Leadership - Angelfire€¢ University of Michigan Studies identified two leadership styles that...

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M. En C. Eduardo Bustos Farías 1

LeadershipLeadership



OutlineOutline

Trait and Behavioral Theories of LeadershipTrait and Behavioral Theories of Leadership•Trait Theory

•Behavioral Styles Theory

Situational TheoriesSituational Theories•Fiedler’s Contingency Model

•Path-Goal Theory

•Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory



Outline (continued)Outline (continued)

From Transactional to Charismatic LeadershipFrom Transactional to Charismatic Leadership•How Does Charismatic Leadership Transform Followers?•Research and Managerial Implications

Additional Perspectives on LeadershipAdditional Perspectives on Leadership•The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model of Leadership

•Substitutes for Leadership

•Servant-Leadership

•Superleadership



Leadership

Leadership Leadership influencing employees to voluntarily pursue organizational goals

Management use of authority inherent in designated formal rank to obtain compliance from organizational members.



Trait TheoryTrait Theory

•• Historic findings reveal that leaders and followers Historic findings reveal that leaders and followers vary byvary by- intelligence- dominance- self-confidence- level of energy and activity- task-relevant knowledge

•• Contemporary findings show thatContemporary findings show that- people tend to perceive that someone is a leader when he orshe exhibits traits associated with intelligence, masculinity, anddominance

- people want their leaders to be credible- credible leaders are honest, forward-looking, inspiring, andcompetent

Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits: represent the personal characteristics that differentiate leaders from followers.



Trait Theory (continued)Trait Theory (continued)

•• Gender and leadershipGender and leadership- men and women were seen as displaying more task andsocial leadership, respectively

- women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style than women

- men and women were equally assertive

- women executives, when rated by their peers, managers and direct reports, scored higher than their male counterparts on a variety of effectiveness criteria



Trait TheoriesLeadership Traits:• Ambition and energy• The desire to lead• Honest and integrity• Self-confidence• Intelligence• High self-monitoring• Job-relevant

knowledge

Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits::•• Ambition and energyAmbition and energy•• The desire to leadThe desire to lead•• Honest and integrityHonest and integrity•• SelfSelf--confidenceconfidence•• IntelligenceIntelligence•• High selfHigh self--monitoringmonitoring•• JobJob--relevant relevant

knowledgeknowledge

Traits Theories of Leadership

Theories that consider personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from nonleaders.



Trait Theories

Limitations:

• No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.

• Traits predict behavior better in “weak”than “strong” situations.

• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.

• Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.

LimitationsLimitations::

•• No universal traits found that predict No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.leadership in all situations.

•• Traits predict behavior better in Traits predict behavior better in ““weakweak””than than ““strongstrong”” situations.situations.

•• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.of relationship of leadership and traits.

•• Better predictor of the appearance of Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.and ineffective leaders.



Behavioral TheoriesBehavioral Theories of Leadership

Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders.

• Trait theory:Leaders are born, not made.

• Behavioral theory:Leadership traits can be taught.

•• Trait theory:Trait theory:Leaders are born, not made.Leaders are born, not made.

•• Behavioral theory:Behavioral theory:Leadership traits can be taught.Leadership traits can be taught.



Behavioral Styles TheoryBehavioral Styles Theory

•• Ohio State StudiesOhio State Studies identified two critical dimensions of leader behavior.1. 1. ConsiderationConsideration:: creating mutual respect and trust with followers2. 2. Initiating StructureInitiating Structure:: organizing and defining what group

members should be doing•• University of Michigan StudiesUniversity of Michigan Studies identified two leadership

styles that were similar to the Ohio State studies- one style was employee centered and the other was job centered

•• Blake and MoutonBlake and Mouton’’s Managerial Grids Managerial Grid represents four leadership styles found by crossing concern for production and concern for people

• Research shows that there is not one best style of leadership. The effectiveness of a particular leadership style depends on the situation at hand.



Ohio State StudiesInitiating Structure

The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of sub-ordinates in the search for goal attainment.

Consideration

The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s ideas, and regard for their feelings.



Four Leadership Styles Derived from the Ohio State Studies

Low Structure, High Consideration

Less emphasis is placed on structuring employees tasks

while the leader concentrates on satisfying employee needs

and wants

High Structure, High Consideration

The leader provides a lot of guidance about how tasks

can be completed while being highly considerate of

employee needs and wants

Low Structure, Low Consideration

The leader fails to provide necessary structure and

demonstrates little consideration for employee

needs and wants

High Structure, Low Consideration

Primarily emphasis is placed on structuring employee

tasks while the leader demonstrates little

consideration for employee needs and wants

High

Low High

Con

side

rati

on

Low

Initiating Structure



Skills and Best Practices: Tips for Improving Skills and Best Practices: Tips for Improving Leader EffectivenessLeader Effectiveness

BehaviorBehavior Recommended BehaviorsRecommended Behaviors

ListenListen Intensely listen to what others have to say. Determine the true cause of performance problems.

ExamineExamine Think through problems from all perspectives. Do not play favorites and find solutions that benefit everyone involved.

AssistAssist Help others to learn from mistakes and errors.

DevelopDevelopExplain the rationale for decisions and implement fair policies and procedures.

EncourageEncourage Provide employees with the resources needed to do a job. Gently push people to advance into more demanding roles.

RecognizeRecognize Praise people for their good work. Focus on the positive whenever possible.

Source: “CEO’s Need to Listen, Examine, Assist,” The Arizona Republic, April 22, 2001, p D2.



University of Michigan Studies

Employee-Oriented Leader

Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among members.

Production-Oriented Leader

One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.



Scandinavian StudiesDevelopment-Oriented Leader

One who values experimentation, seeking new ideas, and generating and implementing change.

Researchers in Finland and Sweden question whether there are only two dimensions (production-orientation and employee-orientation) that capture the essence of leadership behavior. Their premise is that in a changing world, effective leaders would exhibit development-oriented behavior.



Contingency TheoriesFiedler’s Contingency Model

The theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader.

Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire

An instrument that purports to measure whether a person is task- or relationship-oriented.



Fiedler’s Model: Defining the Situation

Leader-Member Relations

The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader.

Task Structure

The degree to which the job assignments are procedurized.

Position Power

Influence derived from one’s formal structural position in the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.



Representation of FiedlerRepresentation of Fiedler’’s Contingency s Contingency ModelModel

SituationalControl

High ControlSituations

Moderate Control Situations

Low ControlSituations

Leader-memberrelations

Task Structure

Position Power

Good Good Good

High High High

Strong Weak Strong

Good Poor Poor

Low High High

Weak Strong Strong

Poor Poor

Low Low

Strong Weak

Situation I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Optimal Optimal LeadershipLeadership

StyleStyle

Task Motivated Task Motivated LeadershipLeadership

Relationship Relationship Motivated LeadershipMotivated Leadership

Task Motivated Task Motivated LeadershipLeadership



Cognitive Resource TheoryCognitive Resource Theory

A theory of leadership that states that stress can unfavorably affect a situation and that intelligence and experience can lessen the influence of stress on the leader.

Research Support:• Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership

roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals.

• Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people.

Research Support:• Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership

roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals.

• Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people.



Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory

The theory that it is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide them the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization.



House’s Path-Goal TheoryEmployee CharacteristicsEmployee Characteristics

- Locus of control- Task ability- Need for achievement- Experience- Need for clarity

Environmental FactorsEnvironmental Factors- Employee’s task- Authority system- Work group

Leadership StylesLeadership Styles- Directive- Supportive- Participative- Achievement oriented

Employee AttitudesEmployee Attitudesand Behaviorand Behavior

- Job satisfaction - Acceptance of leader- Motivation



Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)

A contingency theory that focuses on followers’readiness.

Able andAble andUnwilling

Able andAble andWilling

Unable butUnable butWilling

Unable andUnable andUnwilling Unwilling WillingWillingUnwilling

Leader: decreasing need for support and supervisionLeader: decreasing need for support and supervision

Follower readiness: ability and willingness

Follower readiness: ability and willingness

Supportive Supportive Participative

DirectiveDirective High Task and Relationship High Task and Relationship Orientations

MonitoringMonitoringParticipative Orientations



Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness(Hersey and Blanchard)

Follower Readiness

WillingUnwilling

DirectiveDirectiveHigh TaskHigh Task

and and Relationship Relationship OrientationsOrientations

Supportive Supportive Participative Participative MonitoringMonitoringAble

LeadershipLeadershipStylesStyles

Unable



HerseyHersey and Blanchardand Blanchard’’s s Situational Leadership TheorySituational Leadership Theory

Leader BehaviorLeader Behavior

SellingS2

Explain decisions andprovide opportunity for

clarification

ParticipatingS3

Share ideas andfacilitate in

decision making

LowLow

LowLow

HighHigh

HighHighR

elat

ions

hip

Beh

avio

rR

elat

ions

hip

Beh

avio

r(s

uppo

rtiv

e be

havi

or)

(sup

port

ive

beha

vior

)

DelegatingS4

Turn overresponsibility for

decisions andimplementation

TellingS1

Provide specificinstructions and closelysupervise performance

Task BehaviorTask Behavior

Follower ReadinessFollower ReadinessHighHigh ModerateModerate LowLowR4R4 R3R3 R2R2 R1R1

FollowerFollower--Directed LeaderDirected Leader--DirectedDirected



Transactional versus Charismatic Transactional versus Charismatic LeadershipLeadership

Transactional LeadershipTransactional Leadership: focuses on the interpersonal interactions between managers and employees

•• Transactional LeadersTransactional Leaders- use contingent rewards to motivate employees- exert corrective action only when employeesfail to obtain performance goals



Transactional versus Charismatic Transactional versus Charismatic Leadership (continued)Leadership (continued)

Charismatic LeadershipCharismatic Leadership:: emphasizes symbolic leader behavior that transforms employees to pursue organizational goals over self-interests

•• Charismatic LeadersCharismatic Leaders- use visionary and inspirational messages- rely on non-verbal communication- appeal to ideological values- attempt to intellectually stimulate employees- display confidence in self and followers- set high performance expectations

•• For class discussionFor class discussion:: Should a leader be both transactional and charismatic? Is charismatic leadership only critical for senior executives and not for entry level supervisors or managers?



Charismatic Model of LeadershipCharismatic Model of LeadershipIndividual andOrganizationalCharacteristics

Leaderbehavior

Effects onfollowers andwork groups

Outcomes

•• TraitsTraits •Leader establishes a vision

•Increased intrinsic motivation, achievement orientation, and goal pursuit

•Personal commitment to leader and vision

•• Organizational Organizational CultureCulture



Charismatic Model of Leadership (cont)Charismatic Model of Leadership (cont)Individual andOrganizationalCharacteristics

Leaderbehavior

Effects onfollowers andwork groups

Outcomes

•• Organizational Organizational CultureCulture

•Leader establishes high performance expectations and displays confidence in him/herself and the collective ability to realize the vision

•Leader models the desired values, traits, beliefs, and behaviors needed to realize the vision

•Increased identification with the leader and the collective interests of organizational members

•Increased cohesion among workgroup members

•Increased self-esteem, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interests in goal accomplishment

•Increased role modeling of charismatic leadership

•Self-sacrificial behavior

•Organizational commitment

•Task meaningfulness and satisfaction

•Increased individual group, and organizational performance

•• TraitsTraits



Leader–Member Exchange Theory

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

Leaders create in-groups and out-groups, and subordinates with in-group status will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction.



The LeaderThe Leader--Member Exchange Member Exchange (LMX Model)(LMX Model)

•• This model is based on the idea that one of two This model is based on the idea that one of two distinct types of leaderdistinct types of leader--member exchange member exchange relationships evolve, and these exchanges are related relationships evolve, and these exchanges are related to important work outcomes.to important work outcomes.- inin--group exchange:group exchange: a partnership characterized bymutual trust, respect and liking

- outout--group exchange:group exchange: a partnership characterized bya lack of mutual trust, respect and liking

•• Research supports this modelResearch supports this model



Assessing your LeaderAssessing your Leader--Member Member Exchange (LMX)Exchange (LMX)

• What is the overall quality of your LMX?

• What are the career and performance implications ofyour LMX?

• How might you improve your LMX?

• Who owns the quality of a LMX (the employer ormanager)? Explain.



Substitutes for LeadershipSubstitutes for Leadership

•• Substitutes for leadershipSubstitutes for leadership represent situational variables that can substitute for, neutralize, or enhance the effects of leadership.

• Research shows that substitutes for leadership directly influence employee attitudes and performance.



Substitutes for LeadershipSubstitutes for Leadership

Characteristic

Relationship-Oriented or Considerate Leader Behavior is Unnecessary

Task-Oriented or Initiating Structure Leader Behavior is Unnecessary

Of the SubordinateOf the Subordinate1. Ability, experience, training, knowledge X

2. Need for Independence X X

3. “Professional” orientation X X

4. Indifference toward organizational rewards X X

Of the TaskOf the Task

5. Unambiguous and Routine X

6. Methodically invariant X

7. Provides its own feedback concerning accomplishment X

8. Intrinsically satisfying. X



Substitutes for Leadership (cont)Substitutes for Leadership (cont)

Characteristic

Relationship-Oriented or Considerate Leader Behavior is Unnecessary

Task-Oriented or Initiating Structure Leader Behavior is Unnecessary

Of the OrganizationOf the Organization9. Formalization (explicit plans, goals, and areas

of responsibility)X

10. Inflexibility (rigid, unbending rules andprocedures)

X X

11. Highly specified and active advisory and stafffunctions

X X

12. Closely knit, cohesive work groups X X

13. Organizational rewards not with the leader’s control

14. Spatial distance between superior and subordinate

X

Source: Adapted from S Kerr and J M Jermier, “Substitutes for Leadership:Their Meaning and Measurement,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, December 1978, pp 375-403



Leader-Participation ModelLeader-Participation Model (Vroom and Yetton)

A leadership theory that provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations.



Servant and Servant and SuperleadershipSuperleadership

• Servant Leadership represents a philosophy in which leaders focus on increased service to others rather than to oneself.

• A superleader is someone who leads others to lead themselves by developing employees’ self-management skills.

• Superleaders attempt to increase employees’ feelings of personal control and intrinsic motivation.



Characteristics of the Characteristics of the ServantServant--LeaderLeader

1. Listening1. Listening Servant-leaders focus on listening toidentify and clarify the needs and desires ofa group.

2. Empathy2. Empathy Servant-leaders try to empathize withothers’ feelings and emotion. An individual’sgood intentions are assumed even when heor she performs poorly.

3. Healing3. Healing Servant-leaders strive to make themselvesand others whole in the face of failure orsuffering.

4. Awareness4. Awareness Servant-leaders are very self-aware or theirstrengths and limitations.



Characteristics of the Characteristics of the ServantServant--Leader (continued)Leader (continued)

5. Persuasion5. Persuasion Servant-leaders rely more on persuasionthan positional authority when makingdecisions and trying to influence others.

6. Conceptualization6. Conceptualization Servant-leaders take the time and effortto develop broader based conceptualthinking. Servant-leaders seek anappropriate balance between a short-term, day-to-day focus and a long-term,conceptual orientation.

7. Foresight7. Foresight Servant-leaders have the ability to foreseefuture outcomes associated with a currentcourse of action or situation.



Characteristics of the Characteristics of the ServantServant--Leader (continued)Leader (continued)

8. Stewardship8. Stewardship Servant-leaders assume that they arestewards of the people and resources theymanage.

9. Commitment toCommitment to Servant-leaders are committed to peoplethe growth ofthe growth of beyond their immediate work role. Theypeoplepeople commit to fostering an environment that

encourages personal, professional, andspiritual growth.

10. Building10. Building Servant-leaders strive to create a sense ofCommunityCommunity community both within and outside the

work organization.

Contemporary Issues in

Leadership



Trust: The Foundation of LeadershipTrust

A positive expectation that another will not—through words, actions, or decisions—act opportunistically.

Trust is a history-dependent process (familiarity) based on relevant but limited samples of experience (risk).



Dimensions of TrustIntegrity– honesty and truthfulness.

Competence– an individual’s technical

and interpersonal knowledge and skills.

Consistency– an individual’s reliability,

predictability, and good judgment in handling situations.

Loyalty– the willingness to

protect and save face for another person.

Openness– reliance on the

person to give you the full truth.



Trust and Leadership

LeadershipLeadershipLeadership

TRUSTand

INTEGRITY

TRUSTTRUSTandand

INTEGRITYINTEGRITY



Three Types of TrustDeterrence-based Trust

Trust based on fear of reprisal if the trust is violated.

Knowledge-based Trust

Trust based on behavioral predictability that comes from a history of interaction.

Identification-based Trust

Trust based on a mutual understanding of each other’s intentions and appreciation of the other’s wants and desires.



Basic Principles of Trust

Mistrust drives out trust.

Trust begets trust.

Growth often masks mistrust.

Decline or downsizing tests the highest levels of trust.

Trust increases cohesion.

Mistrusting groups self-destruct.

Mistrust generally reduces productivity.



Framing: Using Words to Shape Meaning and Inspire Others

Framing

A way to use language to manage meaning.

Leaders use framing (selectively including or excluding facts) to influence how others see and interpret reality.

Leaders use framing (selectively including or excluding facts) to influence how others see and interpret reality.



Inspirational Approaches to Leadership

Charismatic Leadership Theory

Followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors.

Charismatics Influence Followers By:1. Articulating the vision2. Setting high performance expectations3. Conveying a new set of values4. Making personal sacrifices

Charismatics Influence Followers By:1. Articulating the vision2. Setting high performance expectations3. Conveying a new set of values4. Making personal sacrifices



Beyond Charismatic Leadership

Level 5 Leaders– Possess a fifth dimension—a paradoxical blend

of personal humility and professional will—in addition to the four basic leadership qualities of individual capability, team skills, managerial competence, and the ability to stimulate others to high performance.

– Channel their ego needs away from themselves and into the goal of building a great company.



Transactional and Transformational Leadership

Transactional Leaders

Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.

• Contingent Reward

• Management by Exception (active)

• Management by Exception (passive)

• Laissez-Faire

Transformational Leaders

Leaders who provide individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation, and who possess charisma.

• Charisma

• Inspiration

• Intellectual Stimulation

• Individual Consideration



Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Effectiveness

Elements of Emotional Intelligence:

• Self-awareness

• Self-management

• Self-motivation

• Empathy

• Social skills

Elements of Emotional Intelligence:

• Self-awareness

• Self-management

• Self-motivation

• Empathy

• Social skills



Contemporary Leadership Roles: Providing Team Leadership

Team Leadership Roles:

• Act as liaisons with external constituencies.

• Serve as troubleshooters.

• Managing conflict.

• Coaching to improve team member performance

Team Leadership Roles:

• Act as liaisons with external constituencies.

• Serve as troubleshooters.

• Managing conflict.

• Coaching to improve team member performance



Contemporary Leadership Roles: Mentoring

Mentoring Activities:

• Present ideas clearly• Listen well• Empathize• Share experiences• Act as role model• Share contacts• Provide political

guidance

Mentoring Activities:

• Present ideas clearly• Listen well• Empathize• Share experiences• Act as role model• Share contacts• Provide political

guidance

Mentor

A senior employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee (a protégé).



Contemporary Leadership Roles: Self-Leadership

Self-Leadership

A set of processes through which individuals control their own behavior.

Creating self leaders:• Model self-leadership.• Encourage employees to

create self-set goals.• Encourage the use of self-

rewards.• Create positive thought

patterns.• Create a climate of self-

leadership.• Encourage self-criticism.

Creating self leaders:• Model self-leadership.• Encourage employees to

create self-set goals.• Encourage the use of self-

rewards.• Create positive thought

patterns.• Create a climate of self-

leadership.• Encourage self-criticism.



Actions:• Work to positively change the attitudes and

behaviors of employees.• Engage in socially constructive behaviors.• Do not abuse power or use improper means to

attain goals.

Actions:• Work to positively change the attitudes and

behaviors of employees.• Engage in socially constructive behaviors.• Do not abuse power or use improper means to

attain goals.

Ethical Leadership



Online LeadershipLeadership at a Distance: Building Trust– The lack of face-to-face contact in electronic communications

removes the nonverbal cues that support verbal interactions.

– There is no supporting context to assist the receiver with interpretation of an electronic communication.

– The structure and tone of electronic messages can strongly affect the response of receivers.

– An individual’s verbal and written communications may not follow the same style.

– Writing skills will likely become an extension of interpersonal skills



Challenges to the Leadership Construct

Attribution Theory of Leadership

The idea that leadership is merely an attribution that people make about other individuals.

Qualities attributed to leaders:• Leaders are intelligent, outgoing, have strong verbal

skills, are aggressive, understanding, and industrious.• Effective leaders are perceived as consistent and

unwavering in their decisions.• Effective leaders project the appearance of being a

leader.

Qualities attributed to leaders:• Leaders are intelligent, outgoing, have strong verbal

skills, are aggressive, understanding, and industrious.• Effective leaders are perceived as consistent and

unwavering in their decisions.• Effective leaders project the appearance of being a

leader.



Finding and Creating Effective Leaders

Selection– Review specific requirements for the job.– Use tests that identify personal traits associated with leadership,

measure self-monitoring, and assess emotional intelligence.– Conduct personal interviews to determine candidate’s fit with the

job.Training– Recognize the all people are not equally trainable.– Teach skills that are necessary for employees to become

effective leaders.– Provide behavioral training to increase the development

potential of nascent charismatic employees.

Leadership - Angelfire€¢ University of Michigan Studies identified two leadership styles that...

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