Leadership

Professor Ming Sun

School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure & Society

Heriot-Watt University

CONTEXT OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership Definition • According to Crainer there are over 400 definitions of

leadership. Here are some examples:

– Leadership is a matter of making a difference.

– It entails changing an organisation & making choices among plausible alternatives.

– It depends on the development of others & mobilising them to get the job done.

– Leadership is a combination of persuasion & compulsion that results in making people do things they might not otherwise have done

– Leadership is a relationship through which one person influences the behaviour or actions of other people.

Leadership vs Management

• Management – getting things done through other

people in order to achieve stated organisational

objectives

• Leadership – emphasis on interpersonal behaviour in

a broader context

• Leadership is often associated with the willing &

enthusiastic behaviour of followers & does not

necessarily take place within the hierarchical structure

of the organisation

Leading vs Managing

• Managers do things right; leaders do the right

things

• Managing is an authority relationship; leading is

an influence relationship

• Managing creates stability; leading creates

change.

Manager vs Leader

LEADERSHIP THEORIES

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Early Trait Theories • This approach assumes that leaders are born and not

made. Leadership consists of certain inherited

characteristics, or personality traits, which distinguish

leaders from their followers: the so-called Great Person

theory of leadership.

10 Traits of Effective Leaders

Criticism of Trait Theories • Research failed to identify common traits amongst

recognised leaders

• Some common traits, such as individuality and

originality, highlight diversity rather than commonality

• Assessment of “good” or “bad” leaders can be

subjective

• The lists of possible traits tend to be very long and

there is not always agreement on the most important

Functional Approach

• The attention is not on the personality of the

leaders, but on the functions of leadership.

• This approach believes that the skills of

leadership can be learned, developed and

perfected.

• One example of this approach is Action-

centred Leadership

Action-centred Leadership

• Focuses on what leaders

actually do.

• Leader’s function can be

summarised as meeting

the needs of three

overlapping aspects:

– Task needs

– Team maintenance needs

– Individual needs

Action-centred leadership

Task functions

• Achieving the objectives of the work group

• Defining group tasks

• Planning the work

• Allocation of resources

• Organisation of duties & responsibilities

Action-centred Leadership

Team Maintenance Functions

• Maintaining morale & building team spirit

• The cohesiveness of the group as a working unit

• Setting standards & maintaining discipline

• Systems of communication within the group

• Training the group

• Appointment of sub-leaders

Action-centred Leadership

Individual Functions

• Meeting the needs of the individual members of the group

• Attending to personal problems

• Giving praise & status

• Reconciling conflicts between group needs & needs of the individual

• Training individuals

Leadership as a

Behaviour Category • Focuses on the behaviour of leaders.

• Two major dimensions of leadership behaviour –

– Consideration (People Oriented behaviour)– reflects the

extent to which the leader establishes trust, mutual respect &

rapport with the group & shows concern, warmth, support, &

consideration for subordinates

– Initiating Structure (Task Oriented behaviour) – reflects the

extent to which the leader defines & structures group

interactions towards the attainment of formal goals

Blake & Mouton

Managerial / leadership grid

The grid provides a basis for a comparison of managerial styles in terms of –

• A concern for production

–Focus – getting things done

–Uses direct, close supervision

–Many written or unwritten rules

• A concern for people

–Focus – relationships

–Less direct, close supervision

–Fewer written or unwritten rules

–Displays concern for people and their needs

Managerial / Leadership Grid

Managerial / leadership grid

combinations

• 9,1 – autocratic, relying on centralised systems &

authority

• 1,9 – hold a belief that contented staff will undertake

what is required of them & achieve a reasonable level

of output

• 5,5 – middle-of-the-road, live & let live approach with a

tendency to avoid the real issues

• 9,9 – integrate task needs & concern for people

Broad Classification of Leadership

Style

• There are many dimensions to leadership and many possible ways of describing leadership style, such as dictatorial, unitary, bureaucratic, benevolent, charismatic, consultative, participative and abdicatorial. The style of managerial leadership towards subordinate staff and the focus of power can however be classified within a broad three-fold heading.

– Authoritarian (autocratic) style

– Democratic style

– Laissez-faire (genuine) style

Authoritarian (or Autocratic) Style

• The authoritarian (or autocratic) style is where the focus

of power is with the manager

• All interactions within the group move towards the

manager.

• The manager alone exercises decision-making and

authority for determining policy, procedures for

achieving goals, work tasks and relationships, control of

rewards or punishments.

Democratic Style • The democratic style is where the focus of power is

more with the group as a whole

• there is greater interaction within the group.

• The leadership functions are shared with members of

the group and the manager is more part of a team.

• The group members have a greater say in decision-

making, determination of policy, implementation of

systems and procedures.

Laissez-faire Style • The manager observes that members of the group are

working well on their own. The manager consciously

makes a decision to pass the focus of power to

members, to allow them freedom of action ‘to do as

they think best’, and not to interfere; but is readily

available if help is needed.

• This is different from the manager who could not care,

who deliberately keeps away from the trouble spots and

does not want to get involved.

Tannenbaum and Schmidt

Continuum of Leadership Styles

CONTINGENCY THEORIES

(SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP)

Contingency Models of Leadership

• Claims that there is no best way to leadership. The best leader is contingent (dependent) upon the internal and external situation. A contingent leader effectively applies their own style of leadership to the right situation.

• Major contingency models of leadership include – – Favourability of leadership situation (Fiedler)

– Quality & acceptance of leader’s decision (Vroom & Yetton)

– Path–goal theory (House)

– Maturity of followers (Hersey & Blanchard)

Favourability of Leadership

Situation (Fiedler) • ‘Least Preferred Co-worker’ (LPC) scale to describe leadership style

– A leader with high LPC score tends to focus on people and

relationship

– A leader with low LPC score tends to focus on task and performance

• Factors about the situation

– Leader-member relationship (good or poor)

– The task structure (structured or unstructured)

– Position power of the leader (strong or weak)

• Leadership style should match the situation in order to produce good

performance

Situations and Effective Leadership Styles

situation leadership style

Quality & Acceptance of Leader’s

Decision (Vroom & Yetton)

• Five possible leader styles are defined

• Seven decision rules are used to decide the

most appropriate leadership style for a

situation. Three of these rules are related to

Quality of Decision; the other four are related

Acceptance of Decision.

Five Leadership Styles • Autocratic

– A.I – leader makes decision with no input from others

– A.II – leader makes decision with information from subordinates

• Consultative – C.I – leader makes decision after consultant with subordinates

individually

– C.II - leader makes decision after consultant with subordinates as a group

• Group – G.II – leader and the subordinates group make decision

collectively

Vroom and Yetton’s Leadership

Decision Tree

situation leadership style

rules

Path–goal Theory (House)

• Path-goal theory centres on how leaders motivate

subordinates to accomplish designated goals

• Emphasizes the relationship between

– the leaders style

– the characteristics of the subordinates

– the nature of task (and work setting)

• Use a Leadership Style that best meets subordinates

motivational needs

Path–goal Theory (House)

• Four leadership styles – Directive leadership: letting subordinates know exactly what is

expected and giving specific directions.

– Supportive leadership: adopting a friendly and approachable manner and displaying concerns for the needs of subordinates.

– Participative leadership: consulting subordinates before making decisions.

– Achievement-oriented leadership: setting challenging goals and showing confidence in subordinates.

• Two situation factors – Characteristics of subordinates

– Nature of task

Leadership Styles for

Different Situations

situation leadership style

Maturity of Followers (Hersey &

Blanchard)

• Suitable leadership is decided by:

– Readiness of subordinates: followers’ ability

and willingness to perform

– Task behaviour: extend of leader’s direction

and instruction with regard to task

– Relationship behaviour: extend of leader’s

two-way communication with followers

Maturity (Readiness) of Followers

(Subordinates) • R1 – low follower readiness – refers to followers who are both

unable and unwilling, and who lack commitment and motivation; or who are unable and insecure.

• R2 – low to moderate follower readiness – refers to followers who are unable but willing, and who lack ability but are motivated to make an effort; or who are unable but confident.

• R3 – moderate to high follower readiness – refers to followers who are able but unwilling, and who have the ability to perform but are unwilling to apply their ability; or who are able but insecure.

• R4 – high follower readiness – refers to followers who are both able and willing, and who have the ability and commitment to perform; or who are able and confident.

Leadership Style Options

Leadership style Suitable context

S1 – Telling: high amounts of guidance (task) but limited supportive behaviour (relationship).

R1 followers

S2 – Selling: high amounts of both directive (task) and relationship behaviour.

R2 followers

S3 – Participating: high amount of support behaviour (relationship) but low on task guidance.

R3 followers

S4 – Delegating: low on both task and relationship behaviour.

R4 followers

situation leadership style

TRANSACTIONAL VS

TRANSFORMATIONAL

Transactional Leadership • Based on legitimate authority within the

bureaucratic structure of an organisation

• Emphasis on the clarification of goals & objectives, work tasks & outcomes, organisational rewards & punishments

• Appeals to the self interest of followers

• Based on a relationship of mutual dependence & an exchange process of ‘I will give you this, if you do that’

Transformational Leadership • A process of engendering higher levels of

motivation & commitment among followers

• Emphasis is on generating a vision for the organisation, the leader’s ability to appeal to higher ideals & values of followers, & creating a feeling of justice, loyalty & trust

• Is about transforming the performance or fortunes of a business

Transactional vs Transformational Leadership

Transactional Transformational

Leader’s source of power Rank, position Character, competence

Follower reaction Compliance Commitment

Time frame Short term Long term

Rewards Pay, promotion, etc. Pride, self-esteem, etc.

Supervision Important Less important

Counseling focus Evaluation Development

Where change occurs Follower behavior Follower attitude, values

Where “Leadership” found Leader’s behavior Follower’s heart

Expected Learning Outcomes • Students should understand the nature of leadership;

• Students should understand the comparison between leadership and management;

• Students should know the different approaches to leadership:

– Traits approach;

– Functional approach;

– Behavioural approach;

• Students should know the characteristics of the different styles of leadership:

– Authoritarian;

– Democratic;

– Laissez-faire;

• Students should know the main principles of contingency leadership theories and

understand their implications in management practice;

• Students should be able to compare transactional and transformational leaderships.