1

The Characteristics of Formal and Informal Leadership in a Member-based Voluntary Organisation: Patterns of Leadership Revealed through Organisational Change in the Italian Red Cross

By Tiziana Quarta-Bonzon

June, 2014

2

Abstract

Literature reveals that leadership can take different forms, mainly because

those who are willing to take a personal responsibility to serve a given purpose

(leaders) are not only those that occupy a formal position in the organisational

hierarchy. Voluntary organisations like the Italian Red Cross (IRC), face the

complexity of fast evolving environments where leaders are confronted with

daily challenges, requiring specific skills and competences in complex

accountability situations. In addition, IRC leaders have faced more deeply

rooted situations of crisis, calling for profound structural change that is widely

termed privatization by stakeholders.

The aim of this research is to identify what leadership roles and practices were

key for the change process recently undergone by the IRC. The central

proposition to be tested is that the appropriate leadership forms are changing as

the IRC's governance and accountability systems restructure.

A mixed method approach was adopted to studying this problem, using

information gathered from academic sources and from the perspective of senior

titular leaders of the IRC, as well as key volunteers.

Findings suggest that effectiveness is derived from an organisational approach

where leadership is practiced at different layers of the organisation. While the

research would indicate that formal positions matter, because carrying a sense

of legitimacy, practice confirmed that it is the collective dynamic that takes the

organisation on a given path.

3

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank the President of the Italian Red Cross (IRC),

Francesco Rocca, for allowing this research project to take place in the context

of his National Society. Special thanks go to all the volunteers and staff of the

IRC who have provided meaningful time and reflections on the reform process.

Peer-reviewers of this report included Jean-Etienne Brodier and Ian Steed,

Organizational Development experts from the IFRC1, whose comments were

invaluable.

Finally, the author wishes to thank Prof. Paul Davis, from Robert Kennedy

College, for his guidance, constructive criticisms and always prompt advice.

Declaration of Authenticity

I declare that the material contained in this project is the end result of my own

work and that due acknowledgement has been given in the bibliography and

references to all sources, be they printed, electronic or personal.

1 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)

4

Table of Contents

1 Chapter 1 – Introduction ....................................................................................... 6

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 6

1.2 Purpose of Research ..................................................................................... 7

1.3 Organisational Background ........................................................................... 8

1.4 Research question, objectives and hypotheses ........................................... 10

1.5 Methodology ................................................................................................ 11

1.6 Outcome ...................................................................................................... 11

1.7 Structure of the Dissertation ........................................................................ 11

2 Chapter 2 - Literature Review ............................................................................ 13

2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 13

2.2 Concepts, models and context applicability ................................................. 14

2.2.1 Charisma versus Resilience .................................................................. 15

2.2.2 Contextual leadership: more than just situational adaptability ............... 17

2.2.3 Democratic or Monocratic leadership? .................................................. 20

2.2.4 Following the wrong leader: the importance of purpose ........................ 22

2.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................. 24

3 Chapter 3 – Methodology ................................................................................... 25

3.1 Method......................................................................................................... 25

3.2 Secondary data collection and analysis ....................................................... 25

3.3 Primary data collection ................................................................................ 26

3.4 Primary data analysis .................................................................................. 28

3.5 Selection of respondents ............................................................................. 30

3.6 Limitations of the Research and Researcher’s bias ..................................... 32

4 Chapter 4 – Research results ............................................................................. 33

4.1 Introduction and research background ........................................................ 33

4.2 Findings ....................................................................................................... 33

4.2.1 Objective 1: leadership practices at the IRC ......................................... 33

4.2.2 Objective 2: specificities of leadership in the IRC context ..................... 39

4.2.3 Objective 3: patterns of leadership during the reform period ................. 45

4.3 Discussion ................................................................................................... 54

5

5 Chapter 5 – Conclusions .................................................................................... 57

5.1 Conclusions on Research Results ............................................................... 57

5.2 Recommendations ....................................................................................... 62

5.3 Limitations and future directions .................................................................. 63

6 Chapter 6 ........................................................................................................... 65

6.1 References .................................................................................................. 65

6.2 Bibliography ................................................................................................. 68

Appendix A: Summary of presented leadership models and theories....................... 70

Appendix B: Questionnaire ....................................................................................... 75

6

1 Chapter 1 – Introduction

1.1 Introduction It is commonly expected that the primary responsibility to effectively manage an

organisation lies with the senior leadership of a given institution. Effective

leadership is therefore seen as the main resource for organisational change and

management but is often understood as being limited to “formal leadership”.

The ability to articulate a vision and influence people to work towards achieving

a set goal is therefore the expected key characteristic of a “formal” leader in any

type of organisational situation. This common belief is however challenged by

several empirical studies and practices, undertaken both in the profit and non-

profit environment (Barnes & Kriger, 1986; Doig, 1988; Murphy, 1988; Clarke,

2010; Battilana & Casciaro, 2013)

Leadership can take different forms and this applies equally to the voluntary

sector, mainly because those who are willing to take a personal responsibility to

serve a given purpose are not only those that occupy a formal position in the

organisational hierarchy. The concept of volunteers’ leadership is commonly

recognised in the sector to the point that specific development programs exist to

build volunteers’ leadership competencies and skills2.

If a leader is here defined as the person that inspires and mobilises people to

do things, showing the strategic direction and creating the enabling environment

for a goal to be achieved, then volunteers can play a critical role in leading

without being formally charged to do so.

Voluntary organisations like the Italian Red Cross (IRC) increasingly face the

complexity of fast evolving environments where conflicting demands from

multiple stakeholders often put their survival at stake. In such contexts, leaders

are confronted with daily as well as more deeply rooted situations of crisis,

where it becomes essential to remain pragmatic while continuing to inspire

hope. Here, their professional competences, their ability to scan the

2 For example the Volunteer leadership training programme run by the Swedish Red Cross or by the American Red Cross. Information available on their respective web-sites.

7

environment and their reading of the challenges and opportunities ahead are

put to the test and trust can be maintained only if “walking the talk” occurs

(Boyle, 2010).

It is plausible that periods of organizational change, such as those the IRC is

going through, may require the type of leadership skills that are found in leaders

working in emergency situations. In such circumstances, those in “charge” are

expected to stay lucid, to direct while at the same time empower, to be

outwardly focused while showing personal commitment to achieving the goal

(Kolditz, 2007; Piper, 2012; Rashi, Edmondson & Leonard, 2013).

While research on the topic of leadership and how theory applies to the non-

profit sector have been conducted, there is still limited knowledge of the

different patterns of leadership in member-based voluntary organisations (as

the Literature Review set out below contends).

1.2 Purpose of Research The purpose of this research is to study the role and different forms of formal

and informal leadership that are to be found in a member-based voluntary

organisation, particularly during periods of turmoil. The term “formal” is here

taken to mean leadership associated with position and official authority. It is

opposed to “informal” leadership, which is the result of a person's ability to lead

others in an often democratic way, independently from officially sanctioned

status.

By studying how and to what extent “formal and informal” leadership influences

organisational change in the IRC, the research will address a knowledge gap on

the characteristics of leadership within a voluntary organization and, more

generally, the voluntary sector as a whole.

8

1.3 Organisational Background The Italian Red Cross is one of 189 National Red Cross and Red Crescent

Societies that exist around the world, forming the unique network of the

International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. National Societies

support public authorities in their respective countries as independent auxiliaries

to the government in the humanitarian field. They are made up of volunteers

and staff and provide a broad range of humanitarian and social services.

Each National Society is an independent and autonomous legal entity that

operates with regard to humanitarian values and the 7 fundamental principles of

the Red Cross, i.e. Humanity, Impartiality, Independence, Neutrality, Unity,

Universality and Voluntary 3.

In the Italian context, the IRC is one of approximately 4,000 voluntary

associations active on Italian territory. It delivers services through a network of

150,000 active volunteers and 4,000 paid staff, distributed across 635

committees, ensuring a coverage and a proximity to the communities it serves

without equal.4

Until the revision of its statutes in May 2005, the IRC had the legal status of a

public entity, operating as part of the Italian public sector, while at the same

time adhering to the fundamental principles of the Red Cross Movement – a

situation of dual and complex accountability.

With the adoption of the new statutes, the IRC started a process of

“privatization”, gradually becoming a voluntary association in legal and

operational terms, mandated by the government to deliver services of public

interest. This process is expected to be completed by the end of 2015.

As a public entity, the IRC was financially dependent on the Italian government,

and was subject to multiple government interferences through the appointment

of “Extraordinary Commissioners”. The main justification for these interferences

3 See The 7 Fundamental Principles on the IFRC web-side, http://www.ifrc.org/en/who-we-are/vision-and-mission/the-seven-fundamental-principles/ 4 Figures taken from Annual Report, 2012, available at http://cri.it/flex/cm/pages/ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/IDPagina/8895

9

came from the need to address financial difficulties, caused by a complex

organisational set-up. This structure required reform to remain relevant both

domestically and internationally.

In October 2008, a new Extraordinary Commissioner was appointed to replace

the President in charge, and address a large financial deficit. Organisational

structure and services were reviewed and thanks to several implemented

measures, the National Society was able, in 2011, to close its financial books

and launch several reforms of a legal and organisational nature. In 2013, a new

President was elected.

While the need to address a financial crisis was the triggering factor of the

reform, the underlying driving force, namely, a quest for change and

independence, came from the volunteers.

Prior to the reform, the IRC had six voluntary components, functioning as sub-

organisations and in parallel to a structure made up of geographically spread5

committees which had limited influence and played mainly an administrative

role.

The abolition of these voluntary components and the ensuing creation of one

voluntary body6 that operates by responding to common objectives, was the key

organisational change of the reform. It was one that sought to profoundly modify

the previous “centres of power” which were the main cause of a silo-culture and

internal competition for resources.

Today, leadership patterns appear to have changed, becoming less

hierarchical, and more democratic, as the analysis of primary data to be

undertaken below will demonstrate.

5 At local, provincial, regional and national level 6 With the exception of two auxiliary bodies who remained separate (Corpo Militare and Crocerossine)

10

1.4 Research question, objectives and hypotheses To answer the research question: What leadership roles and practices were key

for the change process recently undergone by the Italian Red Cross?, the

Researcher considered the following five interrelated hypotheses:

H1. Organisational change is successful when top leaders do not solely rely on

their individual traits and styles to drive the process but succeed in putting

followers in the driving seat.

H2. Organisational change is successful when leaders, formal or informal, are

able to influence their context (and the corollary to this is that context influences

leadership and organisational change).

H3. Effective voluntary organisations are people-oriented and effectively use

shared leadership approaches to deliver on their mission.

H4. Transformational leadership has a greater effect on organizational change

when it is people-oriented.

H5. Clarity of ethical purpose is essential for value-driven people who are

undergoing periods of organisational change and increases the chances of

success of the organisational change process.

The research focus is situated within relevant theoretical backgrounds as

identified in the Literature Review chapter, which have informed the articulation

of these hypotheses for research testing.

In so doing, the research seeks to explore the following discrete objectives:

to identify leadership practices at the IRC. It does this by exploring who

(regardless of formal position) takes initiatives to influence and mobilise people

and resources and to realise a given mission;

to identify specificities of leadership in the given context facing the IRC. This is

to be done with specific reference to contextual leadership models and will

assess whether such models were adopted de facto at different levels of the

organization;

11

to describe the specific patterns of leadership in the IRC while confronted with

internal and external challenges during a period of legitimacy crisis, change and

reforms.

1.5 Methodology A mixed method approach is adopted, using information which is gathered from

relevant academic sources and from the perspective of formal leaders,

employees and volunteers of the organization, both at national headquarters

and branch level, as further elaborated in Chapter 3 of this dissertation.

1.6 Outcome The main intended outcome of this project is a critical analysis of leadership

practice found in the area of investigation, and presented as an extension of

existing theory into specific circumstances.

Findings provide an external perspective to the IRC on the change process. The

Researcher has been mandated by the Organisational Development

Department of the IFRC Secretariat, in agreement with the IRC, and was

allowed to explore leadership patterns from different organisational angles. The

mandate meant that she had to be very mindful of ethical and confidentiality

requirements in undertaking and reporting on the research. She is an employee

of the IFRC and may therefore be said to have a degree of both pre-cognition

and pre-understanding.

1.7 Structure of the Dissertation The dissertation adopts the following structure:

Chapter 1 – Introduction

It introduces the dissertation topic, research aims and questions.

Chapter 2 – Literature review

12

The literature review subjects the many articles and papers available to critical

assessment, so as to identify research relevant to the research questions.

Chapter 3 – Methodology

This chapter provides details of the research approach, data gathering, and

analysis.

Chapter 4 – Research Results

This chapter presents the results of research gathered from the interview data.

Chapter 5 – Conclusions

This chapter presents an analysis of the findings in relation to the research

questions and the literature review. It also includes recommendations and

discusses any limitations of the research as well as future directions.

Chapter 6 – References

This chapter presents a bibliography of the sources used to gather research for

this dissertation.

13

2 Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to present secondary research on specific

aspects of the topic of leadership. Several theoretical concepts were identified

as relevant to the objectives of this research and their study has led to the

identification of five interrelated hypotheses, as set out in the introductory

chapter, which were tested during the primary data analysis phase.

The review begins with a discussion of concepts of individual and organisational

leadership, as found relevant to the voluntary sector. For each concept,

research limitations are highlighted. A table summarising explored theory and

context applicability is included in Appendix A.

As a preamble, it must be noted that the Researcher had some difficulty to find

peer-reviewed research on the topic of leadership as it specifically relates to the

voluntary sector, and even more so as it relates to this sector in the Italian

environment. This apparent gap in a sense confirmed the need for this piece of

work and further research in the future. To compensate for this lack of material,

the Researcher analysed available literature related to the public and non-profit

sectors, also exploring non-Western based empirical studies. This was done

with the purpose of finding potentially applicable concepts to the subject of this

research.

Volunteer-based organisations have similarities with the public sector and the

non-profit sector, in a broader sense. For example, they share with the non-

profit sector the challenge of balancing economic with social dimensions,

financial sustainability with mission achievement, as well as increasing

demands for transparency and accountability (Costa, Ramus, Andreaus, 2011).

These demands require specific leadership skills and approaches.

With the public sector, they share not only the underlying motivation of people

working within it, namely, to contribute to a common good and social value, but

14

also the increasing complexity of dealing with conflicting internal and external

demands from different stakeholders (Cristofoli, Nasi, Turrini, 2011).

In the context of the IRC, it was felt necessary to explore available literature as

it relates to the public sector, and as much as possible in the Italian political and

social environment. This was because of the organisational shift underway at

the IRC from being a public institution to becoming a private, volunteer-based

organisation.

Information was taken from selected academic journals and review magazines

such as Voluntas, other journals specialised in public management, as well as

relevant university sources, as detailed in the Bibliography. This review has

equally examined professional, elite-grey research carried out by humanitarian

and development practitioners in the field of leadership.

Information was obtained by accessing relevant material provided on the topic

of leadership during this Master course, and by conducting on-line inquiry

through search engines such as Google and e-libraries such as QUEST.

Key search terms used to interrogate these resources were numerous, but

included: “voluntary-sector leadership”, “non-profit sector leadership”,

“emergency leadership”, “shared leadership”, “ethical leadership”, “purposive

leadership”, “contextual leadership”, “leadership and organisational change”,

“transformational leadership”, as well as known names of scholars7.

2.2 Concepts, models and context applicability Extensive literature exists on the topic of leadership, although these are largely

North American and business-oriented. The main focus of existing research,

has been to identify the key personality traits of the effective leader, but it has

also sought to identify how different situations may promote or hamper

successful leadership.

7 such as Peter F. Drucker, John P. Kotter, Jim Collins, Daniel Goleman

15

The notion of the individual leader versus multiple leaders, or shared leadership

(Slater and Doig, 1988) has also been studied. Yet, the concept and application

of organisational leadership (Barnes and Kriger, 1986) or the invisible

leadership (Murphy, 1988), in particular in the voluntary sector, has not been

explored extensively. These concepts all point to an important distinction

between the formally stated and realised practice, or between the individual and

collective in mobilising leadership to attain practical ends.

Conclusions reached by previous research show that each theory has its

limitations, as further elaborated in the following sections of this chapter.

2.2.1 Charisma versus Resilience The traits-model (Bass, 1960; Bird, 1940; Stogdill, 1948, 1974) is based on the

assertion that leaders are born with specific personal characteristics that may

be functional to leadership work. Many scholars explored trait theory during the

last century. The research concluded that leaders are not born with personal

traits that can be clearly distinguished and replicated. While the claim that

relevant characteristics cannot be nurtured has been widely challenged, the

nature of those relevant characteristics has equally been the subject of dispute.

The concept, for instance, of “charisma”, a key personal trait of the effective

leader, has been challenged by many scholars.

Collins (2005) identified that so-called Level-5 leaders (those at the highest

pyramidal level of a hierarchically organised agency) are not large figures who

accomplish unexpected results. These people, on the contrary, see themselves

as drivers of change, but often attribute success to other factors, such as the

people around them or the environment.

In this reading, the capacity to inspire others is not the result of “charisma” but

of authenticity. Authentic leaders have found the leadership motivation within

themselves, often resulting from difficult life experiences which helped their

personal search for life meaning and developed their capacity to show empathy

and commitment (George, Sims, Mayer, 2007; Bennis and Thomas, 2002).

16

Many have recognized that organizational change requires different kinds of

leadership behaviours which go beyond a charismatic approach. Successful

change requires that the leader be seen more as instrumental in building the

necessary competences, systems and culture to achieve the goals, rather than

being decisive in goal achievement in itself (Nadler & Tushman, 1990).

Because the voluntary sector is believed to be more values-driven, participatory

and less managerial than the for-profit sector, it is also assumed that

hierarchical and formalistic leadership styles are detrimental to the

organization’s fulfilment of its mission (Hailey & James, 2004).

The voluntary sector is part of civil society, and as Drucker (1973) argues, it is

through social and voluntary work that civic leadership has traditionally being

fulfilled. What this idea captures is the capacity to lead social change and

influence matters of public utility (Chrislip & O’Malley, 2013). While this notion of

civic leadership has changed over time, because social responsibility is now

also the concern of the for-profit sector, the voluntary sector continues to

influence civil society, through a type of leadership that is detached from

position and authority. It is a type of leadership that is more effectively exerted

through leaders acting as facilitators, conveners and catalysts of change

(Chrislip & O'Malley, 2013).

Emerging leadership thinking seems to point to the need for more adaptive and

resilient leaders, where personal “resilience” would replace “charisma”, because

it allows a broader and less self-centred perspective. It denotes a capacity to

handle evolving demands, because such leaders are able to put others’ needs

first, are capable of instilling values and new mind-sets and surround

themselves with capable collaborators. They would do so, without fearing

judgement or criticism (Kim and Hays, 2010).

The idea of resilience comes from the social psychological state called

mindfulness, which is the ability to be aware of one’s actions and behaviour and

as such have the capacity to adapt to different circumstances. This leads to

self-compassion and acceptance of the vulnerabilities in others. Mindfulness is

17

the foundation of cultural sensibility and a key requirement for leaders working

in global and multi-cultural environments (Armstrong, 2012).

2.2.2 Contextual leadership: more than just situational adaptability

The situational leadership model seeks to complement the traits-model. This

attributes leaders ‘success or failure not so much to their personal leading

capacities, but to favourable or less favourable conditions in a given situation.

Circumstances would therefore determine whether a person would lead or

remain a follower. However, this model was contested because it was not

sufficient to foresee what forms of leadership are most effective in a given

situation (Hoy & Miskel, 1987).

An evolution of this model may be the contextual leadership one, whereby

context is defined as an organizational environment with its unique

characteristics and dynamics. The context requires specific leadership skills of

people that are able to select the right tools for the job (Macris, 2006), and

create a context for others to succeed. The level of influence that can be

exerted also depends on the specificities of the context. Leaders working in the

voluntary sector, for instance, generally have low levels of influence because

they are unable to use the same type of disciplinary and reward systems that

would be applicable to the for-profit sector or to a strongly hierarchical

organisation (for example, the Military), and have to use motivational skills and

a consensual approach to make things happen (Macris, 2006).

Context is closely linked to organizational culture, because it may define the

perceptions of both leader(s) and followers on what is possible and appropriate.

It can therefore strongly influence organizational change, either positively or

negatively. It is the context dimension that must be assessed, particularly when

trying to change it (Macris, 2006). This, in turn, requires relational skills such as

the ability to build team-work, manage networks, and enact constructive two-

way communication.

Context is one of the five dimensions of culture identified by Hofstede (1980). In

his reading, culture can be of a low or high context type, depending on the

18

emphasis that a culture places on the message versus what motivates

communication. In a high-context culture, the focus is on how things are

communicated and by whom, rather than on the message itself. Contrarily, low-

context cultures are more interested in facts, accuracy, and leaner

communication often expressed in written form (Sapienza, 2008). Power-

Distance is another dimension of culture which affects context, and this is

concerned with the extent to which people accept unequal power distribution in

a society (Sapienza, 2008).

These cultural and communicative concepts are key when trying to understand

what contextual leadership means in different societies and organisations. For

instance, a study of NGOs working in South Asia (Hailey and James, 2004)

highlighted that current Western leadership concepts are not always relevant to

their high-context culture. What may be seen as detrimental in Western terms,

is viewed as perfectly appropriate to the strategic approach adopted by Asian

NGO leaders. The study emphasises the crucial role of the individual leader in

the development and growth of the organisation. Their ability to balance

personal integrity with community engagement, while respecting the high power

distance dimension that is common to their culture, is what made their

leadership successful (Hailey and James, 2004).

Still looking at context, the notion of leadership of place proposed by Gibney

and Murie (2008), appears to put contextual and environmental dynamics at the

centre of leadership. It challenges traditional silo-based, disciplinary and

departmental approaches by proposing more participatory, cross-boundary and

trust-driven ones, where only collaborative efforts can lead to achieving

common outcomes. The authors define place as a complex environment which

is often policy-driven, long-term and vision-led, multi-layered and multi-

disciplinary. In such contexts, successful leaders show the capacity to adopt

holistic and integrated approaches that allow them to work in innovative ways,

pool resources, avoid territorialism and disavow hierarchy, function or

geographical aspects. Some characteristics of leadership of place would include

an organisational capacity to lead without formal power, to maintain

19

commitment over time and make things happen through the use of networks

and relations.

Context may also be associated with the notion of situational urgency or a

status of legitimacy crisis. Organisations' stakeholders may feel urgency for

change because the status quo threatens their survival (Luenerburger and

Goleman, 2010). In such cases, it is the context that influences leadership,

rather than the other way around. Whatever actions leaders take, these would

be the reactive measures to address a situation of crisis. Yet, addressing these

would require the necessary legitimacy and power, from leaders, for these

measures to be applied. Leaders who face these kinds of contexts must

possess a strong capacity to convince and build buy-in while at the same time

prioritising efforts to get things done (Leuneburger and Goleman, 2010).

Another stance is that context is a perception and people inherit it (Macris,

2006). When context is a situation of crisis, it is people and their working climate

that are at risk. Periods of organisational turmoil thus have much in common

with emergency humanitarian contexts, where the theory of emergency

leadership would seem applicable. Humanitarian operations require leaders to

act rapidly, address tension between achieving short and long-term objectives,

handle decision-making pressure and take decisions that cannot rely on

previous best practices as the situation may be completely different (Clarke,

2010).

Leadership lessons drawn from the Chilean Mine Rescue operation, confirm the

importance of collective efforts shaped by leaders who embrace a concept of

duality and adopt contradictory approaches. These situations require both

control and empowerment, where leaders commit to a determined effort but not

necessarily to a successful outcome, and are able to calmly influence while

setting boundaries to follow the chosen path (Rashid, Edmondson & Leonard,

2013).

A directive and coercive style that aims at breaking failed business habits,

creating valuable chaos that would generate new ways of working can be the

20

best leadership style in a situation of organisational crisis, but only if it remains

limited in time and strictly linked to a clearly communicated goal (Goleman,

2000). That said, leaders' behaviours must be of a chameleon-type and always

put in the contexts in which leadership takes place (Hailey & James, 2004;

Clarke, 2010).

2.2.3 Democratic or Monocratic leadership? The model of shared leadership (Slater and Doig, 1988) also appears to offer

potential in understanding patterns for organisations facing extensive

redirection.

Shared or distributed leadership, which is commonly perceived as being more

democratic in nature, can succeed when the organisation is able to move away

from silos-based to more participatory approaches. This implies a well-

functioning “relational” system where all levels of the organisation collaborate

and interact harmoniously, enjoy similar influence levels and this despite

different specific realities and often conflicting demands (Gibney & Murie, 2008).

Shared leadership can take different forms, while degrees of decision-making

power can vary according to the assigned level of accountability. This does not

imply dispensing with the individual leader but rather valuing leaders who act

more like facilitators and are less directional (Gibney & Murie, 2008; Clarke,

2010).

Research shows, however, that the concept of shared leadership, when

intended as “shared power”, has little application in non-Western cultures, or at

least not in the way it is understood in the West. In East Asia for instance, and

in some African societies, a leader’s major responsibility is to maintain harmony

with ordered social and organisational relationships where power is unequally

distributed. Leaders do not place emphasis on autonomy and self-assertion, but

on collective performance and interpersonal relations. Formal leaders in these

cultural environments do not have to win their followers' satisfaction or consent,

as their legitimacy is given. However, respect and a capacity to show care and

concern is usually expected, because social disturbances would be negatively

21

perceived. In periods of transition a more paternalistic leader figure is often

favoured (Blunt & Jones, 1996).

Even in the West, leadership styles which would appear more democratic

because they favour consultation, consensus and delegation of authority may

not always deliver the expected results in terms of performance. When

overused, these approaches may lead to poor decision making, perceived lack

of leadership, lack of control and loss of authority, which would ultimately cause

stress to the followers (Faraci, Lock & Wheeler, 2013).

The problem with shared leadership is that it may not be the best model to

apply when an organisation is in a phase of transition or experiencing a crisis

situation. A study by ALNAP focusing on humanitarian leaders praises the

advantages of shared leadership, such as allowing multiple perspectives, skill-

sets, or diversity (Clarke, 2010). Yet, ALNAP also highlight the fragility of the

model, especially when an organisation faces ambiguous, risky and

unpredictable circumstances. Here, the concept of “all leaders, all captains”

may fail, either because the leaders’ nominal or informal authority is not

recognized, or because people abdicate their own responsibility and refuse to

be held accountable (Clarke, 2010).

This is when transformational leadership of a monocratic type, would seem

more appropriate, although theory appears at times contradictory to what is

expected from a transformational leader (Burns, 1978). Because change is

personal, leaders must win followers one by one, first by leading by example,

then by demonstrating innovating mentalities, and connecting different pieces of

the organisation through common values, beliefs and a shared vision (Duck,

1993).

Kotter (2007) maintains that transformation is a process which happens through

different stages, each requiring different leadership skills. Transformational

leaders are therefore asked to be inspired and inspirational, providing direction

and the means for fulfilling it, empowering people without abandoning them,

22

generating energy, trust and hope while at the same time improvising and

adapting, hence inevitably causing distress (Kim & Hays, 2010).

Pearce and Sims (2002) re-introduce here the charismatic theory, perhaps

prematurely dismissed above, where role modelling and engaging in impression

management are key traits transformational leaders need to exhibit to raise

confidence and gain alignment.

Transformational leaders who may reflect these key traits, are not however

unconditionally successful in attracting their followers and achieving expected

performance. A field experiment conducted in an Italian public institution on the

performance effect of transformational leadership (Bellé, 2014) has shown that

emphasis on the mission and the capacity to move away from rhetoric into

tangible results were key elements that produced the expected results (Bellé,

2014).

Transformational and shared leadership are not mutually exclusive. While the

first may carry a stronger vertical and directive dimension, both styles contain

key elements of empowerment. Both approaches emphasise follower

development of self-management and self-leading skills, where leading means

helping others to lead themselves and where influence is both vertical and peer-

driven (Pierce & Sims, 2002).

2.2.4 Following the wrong leader: the importance of purpose Leadership as purpose (Kempster, Jackson & Conroy, 2011) is seen as an

aspect of leadership that may be of particular relevance to cause-related

organisations like the IRC. The theory may be especially relevant in an

organisational context where contributing to a “common good” and not to egoist

personal interests is seen as an essential motivating factor.

As Kempster, Jackson & Conroy (2011) assert, purpose within leadership is

often taken for granted and is mostly associated with results. However, purpose

23

has a social value and when its orientation is implicit, its manifestation may end

up having a very negative impact on society8.

Research carried out in Italy (Marta, Guglielmetti & Pozzi, 2006) has shown that

young adult volunteers are attracted to voluntary organisations because they

can identify with their values and community concern, both of which are

altruistic motivations. A number of personal gains, such as gaining experience

for job search or improved self-esteem, are also part of the decision-making

process, but only those that remain primarily concerned with serving the

community, tend to linger in their volunteer role (Marta, Guglielmetti & Pozzi,

2006).

Voluntary sector leaders are above all expected to orient the organisation

towards a meaningful goal, prioritising what has the highest impact on achieving

the mission versus favouring economic and financial dimensions (Costa, Ramus

& Andreaus, 2011).

This is becoming increasingly challenging, because voluntary organisations are

taking on more public services which governments are not able to provide. Such

a move requires different leadership styles, management approaches and

systems which may affect the ability of the voluntary organisation to remain true

to its original mission and mandate (Harris, 2000). These practices lead to

goals displacement because they push the sector to increased dependence on

money, power and status to the detriment of the real purpose of the sector or

organisational existence, which is meeting the needs of the community and not

only responding to targets (Kempster, Jackson & Conroy, 2011).

All of the above reinforces the need for leaders to emphasise a sense of

purpose, help people to reconnect to ethics and find the emotional engagement

and motivation that helps the organisation fulfil its mission (Kempster, Jackson

& Conroy, 2011).

At this point, the idea of the Servant Leader, as someone standing for what is

good and right and not only financially viable, assumes relevance (Kempster, 8 For example, Hitler: a powerful leader with the wrong purpose in mind

24

Jackson & Conroy, 2011; Kim and Hays, 2010). When values are at the core of

leaders’ decisions and behaviours and when these leaders do not hesitate to

defend those qualities, these individuals become models of ethics who can

powerfully drive organisational transformations (Kim and Hays, 2010).

2.3 Conclusions This literature review has highlighted the challenges that leadership presents in

the context of voluntary sector organisations, confirming the complexity that

surrounds the notion of leadership particularly during periods of change. Among

the variety of traditional and more recent models of leadership, the Researcher

has chosen to utilize a selected number of these because of their identified

applicability to the dissertation context and their relevance to the research

findings elaborated in Chapter 4.

25

3 Chapter 3 – Methodology

3.1 Method This chapter outlines the method used by the Researcher to explore the

different patterns of leadership in the IRC, as revealed during a period of

organisational change. A mixed method approach was adopted, using

information gathered from both relevant academic sources and from the

perspective of formal leaders, employees and volunteers of the organization,

both at national headquarters and branch level.

Because the initial intent was to explore existing theory on the topic of

leadership and how this applied to the given context, the method started as

more “top-down” with the identification of research hypotheses and questions.

However, when conducting the primary data collection, a more inductive

reasoning surfaced. This sought to provide a conceptual space for more

grounded observations which at times challenged examined theory (Crossman,

2014).

The approach taken turned out to be primarily based on a non-positivist position

which argues that all knowledge is “constructed” in as much as it is contingent

on convention, human perception, and social experience (Luffrum, 2013). The

definition of “truth” becomes therefore a subjective perception, influenced by

how reality is perceived and interpreted by the individual. While hypotheses

were formulated and tested to some extent - a typical positivist approach9 - the

Researcher moved throughout the process to a stronger focus on meanings

and context becoming, herself, part of what was being observed, and

developing ideas from real data (Graneheim and Lundman, 2003).

3.2 Secondary data collection and analysis The secondary data analysis was conducted through a desk review of recent

trends in leadership theory, with regard to the models identified in Chapter 2.

9 from its founder, the sociologist Auguste Comte, 1798-1857

26

As typical in a deductive approach, the secondary analysis was more

concerned with the identification of recurrent concepts (Crossman, 2014) which

the Researcher then sought to test in the context of the IRC.

One product of the desk review was the identification of the five hypotheses this

research aims to test which informed the primary data collection and analysis

phase as described below.

3.3 Primary data collection Primary data was collected through interviews held during the month of March,

2014, in two geographic locations, namely in Rome at the national central

committee, and at the co-located provincial committee, as well as in Torino at

the regional committee and in the local committee of Moncalieri, situated in the

province of Torino.

A questionnaire including open-ended questions was developed and translated

into Italian (see Appendix B). The questionnaire was not intended for self-

completion but was used by the Researcher as an interview guide to shape

semi-structured encounters when conducting individual interviews and group

discussions. Piloting was not possible because of limited time available prior to

the visits on site. The questionnaire was, however, checked for relevance and

applicability by Organisational Development experts working for the IFRC in

Geneva.

The questionnaire was made up of three parts, including Introductory questions

designed to get to know the respondents and the way they saw the IRC

operating in their daily working life. This was then followed by Part 1 made up of

individual questions aimed at testing what theory reveals with respect to the

research hypotheses and Part 2, made up of questions to support a group

discussion.

Prior to each interview, respondents were asked to carry out an exercise which

aimed at revealing their own leadership understanding and learning through

27

lived experience. The Researcher was influenced by Kempster's (2009)

approach, where he asked respondents to draw a timeline and identify from

their earliest memories, figures that had influenced their respective leadership,

both in a positive and negative way. Each interview started with questions

related to the participants’ memories of events and people they had found

important in their lives.

This approach turned out to be an excellent “ice breaker” and had the

advantage of positioning the participant in a more comfortable and relaxed state

of mind, facilitating the move to the more structured part of the discussion.

As Charmaz (1995, 2000, 2006) found in his applications of constructivist

grounded theory, data is constructed through an on-going interaction between

the researcher and participant, an interaction that is built not just by how the

questions are asked but also by how the interviewer looks, sounds and is

perceived (Hallberg, 2006).

Thus, research relationship principles such as trust, empathy, time, relevance

and experience were applied. (Kempster, 2009). Through the application of

such principles, the Researcher positioned herself as an outsider in the eyes of

the respondents, because she is not affiliated to the IRC, but comes from the

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, which is a

separate institution belonging to the Red Cross Movement and based in

Geneva. This position allowed her to maintain a neutral role in the conversation,

although the fact that she shared the same cultural origin (being Italian herself)

and demonstrated a professional background of relevance, gave her the

necessary credibility and trustworthiness. This resulted in a shared sense of

understanding of revealed experiences and earned senior managers and

leaders' explicit commitment of to contribute meaningful time and reflections to

the research (Kempster, 2009).

The option of conducting a traditional survey, with multiple-choice questions

was discounted, as found too impersonal and leading to selective bias (Lester,

1999).

28

3.4 Primary data analysis For the primary data analysis, a qualitative approach, involving both narrative

analysis and grounded theory aspects, was adopted. The underlying

assumption was that the reality presented by the different informants would

depend on subjective interpretation. The Researcher had therefore to find a

flexible method that would allow an understanding of the latent content or

underlying meaning through the creation of themes (Graneheim and Lundman,

2003).

As suggested by Riessman (cited in Duque, 2010), the Researcher focused on

narrative inquiry through interviewing and transcription of interviews, where

"interviews were seen as narrative occasions" (Riessman, 2008, as cited in

Duque, 2010) or opportunities for the participants to tell their story, obviously

involving strong personal interpretation.

Both deductive and inductive research approaches prompt in people what is

called “conditional reasoning”, where the individual draws a conclusion based

on a conditional, or “if…then,” proposition.10 By adopting a more inductive

approach during the interviewing phase, the Researcher favoured the

development of plausible answers to these matters of causality rather than

validation (or not) of proposed theoretical hypotheses. This conditional

reasoning pattern was confirmed by several empirical studies, whereby “validity

predicts endorsement under deductive instructions and plausibility predicts

endorsement under inductive instructions” (Singmann & Klauer, 2011,, p. 272).

As such, the approach also contributed to mitigate both respondents' and

researcher’s biases.

The adopted narrative approach also helped to explore tacit knowledge (from

Wengraf, 2001 as cited in Kempster, 2009). This was done through intensive

interviews, which on the surface sounded like ordinary conversations but were

in reality oriented to address the key questions raised by the research. As

typically described in grounded theory, the interviewer was an active participant 10 Definition from Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1442609/conditional-reasoning

29

in this process, asking additional questions as required (from Charmaz, 2006 as

cited in Hallberg, 2006) while keeping the purpose of the interview constantly in

mind (Duque, 2010).

The use of interviews and group discussions has also helped to mitigate a

respondents' selective bias, more commonly encountered through the use of

surveys. This approach has allowed the research to value the individual

perception of reality or of a given situation, through phenomenological analysis

(Lester, 1999).

As such, this approach helped the Researcher to focus on the study of personal

experiences rather than on theory-driven assumptions and preconceptions, thus

drawing conclusions based on practice for further policy development and

learning (Lester, 1999).

Phenomenological approaches are typically applied to single case studies or

selected samples, as here. Because case studies explore practice as applied in

a given context and situation, they can highlight theory and system

weaknesses, hence challenging conventional knowledge. The weakness of

case studies is, however, a poor degree of generalisation of findings to other

contexts or population samples (Lester, 1999).

Because the IRC is a voluntary organisation, providing services nationally,

regionally and locally, the functional role of the branch11 in creating value was

key to the analysis of findings. The way a branch operates can be a revealing

indicator of organisational effectiveness and mission achievement. Interviewing

local actors allowed the Researcher to have a broader understanding of the

current situation and context, and test coherence and consistency of findings

coming from higher layers of the organisation. This approach allowed a certain

degree of data triangulation, which entails gathering data from a variety of

people in different organisational and geographical locations, hence increasing

findings credibility (from Denzin, 1970 as cited in Bryman, 2004).

11 Branch intended as a local, provincial or regional committee

30

One difficult aspect the Researcher paid attention to, was the transcription of

the interviews in the original language and subsequent analysis in the English

language. This is a research aspect that increasingly attracts scholars' attention,

as the final findings and conclusions are influenced by language and culture

and translation plays a critical role in interpretation (Duque, 2010).

Finally, a qualitative content analysis approach with text condensation

(Graneheim and Lundman, 2003), was then used to analyse the primary data.

The Researcher transcribed verbatim all dialogues in Italian and identified

condensed meaning units, underlying meaning units, sub-themes and themes

directly in English. This approach highlighted key themes which were then

compared to the hypotheses of the research, to test their applicability in the

given context.

Below is an example of a reported quote, analysed as presented:

3.5 Selection of respondents Key respondents were identified jointly with the IRC, a process which

manifested the organisation's support for the research process reported here.

Respondents were drawn both from national headquarters and branch level and

18 participants took part. In Rome, the Researcher had the opportunity to

conduct individual interviews with the National President, the National Vice-

presidents, and senior management staff including the Director General. These

elite interviews therefore addressed all key organizational leaders. Small groups

31

of volunteers were interviewed in semi-structured focus group discussions. In

Torino, additional interviews were conducted with the President of the regional

committee and the President of one local committee.

Other categories of respondents included representatives of the department of

civil protection, a public administration, and of trade unions whose members

include IRC employees who were likely to have been affected by the change

process.

Informants were women and men of several age groups, occupying a variety of

governance, executive, managerial and administrative positions, both as paid

staff and volunteers.

Each interview lasted approximately an hour and was recorded for the primary

purpose of transcription, with the participant’s consent12.

Ethical principles such as accountability, confidentiality, anti-discrimination,

reciprocity, empowerment, accessibility and respect for professional values

were taken into consideration when carrying out the interviews and analysing

data. For instance, all participants were informed about the purpose of the

study, through a message sent to all by a staff member of the IRC central

committee, who also communicated the Terms of Reference of the research as

well as the interview questionnaire.

Before each interview, participants were informed again of the scope of the

research, that their contributions were going to be kept confidential, and that

information was going to be aggregated to allow an identification of trends and

common themes.

The same ethical considerations were taken into account when findings were

disseminated. Before public release, findings were to be communicated and

discussed with the IRC to confirm factuality rather than relevance of

conclusions, with the understanding that participants' contributions remained

confidential.

12 All interviews were conducted during the month of March as mentioned under 3.3

32

3.6 Limitations of the Research and Researcher’s bias Biased research interpretation is not uncommon, particularly when the adopted

methodology is of an interpretative nature. There is however a difference

between intentional and non-intentional bias. The underlying motivations may

be obvious if directed to achieving a specific purpose (for example, where the

research is to function as Advocacy) or more sub-consciously expressed

through the desire of simply presenting different opinions (McCoun, 1998).

It should, however, be noted that by collecting the same data and information

from different sources, and by adopting a combination of theoretical positions in

interpreting data, as well as more than one method of obtaining data, some

triangulation of results has taken place. This mitigates the risk of favouring

individual perspectives and lowering the impact of the Researcher’s bias

(Bryman, 2004).

In terms of transferability of findings to other organisational contexts, each

context being unique, it would seem inappropriate to apply the conclusions of

this research to other settings. That being said, the research will provide

relevant learning for consideration and application and may also prompt in the

reader alternative interpretations (Graneheim and, Lundman, 2003).

33

4 Chapter 4 – Research results

4.1 Introduction and research background This chapter presents the results of research gathered from interview data,

structured around the research objectives and hypotheses, and attempts to

identify common themes and trends. The data collection methods and

respondents’ characteristics were elaborated in Chapter 3.

As explained in Chapter 1, the IRC is an institution going through a change of

legal status and structure, from being a public entity to becoming a fully

member-owned voluntary organisation. The difficulty of moving from systems

and processes typical of public administration to those more typical of an

entrepreneurial, voluntary-based is the key challenge identified from the data.

How this situation has influenced leadership practices identified in the IRC is

elaborated below.

4.2 Findings To answer the question: “What leadership roles and practices were key for the

change process recently undergone by the Italian Red Cross?”, the research

sought information that would inform the three identified objectives.

4.2.1 Objective 1: leadership practices at the IRC Leadership in the IRC indicate a progressive change of practice across the

organisation from rather hierarchical although decentralised and

compartmentalised forms of leadership to more structured but democratic,

cohesive and cross-boundary forms.

While informants concentrated on “how leadership looks today”, answers

revealed that prior to the reform there were competing and parallel structures

with their own leaders that often created inefficient decision-making. As

explained further below, the key change resulting from the reform process is not

34

so much a change of legal status, but the restructuring and unification of the

voluntary component. One interviewee stated:

“… the real reform has been the abolition of the voluntary components…

factions with their own barriers... to create one voluntary system” - senior

official.

Prior to the reform, presidents (all volunteers) of local, provincial and regional

committees were somehow disempowered as the IRC had several well-

resourced and influential voluntary components in place at different

geographical levels. Therefore the presidents had in fact little operating power,

compared to the components. This situation was captured in the comment of an

interviewee who had close involvement with the daily management of the

presidency function:

“… before the reform, nobody ever dared to question the power of the individual

voluntary components, which were only nominally under the presidents and

were functioning autonomously, like 6 sub-organisations, with their own

leaders… previous commissioners only commissioned the presidents structure,

hence the governance system, but never questioned the voluntary components

which were de facto the management function …”

This dynamic has now changed, with progressive clarification of roles and

responsibilities leading to a leaner structure. All volunteers report solely to the

president, who is now solely responsible for income generation and efficient use

of resources.

Influence and power has always been in the hands of powerful figures at

different levels of the decentralised organisation. There was never a strong

centralised power at the IRC.

The clear separation between governance and management13 suggested by

interviewees is now in place at central level. Ideally this should be put in place

13 As is well documented, this leads to mixed roles of policy and management, and require them to deal with challenging accountability dimensions.

35

at other levels where presidents still hold both positions but may not be feasible

due to resource limitations.

4.2.1.1 Delegates14: vehicles of ideas The IRC's culture change has clearly remade the presidents' leadership role,

with the key leadership practice now centred around “delegating”. As one

interviewee remarked:

“… before (the ongoing cultural transformation) presidents had a network linked

to the voluntary components but in fact, they did nothing. Now they have to

create their own teams and learn how to delegate…”

Delegates of a given strategic area15 are now responsible for achieving the

objectives of their respective area of work. They are nominated by the

volunteers and report to their president. They act to promote ideas coming from

the communities. By delegating, a shared leadership or shared-power approach

is put in place. Presidents provide directions and resources and delegates

manage the work with the volunteers to achieve a given objective, while

maintaining a degree of autonomy.

For one individual, these changes signify a break in the pattern of leadership:

“… the hierarchical leadership has been broken. Now, it is the idea that

dominates, independently from where or whom it comes. It is the idea that is

accompanied by resources… [this] requires a system that allows to redistribute

resources where these are most needed. This is based on a continuous

dialogue between the delegated and the delegating”.

In terms of the ramifications of this break, “… an organisational structure where

delegating is key, requires a system that allows to redistribute resources where

these are most needed. This is based on a continuous dialogue between the

delegated and the delegating...”.

14 Delegates are volunteers elected by volunteers to represent and guide the work of a given strategic area. They are technical experts. See more here: http://www.cri.it/struttura 15 Local, provincial, regional and national

36

Volunteers do not respond to orders. Decision-making must be participatory and

the satisfaction is in what is achieved, not in the position held. This is why

communication is so important - listening but also providing answers, showing

responsibility and collaboration. The practical, daily consequences of this move

are reflected in the following observation from a volunteer with operational

responsibility within the local committee:

“… in my local committee we are 58 volunteers. I share the strategy but we

work as a team to achieve objectives that we define together. We assess the

needs of the territory and we share and distribute tasks according to interests

and capacities…”

In terms of the personal consequences of this move for appropriate conduct,

“… I cannot act like a boss. I would lose my group’s recognition. They (the

volunteers) can bypass me if they want to… My role is to collect input from the

bottom, find a compromise with directions from the top and take a position…”

Delegates therefore work as part of a team as “leader-coordinators” with the

“doers”, passing on knowledge and experience and influencing from the bottom-

up. Leadership thereby becomes a form of coordination which aims to influence

by generating motivation, innovative thinking and a climate of growth and

achievement.

Delegating is not, however, something that all presidents are familiar with. In

their new roles as managers and leaders (in acts of governance), presidents

now carry a high degree of accountability.

Volunteers’ motivations vary greatly from altruistic to egoistic. Some are

attracted by the corporate image, the visibility, or to the organisational structure.

Managing volunteers and understanding their motivations is crucial to a

successful delegation of power and authority:

“… because we need volunteers we tend to accept everybody. But not all

volunteers have the ethical behaviours, intellectual capacity or professional

experience required by the function they hold. With power and resources in their

37

hands they lose focus. This is why we need volunteers with a true inner

motivation…” – senior volunteer.

The careful assessment of volunteers was identified by another interviewee in

the following terms: “… when a volunteer comes to our committee, he/she

needs to wait at least a year before we move him/her to emergency work. We

test the real motivation…” - senior volunteer.

One may therefore deduce that delegates are those that influence how people

and resources are mobilised, but as one informant put it:

“the influence game is like a bridge: different forces pushing against each other

to reach some kind of balance. In the IRC these forces are at least fourfold: the

presidents with their own dynamics; the administrative power; staff and trade

unions; and the volunteers” - senior manager.

4.2.1.2 Credible leadership Credibility is another key aspect of current leadership practices according to the

interviewees. Credibility is seen as the primordial trait of the national president,

of the volunteer who serves the community, of the organisation as a whole at a

national and international level, of its staff, its services and auxiliary role16.

Credibility is seen as both individual and organisational:

“… one can influence only if credible. Organisational voice matters if one is

credible…” - volunteer, local committee.

The role of credibility in the pursuit of a renewed role was highlighted by another

interviewee: “we need to rebuild our auxiliary role through institutional

credibility, because this is what gives us power to influence. Integrity,

coherence, capacity and professionalism are the key characteristics of a leading

16 Auxiliary roles can take different forms based on RC laws of each country, and it can be about filling a gap. See “National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies as auxiliaries to the public authorities in the humanitarian field”, accessible at https://fednet.ifrc.org/graphics/Fednet_files/Organisational_Development_11/Legal-base/ns-auxiliaries-role.pdf

38

institution and political power is receptive to institutional credibility... when you

speak, people listen!”

The desire of the IRC to deliver a “unique” service and not just act as a gap

filler, was noted in the following terms:

“… we question why through the privatization, our specific civil protection role

should not continue to be recognised… we have an impressive operational and

logistics capacity.. the government should value this capacity and treat us

differently…” - senior staff.

But this is not proving to be an easy matter:

“… to define the auxiliary role is not a simple task. There are very few areas

where the IRC can be auxiliary to the government and these areas do not

generate resources for our infrastructure… preferential treatment was

acceptable when it was a public entity, not anymore as a private organisation…”

- senior manager.

Yet, uniqueness is not only the result of a given mandate, but of organisational

credibility, where the organisational purpose is clear to all stakeholders and all

steps taken by the organisation are seen as consistently contributing to

achieving that purpose. In other words, alignment of all behind the purpose is

prized by stakeholders.

On the other hand, to seek to be everything to everybody creates confusion and

reduces credibility. Today, according to the interviewees, there is a new

leadership climate of closeness (with, one presumes, both internal and external

stakeholders), but also a sense of potential abuse or misuse. There is a new

striving for credibility but also reputational risk, tangible targets but no clarity

about the ultimate goal. Many individuals are moving in this direction, but the

move may bring traditional and formalised communication channels into doubt.

At the most senior level:

“… he (the national president) is friends with everybody. This is good and bad…

the use he makes of social networks has abolished institutional barriers, but

39

sometimes a leader needs respectful distance from his followers…” - senior

volunteer, central committee.

More generally, “bypassing institutional communication channels can create

confusion and potentially damage the credibility of the different layers of the

organisation…” - senior volunteer, regional committee.

Such practices, and their emphasis on informality, can breed ambiguity, as

another interviewee noted: “the ultimate goal of the reform is not very clear. We

understand that we needed a more sustainable structure, but the process has

had so many variations in short times that it is difficult to follow…” - volunteer,

provincial committee.

The organisation is still going through what one interviewee described as “a

tunnel” - the early phases of a potentially protracted process of cultural change,

accompanied by a range of often informal and spontaneous new initiatives and

ideas which are building a new shape and identity for the organisation.

To maintain credibility in such a climate is a challenge. It requires from the

formal and informal leaders a strong capacity to generate trust, deliver on

promises made, demonstrate relevance, and practice what their rhetoric

preaches.

4.2.2 Objective 2: specificities of leadership in the IRC context The internal and external context in which the IRC operates is deemed to be

challenging. At different levels of the organisation, those well positioned to

positively influence the reform process, had to develop what in the literature is

termed, “adaptive behaviour” to control internal and external dynamics, and to

avoid that such dynamics stifle the reform process.

4.2.2.1 The external context: technocratic leadership trends The Italian voluntary system is mature, offering sectoral expertise, especially in

the health field. Italian law protects the volunteer. For instance, when a

volunteer is absent from their paid employment to provide IRC assistance in

40

times of emergency, his/her salary is paid by the government to the employer

who releases the volunteer.

The IRC is part of this system. While part of what has become a rather

saturated domestic operating environment made of some 4000 voluntary

associations, it remains distinct because of its auxiliary/civil protection role. This

positions the IRC as a strategic and policy-making partner, playing a critical role

in times of emergency.

Current leadership could not ultimately disregard the changing operating

environment (including especially the current economic crisis) and has

positioned the internal change process, not only so as to address internal

inefficiencies, but also to meet the increasing external demand for value for

money. There was apparent initial reluctance, though, as one interviewee

observed:

“… all other public administrations have been reformed in the past few years. A

paradox (is) that the IRC did not (reform). There was a strong need to adapt,

and austerity has been a strong push, especially in the context of the civil

protection system…” - senior official, external.

This approach required going back to what is at the core of the established

organisational mission, its voluntary body, reinforcing what gives the IRC a

“competitive advantage”, which, at times, is something as intangible as

reputation, quality and accountability, elements that other broadly comparable

agencies may fail to provide.

Accountability is what the external environment seems to require, and voluntary

organisations are inheriting this demand and risk from the public sector. The

latter increasingly turns to the voluntary sector to take on services they cannot

provide for any longer. As with so many such outsourcing exercises, though, the

limits need to be recognized. As one interviewee remarked:

41

“…we cannot provide services to the government at a cheap price if we are

doing it for them… the real problem is a lack of resources, but the need is out

there and we have to cover it…” - senior staff.

Accountability is primarily seen in its economic rather than social dimension.

This has, the interviewees seemed to argue, generated a culture of

technocracy, where what matters are targets, performance measurements, and

task achievements:

“… today we have all become puppets of a strategy, we have lost the human

element and saw a reduction of intellectual capacity… the consequence is a

weaker leadership” - senior manager.

The interviews show this aspect as one important trend that affects the type of

organisational leadership increasingly seen not only in the IRC but in the entire

voluntary and humanitarian sector , pushing it to be more task-focused than

people-focused, hence leading organisations to a situation of goal

displacement.

4.2.2.2 The internal context: representational leadership Over the years, the IRC has experienced a change in the composition of its

volunteer base, from the elite to a concentration on the working class. This

phenomenon has affected its leadership, as well as its representational capacity

both positively and negatively. Some interviewees were sceptical of the overall

impact of this democratization in the IRC's labour force:

“… broadening the volunteer base and reaching out to different layers of the

society has diluted what used to be the elite…a positive dilution in my view, as

this made the IRC more representative over the years, but at the same time this

process produced a less educated and competent leadership, more focused on

tasks than substance and policy...” - senior manager.

One could question however, whether less education equals less competencies

and capabilities to lead.

42

The changing internal context pushed for reform and attitudinal shift. Current

formal leaders - especially the national ones - have shown a strong capacity to

relate to different dynamics, bring homogeneity, and put together the different

pieces of the puzzle of an organisation with many accountabilities and values

orientations.

Context often pushes individuals to make a choice. This is a choice that starts

as a personal vision and conviction and then moves to others, through a

process of interaction, reflection and support. This implies a testing process for

the committed members of the IRC:

“… I had to expose myself… I visited the committees, talked to people…

mastering relational and social dynamics was key… I had faith in the new idea

and was loyal to it…” - the national president.

Representing the new social dynamics of the organisation in its internal and

external contexts, became a form of leadership which justified a number of

structural changes. These included the reconfiguration of a previously

established volunteer system, an “historic” process, as some informants put it.

Before the reform there was a fragmented representation of the organisation,

because power was compartmentalised as it was in the hands of the six

voluntary components. Those components enjoyed significant largesse, as one

interviewee remarked:

“…these components had autonomous financial resources, autonomous

disciplinary methods, approved their own budgets within their areas of

responsibility and independently from the committee nominally charged with

their actions… they were only accountable to themselves… they could propose

and dispose as they wanted, ignoring the political will of the organisation…” -

senior volunteer.

There was a need to create a unified volunteer system, capable of

understanding and representing the needs coming from the frontline in a

coherent manner.

43

This context required strong leadership from above who could also represent

the voice of the volunteers, as a number of constitutional changes were

required and a clear vision and positioning was needed.

This entailed moving from a status of public entity to the status of a voluntary

association which also meant having to deal with civil servant labour contracts.

Trade unions challenged and at times obstructed the reform, as these

observations indicate:

“… trade unions have been against the privatization… not all staff understand

the strategies, policies and dynamics… the IRC had become a bureaucratic

elephant…”

“… trade unions have been influencing and at times nurturing the internal

conflict. Not only that, but the normative system in Italy did not facilitate the task

either…”

Neither of these views are from a trade union perspective, but indicate the

potential significance of their interventions in the IRC's change process.

Leadership had to show a capacity to represent both staff and volunteers fairly,

to juggle with the motivations of one camp and the other, to show empathy but

also to provide clear direction, requiring drastic measures at times. But to attain

“representation”, empowerment was needed.

4.2.2.3 President-volunteers: a form of empowered leadership Most of the interviewees were volunteers. This applied to all presidents, from

the national to the local level. Presidents are elected because they represent

the needs of the volunteers. They are therefore by definition empowered and

given the legitimacy and authority to act on behalf of the organisation.

The reform process has shaped a “new” role that presidents are now expected

to play. There is some sense of abandonment, because of lack of appropriate

systems and capacities to support a role that comes with increased

accountability. There is recognition among interviewees of the personal

exposure and vulnerability that this change poses:

44

“… before (the reform) they (the presidents) were supported by civil servants for

administrative matters, not anymore… and there are no systems in place to act

like a private (firm), to ensure control and accountability…” - senior official.

“… in some locations, moving from public to private opens the door to criminal

infiltrations. Why would a president who is a volunteer, take that personal risk?”

- senior staff.

Presidents are primarily coordinators and not necessarily financial

administrators. Clarity of roles and responsibilities is crucial to ensuring a

functioning system, not necessarily more hierarchy.

Such clarity can come from a common direction and agreed frameworks, which

allow supervision and control to happen among peers and not in a hierarchical

way. Some interviewees even suggested that the president could be replaced

by an executive body, more representative of the diverse realities, in an

environment of shared accountability.

At present, the system is largely monocratic. This is presented as a temporary

measure to allow the reform process to proceed and achieve its goal, namely

full privatization of the organisation. However, monocratic leadership has

limitations:

“… presidents carry all things on their shoulders. They have legal

responsibilities and no boards to support them…this is not appropriate for a

complex organisation like the IRC…” - senior volunteer.

There remains still some ambiguity of roles as presidents represent both

governance and management in their own committees. The exception is at

national level, where the two roles are clearly distinct: there is one National

President and one Director General. This too is deemed both unsustainable and

inadequate:

“… the responsibility is huge. We need a different system, where governance

and management are clearly separated… maybe we should introduce the role

45

of administrator, partly remunerated, like in the American Red Cross…we need

to find the right model…” - volunteer, provincial committee.

Despite the challenges here identified, there is a general sense of trust in the

new generation of leaders:

“… I have faith in the new generation of presidents, even if they don’t have the

managerial capacity that we may wish for… we could have provided better

training, but did not have time nor the instruments to do it…” - senior manager.

Capacities need to be built at both organisational and individual level.

Structured leadership is seen as appropriate to facilitate decision-making. This

requires sharing common frameworks and methodologies, achieving coherence

in project management, needs assessment, and resource management.

Ultimately, in the judgment of one interviewee, the IRC could effectively run

itself without titular leadership :

“… we can work without a formal leader. The presidents and delegates

hierarchy is not as formal as it looks like. We have created a structure to

distribute roles and responsibilities…the leader does not have a supervision

function… he could be replaced by an executive body…” - volunteer, local

committee.

There is consensus on the fact that the new structure gradually coming into

place allows the IRC to achieve more with less:

“… today I have less money but I do more activities. Before, costs were more of

a structural nature… (this is) a sign that we are making savings” - volunteer,

local committee.

4.2.3 Objective 3: patterns of leadership during the reform period There was general consensus among interviewees that the reform was an

unavoidable necessity, and that the IRC was going through an identity crisis,

exacerbated by a financial one. While the need for financial accountability

46

triggered initial government interference, the call for independence and

ownership came from the volunteers.

The IRC had become, according to one reading, a victim of its own internal

power dynamics, conflicting demands and territorial needs.

Historical organisational reasons underlined the identity crisis but sustainability

issues triggered the change process. In order to reach relevance and

recognition, both domestically and internationally, trade-offs were required from

each part of the organisation. This was undoubtedly a painful process, not

without obstacles and tensions for the new leadership appointed in 2012:

“… he (the commissioner and then president) had to deal with a list of critical

issues of 300 pages, in bullet points... IRC had not approved its budget since

2003 and was working like a cashier, spending only what was available in the

bank account…” -senior manager.

4.2.3.1 Transparent leadership: the importance of communication The importance of communication was at the heart of the debate in the IRC,

especially during these times of organisational turmoil. Interviewees reported

that pain is easier to handle if the message and the goal are clear, because

confidence in the underlying intent and the rightness of change remains.

Conversely, false statements and half-truths, intentional or unintentional, were

seen as creating confusion and tension.

Effective leaders can (the interviewees argued) bring unity where there is

fragmentation, or integration where there are silo-approaches. They do this by

showing empathy, understanding, transparency and commitment, driving an

attitudinal shift that helps the organisation to emerge from potential chaos and

find new common ways of working.

Transparent leaders know the organisation from within and understand the

perspective of those that keep the organisation alive. They make hard choices,

communicate them clearly and are ready to stand by them - even at the cost of

personal reputational damage. Remarking on the actions of one leader, an

47

interviewee highlighted the ethical courage and persistence required to give this

practical effect:

“…he was asked to do the dirty job. It was not easy to gain support but he did…

he’s a great model, not afraid of losing face…” - senior staff.

Another aspect raised by interviewees was openness, through the use of direct

communication channels such as social networks. While this approach was

generally positively received by volunteers who now have direct access to the

leaders of the organisation, this also meant dealing with reality distortion and

reputational risk - and the ability to be receptive to views and perspectives that

would be under scrutiny by the organisation is deemed of paramount

importance:

“… the use of social networks favours communication with the base, but we

need to listen even more and through other channels” - senior volunteer,

regional committee.

It is through communication that attitudes and behaviours can change. Leaders

who consistently and coherently communicate the same message can ease

fear, which is the opponent of change, and maintain a climate where

productivity continues and motivation remains.

4.2.3.2 Emergency leadership patterns An emergency is commonly defined as an unforeseen combination of

circumstances or the resulting state that calls for immediate action. In this

sense, a situation of organisational turmoil can be associated with an

emergency situation or a crisis.

It is not easy to determine whether the IRC has passed the peak of the crisis or

is still in the middle of it. What is clear, however, is that a visible form of

emergency leadership was needed and might be used to drive the reform

process.

Alternatively and in the words of an interviewee: “change happened because he

was one man in command. No boards. And this was necessary because if you

48

have boards during periods of crisis, all decisions are contested and you go

nowhere” - senior manager.

In the IRC case, a monocratic system appeared to work better in these times of

change, based on informal forms of consultation and participation, where

invisible influencers can either support or boycott the leader’s vision.

Conflict of interest was at times driven by individual perspectives but also by

honest concerns for the organisation and its personnel:

“…if public our cost is higher, if private we have to become competitive, earn

less. Some salaries may be reduced up to 40%, which is a huge loss for a

family budget…” - senior official.

Another interviewee focused on the IRC's long term organizational capacity:

“… it is hard to imagine how the IRC will sustain its current operational capacity,

an emergency system made of 20,000 people ready to be deployed at any time.

We are autonomous in times of emergency, but tomorrow?...” - senior official.

Privatization was seen by many as the only solution to achieve competitiveness:

“… If IRC is losing ground it is because our labour cost is too high and

unsustainable… we have accumulated rights and benefits typical of a public

administration and non-competitive in the voluntary sector…” - senior manager.

Conversely, another large fraction of the interviewees saw in this process a

price too high to pay for specific individuals. Arguments provided in favour of the

privatization, among which being the path to achieving competitiveness, did not

echo those who only saw the loss of a unique and protected mandate:

“…it will be difficult to justify the use of emergency funding to maintain the

infrastructure, instead of using it to provide relief to the affected population. How

can a private guarantee and maintain such an infrastructure in times of no

use?...” - senior official.

49

An additional characteristic of situations of crisis is that they tend to prompt a

sense of denial in those who are affected, often until it is too late to react. In

organisational terms, emergency leaders are therefore leaders who can read

these critical signs and convince people that change means survival and status

quo means collapse.

The reform has undoubtedly shaken existing power relations. Reconstruction

and recovery are long processes, but usually efforts go towards rebuilding in a

more sustainable way. The current structure appears leaner, offering the

delegates the power and capacity to exert upward influence. Are these roles

substantially different than those undertaken by the previous leaders of

voluntary components? Contradicting answers were given to this question, but

all recognised the effort to work in a more integrated and holistic manner.

Many interviewees felt that a proper assessment of the capacity in place to

assume a private role at local and provincial level was not available. As

mentioned above, presidents are not all equipped in terms of systems,

capacities, or skills to guarantee transparency and accountability. An

interviewee noted that:

“… volunteers pushed for this reform… there was a desire to free themselves

from administrative and bureaucratic constrains… book-keeping, accounting…

now presidents are responsible for these aspects as well…is this really what

they wanted?...” - senior staff.

Democratic leadership will eventually need to be reintroduced when a period of

stability is reached. Through the reform, though, the general view is that

decision-making has to remain manageable even if this means adopting

coercive methods, at times.

4.2.3.3 Transformational leadership patterns Many of the people interviewed concurred that these are times of change

because there is activity, empowerment, experimenting, networking, maybe

even chaos, but not paralysis. Change is visible, perhaps not fully evident yet in

terms of deep-set attitudes, but at least in practice, because things are moving.

50

The Researcher noted through observation that change was more visible from

outside than within the IRC. One example is how relationships have profoundly

improved between the IRC and the civil protection system:

“…before the reform the IRC was seen as playing in isolation, using its

independence as an excuse to stay out of the coordination system. This was a

handicap. During the response to the earthquake in Umbria, the IRC started to

get more involved in multi-player strategic decisions, showing its capacity to

play a critical role while maintaining its autonomy but benefiting from synergies

with other bodies…” - senior official, external.

Leaders have played a key role in repositioning the IRC as a credible player:

“…the IRC identity is changing… not just the ambulance service in people's

minds, but far more than that…”

Reputation is growing, according to one interviewee:

“… IRC is not only seen as a group of volunteers “doing stuff” but as an

organised institution where volunteers are the reflection of a shared mission, an

organisation that is capable of building a relationship of trust with its citizens… it

was not always like that for the IRC…” - senior official, external.

The key is in its evolving auxiliary role. The auxiliary role is justified when IRC

actions are of help to the government in specific cases (e.g. services to arriving

migrants). When delivering social services to the community the IRC is in

competition with other players and market forces are in place.

The solution for IRC would be to find its competition-free space, because “new”

activities are offered or simply because there is “no interest” in those

environments from other operators. Interviewees felt this should mean ceasing

to do certain things with which the IRC has historically been associated, and

embarking on new things instead, a potentially painful process of adjustment,

but one that would lead to more appropriate programmes.

51

“… we need to stop running ambulance services and get our hands dirty, go

where there is suffering. Needs are changing… but the challenge is consensus,

external image, things we may lose if we start caring for those on the margins of

society…” - senior manager.

“…we need to move away from a provincial and puritan approach and start

looking at reality and address it with appropriate programmes, with no sense of

shame…” - volunteer, provincial committee.

This requires a strategic choice, to answer the question (as put by one

volunteer) “where is the Red Cross needed most today?”

There is also space for an increased advocacy role to guarantee quality,

certification and minimum standards. The IRC is traditionally seen as a public

entity because for years it has supplemented the health system, delivering

community services. Many felt that this public perception of delivering quality

services should not be lost in the privatization process.

The challenge, post privatisation, will be to remain needs-driven and not money-

driven, finding the balance between income-generating activities and

humanitarian services. This will, interviewees suggest, be a precarious balance

to strike:

“…not all understand what going private means. Some committees are now run

like private businesses where only the economic dimension matters…” -

volunteer, local committee.

The dialogue with the volunteers who know the reality on the ground has to be

prioritized to maintain the balance that this move jeopardises.

Internally, change is reflected in a more structured organisation, where there is

increasing clarity of roles and responsibilities and a reinforced, shared mission

and stronger identity. The unification of the voluntary spirit has constituted the

real victory.

52

Transformation is on-going. Volunteers must match a new profile where values

and skills come together, where motivation is accompanied by a sense of

responsibility and accountability. Volunteers are seen as the transformational

leaders of the organisation, those who can influence policy and practice and

take the organisation in a more sustainable direction. It is not the legal status of

the organisation that changes attitudes and working practices but a learning by

doing process, made of joint-approaches aligned to common goals. As already

mentioned, delegates are the promoters of change, the best positioned to play a

catalytic role.

A number of informants believe that local committees are far more empowered

and autonomous than some may think. It is more of an issue for the central

committee which needs to change strategy to remain relevant:

“… I don’t see abandonment in this new form of empowerment. If we close the

central committee today, most likely the local committee of let’s say

Pordenone17 will notice it only after 6 months… what is our added value as a

central committee? Many of these committees already walk on their own…

Does the central committee want to play a coordinating role?...” - senior

manager.

A confederation of committees versus a central power structure is the risk, with

a subsequent loss of common identity.

Internally, privatization meant dealing with structural and constitutional

challenges. These challenges mainly involved a change in labour contract

conditions for IRC civil servants, and the dilemma of dealing with auxiliary

bodies of a military nature which by Italian law cannot be part of a private

structure.

In this context, leaders at the top of the organisation decided to focus on what

are termed the core activities and competences of the IRC, adopting a long-

term approach which would look at gradually replacing old structures and

reinforcing the most relevant ones. 17 A city in the North of Italy

53

Many interviewees believe that full privatization (from local to central

committees18) should be the aim and not something in between. This is a

question of identity, image, perception and reputation, all aspects that have an

impact on the organisation and its service delivery.

The new leadership has demonstrated vision and gained trust, in part because

it introduced clarity of roles and responsibility between governance and

management at central IRC level. This has resulted in a mutual inter-

dependence between governance and the administrative/management function,

where one informs and reports to the other and vice versa. There is a mutual

form of accountability. This however has still to cascade down to regional,

provincial and local committees.

Many interviewees confirmed that the leadership style of the current national

president was key in driving the reform. He used order and structure, while

involving people and building consensus because his approach was honest and

loyal:

“…he had the right tools and instruments to succeed. He made it happen

because he took the right decisions, was inclusive but firm and exposed

himself.” - senior manager.

Another view was: “…he was personally involved, built general consensus.

People could see his loyalty to the organisation…[although many people lost

their jobs…people knew he was doing it for the good of the organisation” -

senior volunteer, regional committee.

The national president is seen as a transformational leader who has succeeded

in guiding the organisation to safe ground. There are still critical aspects to

confront but already, there is less institutional vulnerability:

“… the process has just started but we see more serenity. Anyway, the IRC has

never depended so strongly on its formal leadership. The IRC is strong at its

base, it has coverage and proximity…” - senior volunteer, regional committee.

18 At the writing of this report, only local and provincial committees are under a private legal status

54

But some still have doubts:

“… the IRC is not ready to walk by itself… we need to be more present… a

clear mandate…” - senior staff.

Reinforcing this, “if he leaves, we are not ready to replace him with a person of

the same calibre… he has shown energy, firmness, courage… he has openly

condemned unethical behaviours… we need to transfer these characteristics to

other people somehow…” - senior volunteer, central committee.

To conclude, it is probably too early to say if the reform is really delivering its

promises, such as attracting more young volunteers, reaching competitiveness,

and allowing the organisation to deliver services in a sustainable way. However

both structural and human aspects seem to indicate that the chosen path is one

which can be defended.

4.3 Discussion Examining the responses from all of the interviewees, several leadership

models could be detected which will be compared with those explored in the

Literature review in the concluding chapter. Meanwhile, the findings point to the

following observations.

Informants have commonly presented leadership as a process of personal

development - both their own and others'. This is a process that rebuts the idea

of “one model fits all” but rather values the responses that people find “within

themselves”. The individual capacity to overcome hard times and build one’s

own resilience was often presented as the basic ingredient for effective

leadership.

Roles must be interpreted, and as such they are both situational and open to

controversy. It is authenticity and a capacity to honestly and openly relate to

other human beings and interact with people that allow effective leaders to find

the balance between playing a role and being themselves, hence finding the

55

appropriate distance from the “role” that they might assume or that others might

allocate to them.

In this reading, human aspects matter as much as “professional” ones to be an

effective leader, and understanding the human dimension of organisational,

administrative or normative dimensions is crucial. This is particularly important

at times of organisational change. Here, a leader dealing with stressful

situations which require the capacity to have a high degree of empathy.

The ideal RC leader is presented as the result of such a personal development

process. He/she is able to match a capacity to involve and motivate with the

ability to take difficult positions, even when faced with opposition. Integrity is

essential for the leader to be consistent with the organisational principles and

values.

The RC leader is therefore values-driven, brings unity and gives a voice to the

voiceless, without compromising the neutrality and impartiality of the

organisation. The leader is a person who can read the environment and create

the conditions for people’s development and achievement, allowing followers to

be the protagonists of their story.

IRC experience shows that the RC leader must represent the organisation with

honesty, transparency and pragmatism. The collective good must be more

important to them than personal goals.

The contemporary RC leader is required to find the right balance between

carrying strong values and principles and ensuring sound management. This

latter criterion demands a more technocratic orientation, which may conflict with

a values-driven posture. Many leaders of voluntary organisations are pushed to

focus on technocratic aspects to the detriment of values and policies, and

balancing these two demands can be a continuing source of internal conflict.

The RC leader therefore requires a (perhaps unusual) combination of humility,

strong competences, skills and institutional knowledge.

56

Leadership theory tends to focus on the person, and less on the task, and in

this sense a capacity to build relevant networks is key. This is because it is

through networks that leaders build consensus and relate to people through

more informal and hence emotional dynamics, where position and formal types

of authority matter far less. It is through networks that influence works best, and

those who know how to manage networks, enjoy greater influence.

As one informant observed, the RC leader is often a prophet with no weapons.

He/she must inspire, convince people to follow, but has limited means and

resources to impose anything. At the core of the leadership task is recognition,

trust and a path of action that is principle-driven. It is not sufficient to manage

the daily work, for inspiring growth is what will make the organisation

sustainable. Organisational growth is then the result of a clear purpose, which

leaders make explicit through inclusiveness and mutual trust, showing

responsible behaviours.

57

5 Chapter 5 – Conclusions

5.1 Conclusions on Research Results This chapter sets the findings in the broader context of the research hypotheses

and the literature review. It also includes recommendations based on the

research findings, discusses any methodological limitations of the research, and

proposes areas of future research that might be beneficial.

This dissertation started with a brief overview of leadership concepts found in

existing literature, which were deemed applicable to the research context. This

led to defining the key research question and the five interrelated hypotheses

identified in the introductory chapter.

The literature review elaborated on a number of theories, attempting to identify

specific relevance that would support or reject the validity of the research

hypotheses. In brief, the review suggests that in the context of voluntary

organisations, effective leadership characteristics should include:

• having vision, inspiring and providing direction;

• a capacity to influence social change;

• a capacity to read environmental signals and use the right tools and level

of influence for the right context;

• using participatory, cross-boundary and trust-driven approaches;

• valuing collaborative, integrated and holistic ways of working;

• adopting democratic models based on consultation and delegation of

authority;

• focusing on behavioural change;

• being more people-oriented than task-oriented;

• empowering without abandonment;

• using ethical behaviours through personal integrity, honesty and wisdom;

• having gone through a personal development process where leadership

results from life experience;

In addition and specifically during times of crisis:

58

• showing capacity to act rapidly, handling decision-making pressure and

showing innovation;

• positioning purpose as a driving-factor and a means to reconnect to a

common mission and goal.

The findings chapter brought to light additional elements of leadership specific

to the IRC context which, when compared to the secondary literature, have led

the Researcher to the following observations and conclusions.

Findings confirm, to a great extent, the relevance of the above listed leadership

characteristics and indicate that effectiveness is derived from an organisational

approach where leadership is practiced at different layers of the organisation,

often independently from the position and authority held.

The study shows that the vision for organisational change in the IRC started

among the volunteers. They were the ones detecting the inefficiencies of the

system, suffering from a lack of independence and asking for more

empowerment. While these ingredients were present in the base of the

organisation, past formal leaders did not appear to carry the same vision. This

was also due to the existence of many leaders, with overlapping lines of

accountability and conflicting views, which is what put the organisation into a

situation of semi-paralysis for years.

In terms of the hypotheses and the tests applied to them, the first hypothesis of

this research is confirmed by the fact that the top leader alone would not have

managed to initiate the reform and guide the organisation through this process if

followers were not already agitating for change. This confirms the existence,

both before and after the reform, of forms of “invisible leadership” (Murphy,

1988), although it is to be recognised that what appeared to be decisive was

that the new leader was able to represent the base and its vision. Thanks to his

personal style, he was able to build the necessary conditions to initiate the

process. The formal leader was therefore instrumental in building the necessary

competences, systems and culture to take the organisation on a different path

(Nadler & Tushman, 1990).

59

The convergence between the volunteers’ values and beliefs and those of the

national leader was crucial to building necessary legitimacy and ensuring the

influential support that volunteers would have given to the process. In this

sense, the leader’s capacity to show authenticity in practicing his values

generated the necessary organisational commitment (George, Sims, Mayer,

2007; Bennis & Thomas, 2002).

Findings yield interesting insight for those who support contextual leadership

models. The most relevant insight relates to the different leadership approaches

taken by elite leaders toward the external and internal context. External

dynamics were shaped by increasing demands for accountability and value for

money. They influenced the choices that the IRC leadership had to make at this

specific time of change. The dominant forces required adaptation and pushed

for corresponding change of internal dynamics, systems, and structure. One

strength of the new leadership has been in reading those external signs and

using them as a triggering factor to influence the internal context. This required

moving from a passive to an active mode, where necessary steps were taken to

instil a change of organisational behaviours in order to adjust to external

parameters and even take advantage of them.

While theory suggests that leaders in voluntary organisations have generally

low levels of influence versus their context (Macris, 2006), the specific

experience of the IRC shows that leadership played a central role in generating

consensus, demonstrating the importance of mastering policy-driven dynamics

and multi-disciplinary environments (Gibney & Murie, 2008). The IRC

experience also emphasized the often drastic measures needed to ensure a

successful implementation of the reform. Leadership was therefore able to use

high levels of influence, because its efforts were supported by external forces

such as political will and a climate of austerity.

Findings also revealed the importance of the delegating process as a specific

mechanism of shared leadership. The approach adopted at the IRC seems to

match the shared leadership model described in the literature review (Slater &

Doig, 1988). As findings highlighted, delegates are positioned as vehicles of

60

ideas that contribute to achieving the organisational mission. Delegates know

how to talk to volunteers, being volunteers themselves. As such they

demonstrate the importance of a well-functioning relational system where

different layers of the organisation can interact harmoniously, enjoying levels of

peer-influence (Gibney & Murie, 2008). Delegates are networks leaders,

communicators and hence catalysts of change.

Battilana & Casciaro (2013) explain that change agents who are part of

organisational informal networks have a clear advantage over the formal

hierarchy, in bridging disconnected groups and individuals. While formal

authority is a key source of influence, informal influence coming from

organizational networks can be much more productive (Battilana & Casciaro,

2013).

Delegates personify the democratic model versus the monocratic one still in

place at president-level. They represent an area of activity but remain people-

oriented because they know that the task will not be achieved if people do not

subscribe to it. The delegating approach confirms the applicability of the third

hypothesis and relates to secondary literature where emphasis is put on

collective performance and interpersonal relations rather than on self-assertion

(Blunt & Jones, 1996).

Transformational leadership was evident with regard to both formal and informal

leaders. The findings revealed that the organisation, going through a deep

transformation, could have failed if the climate was not conducive to such

changes. Those who led and influenced the reform, at all levels of the

organisation, understood that climate and demonstrated a capacity to provide

consistent direction and, to a large extent, the means of fulfilling it.

Transformation is however a process happening through different stages, as the

classic literature on change management argues (Kotter, 2007), and as such

requiring different skills. Only time will prove whether the IRC's transformation

will deliver its promise, e.g. a stronger and sustainable organisation.

61

The national president19 in particular was able to personify what the ideal RC

leader should be. However, what made the model apparently successful is the

fact that followers found the motivation to change within themselves, and thus

adhered to the proposed transformation. This confirms that transformational

leadership is not unconditionally successful and that followers subscribe to

major changes if they are personally convinced of the benefits of the expected

outcome (Bellé, 2014).

Transformational leadership was altered by patterns of emergency leadership.

The latter model of leadership, by definition, tends to focus on circumstances

and requires the capacity to take risks and make quick decisions under

pressure, hence reducing the level of participation. Despite periods of adversity

requiring the implementation of drastic measures, those in formal positions

remained directive, inclusive and empowering and this made change more

acceptable.

Clarity of the reform purpose was indeed essential for both staff and volunteers

working in the IRC, hence confirming the last hypothesis of the research. For

people who are believed to be values-driven, the purpose of their efforts, of

what they adhere to, must be both explicit and worthy (Kempster, Jackson &

Conroy, 2011). Ambiguity was often mentioned as the enemy of the reform.

However, what was most appreciated was the leaders’ expression of their

commitment to taking the organisation to increased relevance and

sustainability. What people value is commitment to a determined effort and not

necessarily to a successful outcome (Rashid, Edmondson & Leonard, 2013).

Trust is intrinsically linked to ethics and can only be developed when leaders

show they are ready to share the same risk with their followers (Piper, 2012).

19 A volunteer himself and not a paid staff

62

5.2 Recommendations The Researcher would suggest a number of recommendations for the IRC

senior leadership, both in management and governance positions, to take into

consideration. These relate especially to the reform process.

Firstly, communication is an area that requires continuous attention. Nurturing

stakeholders' engagement and dialogue is crucial as it seeks to provide much-

needed clarity about the ultimate outcome of the reform as things unfold.

People in senior positions should ensure that all channels, official and less so,

are used to communicate a consistent message.

Secondly, current tensions between staff and volunteers should not be

neglected. IRC senior officials should identify opportunities for staff and

volunteers to develop a sense of belonging to one unique organisation. One

suggestion could be to organise, sooner rather than later, a national conference

where representatives of both groups can voice their concerns and find

common solutions. From information obtained, while bilateral discussions have

taken place, this type of national gathering has not happened and would be

welcome. Leaders, both formal and informal, need to facilitate this reconciliation

process, allowing staff and volunteers to concretely share where each group

brings value to the organisation and on how to complement each other.

Thirdly, the research identified a need for capacity/skill building of the new

generation of presidents to allow them to meet new accountability requirements.

A suggestion would be for senior management to identify appropriate training

courses that meet these needs. The Learning Platform20 managed by the IFRC

provides learning opportunities to volunteers and staff of National Societies,

through interactive online courses, face-to face training information, and various

social learning tools such as communities of practice, forums, etc.

Another way to facilitate learning, would be to create a knowledge sharing

platform where presidents can share best practices, ideas and concerns,

20 The Learning Platform, available at https://ifrc.csod.com/client/ifrc/default.aspx

63

thereby interacting in an informal but structured way. Peer-support among

presidents could also be envisaged, as part of this learning process.

Exchanges with other National societies who have experienced similar change

processes would also prove beneficial.

With the exception of the knowledge-sharing platform, which may require more

time and resources to implement, the other two suggestions should be easy to

execute.

Finally, and in line with gathered feedback, the Researcher would suggest for

current governance to consider the (re)establishment of consultative boards to

support the presidents of committees. This democratic approach was presented

by many interviewees as an important need to address as soon as the reform is

over and the organisation reaches times of stability.

5.3 Limitations and future directions This study represents an effort to explore leadership patterns in a voluntary

organisation and, as such, contributes additional insight into what effective

leadership should look like in a given cultural and organisational context.

The concept of formal and informal leadership remains subject to different

interpretations and further research on this topic can only be beneficial. This

study’s primary review would suggest that formal positions matter, because they

carry a sense of legitimacy. Even among the volunteers, the delegates, who are

officially elected to coordinate a given activity, carry a “position” and as such

they are expected to lead. In practice, however, this formality matters less,

since it is the collective dynamic, shaped by those who are active in the

organisation and do not necessarily have a given status, which takes the

organisation on a given path.

A limitation of this research is the full transferability of its findings to other types

of voluntary organisations or other organisational contexts, since their validity is

essentially internal-oriented.

64

Additionally, within the IRC, the Researcher was only able to explore trends

visible at central committee level and from local and regional committees in the

north of Italy. Findings may have looked different if for instance committees

from the south, where (hearsay suggests) coverage and service-delivery are

more challenging, had been part of the sample.

Another limitation of this research is in limited exploration of cause-effect,

between deducted leadership characteristics and organisational effectiveness

and performance. This etiology was explored in a limited manner and would

merit future investigations when the reform process is complete.

Moreover, the research did not conclude whether identified characteristics of

leadership can be acquired and learned or whether they are innate or resulting

from life experience. The Researcher’s conclusion is that both dimensions are

valid and complement each other. As such this research should be taken as a

case study, from which learning can nevertheless be obtained to inform future

leadership educational programmes.

An overall recommendation for further research is, therefore, to test the

hypotheses of this study within the same organisation when times of stability

are reached, or on other similar types of voluntary organisations undergoing

similar periods of change in other contexts, for comparative purposes.

65

6 Chapter 6

6.1 References Armstrong, H. (2012). Follow the Leader: Leadership development for the future. Institute of Executive Coaching and Leadership.

Barnes, L.B., Kriger, M.P. (1986). The hidden side of organizational leadership. Sloan Management Review, 28(1), 15-25.

Bass, B.M. (1960). Leadership, psychology, and organizational behaviour. New York: Harper & Brothers.

Battilana, J., Casciaro, T. (2013). The Network Secrets of Great Change Agents. Harvard Business Review.

Bellé, N. (2014). Leading to Make a Difference: A Field Experiment on the Performance Effects of Transformational Leadership, Perceived Social Impact, and Public Service Motivation. Journal of Public Administration Research & Theory.

Bennis, W.G., Thomas, R.J. (2002). Crucibles of Leadership. Harvard Business Review.

Bird, C. (1940). Social psychology. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company.

Blunt, P., Jones, M.L. (1996). Exploring the limits of Western leadership theory in East Asia and Africa. Personnel Review.

Boyle, A.O. (2010). If not now, then when? Leadership and civil society. NCVO.

Bryman, A. (2004). Triangulation. The SAGE Encyclopaedia of Social Science Research Methods, UK.

Burns, J.M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.

Chrislip, D.D., O'Malley, E.J. (2013). Thinking about Civic Leadership. National Civic Review.

Clarke, P.K. (2010). Who's in Charge Here? A literature review of approaches to leadership in humanitarian operations. ALNAP.

Collins, J. (2005). Level 5 Leadership. Harvard Business Review.

Costa, E., Ramus, T., Andreaus, M. (2011). Accountability as a Managerial Tool in Non-Profit Organisations: Evidence from Italian CSVs. Voluntas.

66

Cristofoli, D., Nasi, G., Turrini, A., Vallotti, G. (2011). Civil Service Reforms in Italy: The Importance of External Endorsement and Administrative Leadership. Governance: An International Journal of Policy, Administration, and Institutions, Vol. 24, No. 2, 261-283.

Crossman, A. (n.d.). Deductive Reasoning Versus Inductive Reasoning. Retrieved on April 2014 from About.com Sociology, at http://sociology.about.com/od/Research/a/Deductive-Reasoning-Versus-Inductive-Reasoning.htm

Duck, J.D. (1993). Managing Change. The Art of Balancing. Harvard Business Review.

Duque, R. L. (2010). Catherine Kohler Riessman (2008). Narrative Methods for the Human Sciences. CA, USA: SAGE Publications. FORUM: QUALITATIVE SOCIAL RESEARCH. Volume 11, No. 1, Art. 19, January 2010.

Faraci, P., Lock, M., Wheeler, R. (2013). Assessing leadership decision-making styles: psychometric properties of the Leadership Judgement Indicator. Psychology Research And Behaviour Management.

George, B., Sims, P., McLean, A., Mayer, D. (2007). Discovering your authentic leadership. Harvard Business Review.

Gibney, J., Murie, A. (2008). Toward a "New" Strategic Leadership of Place for the Knowledge-Based Economy. University of Birmingham, Academy for Sustainable communities.

Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that gets results. Harvard Business Review.

Graneheim, U.H., Lundman, B. (2003). Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness. Nurse Education Today, (2004) 24, 105-112.

Hailey, J., James, R. (2004). Trees Die From Top: International Perspectives on NGO Leadership Development. Voluntas.

Hallberg, L. R.-M. (2006). The “core category” of grounded theory: Making constant comparisons. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being. 2006, 1: 141-148.

Harris, M. (2000). The Changing Challenges of Management and Leadership in the UK Voluntary Sector.

Hoy, W.K., Miskel, C.G. (1987). Educational administration: Theory, research, and practice. Third Edition. New York: Random House.

67

Ibarra, H., Ely, R., Kolb, D. (2013). Women Rising: The Unseen Barriers. Harvard Business Review.

Kempster, S. (2009). How Managers have Learnt to Lead: Exploring the Development of Leadership Practice. Palgrave Macmillan, Feb 2009. Chapter 6: Revealing Leadership Learning from Lived Experience.

Kempster, S., Jackson, B., Conroy, M. (2011). Leadership as purpose: exploring the role of purpose in leadership practice. University of Birmingham, University of Auckland.

Kim, C.C., Hays, J.M. (2010). Renaissance Leaders: global trends and emerging forms of leadership. Australian National University.

Kolditz, T.A. (2007). In Extremis Leadership: Leading As if Your Life Depended On It. Jossey-Bass, CA, USA.

Lester, S. (1999). An introduction to phenomenological research. Stan Lester Developments 1999.

Lueneburger, C., Goleman, D. (2010). The Change Leadership Sustainability Demands. MIT Sloan Management Review.

Luffrum, J. (2013). Philosophy, Methodology and Methods. University of Cumbria (power-point presentation)

Macris, A.C. (2006). Contextual Leadership. Update. Vol IV, issue 01-06.

Marta, E., Guglielmetti, C., Pozzi, M. (2006). Volunteerism During Young Adulthood: An Italian Investigation into Motivational Patterns. Voluntas.

McCoun, R. J. (1998). Biases in the interpretation and use of research results. Richard and Rhoda Goldman School of Public Policy, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-7320.

Murphy, J.T. (1988). The unheroic side of leadership: Notes from the swamp. Phi Delta Kappan, 69, 654-659.

Nadler, D.A., Tushman, M.L. (1990). Beyond the Charismatic Leader: leadership and organisational change. California Management Review.

Pearce, C.L., Sims, H.P. (2002). Vertical Versus Shared Leadership as Predictors of the Effectiveness of Change Management Teams. Group Dynamics.

Piper, E.G. (2012). In extremis leadership is useful model for life-and-death situations. Wiley Periodicals, Vol. 8, Iss. 9.

68

Rashid, F., Edmondson, A.C., Leonard, H. B. (2013). Leadership lessons from the Chilean Mine Rescue. Harvard Business Review.

Sapienza, F., (2008). Culture and Context: A Summary of Geert Hofstede's and Edward Hall's Theories of Cross-Cultural Communication for Web Usability. Retrieved on April 2014, from www.filippsapienza.com

Singmann, H., Klauer, K.C. (2011). Deductive and inductive conditional inferences. THINKING & REASONING, 17 (3), 247–281. Psychology Press.

Slater, R.O., Doig, J.W. (1988). Leadership in education: Issues of entrepreneurship. Education and Urban Society, 20(3), 294-301.

Stogdill, R.M. (1948). Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature. Journal of Psychology, 25, 35-71.

Stogdill, R.M. (1974). Handbook of leadership: A survey of theory and research. New York: The Free Press.

6.2 Bibliography Acquadro Maran, D., Soro, G. (2010). The Influence of Organizational Culture in Women Participation and Inclusion in Voluntary Organizations in Italy. Voluntas.

Badaracco, J.L. (1998). The Discipline of Building Character. Harvard Business Review.

Broussine, M., Miller, C. (2005). Leadership, ethical dilemmas and “good” authority in public service partnership working. Business Ethics: A European Review. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Buchanan-Smith, M., Scriven, K. (2011). Leadership in Action: Leading effectively in humanitarian operations. ALNAP.

Clawson, J.G. (2001). Leadership and Intelligence. Darden business publishing. University of Virginia.

Clawson, J.G. (2001). Leading Organisational Design. Darden business publishing. University of Virginia.

Hailey, J. (2006). NGO Leadership Development: A Review of the Literature. INTRAC Praxis Papers.

Heifetz, R.A., Laurie, D.L. (2001). The Work of Leadership. Harvard Business Review.

69

Kotter, J.P. (2007). Leading Change. Why Transformative Efforts Fail. Harvard Business Review.

Ledivina, C.V. (2001). Private Action for Public Good?: The Public Role of Voluntary Sector Organizations. Public Organization Review.

Manning, T. (2012). Managing change in hard times. Industrial and Commercial Training.

Meister, J. (2013). Gamification In Leadership Development: How Companies Use Gaming To Build Their Leader Pipeline. Forbes.

Myers, J. (2004). Developing managers: a view from the non-profit sector. Journal of European Industrial Training.

Palrecha, R., Spangler, W.D., Yammarino, F.J. (2011). A Comparative Study of three leadership approaches in India. The Leadership Quarterly.

Pedersen, D., Hartley, J. (2008). The changing context of public leadership and management. International Journal of Public Sector Management.

Principi, A., Chiatti, C., Lamura, G. (2012). Motivations of older volunteers in three European countries. International Journal of Manpower.

Prouteau, L., Tabariés, M. (2010). Female Leadership in French Voluntary Association. Voluntas.

Quinn, R.E. (2005). Moments of Greatness. Harvard Business Review.

Romero, E.J. (2004). Latin American Leadership: El Patrón & El Líder Moderno. Cross Cultural Management.

Sattelberger, T. (2009). Is Peter Drucker Still Relevant Today? People & Strategy.

Shiva, M., Suar, D. (2011). Transformational Leadership, Organizational Culture, Organizational Effectiveness, and Programme Outcomes in Non-Governmental Organizations. Voluntas.

Stauffer, D. (2002). How Good Data Leads to Bad Decisions. Harvard Business School Publishing.

Wallin, M.I. (2013). Leadership of Volunteers working in crises, catastrophe and conflict - An explorative study. Karolinska Institutet.

70

Appendix A: Summary of presented leadership models and theories

Theory/Model Traits Leadership

Description Extensively explored during 20th century and based on the fact that leaders are born with specific personal characteristics, such as charisma.

Limitations Leaders are not individually born with personal traits that can be clearly distinguished and replicated. Nature of relevant characteristics also challenged. Other identified “traits” include authenticity, humility (Level-5) and personal resilience, which are more the result of personal growth and mindfulness.

Relevance to dissertation context

Relevant identified “traits” include authenticity, humility (Level-5) and personal resilience. Leadership effectiveness appear to be more the result of life experience, of an adaptation and personal development process.

References Bass, 1960; Bird, 1940; Stogdill, 1948, 1974; Collins, 2005; George, Sims, Mayer, 2007; Bennis & Thomas, 2002; Kim & Hays, 2010; Armstrong, 2012

Theory/Model Situational Leadership

Description Proposed during the late ‘60s as an alternative to the challenged “traits model”. The model attributes leadership success or failure to more or less favourable conditions in a given situation, hence admitting the possibility to learn and develop appropriate skills for different situations.

Limitations It was not possible to foresee what forms of leadership are most effective in a given situation and therefore not easily replicable.

Relevance to dissertation context

Limited relevance as leadership effectiveness does not seem to be the result of applying a specific set of skills for a given situation.

References Hoy & Miskel, 1987 Theory/Model Contextual Leadership

Description A model putting context, as an organisational specific and evolving environment, at the centre of the leadership. What matters are not only the attributes, competences and experience of the individual leader but also the

71

capacity to read environment signals and use the right tools and level of influence for the right context.

Limitations Model still focused on the individual leader and his/her ability to fit to/or influence a given context. While requiring skills of a more participatory nature, the model has to be seen within a wider cultural dimension of which context is one aspect. Limitations may result from low cultural sensibility.

Relevance to dissertation context

Model seen appropriate to periods of organisational change as well as to dealing with global environments, as it depicts leaders as more outward-looking and multi-skilled persons.

References Macris, 2006; Hailey & James, 2004 Theory/Model Civic Leadership

Description Concept introduced by P. Drucker (1973) and traditionally attributing civil society leadership to specific sectors (e.g. Social and voluntary sectors). Leaders of those sectors act as facilitators, conveners and catalysts of change.

Limitations The concept appears to be limited to a certain type of context and sector and not broadly replicable. Relevance to dissertation context

Leadership is associated with the capacity to influence social change and matters of public utility and concern, where the capacity to influence is detached from position and authority.

References Drucker, 1973; Chrislip & O’Malley, 2013 Theory/Model Leadership of place

Description Model proposed by Gibney and Murie (2008) and putting contextual and environmental dynamics at the centre of leadership. Leadership approaches have to fit to policy-driven, long-term and vision-led, multi-layers and multi-disciplinary environments (a municipality, a region, but also normative-based institutions). It is more participatory and based on collaborative efforts.

Limitations Not easy to apply as it requires an organisational capacity to lead without formal power, to maintain commitment over long periods of time and make things work through the use of networks and relations. It may not fit to a situation of crisis (identity crisis, organisational change).

Relevance to dissertation context

Leadership effectiveness seen as the result of a participatory, cross-boundary and trust-driven approach, where collaborative, integrated and holistic ways of working are valued.

72

References Gibney & Murie, 2008 Theory/Model Emergency or Crisis Leadership

Description Model applicable to situations of crisis, both of operational and organisational nature. It requires a capacity to act rapidly, address tensions between short-term and long-term objectives, handle decision-making pressure and show innovation.

Limitations The model would appear more successful if a directive or more coercive style is applied. In this sense, it can only be applied for limited periods of time as it would tend to create demotivation and a sense of exclusiveness in the long run.

Relevance to dissertation context

Relevant to periods of organisational change, where there is a need to break failed business habits and create a situation of chaos where new ways of working emerge and where empowerment is balanced with control and boundary settings.

References Leuneburger & Goleman, 2010; Clarke, 2010 (ALNAP); Goleman, 2000; Hailey & James, 2004; Rashid, Edmondson & Leonard, 2013

Theory/Model Shared leadership

Description Model introduced to move away from the individual leader concept, hence seen as more democratic. It implies a relational system in place where influence can be exerted through networks, teams, independent from authority or position. Key characteristics of these leaders are the ability to act as facilitators, be inclusive and less directional.

Limitations When the model is intended as “shared power” it may have little applicability in non-Western culture contexts where power-distance is higher. It may also fail if overused, as would generate poor decision-making, perceived lack of leadership, lack of control and loss of authority. In periods of crisis, the model may add ambiguity and confusion, hence fail because nobody is “in charge”.

Relevance to dissertation context

A democratic model that would fit the context of a voluntary-based organisation, because consultation, delegation of authority and democratic and participatory approaches are valued.

References Slater & Doig, 1988; Murphy 1988; Gibney & Murie, 2008; Clarke, 2010; Blunt & Jones, 1996; Faraci, Lock & Wheeler, 2013

73

Theory/Model Transformational Leadership

Description A model focusing on behavioural change, more people-oriented than task-oriented. Specific characteristics and skills are usually expected from the individual transformational leader, such as a capacity to role-model, to be inspired and inspirational, to provide direction and the means for fulfilling it, to empower without abandoning, and at the same time improvise and adapt.

Limitations Not unconditionally successful as followers must find the motivation within themselves to adhere to the proposed transformation and this requires their involvement and engagement in life / professional experiences which convince them of the benefit of their changed behaviours.

Relevance to dissertation context

Relevant to periods of organisational change in principles-based and value-driven organisations, where leaders’ behaviour and styles are expected to be less aversive, and more directive and empowering,

References Duck, 2002; Kotter, 2007; Kim & Hays, 2010; Pearce & Sims, 2002; Bellé, 2014 Theory/Model Leadership as purpose

Description Model emphasising purpose as an essential aspect of leadership, where purpose is identified as a search for “internal good”. Leaders who position purpose at the heart of their work, also demonstrate personal integrity, honesty and wisdom.

Limitations When purpose is implicit it can lead to negative results and impact. The purpose of a leader may not match with followers’ purposes.

Relevance to dissertation context

People working in voluntary sectors are expected to be driven by a worthy purpose, often of an altruistic nature. Adherence to a meaningful goal is what drives the sector.

References Kempster, Jackson & Conroy, 2011; Marta, Guglielmetti & Pozzi, 2006; Acquadro Maran & Soro, 2010; Costa, Ramus & Andreaus, 2011

Theory/Model Ethical Leadership

Description Not so much a new model in itself as ethical elements are found under other leadership models mentioned above. Because virtue – an Aristotelian ethical conception – and values are seen as key to this type of leadership, ethical leaders would tend to adopt a more “serving” style in their relationships with others.

Limitations To adopt unconditional ethical behaviours is challenging. It requires the willingness to stand by what deserves

74

attention and not to fear potential isolation.

Relevance to dissertation context

Relevant to govern partnerships in the voluntary sector, where what matters are business behaviours based on trust and openness, not bargaining; relevant to support periods of organisational change where qualities such as honesty, integrity and wisdom are at the heart of ethical behaviours which are key to building trust in such periods; relevant to help organisations go through periods of identity crisis of goal-displacement where it is important to reconnect to a common mission and goal.

References Harris, 2000; Kempster, Jackson & Conroy, 2011; Kim & Hays, 2010, Broussine & Miller, 2005

75

Appendix B: Questionnaire Research question and hypotheses The study will analyse what leadership roles and practices were key for the change process recently undergone by the Italian Red Cross. In answering this question, the research will seek: • to identify leadership practices at the IRC. It does this by exploring who (regardless

of formal position) takes initiatives to influence and mobilise people and resources and to realise a given mission;

• to identify specificities of leadership in the given context facing the IRC, and whether contextual leadership models were adopted de facto at different levels of the organization;

• to describe the specific patterns of leadership in the IRC as it was confronted with internal and external challenges during a period of legitimacy crisis, change and reforms.

The questionnaire is not intended for self-completion but is an interview guide to shape semi-structured encounters with identified informants. It proposes open-ended questions, which are structured around the five hypotheses this research aims to test. It is made up of three parts. First, there are some introductory questions which are designed to get to know a little more about the respondents and how they see the Italian Red Cross operating in their daily working life. Part 1 that follows asks individual questions and Part 2 covers questions for focus group discussions. Because interviewees occupy different functions and roles within and outside the organisation, the questions below will be adapted by the interviewer according to the specific interview situation.

……………………………… Introduction questions 1. Could you briefly introduce yourself and describe your leadership profile

- What is your age, function, educational and professional background; - How long have you been in leadership and/or what you would define as

managerial positions, whether within the RC or outside? 2. Could you briefly describe the following attributes of the Italian Red Cross:

- those activities that stakeholders consider to be symbolic of its purpose? - How many organisational layers has the IRC? How many branches at the

lowest level (approximately, if known)?

76

- Who appoints the governing board at branch and central office levels (election by members or lower branch representatives, co-opted, third party influence)?

- Who nominates the regional branch secretaries (the executive secretary in central office, the regional board, other, third party influence)?

PART 1 – Individual questions H1. Organisational change is successful when top leaders do not solely rely on their individual traits and styles to drive the process but succeed in putting followers in the driving seat. The following questions aim at testing what theory says, in particular whether individual or more collective leadership was used to mobilise the organisation through the recent change process.

a. Focus on change process

1. What is your degree of understanding of the change process? (Why was it initiated and what was it for)?

2. What have been the key steps you have personally taken to contribute to the change process (initiate, carry out, etc.)?

3. It is assumed that the change process is proving successful. Do you believe that the change process has been successful? (If 'yes' answered, why?).

4. What signals of change do you see around you today? 5. To whom and/or to what do you attribute success?

b. Focus on leadership

6. Who “formally” led the process? And who informally did so?

7. Would you characterise the process as being top-down or bottom-up? Or both?

8. Who did you engage with, both inside and outside the organisation, in pursuit of change?

9. How did you engage with different groups of stakeholders (staff, volunteers, governance, external, public opinion, etc.)?

10. What skills did you use in your specific role to influence, contribute or adapt to the

process? 11. Which signs confirmed that you had reached a critical mass of followers?

12. What was the followers role? (How did they interact during the process of change?

Were they more passive, or active in how their involvement worked in practice?)

77

13. How did you deal with the way people reacted to the process? With tensions and emotional aspects related to the change process, for instance? (Both for own emotions and for perceived emotions of others)

H2. Organisational change is successful when leaders, formal or informal, are able to influence their environment and context through a collective effort (and the corollary to this is that environment and context influence leadership and organisational change). The following questions aim at testing what theory says in relation to context and contextual leadership, and see whether practice in the IRC confirms or rejects found theory. Need to explain difference between formal and informal leadership.

a. Stakeholders focus

1. Which stakeholders exerted the greatest pressure in favour or against the process? And how? (What made them so powerful?)

2. Was this pressure sustained over the course of the entire change process, or was it

especially sharply felt at particular points in the process? 3. Did you need to create a sense of urgency? Or was the organisation in a

recognised status of crisis? Was this sense of urgency / crisis perceived by many? Or only few? Inside and/or outside the organisation?

4. It has been argued that one needs a minimum mass of agents for change to

transform an organisation. Did you need to create a critical mass to get things done?

5. If so, how did you create this mass? (What role did you personally play? Who else

played an important role?) 6. How did you go about generating motivation, approval, engagement and

commitment?

b. Contextual focus

7. What steps did you take to influence the culture / environment of the IRC so that it would enable a successful change process?

8. Who took steps to influence organisational culture in favour of the change process? People with formal authority? Informal (volunteers)? Others from outside the agency?

9. Did you clearly identify different stages in the process and what skills and tools did

you use to navigate through those? 10. Which attributes, competences and experience did you find most valuable during

the process? (found most appropriate to lead the process).

11. How were cultural and contextual obstacles removed?

78

12. What did not work? Why? What is perhaps still unresolved?

13. Did the context (culture) / environment force you to change your tactics? If positive, how did you adapt?

H3. Effective voluntary organisations are people-oriented and effectively use shared leadership approaches to deliver on their mission. The questions below aim at getting a better idea of what is understood by leadership in the IRC.

a. Focus on leadership characteristics and forms

1. What do you understand by “leadership”? 2. What is specific about being a leader in the Red Cross/Red Crescent compared to

other organisations, both in the profit and non-profit environment?

3. What makes being a leader within the Red Cross/Red Crescent different when you compare it to other organisations? It would be useful if you could provide examples of what is different in practice.

4. Which dimensions, functions and tasks do you see as most important in a voluntary organisation such as the IRC? Do you prioritise your work time according to the importance that you place on functions? Or is this in conflict with what you believe should be the way?

5. Which are the most important dimensions, functions, tasks for you as a leader?

Why? With this question, the person interviewed is encouraged to reflect on which are the most important dimensions, functions and tasks for them as leaders and, most importantly, aims at initiating a discussion on “why” these are so important. These dimensions, functions or tasks may include strategy, vision, mission; planning and administration; people management; lobbying; control, monitoring, evaluation, others

6. What are the most important skills/areas of knowledge needed in your leadership

role?

b. Focus on decision-making processes

7. How are decisions taken when it comes to choosing, modifying or abandoning activities and resources? (Who has the power? How is power shared? Resources is used here in the broad sense, including financial, people, skills, technical expertise).

8. Are there other people in your National Society who are regarded as leaders

without having a formal decision-making role? Who and why?

79

9. Can they influence strategic decisions? Who has informal power? This question follows on from previous ones. It aims at increasing the likelihood that different forms of leadership are mentioned. This can be in the form of mentors, people that are admired, former executive leaders, or other people outside the National Society that are influential, etc. Specific examples should be captured.

H4. Transformational leadership has a greater effect on organizational change when it is people-oriented. 1. The organisation has been going through a transformation in structural, legal and

operational terms. Did you, as leader, make the difference?

2. How did you go about leading this transformation? 3. Which approach did you adopt and why? (this question aims at capturing whether

transformational leadership tactics were adopted, such as forward-thinking, clear vision and direction, meaning-making, innovative approaches, etc.)

4. How did you go about changing “the way things are done here”? Did you change

the tasks required of people? did you introduce new systems and processes? Were new competences needed? Was new learning and training provided?

5. What means did you give to people to make the changes required? 6. How did you build trust and confidence? Note: the above questions can be asked in the passive form if the person interviewed is not a leader (formal or informal). For example: did you feel confident and entrusted? Were you given the means to make the changes required? Etc H5. Clarity of ethical purpose is essential for value-driven people who are undergoing periods of organisational change and increases the chances of success of the organisational change process. 1. What was the purpose of the change process? Was it more linked to financial and

economic dimensions, political dimensions, to mission, to relevance of services, to external perception, image, credibility and accountability?

2. Was the purpose of change clear to people? How did you make it clear? 3. Was its expected end result clear as well? How did you make it clear? 4. What holds your organisation together today? What is the glue? Is this different

from before the change? 5. What attracts people to the IRC today?

80

6. What does the IRC offer that other Voluntary Organisations in Italy do not?

……………………….. Part Two – Focus Group discussion with volunteers Introduction: Explain the purpose of this study and how the group discussion will be facilitated. Reassure the audience about the confidentiality of this process, and of the importance of openness and freedom of opinion (no right or wrong answer). Re-state that participation is voluntary and explain that results will be presented at a group level, unidentified at individual level. Opening and general questions:

• Short individual introduction (name, function) • What is the reason you decided to work as a volunteer for the Red Cross? • What are your respective tasks as volunteers? Individually and as a group? • Can you briefly describe the skills and qualities required from volunteers? Is it

just about technical expertise or also about personal skills? • How do you organise your work as a group? • What level of influence / decision-making do you believe you have in terms of

choosing activities and mobilising resources? • Is the process strongly other-determined or do you have a degree of flexibility?

Key questions about leadership:

• What does the word “leadership” mean to you? • In what way do you think the leader is important in your work? • What kind of support do you need in your work? • Do you think a leader can support you at work? How? • Do you have a team-leader? Or do you share equal responsibilities in the

group? • If you have a leader, how is he/she different from the rest of the group? • What do you expect from your “group” leader? Is this different from what you

would expect from a “formal” leader in the organisation? • If you do not have a team-leader, how does the work get allocated? Who

decides? How do you reach decisions? • What do you think is working well when you think about leadership and a leader

in the IRC and what could be better? • Please identify and describe a situation when you needed your leader, when

was the leader a help for you? Key questions about the organisation / change process:

• How has the organisation changed in the last 5 – 10 years? • Is the organisational vision, mission and goal clear to you?

81

• Are you clear about your role within the organisation and how this contributes to the organisational goal?

• How would you assess the morale among staff and volunteers? Is the change process affecting you personally, either positively or negatively?

• How do you engage in this process, at your level? Rounding up questions:

• What do you think is the most important topic / aspect we have discussed today?

• Is there anything else you would like to add?