Class Averages

96% 88% 90% 90% 77%


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Inquiry Test Common Assessment Data

Classroom D’s Results by Student

Student Name Number Correct Percent Correct

Student 1 30 100% Student 2 28 93% Student 3 20 67% Student 4 30 100% Student 5 19 63% Student 6 30 100% Student 7 27 90% Student 8 25 83% Student 9 28 93% Student 10 26 87% Student 11 30 100% Student 12 30 100% Student 13 24 80% Student 14 30 100% Student 15 30 100% Averages 27 90%


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Inquiry Test Common Assessment Classroom D’s Results by Student and Target

Student Name

Num. Correct

Perc. Correct

Defn. Quantitative

Defn. Qualitative

Display Quantitative

Org. Qualitative

Transpose Each

Student 1 30 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Student 2 28 93% 100% 67% 100% 100% 100%

Student 3 20 67% 100% 100% 100% 33% 0%

Student 4 30 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Student 5 19 63% 33% 16% 100% 100% 67%

Student 6 30 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Student 7 27 90% 83% 83% 100% 83% 100%

Student 8 25 83% 67% 50% 100% 100% 100%

Student 9 28 93% 67% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Student 10 26 87% 100% 33% 100% 100% 100%

Student 11 30 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Student 12 30 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Student 13 24 80% 33% 67% 100% 100% 100%

Student 14 30 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Student 15 30 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%


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Student Goal Setting Classroom D, Student 3, Inquiry Assessment

No. Learning Target Simple

Mistake?

1 Define and identify quantitative data. 5 out of 5 correct.

Done

2 Define and identify quantitative data. 3 Define and identify quantitative data. 4 Define and identify quantitative data. 5 Define and identify quantitative data. 6 Define and identify quantitative data. 7 Define and identify qualitative data. 5 out of 5

correct.

Done

8 Define and identify qualitative data. 9 Define and identify qualitative data.

10 Define and identify qualitative data. 11 Define and identify qualitative data. 12 Define and identify qualitative data. 13 Create examples and graphically display quantitative data. 5 out of 5

correct.

Done

14 Create examples and graphically display quantitative data. 15 Create examples and graphically display quantitative data. 16 Create examples and graphically display quantitative data. 17 Create examples and graphically display quantitative data. 18 Create examples and graphically display quantitative. 19 Create examples and organize qualitative data. 2 out of 5

correct.

Keep working!

20 Create examples and organize qualitative data. Reading error 21 Create examples and organize qualitative data. 22 Create examples and organize qualitative data. Concept error 23 Create examples and organize qualitative data. Reading error 24 Create examples and organize qualitative data. Reasoning error 25 Transpose quantitative and qualitative data. Reading error 0 out of 5

correct.

New learning needed.

26 Transpose quantitative and qualitative data. Concept 27 Transpose quantitative and qualitative data. Concept 28 Transpose quantitative and qualitative data. Concept

29 Transpose quantitative and qualitative data. Concept and Reasoning

30 Transpose quantitative and qualitative data. Concept and Reasoning


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Student Goal Setting

Reference your data on the next page, and see if you are able to set meaningful goals for your continued learning. Student name _____________________________________ Test date _________

• My strengths (the targets I got right)

• My areas for growth (the targets I got wrong)

• My learning goal

• Strategies or activities I can do to address my goal


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Design Mini Lessons of Quality When, how, and why might we need mini lessons to support staff-development efforts? How must your staff-development plans change if we design mini lessons focusing on one aspect of quality at a time? What might be the best mechanism and who might be the best “teachers” to offer such mini lessons?


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Practice Focused Revision Getting to Error Analysis

• With student work in front of you, create 2 stacks: those that are all right and those with

errors. • Examine error stack and subdivide into smaller stacks of like-errors. • Identify the most common or significant errors by stack and give that stack a label or title

– what’s the common error or issue in this stack of work? • Determine appropriate intervention strategies for each error/issue.

Types of errors to consider

• Is it a reading error – misunderstanding of the question?

– Phrasing of the question – Vocabulary concerns / background knowledge

• Is it a concept error – misunderstanding of identifying factors, for example – Which concepts? What is understood about the concept? What’s missing?

• Is it a reasoning error – solving / graphing solutions – What reasoning process? What, if any, part of the reasoning is in place? What’s

missing?

An Example with “Inference”

• First, what is the definition of the concept done well? In this case, define ‘inference’: When reading, I can make a good guess and support it with clues from the text and background knowledge.

• Second, what are the errors that occur when students are unable to demonstrate the accurate application of inference?

• Literal interpretation – sometimes students are literal rather than inferential. • Good guess, no support – sometimes they are inferential, but they don’t use

context clues to support their statement of inference. • Wild guess, mismatched support – sometimes students make random guesses.

Often, this seems like a vocabulary issue; for example, if the students don’t understand the concept of ‘food stamps’ they won’t realize that the family in the reading is poor. In this case, they try to make a guess, and they back their guess with random details.

• Projecting ‘self’ into response – sometimes students are inferential but rather than using clues from the text, they indicate how they personally would respond or feel or they add details of their own life story to prove their ‘guess’ is accurate.

• Third, plan your intervention strategies for EACH error above. As you can see, teaching the different between inferential and literal interpretations will not help the learners who are forgetting to include text clues, so the strategies you select will likely be radically different to address the specific needs of that group of learners.


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Making a Better Test based on Error Analysis

Reading Example: Read the quotation below. Select the answer that draws an accurate inference. "The teacher, pinching her brow into dark lines of disgust, told them to show respect."

A. The kids are annoying the instructor because of their behavior. (correct answer) B. The teacher is trying to remove extra eyebrow hair (concept error: pinching brow). C. The teacher is pinching her brow (literal response). D. Teachers get mad when kids laugh too much (background knowledge only).

1. Which answer is the right answer

_____ and what clues do you have that suggest it is the right answer?

Clues:

2. Which answer is making a literal statement ______and what makes it literal?

Explain:

3. Which answer displays a misunderstanding of a word in the text _______ and what is misunderstood?

Word(s):

Math Example: 1. For our spring trip to Wolf Ridge, we will need school buses to transport the students. A school bus holds 36 students. If we have 269 students to be transported, how many buses will we need? ___________

MC Choices

Answer addresses the following: Concept of Rounding

Reasoning

A. 7 Rounding by rule X B. 7

.47 Math, no rounding

C. 8 Rounding with reasoning X X D. 8

.47 Math with reasoning but misses concept of rounding (another “.47” response is needed to balance the homogeneous look of the overall responses)

X

For even more clarity regarding student errors, add the following questions:

• What’s the right answer? • Explain what makes the answer you selected to be the best answer. • Pick an answer you didn’t select and explain the type of error it’s making.

o Letter: _______ Error Made: ____________________________


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Seventh-Grade Health and Wellness

Learning Target: Use nutritional information to make informed and healthy dietary decisions. Current Test Questions

1. How many calories does this product have?

2. On the quick guide to Daily Value, what percentage is considered low?

3. On the quick guide to Daily Value, what percentage is considered high?

4. Does this product have a high, medium, or low amount of calcium?

How might you rewrite the question to assess the stated learning target?


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The Reflective Practitioner By Jeff Overlie (This excerpt is from Overlie’s 2007 Hamline University master’s thesis “How Can a Formative Assessment Professional Development Program Be Developed to Model Best Assessment Practices?” It is used with permission.)

My quest to answer the question, how can a formative assessment professional development program be developed to model best assessment practices, has been an insightful and life-changing journey for me. Strongly influenced by the Black and Wiliam article Inside the Black Box, I began researching the topic of formative assessment. Through my research, I found evidence that the use of high-quality formative assessment correlates with increased student motivation and achievement. I also found that formative assessment is more than an activity a teacher uses to modify and plan instruction. Although that is one facet of formative assessment, another important function is to give students the tools they need to make informed decisions concerning their learning. Teachers need to set clear learning targets so students can see what they are to achieve. Descriptive feedback needs to be provided and informative discussions must to be facilitated, so students know where they are in relation to learning targets. Finally, teachers need to provide ample time for students to reflect and self-assess, so they can set goals and plan how they are going to close their learning gap. Having been in education for 13 years and having an incomplete definition of formative assessment, I was sure that I was not alone in my lack of understanding of formative assessment. Therefore, I felt it was important to research the best practices in professional development and adult learning to get a better idea of how to best pass this information on to my peers. To my surprise, the best practices of professional development and adult learning connected with the best practices of formative assessment. Adults need to receive descriptive feedback, interact with others discussing new topics and relating them to their current teaching situation, and receive ample time to reflect and self-assess. Essentially, adults have the same needs as students. Adults need to see what they are supposed to achieve, identify where they are in relation to the learning topics, and determine how to close that gap.


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The Reflective Practitioner (Developed by Cassandra Erkens, with input by Janet Malone)

Reflection: Reflection is an active, conscious process of carefully reviewing an experience or a new learning so as to define, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate our practice and beliefs and hence create new insight. It serves as the means by which we verify that we possess the professional competencies (knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs) necessary for teaching effectively. What are the hallmarks of a reflective practitioner? One a scale of 1–4, how do you rate yourself as a reflective practitioner

Low High 1 2 3 4

What evidence would you offer to support your score? Now think of three different colleagues; try to select individuals who might have reason to see you very differently. What score would they give you? What evidence would they provide to support their score? Colleague 1

Colleague 2 Colleague 3

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Evidence to support score:

Evidence to support score: Evidence to support score:

Implications for me as a reflective practitioner:


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References

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998, October). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappa, 80(2), 139–147.

Butler, R. (1988.) Enhancing and undermining intrinsic motivations: The effects of task- involving and ego-involving evaluation on interest and performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 58, 1–14. Chappius, J., (2009). Seven strategies of assessment for learning. Portland, OR: ETS Assessment Training Institute. Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (March 2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research. 7(1). pp. 81–112.

Leahy, S., Lyon, C., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005). Classroom assessment:

Minute-by-minute and day-by-day. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 18–24. Overlie, J. (2007, May). How can a formative assessment professional development

program be developed to model best assessment practices?” Unpublished master’s thesis [M.A.Ed. Capstone], Hamline University, St. Paul, Minnesota.

Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems.

Instructional Science, 18, 145–165. Stiggins, R. (2005). Assessment for learning: Building a culture of confident learners. In

R. DuFour, R. Eaker, & R. DuFour (Eds.), On common ground: The power of professional learning communities. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree, 65–83.

Wiliam, D., Lee, C., Harrison, C., & Black, P. (2004, March). Teachers developing

assessment for learning: Impact on student achievement. Assessment in Education, 11(1), 49–65.


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Bibliography Black P. and Wiliam, D. (October 1998). “Inside the black box: Raising standards through

classroom assessment.” Phi Delta Kappan. 86(2). 139 – 148. Chappuis, J. (2005, November). Helping students understand assessment. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 39–43. Chappius, J., (2009). Seven strategies of assessment for learning. Portland, OR: Pearson

Assessment Training Institute. Chappuis, J., Stiggins, R., Chappuis, S., and Arter, J. (2012). Classroom assessment for student

learning: Doing it right—using it well, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Erkens, C. (2009). Developing our assessment literacy. In T. Guskey (Ed.), The teacher as

assessment leader. (pp. 11–30). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press. Erkens, C. (2009b). Paving the way for an assessment rich culture. In C. Erkens, W. Ferriter, T.

Heflebower, T. Hierck, C. Hinman, S. Huff, et al., The principal as assessment leader (pp. 9 – 30). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.

Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to

achievement. NY: Routledge. (copyright John Hattie). Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research,

77(1), 81–112. McTighe, J., & O’Connor, K. (2005, November). Seven practices for effective learning. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 10–17. Stiggins, R. (2005, December). From formative assessment to assessment for learning: A path to

success in standards based schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(4), 324–328. Stiggins, R., Arter, J., Chappuis, J., & Chappuis, S. (2004). Classroom assessment for student

learning: Doing it right—Using it well. Portland, OR: Assessment Training Institute. Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for

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