15LCSHD Paper Series

Department of Human Development

The Preparation of Teachersin Latin America:Challenges and Trends

Eleonora Villegas-Reimers

May 1998

- The World Bank

Latin America and Caribbean Regional Office

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LCSHD Paper Series

No. I Van der Gaag and Winkler, Chiildren of the Poor in Latin America and the Caribbean

No. 2 Schneidman, Targeting At-Risk Youtl: Rationales, Approaches to Service Deliveiy andMonitoring and Evaluation Issues

No. 3 Harrell, Evaluacion de los Programaspara Ni-tosy Jovenes Vulnerables

No. 4 Potashnik, Computers in the Schools: Cltile's Learning Network

No. 5 Barker and Fontes, Review and Analysis of International Experience with Programs Targetedon At-Risk Youth

No. 6 Lewis, Measuring Public Hospital Costs: Empirical Evidence from the Dominican Republic

No. 7 Edwards, Bruce and Parandekar, Primary Education Efficiency in Honduras: Wlhat Remains to beDone?

No. 8 Winkler, Descentralizacion de la Educacion: Participacion en el Alanejo de las Escuelasal Nivel Local

No. 9 Meza, Descentralizacion Educativa, Organizaci6n y Man ejo de las Escuelas al Nivel Local:EDUCO, el Caso de El Salvador

No. 10 Espinola, Descentralizacidn Educativa, Organizaci6n y Manejo de las Escuelas al Nivel Local:El Caso de Chtile

No. 11 Guedes, Lobo, Walker and Amaral, Gestitn Descentralizada de la Educacidn enel Estado de Minas Gerais, Brasil

No. 12 Cominetti and Ruiz, Evolucion del Gasto Ptiblico Social en America Latina: 1980- 1995

No. 13 Bedi and. Edwards, The Impact of School Quality on the Level and Distribution of Earnings:Evidencefront Honiduras

No. 14 Duthilleul, Do Parents Matter? The Role of Parental Practices on Fourthl Graders' ReadingComtnprelhentsioni Aclhievemeiet in Montevideo Public Schools

No. 15 Villegas-Reimers, The Preparation of Teachers in Latin A4mnerica: Clhalleng-es and Trenils

No. 16 Edwards and Liang, Mavico 's Preschools: Coverage, Equity and Impact

No. 17 Soares, Time Finantcing of Education in Brazil: Witlh Special Referenice to the Nortl, ANortheastamid Ceenter- West Regions

No. 18 Salmi, Equity amid Quality in Private Education: The Haitian Paradox

Human Development DepartmentLCSHD Paper Series No. 15

The Preparation of Teachers in Latin AmericaChallenges and Trends

Eleonora Villegas-Reimers

May 1998

Papers prepared in this series are not formal publications of the World Bank. Theypresent preliminary and unpolished results of country analysis or research that iscirculated to encourage discussion and comment; any citation and use of this papershould take account of its provisional character. The findings, interpretations, andconclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors and should not beattributed in any manner to the World Bank, its affiliated organization members of itsBoard of Executive Directors or the countries they represent.

The World BankLatin America and the Caribbean Regional Office

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Table of Contents

Page No.

Introduction ....... 1

I. Background information on Teacher Preparation in Latin America. 2

A renewed interest on teacher preparation in the region. 2

Status of teacher preparation. 2

Types of teacher preparation that exist in the region. 3

"Types" of teachers found in the region. 4

II. Problems and Challenges about the Preparation of Teachersin Latin America .

A. Problems with the candidates entering the profession .5

B. Problems with the initial preparation teachers receive. 6

C. Problems with the teaching profession, as they relate toteacher preparation . ................................. 14

D. Problems with in-service education; keeping up-to-date ..... ........ 19

III. Conclusions ..................................................... 23

References ............................................................ 25

Appendix: Questions to guide researchers and policy-makersin evaluating a country's system of teacher preparation .29

A!

Introduction

This paper summarizes the current status of pre-service and in-service teacher preparationin Latin America. It synthesizes research on the problems and challenges faced by the countriesof the region with regard to adequate teacher preparation. Besides describing these problems inthe text, the Appendix presents a set of questions that researchers and policy-makers can use toguide research and planning for the reform of a teacher preparation system.

The information presented in this study was collected over a period of several months, in1995 and 1996, through reviews of published and available unpublished materials (in Englishand Spanish), visits to countries in the region (Argentina, Chile, Paraguay and Venezuela),attendance to national and regional conferences, and interviews (in person and over thetelephone) with leading educators in the region who work in Ministries of Education andResearch Centers.

The summaries of the region's problems and questions related to teacher preparationshould help policy-makers, planners, and researchers formulate integrated approaches toimproving the preparation of teachers in Latin America.

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I. Background Information on Teacher Preparation in Latin America

A renewed interest on teacher preparation in the region

There is a renewed interest in improving the preparation of teachers in Latin Americancountries. This increasing interest can be observed in the growing number of studies and essayswritten in the last few years about teacher preparation in the region; and the number of nationaland international meetings organized in the region to discuss teacher preparation and to learnabout new initiatives is on the rise. There also has been an increased number of educationreforms taking place in many countries of the region, all of which include an emphasis on thetransformation of teacher preparation processes.

The origin of this renewed interest is based on three interrelated premises accepted bymost educators in the region. First, the idea that the quality of a country's education systemdepends in great part on its teachers (Marquez, 1995; Mogrovejo, 1994; Schiefelbein & Tedesco,1995); second, an understanding of the correlation between the professional preparation ofteachers their practices in the classroom (Velez et al., no date); and third, a belief that teachers'practices have a significant effect on students' academic performance and learning (Schiefelbeinetal., 1994).

Status of teacher preparation

The problems and challenges of teacher preparation faced by the individual countries ofthe region are very similar, with varying degrees of intensity in different countries (Castro, 1991;Schiefelbein & Tedesco, 1995).

All the countries in the region agree that the state of teacher preparation is quite poor(Castro, 1991). This is evidenced in the writings about teacher preparation found in the region,and also in many empirical studies that report that teachers are aware of their own poorpreparation. For example, Schiefelbein, et al. (1994), report that in studies conducted in Brazil,Argentina, Chile, Mexico, and Bolivia, many teachers have agreed that there is a need to havemore preparation. In addition, the countries are aware that the academic performance of theirstudents is poor. Recent statistics show that 50% of the fourth grade children in Latin Americaare not able to report what they have just read, even though they are able to decode the words(Silva, 1995). Educators in different countries agree that teachers' poor skills and knowledgecontribute significantly to low levels of learning.

The reasons for the poor quality of teacher preparation are varied. First, there is evidencethat countries have been making major efforts to improve their teacher preparation programs(Schiefelbein & Tedesco, 1995; Silva, 1995), as evidenced by the number of recent reforms that

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include a teacher preparation component. Second, there is evidence that the recent reformn effortshave been successful in increasing the quantity of teachers. Yet, as mentioned before, the pooracademic performnance of students suggests that the current systems for preparing teachers are notsuccessful.

Factors that help explain the poor status of teaching preparation in the region aredescribed in the next section of the paper. One factor not included in that list is the timing of thereform. That is, the fact that teacher preparation reforms usually follow curricular reforms. Onlyafter the new curricula for basic and secondary education have been implemented for a few yearsdo new programs get implemented at the teacher preparation level (an example of this situation isthe case of Venezuela, described in Villegas-Reimers, 1994). Thus, teachers with inadequatepreparation are asked to implement new curricula and use new teaching methods. By the timethe "new" system of teacher preparation is in place, their students' poor results with the "newcurriculum and new teaching methods" are often already taken as "evidence" that the reform doesnot work. This problem will only be corrected when those in charge of planning andimplementing an education reform realize that teachers play a double role in a reform: theyare not only agents of educational transformation, but also must be objects of changethemselves.

Types of teacher preparation that exist in the region

Before analyzing the state of teacher preparation in the region, and describingother factors that help explain its problems and challenges, it is necessary to clarify some termsused in the literature. The different terms used in the literature refer to different phases in theteacher preparation process.

1. "Formaci6n" refers to pre-service preparation; some refer to it as "preparaci6n inicial"[initial preparation].

2. "Capacitaci6n," "Perfeccionamiento," "Actualizaci6n," or "Formaci6n Continua," allrefer to in-service preparation, but only as it relates to teachers who are alreadycertified. This type of in-service preparation usually consists of short courses thatintend to improve the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of teachers who have finished aformal teacher preparation program. The different labels mentioned above are used assynonyms, and each country tends to use one or two consistently.

3. "Profesionalizaci6n" also refers to in-service preparation, but only for individuals whoare working as teachers but have not completed a formal teacher-preparation program(and have no certification). Some are professionals in other areas (for example,

biologists, architects, lawyers); some only have finished secondary or evenprimary education.

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"Types" of teachers found in the region

There are five "types" of teachers that can be found in almost every country of the region.This classification is based on the kind of preparation teachers have, the type of institutions thatgranted their degrees, and the kind of preparation offered in that institution.

First, there is the "Maestro Normalista," a certified elementary school teacher whograduated from a Normal School. The Normal Schools used to be post-primary education andhave become post-secondary education. In a few countries the Normal School was transformedinto a Secondary school that offered a high school diploma (Bachiller) and a professionalteaching certification simultaneously. In that case, teachers were identified as "BachilleresNormalistas."

Second, there are graduates from Institutos Pedag6gicos or Profesorados. These are post-secondary centers specialized in preparing teachers at different levels (pre-school, elementary, orsecondary teachers). In a few countries, these institutions are considered in the same category asa university. Graduates from these institutions usually have the degree of "Profesor."

Third, there are teachers who have finished a University degree in Education. Thesedegrees vary from country to country, but their studies usually last at least 4 years. Thegraduates from a University program have the degree of "Licenciado" or "Profesor."

Fourth, there are teachers who have finished a University degree in areas other thaneducation. They are not considered certified teac]hers. Most of this type of teachers teach at theSecondary level, as they are graduates from the fields they teach (for example, they are Engineersand teach Math, or are Historians and teach History).

Fifth, there is a group of teachers who have no certification and no professional degree. Inthis group, we find: a) teachers who have finished secondary education; b) teachers who havefinished only primary education. All countries report that these "non-certified" teachers are aminority. Most are found in rural areas where the difficult conditions make it very hard to attractprofessional certified teachers (Gajardo & Andraca, 1992; Tovar, 1989; Schiefelbein & Tedesco,1995).

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II. Problems and Challenges about the Preparation of Teachers in Latin America

This section describes the challenges found in the preparation of teachers in almost everycountry in Latin America, although the level of intensity will vary from country to country. Thechallenges are listed under four (related) categories:

A. Problems with the candidates entering the profession.B. Problems with the initial preparation teachers receive.C. Problems with the teaching profession as they relate to

teacher preparation.D. Problems with the processes by which teachers are asked to

keep up-to-date in their preparation.

Even though each problem is listed and analyzed individually, they are interconnected.Therefore, a major challenge for those interested in improving the preparation of teachers in theregion is to find modelsthat address a multiplicity of problems simultaneously.

A. Problems with the candidates entering the profession

Poor academic preparation prior to coming to teacher preparation institutions.Educators in most countries agree that the candidates who are coming to the teaching professionare among the worst --if not the worst-- of all the students who could be teacher candidates.'These students have a low academic profile and/or choose this field as a transitioning field intheir professional life (Schiefelbein & Tedesco, 1995)

Finding an explanation for this situation brings up a complex web of problems. First,teacher candidates are poorly prepared because their teachers are poorly prepared; thus, having"the worst" possible candidates for the profession reproduces the low quality of teachers alreadyin the market. Second, the teaching profession has little prestige and status, and the salaries arelow. Therefore, most of those who choose to enter the field, do so because they know that theyhave few other options. In fact, many educators in the region believe that most students do not"choose" to join the teaching profession; on the contrary, after being denied entrance into otherfields because of low academic performance, students realize that teaching is the last alternative(Marquez, 1995).

lGysling (1991) reports that the grade point average of 80% of the students admitted to the Instituto Pedag6gico deChile between 1976 and 1990 was the lowest when compared with that of students entering other fields. Burgos (1989)reports that the Pontificia Universidad Cat6lica de Lima (Perfi) had to design a separate and easier admissions test forstudents who were applying to the teaching field as these candidates could not complete the minimum requiredperformance in the general admissions test Similar reports on the poor preparation of candidates can be found forBrazil (Davini, 1989), Argentina (Davini, 1995), Paraguay (Reimers, 1993); Venezuela (Villegas-Reimers, 1992), andmany other countries in the region.

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Teaching is not selected as a profession. As mentioned above, most students select theteaching profession because they see no other option. This self-selection brings to the fieldpoorly prepared students who have no motivation or dedication. Among the reasons forchoosing the teaching profession --besides being the profession with the lowest entrancerequirements and academic expectations (and thus, the easiest) in most countries-- it is foundthat:

* Teacher preparation is usually less expensive for students than the preparation in otherfields.

* The time necessary to finish the teaching preparation process is usually shorter than thatof many other careers.

* Getting certified as a teacher almost always guarantees a job upon graduation gue to theshortage of certified teachers that exists in most countries.

* Teaching preparation programs are usually not "too difficult." Academic expectationsof candidates are low, and many students feel comfortable with the "easiness" of theirstudies.

Personal characteristics of candidates often do not match teachers' requirements. As aresult of the multiplicity of reasons students have to "choose" the teaching profession, most whoare "attracted" to the field do not have the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required of "good" andmotivated teachers. However, given the shortage of teachers in every country, teacherpreparation institutions offer them admissions anyway. This fact is a cause and a consequence ofthe points already explained.

There has been a drop in the number of candidates applying to teacher preparationinstitutions. With very few exceptions, the number of students applying to teacher preparationprograms in the region has decreased in the past few years. In many countries this may bebecause students are now required to complete a university program in order to be certified asteachers. There are a few exceptions to this decrease in the number of candidates reported in theliterature. In Paraguay and some of the poorest provinces of Argentina, there has been a renewedinterest in the Teaching Profession (Ovelar de Duarte et al., 1995) and a significant increase inteachers' salaries; Davini (1995) cites this as evidence that teaching is usually chosen becausethere are no other professional options.

B. Problems with the initial preparation teachers receive

The curriculum of teacher preparation institutions is deficient. There are majorcriticisms of the curriculum offered in most teacher preparation institutions in the region. "In

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fact, the criticism about the quality of the curriculum [in institutions that prepare teachers] isgeneralized and clear. Nobody is satisfied with what exists, and everyone has an opinion on thematter" (Castro, 1991, p. 69, my translation).

In the previous analysis of the plans and programs of study in the teacher preparationinstitutions in the region, the following curriculum problems were reported:

* Plans and programs do not include philosophical or political contents (for example,values of democracy, freedom, promotion of peace, etc.).

* Plans and programs do not include "subjects related to the teaching profession, thesocial commitment, and the Union commitment that is required of the professionalwork of educators" (p. 73, my translation).

* Plans and programs either exclude or do not include enough teaching of workmethods and subjects that have become very important lately: non-formal education,non- conventional teaching strategies, open classrooms, educational technology,community development, etc.

* Plans and programs do not include any kind of preparation on how to deal withproblems such as dropping-out, grade repetition, and lack of attendance to classes.

* Plans and programs in a majority of the countries do not reflect the results ofpsychological or socio-cultural research that could have been completed to helpdesign these programs.

* Most plans and programs in the region have not been evaluated, not even the so-called "experimental" programs.

* Plans and programs do not promote an interest in developing the new teacher's abilityto do education research or to learn more about innovations and pedagogical renewal.They also do not include the study of methods needed to adapt the new

curriculum to the different socio-cultural conditions in the country.* Plans and programs reflect no interest or little emphasis in preparing teachers to work

in communities of indigenous people, rural areas or urban poor.

In a more recent study, Davini (1995) reports that among the most common problemsidentified by teachers in regards to their preparation are:

* a divorce between theory and practice (also reported by many other authors such asSubirats & Nogales, 1989; Silva, 1995; Ministerio de Educaci6n y Cultura deArgentina, 1991);

* the fragmentation of the curriculum; the parts of which appear uncoordinated;the unconnectedness between the teachings of specific subject matters and theirpedagogy;

* the complex relationship that the institutions of teacher preparation have with schools;and

* the difficulty in influencing the transformation of school teaching practices.

8

Finally, there is a call to switch the emphasis of teacher preparation from trainingindividuals to give information to students and to simply "interpret" the curriculum given to themby the Ministries of Education, to preparing facilitators who help students learn how to learn andknow how to be designers and developers themselves. The question for Latin Americancountries is whether it is possible (and efficient) to revise the curriculum so that it preparesteachers to be creative when they enter the profession with such weak academic backgrounds orwhether teacher preparation institutions should improve their ability to strengthen the knowledgebase of new teachers, leaving the development of teachers' creativity and research skills for thefuture. Looking at the initial preparation of teachers as the first step (and not the only one) in theprocess may help plan curricula that allows institutions to accomplish all goals listed above.

Most preparation is theory-based, and includes little or no practicum. One of the majorproblems of teacher preparation in Latin America is that teacher preparation programs emphasizethe learning of theories and facts. They offer almost no opportunity for students to practice theirteaching skills prior to graduation (Paredes de Meafios, 1995; Reimers, 1993; Subirats &Nogales, 1989). This is a serious limitation because teaching and all the skills necessary to be agood teacher can only be learned effectively by doing them. Student-teachers are not providedwith that opportunity during their years of preparation, thus leaving that important aspect of theirlearning to chance and to the first few years of unguided professional experience.

Normal Schools usually offer more opportunity for practice than University programs do.Aguerrondo (1987) reports that teachers who have graduated from Normal Schools in Argentinaget better results than any other type of teachers. However, the tendency in most countries is forNormal Schools to disappear and for University degrees to replace them (Schiefelbein &Tedesco, 1995).

The few opportunities for teaching practice are usually offered at the end of the teacherpreparation program. This appears to be based on the belief that the practicum is a complementto the teaching preparation process rather than a fundamental part of it (Castro, 1991). Also, itappears as if the practicum is conceived necessary only as a way to illustrate theory rather than asan essential experience in the acquisition of specific teaching skills (Ministerio de Cultura yEducaci6n de Argentina, 1991).

When field practice occurs cooperating teachers often are not good role models forstudent-teachers. For example, Reimers (1993) reports that in Paraguay, teachers who teach inthe practicum site are not selected for their qualities, but by the convenience of the schoollocation. They frequently leave the classrooms while the student-teachers teach their classes; andthey are not integrated into the activities of the teacher preparation institutions. In fact, in mostcountries they do not receive any kind of orientation or training to become cooperating teachers.

9

Another problem is that most cooperating (or mentor) teachers in teaching practice tendto use traditional teaching methods almost all the time. As a result, many student-teachers reportnot taking initiatives in bringing innovations into the classroom or in trying new teachingmethods for fear of receiving a lower grade if they contradict the cooperating teacher's practices(Davini, 1995).

Finally, many studies show that after their preparation, most teachers do not do what theywere taught in the teacher preparation institution but what they have seen (Silva, 1995). Sincestudents have very little chance to see teachers practicing effective teaching skills with children,they tend to rely on what they experienced when they were children (Davini, 1995) or on whattheir teachers at the teacher preparation institution did (Silva, 1995).

Preparation is usually of one kind to all teachers, as if populations were completelyhomogeneous. The preparation offered by most teacher preparation institutions in the regionseems to be based on the assumption that teachers will be teaching homogeneous populations.Most prograrns focus on the characteristics of urban children and urban schools; on children whospeak Spanish only; and on children with middle class characteristics and possibilities. This, ofcourse, does not represent the majority of the children in the region. In consequence, teachers arenot being prepared to respond to the needs and characteristics of most children in their countries(Castro, 1991; Gajardo & Andraca, 1992; Marquez, 1995; Tovar, 1989). However, in somecountries (Mexico and Venezuela, for example) there are specializations offered in some teacherpreparation institutions to learn how to teach indigenous populations and rural populations(Centro de Reflexi6n y Planificaci6n Educativa, 1988).

Efforts to increase the number of educated and certiied teachers has affected the qualityof the preparation. This represents probably one of the most difficult dilemmas educationsystems face in the region. The insufficient number of teachers has forced teacher preparationinstitutions to lower their admissions standards and the quality of their programs as a way toattract and retain more candidates. The dilemma is how to keep or increase the number ofcandidates while at the same time toughening admissions requirements and improving the qualityof the programs.

In some countries, teacher preparation programs are too short to adequately prepareteachers. In most countries, teacher preparation programs are much shorter than programs inother professional fields. However, short programs do not offer much opportunity for students tolearn all the skills and knowledge necessary to become effective teachers (especially when mostcandidates already come with a weak academic preparation), nor do they offer enough time forsignificant practical experiences. This represents a dilemma: on one hand, the demand on thenumber of teachers is so great in the region that anything that can be done to attract more and

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better candidates and facilitate their successful completion of a program is welcome. On theother hand, having short programs as a way of attracting more candidates may mean that there isnot enough time for the students to study enough to become excellent teachers. The tendencyseen in recent years is a lengthening of the program for all levels (Castro, 1991; Schiefelbein &Tedesco, 1995; Silva, 1995). This has been done for several reasons: a belief that more years ofpreparation will make a better teacher; a belief that having more years of preparation will givemore status to the profession, making it easier to raise salaries and bring more prestige toteachers; and the need to transform teacher preparation programs from a secondary or post-secondary type of education to a university education.

However, length of the program in itself does not guarantee an improvement in thequality of the program. In fact, even though the average number of years of teacher preparationhas increased in every country, the academic perfornance of students has worsened (Schiefelbein& Tedesco, 1995). Now more than before, children are having difficulty learning how to readand write, and how to solve problems with math concepts and operations. This, of course, hasnot helped improve the teachers' status or salaries either.

Rural teachers are usually the worst prepared, and the most required to work in difficultconditions. According to many researchers, everything is more difficult for rural teachers thanfor urban teachers. For example, the research reports that rural teachers have less job-stabilityand less preparation, especially considering that they work with multiple grades. Rural schoolshave harsh job conditions (i.e. personal safety, dilapidated classrooms, etc.) and experiencehigher absenteeism of both teachers and students, which limits the actual time to leam(Schiefelbein, Braslavsky, Gatti & Farrds, 1994).

In the rural areas there is a higher concentration of teachers with no certification. Forexample, Schiefelbein and Tedesco (1995) report that "in the municipal systems [of the countriesof the region] where 29% of the teaching jobs at the primary level are found, and where 73% ofstudents in the rural areas receive their education, 40% of the teaching jobs are in the hands ofpeople who only have primary education" (p.96, my translation). "In the jungle area [of Peru]three fourths of the teachers have no certification; in the Sierra area, 40% have no certification"(Tovar, 1989, p. 62. my translation).

The preparation of rural teachers represents a particular challenge for the region. In mostcountries all teachers are prepared in the same type of institutions, with the same type ofprogram, and no consideration is given to the kinds of populations teachers will teach aftergraduation (Davini, 1995). Yet, in others (Bolivia, for example) urban teachers and ruralteachers are educated separately (in programs that are not equivalent in quality). In both cases,many educators have been critical of the practices. When there is only one type of program, thecriticism is that teachers are being prepared as if the populations they will teach arehomogeneous, when in fact that is not the case. When the programs are differentiated, the

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criticism is that there is discrimination against rural populations and rural teachers as theseteachers receive weaker preparation than urban teachers. Then, once they graduate, they are onlyallowed to teach in rural schools while urban teachers can teach in any type of school.

Teacher preparation reproduces the traditional teaching systems and the unjust socialorganization of societies. Among the many criticisms found in the literature about teacherpreparation, one of the strongest is that it reproduces what is already in existence and does notpromote change, transformation or innovations of any kind. In this regard, Castro (1991)concludes that teacher preparation institutions prepare teachers "who only work in a way that isexcessively verbal and involves only lecturing; who reduce teaching to a simple chore of using apiece of chalk and a blackboard; who abuse manipulative methods; who are deficient in planningactivities; who are rigid interpreting and implementing discipline; who interact with studentsonly in a top-down way; who have skills developed only in a formalized and rigid format; whoare ignorant about methods of globalizing learning; and who, in sum, lack vocation and love fortheir work" (p. 70, my translation).

In addition, Castro (1991) also reports that teacher preparation institutions reproduce thefailures of the culture and the inequalities of the social systembecause if these characteristics ofthe teachers.

There is no correspondence between the ideal that countries point out as needed and thekind of preparation that teachers receive. Researchers of teacher preparation in the region haveconcluded that "the interest that the [education] systems say they have in ideals such asdemocracy, creativity, reflective thinking, participation, tolerance, etc., is almost invisible in theorganizational styles and the conventional practices found in institutions of teacher preparation.The segmented and hierarchical organization of the systems, their top-down style, theirencyclopedic and verbalistic tone, their theoretical contradictions, their time gaps, their financialtroubles, and their coordination problems can be found everywhere in the organization and thecurriculum of teacher preparation" (Castro, 1991, p. 65, my translation).

In addition, in almost every country, the plans and programs of teacher preparation do notmatch what teachers are expected to teach in elementary and secondary education (forillustrations see Paredes de Meafios, 1995; Villegas-Reimers, 1992). Thus, teachers are notbeing prepared to execute the plans and programs designed by the Ministries of Education, norare they being prepared to design their own plans and programs.

There is little match between the demand of specialized teachers in the country, and thespecializations offered in teacher preparation institutions. In most countries of the region thereis a mismatch between the demand and the availability of teachers specialized in particular areas

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(Castro, 1991). According to reports presented by all countries of the region in Quito in 1988,most countries experience a shortage of specialized teachers in one area and an excess of teachersspecialized in other areas. This creates problems such as teachers teaching in areas for whichthey were not prepared (but where there is a need to have certified teachers); teachers who canonly find a few hours to teach (and not a full- time job); and teachers who have too manycontracts and commitments to teach in one day (mostly in the urban areas).

Teacher educators also have a weak preparation, and little or no connection withschools. Another important factor that explains why teacher preparation is weak is the limitededucation of teacher educators in the region2 , and the fact that many teacher educators have beenselected and promoted because of friendships and political ties with people in government(Reimers, 1993; Schiefelbein & Tedesco, 1995). Furthermore, despite the increase in the numberof years required for teachers in their initial preparation, teacher-educators continue to receive thesame kind of preparation that they have received for decades (Silva, 1995), and there has beenlittle in-service training for them.

Finally, teacher educators lack connections and communication with schools causingthem not to be up to date on the innovations and practices in the schools of the country or thecharacteristics of the students (Silva, 1995; Urra, 1995); and they do not have the research skillsand reading habits that would significantly enhance their ability to keep their knowledge up todate.

There is isolation of teacher preparation institutions from each other and from otherinstitutions preparing professionals in other fields. There is a lack of integration of "purposes,efforts and resources among institutions that prepare teachers, and between these and the publicand private institutions in charge of education in each country" (Castro, 1991, p. 67, mytranslation). This "isolation" is a disadvantage, as the same efforts are reproduced in many of theinstitutions, taking time away from developing new strategies and knowledge. According toCastro (1991), the different institutions that prepare teachers in the region (whether dependent onthe federal government, provincial government, universities which are autonomous from thegovernment, or private institutions) have different conceptions, understanding, and plans andprograms of teacher preparation, despite the fact that most of them follow the curricularguidelines given by the Ministries of Education. Because there is no regular communicationamong them, they do not collaborate in their efforts.

In the last few years, however, efforts have been made to bring together many of theseinstitutions. Schiefelbein and Tedesco (1995) report some "attempts in every country to reach a

2 For example, in Jamaica (Evans, 1989) teacher educators in the Faculty of Education and in the Teachers' Collegesare required to have a Bachelor's degree. A few have a Master's degree, but it is not required. Evans (1989) also reportsthis is the case in the Belize Teachers' Colleges. In Paraguay most teacher educators only have a teaching degree(tertiary level degree) and there are only a few who have finished a university program (Ovelar de Duarte et al., 1995).

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better coordination among the different institutions that prepare teachers" (p. 88, my translation).This same tendency towards more cooperation was observed by Castro in 19913. In addition,countries are making efforts to have similar teaching preparation curricula across institutions thatprepare teachers based on the fact that teachers are going to teach the same national curriculum totheir classes. This has raised criticism from some educators who believe that the autonomy ofeach institution should be preserved and respected and that, therefore, each institution should befree to design its own teacher preparation program.

The way that some countries have solved this conflict is to have a specific proportion ofthe curriculum of teacher preparation institutions be the same for every program, and anotherproportion designed by and for the particular institution. In that way, both needs (autonomy ofinstitutions, and having teachers prepared to teach the same curriculum) are acknowledged.

There is a major distance between teacher preparation institutions and teachers' unions.There is almost no contact between teachers' unions and teacher preparation institutions in theregion. This distance is a disadvantage in two ways: First, the teachers' unions do not takeadvantage of the possibility of constantly renewing themselves with new candidates and theresults of their preparation; and second, the new teachers do not have knowledge about theirprofessional associations until after they have graduated (Castro, 1991).

Finances of teacher preparation programs are inadeqate. Paradoxically, at the sametime that countries have been acknowledging the importance of the preparation of their teachersfor the improvement of their education systems they have been allocating less resources to it.Tovar (1989), for example, reports that in Peru expenditures on the preparation of each studenthas decreased 90% when compared to expenditures in 1963.

In general, the institutions of teacher preparation are not well funded, although there isgreat variance both among countries (and this reflects the socio-economic level of the country)and within each country (and this reflects the geographic location of the institution, its seniority,the type of institution from which they depend administratively and financially, etc.) (Castro,1991).

The financial support of in-service training is also weak, and diverse. In some LatinAmerican countries, this financial support is the responsibility of the Government (for example,in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico and Venezuela). Yet, in others, it is the responsibility ofeach teacher (Chile, for example) (Imbern6n, 1994).

3In Venezuela, for example, the Universidad Pedag6gica Experimental Libertador (UPEL) was created as theumbrella organization that brings together all public institutions of Teacher Preparation.

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For many countries in the region it is not clear whether teacher preparation should be asecondary or post-secondary education, or whether it should be a university degree. Thetendency in the region is for teacher preparation institutions to be given the status of a university,and for teacher preparation programs and degrees to become equivalent to university programsand degrees (Castro, 1991; Schiefelbein & Tedesco, 1995). Yet, this transition has not producedthe expected improvement in the academic performance of the students taught by graduates ofuniversity programs. University programs tend to emphasize the liberal arts component of thepreparation and leave the pedagogical preparation as an appendix at the end. Also, longerprograms are more expensive, and many people have begun questioning whether it would be besteither to keep teacher preparation as post-secondary education (for those countries where it hasnot been transformed into a university degree yet), or to bring it back to a post-secondary non-university degree.

It is important to consider, however, that when teacher preparation has been given thestatus of a university degree, the switch has usually been part of a series of larger changes in areform. Whether the "problem" is the transformation into a university degree, or whether it is theresult of limitations in the process of implementing the reform is not clear based on currentresearch.

C. Problems with the Teaching Profession as they Relate to Teacher Preparation

Teachers' salaries are too low. The lack of adequate teacher salaries is mentioned inevery article written about teachers and teacher preparation in Latin America4 ; and asSchiefelbein & Tedesco (1995) point out, females in the profession (who are the majority) earneven less than males. For example, "almost all teachers at the pre-school level are women, butonly three fourths are at the elementary level, half at the secondary level, and one third at thehigher level. Since each level of the education system offers higher salaries, it is evident thatwomen have more difficulty than men in getting access to jobs with higher salaries"(Schiefelbein & Tedesco, 1995, p. 63, my translation).

4 Teachers' salaries in the region are so low that, for example, in Bolivia, for many teachers the monthly cost ofpublic transportation to get to their jobs is higher than their monthly salaries (Subirats & Nogales, 1989). Tovar (1989)reports that in Peru, teachers' monthly salary is enough only to pay for a fourth of the family basic produces ("canastafamiliar") as it has been officially estimated by the National Institute of Statistics. Davini (1995) mentions similarthings for Argentina; she makes the point that even though the cost of living in Argentina is similar to that of Europe,and that people argue that European teachers earn a low salary (about S 1500 for primary and $2300 for secondaryteachers), Argentinean teachers eam about $300 a month.

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Low salaries are certainly one of the major problems of the teaching profession and oneof the factors that explains (even if only indirectly) the poor preparation teachers receive today inall countries. One study has observed "the strong worsening state of the teachers' remunerationsand life conditions during the past few years, has been cause of both the abandonment of theprofession by many teachers, as well as the difficulties experienced to attract good students intothe teacher preparation institutions, and to hire qualified personnel --especially males-- willing towork in the schools that are farther away... This worsening state has caused, in addition toloosing many teachers (usually the best), a reduction in the time that teachers have to dedicate toeducation, as they have second jobs in order to increase the family income; and it has reduced thelevel of commitment to teaching activities" (Schiefelbein & Tedesco, 1995, p. 89, mytranslation).

Government officials and educators in the region have argued that raising teachers'salaries is not easy to implement and that salaries should not be raised unless there is animprovement in the performance of teachers as measured by increased professional responsibility(less absenteeism, better lesson preparation, etc.) the academic performance of students.However, leading educators in the region agree that unless teachers' salaries are higher, little canbe asked of teachers, and little will be changed in teacher preparation as a result. In fact,teachers' salaries are now even lower than a few years ago as teachers' salaries were severlyaffected during the economic adjustment period of the 1980s. "The average salary levels of theteachers decreased from US$ 4800 per year in 1980 to US$ 3600 in 1985" (Schiefelbein &Tedesco, 1995, p. 97, my translation).

Status of the teaching profession is very low. The issue of low salaries is intimatelyconnected to the issue of the low status of the teaching profession. In fact, it is very hard toknow which is cause and which is consequence. Many point to the low salaries teachers receiveas evidence of the little value (status and prestige) teachers have in their societies. Others saythat this low status can also be due to the fact that teaching is perceived as a job, but not as aprofession (Castro, 1991). In fact, in the 1960s and 1970s there was a change in the words usedto refer to teachers as a group in the region; this change was from "profesionales de laensefianza" [teaching professionals] to "trabajadores de la ensefianza" [teaching workers]. Evenworse is the fact that within the teaching profession some teachers have lower status than others(and are discriminated against in many societies). Those with lower status are: rural teachers(versus urban), primary teachers (versus secondary and university), secondary teachers (versusuniversity),certified teachers (versus non-certified), graduates from Normal Schools (versusgraduates from university or Pedagogical Institutes programs).

Clearly a low status affects teacher salaries, length of time teachers remain in theprofession, and self-selection to enter teaching as a career (Castro, 1991; Evans, 1989;Schiefelbein & Tedesco, 1995).

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Some countries (for example, the Dominican Republic and Venezuela) are nowrequesting that teachers have a university degree as they believe this will increase the status ofthe profession. However, many point out that this will not happen as many seeking admissionsinto a university teaching program are still doing so because they have been rejected from otherfields with more prestige and status (Schiefelbein & Tedesco, 1995), and the teaching programsare perceived as less demanding academically (and many of them are).

Quality of teaching job has declined. Also connected to low salary and to low status isthe quality of the average teaching job. There are few=materials for teachers (and even fewerupdated materials); few (if any) job benefits; little support from schools, families, and society;and poor physical conditions for teaching. In addition, Paredes de Meafios (1995) lists thefollowing factors (found in many countries) as elements that make the teaching professiondifficult:

* the organization of schools which isolates the teacher from colleagues and others thatshare similar professional interests;

* the little time there is to prepare, reflect, observe, or discuss, even though theseactivities are a core part of the job;

o the major uncertainties there are about the value of the teaching tasks;3 the lack of institutional motivators (gratification comes only from seeing some students

succeed, and only in the long term);* a popular conviction that the strongest and most important influences in a child's life are

the family, the mass media, and the socio-cultural context, not the schools and theteachers; and

e the increase in the number of responsibilities that the teacher is assigned by society.

Teachers are expected to complete a great number of administrative and other tasks thattake time away from teaching and mentoring. Ministries- -of Education and supervisors expectteachers to complete many administrative tasks that take away time from class preparation, actualteaching, and mentoring of new teachers or student-teachers (Davini, 1995; Subirats & Nogales,1989). In some countries, during pre-service preparation courses, student-teachers spend abouthalf of their time learning how to fill out required forms for the Ministry of Education. This isdone because it is expected that in a regular teaching job the teacher will spend a significantamount of time completing that kind of administrative task.

In addition to completing administrative tasks, teachers are also expected to play the roleof counselors, nurses, social workers, mentor-teachers, etc. The little time teachers have todedicate to teaching may appear to be a small problem. However, it translates into bigger ones,as teachers who feel pressured for time to do a good job eventually either give up and teachunprepared or leave the field to find a career where their time is paid for justly. Also, they often

17

seek additional jobs in order to support themselves and their families with their own salaries(Castro, 1991). This, of course, affects the motivation, time and energy they have to dedicate totheir teaching job, to student-teachers (who teachers perceive as "a problem or burden") and toany possible activity of in-service preparation (both as teachers and learners).

Too many teachers are leaving the teaching profession. Every year, in almost allcountries, many teachers leave the teaching profession (Schiefelbein & Tedesco, 1995). Partlythis is because they cannot afford to be teachers and have to find a better-paid job; partly it isbecause of low satisfaction with their job; and partly it is due to other reasons such as low statusand prestige, a feeling of inadequacy in their jobs, or anger at political favoritism in assigning thebetter jobs to people who belong to a political party (Evans, 1989; Tovar, 1989).

Many teachers are not prepared to work with children in rural areas or indigenouspopulations who have different cultures. This is a problem of preparation (already discussed),reflected in the profession, and a problem that results in high levels of frustration for teachers,children and their families (Gajardo & Andraca, 1992; Marquez, 1995; Tovar, 1989). Theproblem gets worse when teachers do not speak the language or know the culture of thepopulations they serve; and when teachers do not understand the values, organization, andexpectations of the community towards education, their children, and the role of education andeducators. The problem is also evident when teachers are asked to mentor student-teachers whohave a different socio-cultural background from their own, there may be serious cultural andlanguage barriers that can affect the effectiveness of the mentoring process.

Promotion to higher ranks within the profession are based solely on years of experience.Regardless of job performance, years of preparation, type of preparation, or number or type of in-service courses completed, teachers in the region are usually promoted to higher ranks solelybased on the number of years they have worked as teachers (Castro, 1991; Subirats & Nogales,1989). Although this may appear to be a fair criteria for promotion, it actually fails to function asa motivator for teachers to do a better job or to recognize those who excel in the profession. Inaddition, this may contribute to the low status of the profession, given that the popular perceptionis that no matter how bad a teacher is, he or she will still be promoted.

Most countries have a national curriculum that must be used in every school of thecountry, regardless of region or population served. In almost every country of the region, theMinistries of Education design a national curriculum that is to be used in every school of thenation, regardless of region or population served. Teachers are prepared to follow thatcurriculum, but the populations served are not homogeneous. This represents a serious problemfor the children whose needs are not met by a rigid application of the national curriculum and for

18

the teachers who do not know how to adapt the curriculum to their students (Tovar, 1989). In-service teachers who are mentoring new teachers pass on the tradition of following the nationalcurriculum with no attention to the specific characteristics and needs of the populations served.

Many teachers in the region are only able to complete between 50% and 70% of thenational curriculum in a given year (Tovar, 1989). This is due to poor attendance of bothteachers and students, and partly to the poor previous preparation of the students. Most teachershave to spend time teaching contents that are not necessarily part of the curriculum they areresponsible for. Other problems posed by a national curriculum include:

* Teachers feel unconnected to what they teach, as they do not participate in its design.This is a common complaint given by teachers during times of reform when mostcurricula are revised.

* Sometimes the curriculum and/or curricular guidelines get to schools late in the schoolyear.

* The curriculum is so centralized and unique that it does not respond to the needs of allthe children in the country.

All of these problems, of course, affect both in-service preparation for teachers and thementoring of new student-teachers.

There are informally-created "categories" of schools that define schools as more and lessdesirable for teachers and student-teachers. Even though there are no formal categories ofschools in any country of the region, in most countries it is clear that schools in urban-poor areasand in rural areas are the least desirable for teachers to work in. For example, in Peru, Tovar(1989) reports that those teachers without a certificate or those who are at lower ranks of theprofession are sent to rural schools or schools in urban-poor areas. In addition, when a teachergraduates with the highest academic average he or she receives the "reward" of being able tochoose his or her job from those available in schools located in cities; thus, implicitlycommunicating that those are the "best" schools. Similar informal "categories" of schools arereported for many other countries (Gajardo & Andraca, 1992; Marquez, 1995; Subirats &Nogales, 1989), further perpetuating the substandard quality of the teaching in the poorerschools.

Politics and personalfavors determine (or strongly influence) the kinds ofjobs teachersget. Despite having a formal system of application to jobs in the national, state/provincial and/orlocal system, in most countries teachers report that politics and personal friendships affect thekind of job teachers can get, especially at the beginning of their careers (which will, of course,influence the possibilities for future jobs) (Subirats & Nogales, 1989; Tovar, 1989). It iscommon that jobs are given and taken away for other than performance or academic reasons

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(Castro, 1991). These influences certainly limit the teaching force's capacity to provide mentorsfor new teachers and for student-teachers.

Teachers' level of gratification in their job is long-term. Teachers' low level ofsatisfaction in their jobs is partly due to the fact that the gratification of a teachers' job is delayed.Gratification is not institutional; it depends on the progress of one's students, and that is often notseen immediately (Paredes de Meafnos, 1995). In fact, there is some evidence that teachers feelthey don't really help their students learn. For example, when interviewed about theireffectiveness as teachers, teachers in six countries of the region (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Peru,Bolivia and Chile) reported that they have been unable to make their students learn (Schiefelbeinet al., 1994). The perception of the worsening of education in general adds to the teachers' lackof gratification from what their own students learn.

Teachers' self-perceptions are negative. Related to the issue of job satisfaction isteachers' self-perceptions. As with many other difficulties listed in this paper, it is not clearwhich of these variables is the cause and which the consequence, as they affect one another insignificant ways. Davini (1995) reports negative self-perceptions among the teachers ofArgentina. Teachers don't think of themselves as capable of entering a more difficult field; andthey don't think of themselves as intelligent. Schiefelbein and Tedesco (1995) confirm this isalso true throughout the region. Added to this, is a lack of respect towards teachers on the part ofchildren and their families, especially in areas where the population is middle or upper-middleclass (Schiefelbein et al., 1994). This, of course, affects teachers' motivation, their willingness tocope with difficult situations in their teaching career, their desire to continue with in-serviceeducation and with their mentoring role. Many teachers ultimately abandon the field.

D. Problems with in-service education... keeping up-to-date

All of the problems listed before as characteristic of initial preparation in the region arefound in in-service preparation as well. However, in-service preparation has additionalweaknesses and difficulties.

Courses offered as part of in-service preparation do not respond to the needs of teachers.In-service courses offered in the countries are varied and abundant. Yet, most of their contentsdo not respond to the needs of teachers (Castro, 1991; Davini, 1995). In fact, the content of thecourses is decided without a knowledge-base of what teachers need (Castro, 1991). In a fewcountries where Ministries of Education do organize courses based on teachers' needs these needsare actually communicated by the supervisors. Teachers are not asked directly.

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Because of the necessity for teachers to complete administrative tasks as part of theirjobs, many in-service courses are administrative in nature, as they are often organized by theMinistries of Education, which have a particular interest in seeing that administrative tasks arecompleted efficiently (Centro de Reflexi6n y Planificaci6n Educativa, 1988; Davini, 1995;Subirats & Nogales, 1989). Another problem related to the content of in-service courses is thatthese ignore relevant topics for rural education (Tovar, 1989). Finally, many of the in-servicecourses address topics that are unrelated to each other (Subirats & Nogales, 1989); as aconsequence, in-service teachers receive bits and pieces of information about very different areasbut have no opportunity to reflect on the whole. A useful starting point for addressing theseissues would be to ask: What types of in-service classes teachers feel they need but that are notprovided?

Educators of in-service courses are poorly prepared. For most of the countries in theregion the quality of the teachers in charge of in-service courses and programs is as low as that ofeducators who teach pre-service courses (Castro, 1991). In fact, many in-service courses andprograms are taught by the same educators as initial preparation with participation by supervisorsand senior teachers.

The quality of in-service courses offered in the region is poor. The quality of in-servicecourses (content, teaching methods, pedagogical activities, etc.) is generally poor because of thelimited preparation of educators in charge of these courses, the little attention that most countrieshave devoted to in-service preparation of teachers, and the quality of the institutions in charge oforganizing and/or supervising these courses. Castro (1991) describes most in-service activitiesas "repetitive (they repeat what has been already learned in the Normal Schools), contradictory(contradict what has been presented in the Normal Schools), haphazard (any education themebecomes a topic for an in-service course), and irrelevant (they do not respond to what teachersfeel they need or require)" (p. 75, my translation).

Many in-service courses are implemented in places difficult to reach by many teachers.Many in-service courses are implemented in places very far from where the teachers who needthem the most live (Castro, 1991). Because most courses take place in the cities, teachers whoteach in rural areas are often excluded from them (Tovar, 1989; Subirats & Nogales, 1989).

Reasons to take courses usually do not include a desire to learn. Most countries reportthat the teachers who take in-service courses voluntarily do so because getting those credits willhelp them improve their salary level or will help their rank (Braslavsky & Birgin, 1992; Subirats& Nogales, 1989), or because they have no certification and the intensive courses offered at theUniversities and Pedagogical Institutes give them credit to get the certification (Tovar, 1989). In

21

Brazil, the payment of per diems is an incentivesince these payments supplement meagersalaries. Usually teachers are not motivated by the idea of learning new information (Castro,1991).

Distance-courses do not take into account characteristics of communication systems inthe countries. Most countries have developed distance education courses for in-service teachersas a way of addressing the limitation of having courses offered only in cities and places very faraway for many teachers. However, most countries' systems of communication are of poorquality (Castro, 1991), which limits the number of teachers who register for courses and theeffectiveness of the courses themselves. Certainly improving a country's system ofcommunication is beyond the realm of educators, but being aware of this limitation is importantin the educators' planning of distance-education programs. For exarnple, in the state of MinasGerias in Brazil a distance service course originally designed for television will use video-tapesbecause so many schools do not receive the television signal.

Many teachers do not have opportunities to take in-service courses. Due to many of theproblems already mentioned, there are many teachers in the countries of the region who mayhave the will but not the opportunity to take in-service courses. This is frustrating to them, andlimits their possibilities for becoming better teachers (Subirats & Nogales, 1989).

Courses are theory-oriented and leave out practical concerns. Very much like courses atthe pre-service levels, the in-service courses offered in most countries of the region tend to focustoo much on theories and not enough practical issues of classroom practice. Teachersinterviewed in several research studies mentioned often the need to have more practical in-service courses (Castro, 1991; Subirats & Nogales, 1989).

There are in-service courses that charge teachers a fee. Given that most in-servicecourses are organized by non-government organizations and institutions associated with theTeachers' Unions (Subirats & Nogales, 1989), courses often are not offered for free. Manyteachers report not attending in-service courses because they cannot afford the courses' fees.

There is very little professional reading material available to teachers, and most teachersdo not read to keep themselves informed of the latest information. There are very fewprofessional publications available to teachers, and even fewer that teachers can afford. Inaddition, teachers report that they do not read to keep themselves informed about education(Davini, 1995; Schiefelbein et al., 1994).

22

In a study conducted by Braslavsky and Birgin (1992) in Argentina, where 284 teacherswere interviewed, it was found that, "When teachers are asked if they have been able to accessprofessional references in the last three years, a little less than half of them respond that theyhave been able to attain only some handwritten notes and photocopies. The other half of teachersinterviewed say that they were able to read professional information regularly. Yet, when theyare asked for the specific reference of the textbooks they read, half of that half do not respond,and only the rest, that is, about 25% of the total can give information that allows the references tobe identified" (p. 80, my translation). These authors concluded that "the poverty of pedagogicalreading is staggering..." (p. 81, my translation). They also report that those teachers who havecompleted a university degree tend in general to read more and to use more references.

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Conclusions

For many years, teacher preparation in Latin America was not considered as important afactor in the overall system of education, or even in education reforms, as transforming thecurriculum, printing new textbooks, or increasing the number of students who have access to thesystem. In the past few years, however, policy-makers, government officials and donor agencieshave begun to realize that any meaningful transformation of the education processes of a countrymust begin by a serious revision and redesign of teacher preparation which will help redefine therole teachers play.

While the need for well-prepared teachers is gaining recognition in Latin America, theregion's current teacher preparation capability is poor and full of challenges, as can be seen in thelong list of problems presented in this paper. Not surprisingly, the issues and challengesdescribed here resemble those that one would expect to list for other regions of the world. LatinAmerica's comparative advantage at this time may be the realization by educational policy-makers in the region that improved teaching is central to improving student learning through themany educational reforms that are underway in the region and that current teacher preparationsystems are not contributing to improvements in teaching. This realization in Latin America hasled to more discussion of the issues related to teacher preparation, to which this paper seeks tocontribute, and to experimentation with alternative forms of program delivery. Although thispaper does not offer suggestions for change, the issues presented here, viewed positively, providean agenda for the future, one that some countries have already begun to work on. Examples thataugur well for the future include the SENAMAC in-service program in Venezuela; Uruguay'slearning circles; in-service training with interactive radio in Costa Rica; a distance-educationprogram that uses print materials, videos, and school-level facilitators in the state of MinasGerais, Brazil; and a demand-based system of university courses for practicing teachers in SaoPaulo state, Brazil. More ambitious reforms of teacher support systems are underway orcontemplated in, at least, Belize, Chile, and Argentina.

Despite these beginnings, there is still much to do to improve pre- and in-service teacherpreparation in Latin America. Hopefully, the issues and questions that this paper presents (seeAppendix) will help guide people who are working to improve the preparation of teachers in theregion.

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25

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Subirats, J. & Nogales, I. (1989). Maestros, Escuelas, Crisis Educativa: Condiciones del TrabajoDocente en Bolivia. Santiago, Chile: UNESCO/OREALC.

Tezanos, A. de (1985). Maestros: Artesanos Intelectuales. Estudio Critico sobre su Formaci6n.Bogotd, Colombia: Universidad Pedag6gica Nacional.Tovar, T. (1989). Ser Maestro: Condiciones del Trabajo Docente en el Perui. Santiago, Chile:OREALC/IUNESCO.

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Villegas-Reimers, E. (1992). An assessment of Teacher Education in Venezuela. Paper preparedfor the World Bank.

Villegas-Reimers, E. (1994). La reforma educativa venezolana de 1980: una evaluaci6n de suimpacto en la educaci6n de maestros en relaci6n a los nuevos programas de educaci6n basica.Revista Paraguaya de Sociologia, 89, 225-234.

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APPENDIX

Questions to guide researchers and policy-makers in planning the reform of a teacherpreparation system

The following questions are included here as a guide for researchers and policy-makers inassessing the state of a country's system of teacher preparation. The relevant questions to ask fora given education system will depend on the conditions in that system.

A. General information about teachers and teacher preparation

1. If an education reform is being implemented at this time in the country, is teacherpreparation part of it?In what stage of the national education reform will the reform of teacher preparationbegin?Will the reform of teacher preparation take place before, during or after a curricularreform?

2. What is the percentage of teachers in the country who are certified? non-certified butwith a professional degree? non-certified with a high-school diploma? non-certified withan elementary school diploma? other?

3. What are the institutions responsible for the preparation of teachers in the country? Whatis their level (post-secondary? university?).How many teacher preparation institutions are there in the country? Where are theylocated?

B. Candidates entering the profession

1. What kind of academic preparation do teacher-candidates have?How does their previous academic performance compare to that of candidates enteringother professional fields?

2. What are the reasons that teacher-candidates select teaching as a profession?

3. What is the number of students requesting admissions into teacher preparationinstitutions?How many are offered admissions?How have those numbers changed over the years?

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What factors explain those changes?

C. Problems with initial teaching preparation

1. Is there a teaching practicum as part of the process of preparing teachers?How long does this practicum last?When do student-teachers do their practicum (beginning, middle, end of their studies)?

2. Is the preparation of all teachers in the country/system the same?Are there different types of preparation for rural and urban teachers, for example?If there, how is the preparation of rural teachers different to that of other teachers?

4. Has the number of candidates entering the profession remained stable over the years?If not, has that change affected the quality of the program? In what ways?

5. Have the finances of teacher preparation changed over the years?What are the causes of that change?What is the main source of financial support for teacher preparation programs (for initialas well as in-service preparation)?

6. What is the length in time of teacher preparation programs?Has that length changed over the years? Why?What are the requirements that need to be completed in order to be certified as a teacher?Are those requirements different depending on the level the teacher is being certified for?

7. Is there correspondence between teacher preparation programs and the primary andsecondary curricula?Are teachers learning the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to implement thenational curricula effectively?

8. Is there a formal relationship between teacher preparation institutions and schools? Whatkind of relationship?What about between teacher-educators and schools?

9. Is there a formal relationship between teacher preparation institutions and Teachers'Unions? What kind of relationship?

10. Is there a relationship among teacher preparation institutions in the country? What kindof relationship?What what relations exisit between teacher preparation institutions and the institutionsthat prepare professionals in other areas?

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11. Evaluation of the curriculum of teacher preparation:- Is there a well-balanced and connected presentation between theory and practice?- Is the curriculum integrated or are all subjects unrelated to each other?- Is pedagogy taught as part of the curriculum? If yes, is it taught independently orrelated to each subject matter?

- Does it include philosophical and political contents?- Does it include subjects related to developing social commitment?- Does it include the teaching of work methods and teaching innovations?- Does it teach how to deal with drop-out rates, grade repetition, etc.?- On what research is the curriculum based? How muchof the research is local ornational?

- Has the teacher preparation curriculum been evaluated lately? Who completed theevaluation? Was the curriculum revised as a result of the evaluation?

- Does the curriculum teach teachers to do or to understand research?- Does the curriculum prepare teachers to teach all children or only an "average" child?

12. Do teacher preparation programs reproduce traditional teaching systems?Do they reproduce the unjust social organization of society? (for example, is thecurriculum to prepare rural teachers of the same quality as that used to prepare urbanteachers?)

13. What kind of preparation do teacher educators have?How do they keep up-to-date in their preparation?

14. Is there a relationship between the kind and number of specialized teachers the countryneeds and the kind and number the country is preparing?

D. Problems with the teaching profession as they relate to teacher preparation

I1. What are the salaries of the country's teachers?How have those salaries changed over time?How is the distribution of salaries by gender, level the teachers teach, years of experience,years of preparation?

2. What is the status of teachers in the country? How does it compare to that of otherprofessionals?

3. What kinds of supports do teachers have in their jobs? (materials? courses? schoolsetting? colleagues to work together? f eedback?)Do schools encourage communication among teachers?

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Are there rewards for good teaching? What kind? How is "good teaching" measured?How many responsibilities do teachers have besides teaching?What kinds of benefits besides salaries do teachers have in their jobs?

4. Do teachers have more than one job to support themselves?How much time do teachers have to prepare their classes?Do teachers have time to mentor student-teachers or new teachers? Is there a formal rolefor mentoring?

5. How many teachers leave the field every year?What are their reasons?What is the average number of years teachers remain in the field?

6. What criteria are used to decide on the promotion of teachers to higher ranks?Are these criteria written?Are they known by the teachers?Who designed those criteria?

7. Do teachers have administrative responsibilities? What kind?How much time is devoted by teachers to complete administrative tasks?

8. Does the country have a national curriculum for primary and secondary education thatteachers must follow and complete in a specific time period?How much of the curriculum are they able to complete?Do teachers participate in the design of the national curriculum? How?Are teachers able to (are they allowed to and do they know how to) adapt the curriculumto particular populations?

9. Are there categories of schools in the country? What are they?What criteria are used to deterrnine which schools are in the highest / lowest categories?

10. What criteria are used to assign teachers to particular schools?Waht is the role of politics and personal favors in this decision?

11. What is the level of teachers' job satisfaction with their work?

12. What are teachers' self-perceptions?

E. Problems for teachers to keep up-to-date (in-service preparation)

1. How is the content of in-service courses decided?

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Who makes that decision? How teachers participatein deciding this content?Do the courses respond to the needs of rural teachers?Are courses related among themselves?

2. Who teaches in-service courses?What kind of preparation do those educators have?

3. How is the quality of in-service courses in regards to content? teaching methods?activities in the classroom?What is the follow-up in schools for in-service courses?

4. Where are in-service courses offered?Are the locations easy to reach by teachers?

5. Why do teachers complete in-service courses?

6. When courses are offered through distance-education, how do they take into account thecharacteristics of the systems of communication in the country (i.e. mail, phone, etc.)?

7. To what extent do teachers who are interested and willing have the opportunity to take in-service courses?

8. What is the balance between theory and practice in in-service courses?

9. How are in-service courses paid for?What contributions do teachers make?What incentives do they receive for participating?

10. Are there publications about teaching available to teachers?Are they found in the schools or in public libraries?Are they expensive?

11. How much do teachers read to keep themselves up-to-date?- What kinds of materials do teachers read?

Latin America and Caribbean Regional OfficeDepartment of Human Development (LCSHD)The World Bank1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433

Fax: 202-522-0050E-mail: LACED*worldbank.org