Lay Sermons, Addresses and Reviews - Thomas Henry Huxley

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LAYSERMONS,ADDRESSES,ANDREVIEWS

by

THOMASHENRYHUXLEY,LL.D.,F.R.S.

London:MacMillanandCo.LondonR.Clay,Sons,andTaylor,Printers,BreadStreetHill.

1870

APREFATORYLETTER.

MYDEARTYNDALL,



Ishouldhavelikedtoprovidethiscollectionof"LaySermons,Addresses,andReviews,"withaDedicationandaPreface.Intheformer,Ishouldhaveaskedyoutoallowmetoassociateyournamewiththebook,chieflyonthegroundthattheoldestofthepapersinitisagooddealyoungerthanourfriendship.Inthelatter,IintendedtocommentuponcertaincriticismswithwhichsomeoftheseEssayshavebeenmet.

But,onturningthematteroverinmymind,Ibegantofearthataformaldedicationatthebeginningofsuchavolumewouldlooklikeagrandlodgeinfrontofasetofcottages;whileacompletedefenceofanyofmyoldpaperswouldsimplyamounttowritinganewone--alabourforwhichIam,atpresent,bynomeansfit.

Thebookmustgoforth,therefore,withoutanybettersubstituteforeitherDedication,orPreface,thanthisletter;beforeconcludingwhichitisnecessaryformetonotifyyou,andanyotherreader,oftwoorthreematters.

Thefirstis,thattheoldestEssayofthewhole,that"OntheEducationalValueoftheNaturalHistorySciences,"containsaviewofthenatureofthedifferencesbetweenlivingandnot-livingbodiesoutofwhichIhavelongsincegrown.

Secondly,inthesamepaper,thereisastatementconcerningthemethodofthemathematicalsciences,which,repeatedandexpandedelsewhere,broughtuponme,duringthemeetingoftheBritishAssociationatExeter,theartilleryofoureminentfriendProfessorSylvester.

Nooneknowsbetterthanyoudo,howreadilyIshoulddefertotheopinionofsogreatamathematicianifthequestionatissuewerereally,asheseemstothinkitis,amathematicalone.ButIsubmit,thatthedictumofamathematicalathleteuponadifficultproblemwhichmathematicsofferstophilosophy,hasnomorespecialweight,thantheverdictofthatgreatpedestrianCaptainBarclaywouldhavehad,insettlingadisputedpointinthephysiologyoflocomotion.

Thegeniuswhichsighsfornewworldstoconquerbeyondthatsurprisingregioninwhich"geometry,algebra,andthetheoryofnumbersmeltintooneanotherlikesunsettints,orthecoloursofadyingdolphin,"maybeofcomparativelylittleserviceinthecolddomain(mostlylightedbythemoon,somesay)ofphilosophy.AndthemoreIthinkofit,themoredoesourfriendseemtometofallintothepositionofoneofthose"verständigeLeute,"aboutwhomhemakessoaptaquotationfromGoethe.Surelyhehasnotdulyconsideredtwopoints.Thefirst,thatIaminnowayanswerablefortheoriginationofthedoctrinehecriticises:andthesecond,thatifwearetoemploythetermsobservation,induction,andexperiment,inthesenseinwhichheusesthem,logicisasmuchanobservational,inductive,andexperimentalscienceasmathematics;and

that,Iconfess,appearstometobea_reductioadabsurdum_ofhisargument.

Thirdly,theessay"OnthePhysicalBasisofLife"wasintendedtocontainaplainanduntechnicalstatementofoneofthegreattendenciesofmodernbiologicalthought,accompaniedbyaprotest,fromthephilosophicalside,againstwhatiscommonlycalledMaterialism.Theresultofmywell-meanteffortsIfindtobe,thatIamgenerallycreditedwithhavinginvented"protoplasm"intheinterestsof"materialism."Myunlucky"LaySermon"hasbeenattackedby



microscopists,ignorantalikeofBiologyandPhilosophy;byphilosophers,notverylearnedineitherBiologyorMicroscopy;byclergymenofseveraldenominations;andbysomefewwriterswhohavetakenthetroubletounderstandthesubject.ItrustthattheselastwillbelievethatIleavetheessayunalteredfromnowantofrespectfulattentiontoalltheyhavesaid.

Fourthly,Iwishtoreferallwhoareinterestedinthetopicsdiscussedinmyaddresson"GeologicalReform,"tothereplywithwhichSirWilliamThomsonhashonouredme.

And,lastly,letmesaythatIreprintthereviewof"TheOriginofSpecies"simplybecauseithasbeencitedasminebyalatePresidentoftheGeologicalSociety.Ifyoufinditsphraseology,insomeplaces,tobemorevigorousthanseemsneedful,recollectthatitwaswrittenintheheatofourfirstbattlesovertheNovumOrganonofbiology;thatwewerealltenyearsyoungerinthosedays;andlast,butnotleast,thatitwasnotpublisheduntilithadbeensubmittedtotherevisionofafriendforwhosejudgmentIhadthen,asIhavenow,thegreatestrespect.

Ever,mydearTYNDALL,

Yoursveryfaithfully,

T.H.HUXLEY

LONDON,_June1870_.

CONTENTS.

I.PAGE

ONTHEADVISABLENESSOFIMPROVINGNATURALKNOWLEDGE.(ALaySermondeliveredinSt.Martin'sHall,ontheeveningofSunday,the7thofJanuary,1866,andsubsequentlypublishedinthe_FortnightlyReview_)3

II.

EMANCIPATION--BLACKANDWHITE.(The_Reader_,May20th,1865)23

III.

ALIBERALEDUCATION:ANDWHERETOFINDIT.(AnAddress

totheSouthLondonWorkingMen'sCollege,deliveredonthe4thofJanuary,1868,andsubsequentlypublishedin_Macmillan'sMagazine_)31

IV.

SCIENTIFICEDUCATION:NOTESOFANAFTER-DINNERSPEECH.(DeliveredbeforetheLiverpoolPhilomathicSocietyinApril1869,andsubsequentlypublishedin_Macmillan'sMagazine_)60



V.

ONTHEEDUCATIONALVALUEOFTHENATURALHISTORYSCIENCES.(AnAddressdeliveredatSt.Martin'sHall,onthe22dJuly,1854,andpublishedasapamphletinthatyear)80

VI.

ONTHESTUDYOFZOOLOGY.(ALecturedeliveredattheSouthKensingtonMuseum,in1861,andsubsequentlypublishedbytheDepartmentofScienceandArt)104

VII.

ONTHEPHYSICALBASISOFLIFE.(ALaySermondeliveredinEdinburgh,onSunday,the8thofNovember,1868,attherequestofthelateRev.JamesCranbrook;subsequentlypublishedinthe_FortnightlyReview_)132

VIII.

THESCIENTIFICASPECTSOFPOSITIVISM.(AReplytoMr.Congreve'sAttackupontheprecedingPaper.Publishedinthe_Fortnightly

Review._1869)162IX.

ONAPIECEOFCHALK.(ALecturedeliveredtotheWorkingMenofNorwich,duringtheMeetingoftheBritishAssociation,in1868.Subsequentlypublishedin_Macmillan'sMagazine_)192

X.

GEOLOGICALCONTEMPORANEITYANDPERSISTENTTYPESOFLIFE.(TheAnniversaryAddresstotheGeologicalSocietyfor1862)223

XI.

GEOLOGICALREFORM.(TheAnniversaryAddresstotheGeologicalSocietyfor1869)251

XII.

THEORIGINOFSPECIES.(The_WestminsterReview_,April1860)280

XIII.

CRITICISMSON"THEORIGINOFSPECIES."(The_NaturalHistoryReview_,1864)328

XIV.

ONDESCARTES'"DISCOURSETOUCHINGTHEMETHODOFUSINGONE'SREASONRIGHTLYANDOFSEEKINGSCIENTIFICTRUTH."(AnAddresstotheCambridgeYoungMen'sChristianSociety,deliveredonthe24thofMarch,1870,andsubsequentlypublishedin_Macmillan'sMagazine_)351



LAYSERMONS,ADDRESSES,ANDREVIEWS.

I.

ONTHEADVISABLENESSOFIMPROVINGNATURALKNOWLEDGE.

Thistimetwohundredyearsago--inthebeginningofJanuary,1666--thoseofourforefatherswhoinhabitedthisgreatandancientcity,tookbreathbetweentheshocksoftwofearfulcalamities,onenotquitepast,althoughitsfuryhadabated;theothertocome.

Withinafewyardsoftheveryspotonwhichweareassembled,sothetraditionruns,thatpainfulanddeadlymalady,theplague,appearedinthelattermonthsof1664;and,thoughnonewvisitor,smotethepeopleofEngland,andespeciallyofhercapital,withaviolenceunknownbefore,inthecourseofthefollowingyear.Thehandofamasterhaspicturedwhathappenedinthosedismalmonths;andinthattruestoffictions,"TheHistoryofthePlagueYear,"Defoeshowsdeath,with

everyaccompanimentofpainandterror,stalkingthroughthenarrowstreetsofoldLondon,andchangingtheirbusyhumintoasilencebrokenonlybythewailingofthemournersoffiftythousanddead;bythewofuldenunciationsandmadprayersoffanatics;andbythemadderyellsofdespairingprofligates.

But,aboutthistimein1666,thedeath-ratehadsunktonearlyitsordinaryamount;acaseofplagueoccurredonlyhereandthere,andtherichercitizenswhohadflownfromthepesthadreturnedtotheirdwellings.Theremnantofthepeoplebegantotoilattheaccustomedroundofduty,orofpleasure;andthestreamofcitylifebidfairtoflowbackalongitsoldbed,withrenewedanduninterruptedvigour.

Thenewlykindledhopewasdeceitful.Thegreatplague,indeed,returnednomore;butwhatithaddonefortheLondoners,thegreatfire,whichbrokeoutintheautumnof1666,didforLondon;and,inSeptemberofthatyear,aheapofashesandtheindestructibleenergyofthepeoplewereallthatremainedofthegloryoffive-sixthsofthecitywithinthewalls.

Ourforefathershadtheirownwaysofaccountingforeachofthesecalamities.Theysubmittedtotheplagueinhumilityandinpenitence,fortheybelievedittobethejudgmentofGod.But,towardsthefiretheywerefuriouslyindignant,interpretingitastheeffectofthemaliceofman,--astheworkoftheRepublicans,orofthePapists,

accordingastheirprepossessionsraninfavourofloyaltyorofPuritanism.

Itwould,Ifancy,havefaredbutillwithonewho,standingwhereInowstand,inwhatwasthenathicklypeopledandfashionablepartofLondon,shouldhavebroachedtoourancestorsthedoctrinewhichInowpropoundtoyou--thatalltheirhypotheseswerealikewrong;thattheplaguewasnomore,intheirsense,Divinejudgment,thanthefirewastheworkofanypolitical,orofanyreligious,sect;butthattheywerethemselvestheauthorsofbothplagueandfire,andthattheymustlook



tothemselvestopreventtherecurrenceofcalamities,toallappearancesopeculiarlybeyondthereachofhumancontrol--soevidentlytheresultofthewrathofGod,orofthecraftandsubtletyofanenemy.

AndonemaypicturetooneselfhowharmoniouslytheholycursingofthePuritanofthatdaywouldhavechimedinwiththeunholycursingandthecracklingwitoftheRochestersandSedleys,andwiththerevilingsofthepoliticalfanatics,ifmyimaginaryplaindealerhadgoneontosaythat,ifthereturnofsuchmisfortuneswereeverrenderedimpossible,itwouldnotbeinvirtueofthevictoryofthefaithofLaud,orofthatofMilton;and,aslittle,bythetriumphofrepublicanism,asbythatofmonarchy.Butthattheonethingneedfulforcompassingthisendwas,thatthepeopleofEnglandshouldsecondtheeffortsofaninsignificantcorporation,theestablishmentofwhich,afewyearsbeforetheepochofthegreatplagueandthegreatfire,hadbeenaslittlenoticed,astheywereconspicuous.

Sometwentyyearsbeforetheoutbreakoftheplagueafewcalmandthoughtfulstudentsbandedthemselvestogetherforthepurpose,astheyphrasedit,of"improvingnaturalknowledge."Theendstheyproposedtoattaincannotbestatedmoreclearlythaninthewordsofoneofthefoundersoftheorganization:--

"Ourbusinesswas(precludingmattersoftheologyandstateaffairs)todiscourseandconsiderofphilosophicalenquiries,andsuchasrelatedthereunto:--asPhysick,Anatomy,Geometry,Astronomy,Navigation,Staticks,Magneticks,Chymicks,Mechanicks,andNaturalExperiments;withthestateofthesestudiesandtheircultivationathomeandabroad.Wethendiscoursedofthecirculationoftheblood,thevalvesintheveins,thevenælacteæ,thelymphaticvessels,theCopernicanhypothesis,thenatureofcometsandnewstars,thesatellitesofJupiter,theovalshape(asitthenappeared)ofSaturn,thespotsonthesunanditsturningonitsownaxis,theinequalitiesandselenographyofthemoon,theseveralphasesofVenusandMercury,theimprovementoftelescopesandgrindingofglassesforthatpurpose,theweightofair,thepossibilityorimpossibilityofvacuitiesand

nature'sabhorrencethereof,theTorricellianexperimentinquicksilver,thedescentofheavybodiesandthedegreeofaccelerationtherein,withdiversotherthingsoflikenature,someofwhichwerethenbutnewdiscoveries,andothersnotsogenerallyknownandembracedasnowtheyare;withotherthingsappertainingtowhathathbeencalledtheNewPhilosophy,which,fromthetimesofGalileoatFlorence,andSirFrancisBacon(LordVerulam)inEngland,hathbeenmuchcultivatedinItaly,France,Germany,andotherpartsabroad,aswellaswithusinEngland."

ThelearnedDr.Wallis,writingin1696,narrates,inthesewords,whathappenedhalfacenturybefore,orabout1645.TheassociatesmetatOxford,intheroomsofDr.Wilkins,whowasdestinedtobecomea

bishop;andsubsequentlycomingtogetherinLondon,theyattractedthenoticeoftheking.AnditisastrangeevidenceofthetasteforknowledgewhichthemostobviouslyworthlessoftheStuartssharedwithhisfatherandgrandfather,thatCharlestheSecondwasnotcontentwithsayingwittythingsabouthisphilosophers,butdidwisethingswithregardtothem.Forhenotonlybestoweduponthemsuchattentionashecouldsparefromhispoodlesandhismistresses,but,beinginhisusualstateofimpecuniosity,beggedforthemoftheDukeofOrmond;and,thatstepbeingwithouteffect,gavethemChelseaCollege,acharter,andamace:crowninghisfavoursinthebestwaytheycouldbe



crowned,byburdeningthemnofurtherwithroyalpatronageorstateinterference.

Thusitwasthatthehalf-dozenyoungmen,studiousofthe"NewPhilosophy,"whometinoneanother'slodgingsinOxfordorinLondon,inthemiddleoftheseventeenthcentury,grewinnumericalandinrealstrength,until,initslatterpart,the"RoyalSocietyfortheImprovementofNaturalKnowledge"hadalreadybecomefamous,andhadacquiredaclaimuponthevenerationofEnglishmen,whichithaseversinceretained,astheprincipalfocusofscientificactivityinourislands,andthechiefchampionofthecauseitwasformedtosupport.

ItwasbytheaidoftheRoyalSocietythatNewtonpublishedhis"Principia."Ifallthebooksintheworld,exceptthePhilosophicalTransactions,weredestroyed,itissafetosaythatthefoundationsofphysicalsciencewouldremainunshaken,andthatthevastintellectualprogressofthelasttwocenturieswouldbelargely,thoughincompletely,recorded.Norhaveanysignsofhaltingorofdecrepitudemanifestedthemselvesinourowntimes.AsinDr.Wallis'sdays,sointhese,"ourbusinessis,precludingtheologyandstateaffairs,todiscourseandconsiderofphilosophicalenquiries."Butour"Mathematick"isonewhichNewtonwouldhavetogotoschooltolearn;our"Staticks,Mechanicks,Magneticks,Chymicks,andNaturalExperiments"constituteamassofphysicalandchemicalknowledge,a

glimpseatwhichwouldcompensateGalileoforthedoingsofascoreofinquisitorialcardinals;our"Physick"and"Anatomy"haveembracedsuchinfinitevarietiesofbeing,havelaidopensuchnewworldsintimeandspace,havegrappled,notunsuccessfully,withsuchcomplexproblems,thattheeyesofVesaliusandofHarveymightbedazzledbythesightofthetreethathasgrownoutoftheirgrainofmustardseed.

Thefactisperhapsrathertoomuch,thantoolittle,forceduponone'snotice,nowadays,thatallthismarvellousintellectualgrowthhasanolesswonderfulexpressioninpracticallife;andthat,inthisrespect,ifinnoother,themovementsymbolizedbytheprogressoftheRoyalSocietystandswithoutaparallelinthehistoryofmankind.

AseriesofvolumesasbulkyastheTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietymightpossiblybefilledwiththesubtlespeculationsoftheschoolmen;notimprobably,theobtainingamasteryovertheproductsofmediævalthoughtmightnecessitateanevengreaterexpenditureoftimeandofenergythantheacquirementofthe"NewPhilosophy;"butthoughsuchworkengrossedthebestintellectsofEuropeforalongertimethanhaselapsedsincethegreatfire,itseffectswere"writinwater,"sofarasoursocialstateisconcerned.

Ontheotherhand,ifthenoblefirstPresidentoftheRoyalSocietycouldrevisittheupperairandoncemoregladdenhiseyeswithasightofthefamiliarmace,hewouldfindhimselfinthemidstofamaterial

civilizationmoredifferentfromthatofhisday,thanthatoftheseventeenth,wasfromthatofthefirst,century.AndifLordBrouncker'snativesagacityhadnotdesertedhisghost,hewouldneednolongreflectiontodiscoverthatallthesegreatships,theserailways,thesetelegraphs,thesefactories,theseprintingpresses,withoutwhichthewholefabricofmodernEnglishsocietywouldcollapseintoamassofstagnantandstarvingpauperism,--thatallthesepillarsofourStatearebuttheripplesandthebubblesuponthesurfaceofthatgreatspiritualstream,thespringsofwhich,only,heandhisfellowswereprivilegedtosee;andseeing,torecogniseasthatwhichitbehoved



themaboveallthingstokeeppureandundefiled.

Itmaynotbetoogreataflightofimaginationtoconceiveournoble _revenant_notforgetfulofthegreattroublesofhisownday,andanxioustoknowhowoftenLondonhadbeenburneddownsincehistime,andhowoftentheplaguehadcarriedoffitsthousands.Hewouldhavetolearnthat,althoughLondoncontainstenfoldtheinflammablematterthatitdidin1666;though,notcontentwithfillingourroomswithwoodworkandlightdraperies,wemustneedsleadinflammableandexplosivegasesintoeverycornerofourstreetsandhouses,weneverallowevenastreettoburndown.Andifheaskedhowthishadcomeabout,weshouldhavetoexplainthattheimprovementofnaturalknowledgehasfurnisheduswithdozensofmachinesforthrowingwateruponfires,anyoneofwhichwouldhavefurnishedtheingeniousMr.Hooke,thefirst"curatorandexperimenter"oftheRoyalSociety,withamplematerialsfordiscoursebeforehalfadozenmeetingsofthatbody;andthat,tosaytruth,exceptfortheprogressofnaturalknowledge,weshouldnothavebeenabletomakeeventhetoolsbywhichthesemachinesareconstructed.And,further,itwouldbenecessarytoadd,thatalthoughseverefiressometimesoccurandinflictgreatdamage,thelossisverygenerallycompensatedbysocieties,theoperationsofwhichhavebeenrenderedpossibleonlybytheprogressofnaturalknowledgeinthedirectionofmathematics,andtheaccumulationofwealthinvirtueofothernaturalknowledge.

Buttheplague?MyLordBrouncker'sobservationwouldnot,Ifear,leadhimtothinkthatEnglishmenofthenineteenthcenturyarepurerinlife,ormoreferventinreligiousfaith,thanthegenerationwhichcouldproduceaBoyle,anEvelyn,andaMilton.Hemightfindthemudofsocietyatthebottom,insteadofatthetop,butIfearthatthesumtotalwouldbeasdeservingofswiftjudgmentasatthetimeoftheRestoration.Anditwouldbeourdutytoexplainoncemore,andthistimenotwithoutshame,thatwehavenoreasontobelievethatitistheimprovementofourfaith,northatofourmorals,whichkeepstheplaguefromourcity;but,again,thatitistheimprovementofournaturalknowledge.

Wehavelearnedthatpestilenceswillonlytakeuptheirabodeamongthosewhohavepreparedunsweptandungarnishedresidencesforthem.Theircitiesmusthavenarrow,unwateredstreets,foulwithaccumulatedgarbage.Theirhousesmustbeill-drained,ill-lighted,ill-ventilated.Theirsubjectsmustbeill-washed,ill-fed,ill-clothed.TheLondonof1665wassuchacity.ThecitiesoftheEast,whereplaguehasanenduringdwelling,aresuchcities.We,inlatertimes,havelearnedsomewhatofNature,andpartlyobeyher.Becauseofthispartialimprovementofournaturalknowledgeandofthatfractionalobedience,wehavenoplague;becausethatknowledgeisstillveryimperfectandthatobedienceyetincomplete,typhusisourcompanionandcholeraourvisitor.Butitisnotpresumptuoustoexpressthebeliefthat,whenourknowledgeismorecompleteandourobediencetheexpressionofour

knowledge,Londonwillcounthercenturiesoffreedomfromtyphusandcholera,asshenowgratefullyreckonshertwohundredyearsofignoranceofthatplaguewhichswoopeduponherthriceinthefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcentury.

Surely,thereisnothingintheseexplanationswhichisnotfullyborneoutbythefacts?Surely,theprinciplesinvolvedinthemarenowadmittedamongthefixedbeliefsofallthinkingmen?Surely,itistruethatourcountrymenarelesssubjecttofire,famine,pestilence,andalltheevilswhichresultfromawantofcommandoveranddue



anticipationofthecourseofNature,thanwerethecountrymenofMilton;andhealth,wealth,andwell-beingaremoreabundantwithusthanwiththem?ButnolesscertainlyisthedifferenceduetotheimprovementofourknowledgeofNature,andtheextenttowhichthatimprovedknowledgehasbeenincorporatedwiththehouseholdwordsofmen,andhassuppliedthespringsoftheirdailyactions.

Grantingforamoment,then,thetruthofthatwhichthedepreciatorsofnaturalknowledgearesofondofurging,thatitsimprovementcanonlyaddtotheresourcesofourmaterialcivilization;admittingittobepossiblethatthefoundersoftheRoyalSocietythemselveslookedfornootherrewardthanthis,IcannotconfessthatIwasguiltyofexaggerationwhenIhinted,thattohimwhohadthegiftofdistinguishingbetweenprominenteventsandimportantevents,theoriginofacombinedeffortonthepartofmankindtoimprovenaturalknowledgemighthaveloomedlargerthanthePlagueandhaveoutshonetheglareoftheFire;asasomethingfraughtwithawealthofbeneficencetomankind,incomparisonwithwhichthedamagedonebythoseghastlyevilswouldshrinkintoinsignificance.

Itisverycertainthatforeveryvictimslainbytheplague,hundredsofmankindexistandfindafairshareofhappinessintheworld,bytheaidofthespinningjenny.Andthegreatfire,atitsworst,couldnothaveburnedthesupplyofcoal,thedailyworkingofwhich,inthe

bowelsoftheearth,madepossiblebythesteampump,givesrisetoanamountofwealthtowhichthemillionslostinoldLondonarebutasanoldsong.

Butspinningjennyandsteampumpare,afterall,buttoys,possessinganaccidentalvalue;andnaturalknowledgecreatesmultitudesofmoresubtlecontrivances,thepraisesofwhichdonothappentobesungbecausetheyarenotdirectlyconvertibleintoinstrumentsforcreatingwealth.WhenIcontemplatenaturalknowledgesquanderingsuchgiftsamongmen,theonlyappropriatecomparisonIcanfindforheris,tolikenhertosuchapeasantwomanasoneseesintheAlps,stridingeverupward,heavilyburdened,andwithmindbentonlyonherhome;butyet,

withouteffortandwithoutthought,knittingforherchildren.Nowstockingsaregoodandcomfortablethings,andthechildrenwillundoubtedlybemuchthebetterforthem;butsurelyitwouldbeshort-sighted,tosaytheleastofit,todepreciatethistoilingmotherasamerestocking-machine--amereproviderofphysicalcomforts?

However,thereareblindleadersoftheblind,andnotafewofthem,whotakethisviewofnaturalknowledge,andcanseenothinginthebountifulmotherofhumanitybutasortofcomfort-grindingmachine.Accordingtothem,theimprovementofnaturalknowledgealwayshasbeen,andalwaysmustbe,synonymouswithnomorethantheimprovementofthematerialresourcesandtheincreaseofthegratificationsofmen.

Naturalknowledgeis,intheireyes,norealmotherofmankind,bringingthemupwithkindness,and,ifneedbe,withsternness,inthewaytheyshouldgo,andinstructingtheminallthingsneedfulfortheirwelfare;butasortoffairygodmother,readytofurnishherpetswithshoesofswiftness,swordsofsharpness,andomnipotentAladdin'slamps,sothattheymayhavetelegraphstoSaturn,andseetheothersideofthemoon,andthankGodtheyarebetterthantheirbenightedancestors.

Ifthistalkweretrue,I,forone,shouldnotgreatlycaretotoilintheserviceofnaturalknowledge.IthinkIwouldjustassoonbe



quietlychippingmyownflintaxe,afterthemannerofmyforefathersafewthousandyearsback,asbetroubledwiththeendlessmaladyofthoughtwhichnowinfestsusall,forsuchreward.ButIventuretosaythatsuchviewsarecontraryaliketoreasonandtofact.ThosewhodiscourseinsuchfashionseemtometobesointentupontryingtoseewhatisaboveNature,orwhatisbehindher,thattheyareblindtowhatstaresthemintheface,inher.

Ishouldnotventuretospeakthusstronglyifmyjustificationwerenottobefoundinthesimplestandmostobviousfacts,--ifitneededmorethananappealtothemostnotorioustruthstojustifymyassertion,thattheimprovementofnaturalknowledge,whateverdirectionithastaken,andhoweverlowtheaimsofthosewhomayhavecommencedit--hasnotonlyconferredpracticalbenefitsonmen,but,insodoing,haseffectedarevolutionintheirconceptionsoftheuniverseandofthemselves,andhasprofoundlyalteredtheirmodesofthinkingandtheirviewsofrightandwrong.Isaythatnaturalknowledge,seekingtosatisfynaturalwants,hasfoundtheideaswhichcanalonestillspiritualcravings.Isaythatnaturalknowledge,indesiringtoascertainthelawsofcomfort,hasbeendriventodiscoverthoseofconduct;andtolaythefoundationsofanewmorality.

Letustakethesepointsseparately;and,first,whatgreatideashas

naturalknowledgeintroducedintomen'sminds?IcannotbutthinkthatthefoundationsofallnaturalknowledgewerelaidwhenthereasonofmanfirstcamefacetofacewiththefactsofNature:whenthesavagefirstlearnedthatthefingersofonehandarefewerthanthoseofboth;thatitisshortertocrossastreamthantoheadit;thatastonestopswhereitisunlessitbemoved,andthatitdropsfromthehandwhichletsitgo;thatlightandheatcomeandgowiththesun;thatsticksburnawayinafire;thatplantsandanimalsgrowanddie;thatifhestruckhisfellow-savageablowhewouldmakehimangry,andperhapsgetablowinreturn,whileifheofferedhimafruithewouldpleasehim,andperhapsreceiveafishinexchange.Whenmenhadacquiredthismuchknowledge,theoutlines,rudethoughthey

were,ofmathematics,ofphysics,ofchemistry,ofbiology,ofmoral,economical,andpoliticalscience,weresketched.Nordidthegermofreligionfailwhensciencebegantobud.Listentowordswhich,thoughnew,areyetthreethousandyearsold:--

"...WheninheaventhestarsaboutthemoonLookbeautiful,whenallthewindsarelaid,Andeveryheightcomesout,andjuttingpeakAndvalley,andtheimmeasurableheavensBreakopentotheirhighest,andallthestarsShine,andtheshepherdgladdensinhisheart."[1]

Ifthehalf-savageGreekcouldshareourfeelingsthusfar,itis

irrationaltodoubtthathewentfurther,tofind,aswedo,thatuponthatbriefgladnesstherefollowsacertainsorrow,--thelittlelightofawakenedhumanintelligenceshinessomereasparkamidsttheabyssoftheunknownandunknowable;seemssoinsufficienttodomorethanilluminatetheimperfectionsthatcannotberemedied,theaspirationsthatcannotberealized,ofman'sownnature.Butinthissadness,thisconsciousnessofthelimitationofman,thissenseofanopensecretwhichhecannotpenetrate,liestheessenceofallreligion;andtheattempttoembodyitintheformsfurnishedbytheintellectistheoriginofthehighertheologies.



Thusitseemsimpossibletoimaginebutthatthefoundationsofallknowledge--secularorsacred--werelaidwhenintelligencedawned,thoughthesuperstructureremainedforlongagessoslightandfeebleastobecompatiblewiththeexistenceofalmostanygeneralviewrespectingthemodeofgovernanceoftheuniverse.Nodoubt,fromthefirst,therewerecertainphenomenawhich,totherudestmind,presentedaconstancyofoccurrence,andsuggestedthatafixedorderruled,atanyrate,amongthem.IdoubtifthegrossestofFetishworshipperseverimaginedthatastonemusthaveagodwithinittomakeitfall,orthatafruithadagodwithinittomakeittastesweet.Withregardtosuchmattersasthese,itishardlyquestionablethatmankindfromthefirsttookstrictlypositiveandscientificviews.

But,withrespecttoallthelessfamiliaroccurrenceswhichpresentthemselves,unculturedman,nodoubt,hasalwaystakenhimselfasthestandardofcomparison,asthecentreandmeasureoftheworld;norcouldhewellavoiddoingso.Andfindingthathisapparentlyuncausedwillhasapowerfuleffectingivingrisetomanyoccurrences,henaturallyenoughascribedotherandgreatereventstootherandgreatervolitions,andcametolookupontheworldandallthatthereinis,astheproductofthevolitionsofpersonslikehimself,butstronger,andcapableofbeingappeasedorangered,ashehimselfmightbesoothedorirritated.Throughsuchconceptionsoftheplanandworkingofthe

universeallmankindhavepassed,orarepassing.Andwemaynowconsider,whathasbeentheeffectoftheimprovementofnaturalknowledgeontheviewsofmenwhohavereachedthisstage,andwhohavebeguntocultivatenaturalknowledgewithnodesirebutthatof"increasingGod'shonourandbetteringman'sestate."

Forexample:whatcouldseemwiser,fromamerematerialpointofview,moreinnocent,fromatheologicalone,toanancientpeople,thanthattheyshouldlearntheexactsuccessionoftheseasons,aswarningsfortheirhusbandmen;orthepositionofthestars,asguidestotheirrudenavigators?Butwhathasgrownoutofthissearchfornaturalknowledgeofsomerelyusefulacharacter?Youallknowthereply.Astronomy,--whichofallscienceshasfilledmen'smindswithgeneral

ideasofacharactermostforeigntotheirdailyexperience,andhas,morethananyother,rendereditimpossibleforthemtoacceptthebeliefsoftheirfathers.Astronomy,--whichtellsthemthatthissovastandseeminglysolidearthisbutanatomamongatoms,whirling,nomanknowswhither,throughillimitablespace;whichdemonstratesthatwhatwecallthepeacefulheavenaboveus,isbutthatspace,filledbyaninfinitelysubtlematterwhoseparticlesareseethingandsurging,likethewavesofanangrysea;whichopensuptousinfiniteregionswherenothingisknown,oreverseemstohavebeenknown,butmatterandforce,operatingaccordingtorigidrules;whichleadsustocontemplatephenomenatheverynatureofwhichdemonstratesthattheymusthavehadabeginning,andthattheymusthaveanend,buttheverynatureofwhichalsoprovesthatthebeginningwas,toourconceptionsoftime,

infinitelyremote,andthattheendisasimmeasurablydistant.

Butitisnotalonethosewhopursueastronomywhoaskforbreadandreceiveideas.Whatmoreharmlessthantheattempttoliftanddistributewaterbypumpingit;whatmoreabsolutelyandgrosslyutilitarian?ButoutofpumpsgrewthediscussionsaboutNature'sabhorrenceofavacuum;andthenitwasdiscoveredthatNaturedoesnotabhoravacuum,butthatairhasweight;andthatnotionpavedthewayforthedoctrinethatallmatterhasweight,andthattheforcewhichproducesweightisco-extensivewiththeuniverse,--inshort,tothe



theoryofuniversalgravitationandendlessforce.Whilelearninghowtohandlegasesledtothediscoveryofoxygen,andtomodernchemistry,andtothenotionoftheindestructibilityofmatter.

Again,whatsimpler,ormoreabsolutelypractical,thantheattempttokeeptheaxleofawheelfromheatingwhenthewheelturnsroundveryfast?Howusefulforcartersandgigdriverstoknowsomethingaboutthis;andhowgoodwereit,ifanyingeniouspersonwouldfindoutthecauseofsuchphenomena,andthenceeduceageneralremedyforthem.SuchaningeniouspersonwasCountRumford;andheandhissuccessorshavelandedusinthetheoryofthepersistence,orindestructibility,offorce.Andintheinfinitelyminute,asintheinfinitelygreat,theseekersafternaturalknowledge,ofthekindscalledphysicalandchemical,haveeverywherefoundadefiniteorderandsuccessionofeventswhichseemnevertobeinfringed.

Andhowhasitfaredwith"Physick"andAnatomy?Havetheanatomist,thephysiologist,orthephysician,whosebusinessithasbeentodevotethemselvesassiduouslytothateminentlypracticalanddirectend,thealleviationofthesufferingsofmankind,--havetheybeenabletoconfinetheirvisionmoreabsolutelytothestrictlyuseful?Ifeartheyareworstoffendersofall.Foriftheastronomerhassetbeforeustheinfinitemagnitudeofspace,andthepracticaleternityofthedurationoftheuniverse;ifthephysicalandchemicalphilosophershave

demonstratedtheinfiniteminutenessofitsconstituentparts,andthepracticaleternityofmatterandofforce;andifbothhavealikeproclaimedtheuniversalityofadefiniteandpredicableorderandsuccessionofevents,theworkersinbiologyhavenotonlyacceptedallthese,buthaveaddedmorestartlingthesesoftheirown.For,astheastronomersdiscoverintheearthnocentreoftheuniverse,butaneccentricspeck,sothenaturalistsfindmantobenocentreofthelivingworld,butoneamidstendlessmodificationsoflife;andastheastronomerobservesthemarkofpracticallyendlesstimesetuponthearrangementsofthesolarsystem,sothestudentoflifefindstherecordsofancientformsofexistencepeoplingtheworldforages,which,inrelationtohumanexperience,areinfinite.

Furthermore,thephysiologistfindslifetobeasdependentforitsmanifestationonparticularmoleculararrangementsasanyphysicalorchemicalphenomenon;and,whereverheextendshisresearches,fixedorderandunchangingcausationrevealthemselves,asplainlyasintherestofNature.

NorcanIfindthatanyotherfatehasawaitedthegermofReligion.Arising,likeallotherkindsofknowledge,outoftheactionandinteractionofman'smind,withthatwhichisnotman'smind,ithastakentheintellectualcoveringsofFetishismorPolytheism;ofTheismorAtheism;ofSuperstitionorRationalism.Withthese,andtheirrelativemeritsanddemerits,Ihavenothingtodo;butthisitisneedfulformypurposetosay,thatifthereligionofthepresent

differsfromthatofthepast,itisbecausethetheologyofthepresenthasbecomemorescientificthanthatofthepast;becauseithasnotonlyrenouncedidolsofwoodandidolsofstone,butbeginstoseethenecessityofbreakinginpiecestheidolsbuiltupofbooksandtraditionsandfine-spunecclesiasticalcobwebs:andofcherishingthenoblestandmosthumanofman'semotions,byworship"forthemostpartofthesilentsort"atthealtaroftheUnknownandUnknowable.

Suchareafewofthenewconceptionsimplantedinourmindsbytheimprovementofnaturalknowledge.Menhaveacquiredtheideasofthe



practicallyinfiniteextentoftheuniverseandofitspracticaleternity;theyarefamiliarwiththeconceptionthatourearthisbutaninfinitesimalfragmentofthatpartoftheuniversewhichcanbeseen;andthat,nevertheless,itsdurationis,ascomparedwithourstandardsoftime,infinite.Theyhavefurtheracquiredtheideathatmanisbutoneofinnumerableformsoflifenowexistingintheglobe,andthatthepresentexistencesarebutthelastofanimmeasurableseriesofpredecessors.Moreover,everysteptheyhavemadeinnaturalknowledgehastendedtoextendandrivetintheirmindstheconceptionofadefiniteorderoftheuniverse--whichisembodiedinwhatarecalled,byanunhappymetaphor,thelawsofNature--andtonarrowtherangeandloosentheforceofmen'sbeliefinspontaneity,orinchangesotherthansuchasariseoutofthatdefiniteorderitself.

Whethertheseideasarewellorillfoundedisnotthequestion.Noonecandenythattheyexist,andhavebeentheinevitableoutgrowthoftheimprovementofnaturalknowledge.Andifso,itcannotbedoubtedthattheyarechangingtheformofmen'smostcherishedandmostimportantconvictions.

Andasregardsthesecondpoint--theextenttowhichtheimprovementofnaturalknowledgehasremodelledandalteredwhatmaybetermedtheintellectualethicsofmen,--whatareamongthemoralconvictionsmost

fondlyheldbybarbarousandsemi-barbarouspeople?Theyaretheconvictionsthatauthorityisthesoundestbasisofbelief;thatmeritattachestoareadinesstobelieve;thatthedoubtingdispositionisabadone,andscepticismasin;thatwhengoodauthorityhaspronouncedwhatistobebelieved,andfaithhasacceptedit,reasonhasnofurtherduty.Therearemanyexcellentpersonswhoyetholdbytheseprinciples,anditisnotmypresentbusiness,orintention,todiscusstheirviews.AllIwishtobringclearlybeforeyourmindsistheunquestionablefact,thattheimprovementofnaturalknowledgeiseffectedbymethodswhichdirectlygivethelietoalltheseconvictions,andassumetheexactreverseofeachtobetrue.

Theimproverofnaturalknowledgeabsolutelyrefusestoacknowledgeauthority,assuch.Forhim,scepticismisthehighestofduties;blindfaiththeoneunpardonablesin.Anditcannotbeotherwise,foreverygreatadvanceinnaturalknowledgehasinvolvedtheabsoluterejectionofauthority,thecherishingofthekeenestscepticism,theannihilationofthespiritofblindfaith:andthemostardentvotaryofscienceholdshisfirmestconvictions,notbecausethemenhemostveneratesholdthem;notbecausetheirverityistestifiedbyportentsandwonders;butbecausehisexperienceteacheshimthatwheneverhechoosestobringtheseconvictionsintocontactwiththeirprimarysource,Nature--wheneverhethinksfittotestthembyappealingtoexperimentandtoobservation--Naturewillconfirmthem.Themanofsciencehaslearnedtobelieveinjustification,notbyfaith,butbyverification.

Thus,withoutforamomentpretendingtodespisethepracticalresultsoftheimprovementofnaturalknowledge,anditsbeneficialinfluenceonmaterialcivilization,itmust,Ithink,beadmittedthatthegreatideas,someofwhichIhaveindicated,andtheethicalspiritwhichIhaveendeavouredtosketch,inthefewmomentswhichremainedatmydisposal,constitutetherealandpermanentsignificanceofnaturalknowledge.



Iftheseideasbedestined,asIbelievetheyare,tobemoreandmorefirmlyestablishedastheworldgrowsolder;ifthatspiritbefated,asIbelieveitis,toextenditselfintoalldepartmentsofhumanthought,andtobecomeco-extensivewiththerangeofknowledge;if,asourraceapproachesitsmaturity,itdiscovers,asIbelieveitwill,thatthereisbutonekindofknowledgeandbutonemethodofacquiringit;thenwe,whoarestillchildren,mayjustlyfeelitourhighestdutytorecognisetheadvisablenessofimprovingnaturalknowledge,andsotoaidourselvesandoursuccessorsintheircoursetowardsthenoblegoalwhichliesbeforemankind.

FOOTNOTE:

[1]NeeditbesaidthatthisisTennyson'sEnglishforHomer'sGreek?

II.

EMANCIPATION--BLACKANDWHITE.

Quashie'splaintiveinquiry,"AmInotamanandabrother?"seemsat

lasttohavereceiveditsfinalreply--therecentdecisionofthefiercetrialbybattleontheothersideoftheAtlanticfullyconcurringwiththatlongsincedeliveredhereinamorepeacefulway.

Thequestionissettled;buteventhosewhoaremostthoroughlyconvincedthatthedoomisjust,mustseegoodgroundsforrepudiatinghalftheargumentswhichhavebeenemployedbythewinningside;andfordoubtingwhetheritsultimateresultswillembodythehopesofthevictors,thoughtheymaymorethanrealizethefearsofthevanquished.Itmaybequitetruethatsomenegroesarebetterthansomewhitemen;butnorationalman,cognizantofthefacts,believesthattheaveragenegroistheequal,stilllessthesuperior,oftheaveragewhiteman.And,ifthisbetrue,itissimplyincrediblethat,whenallhis

disabilitiesareremoved,andourprognathousrelativehasafairfieldandnofavour,aswellasnooppressor,hewillbeabletocompetesuccessfullywithhisbigger-brainedandsmaller-jawedrival,inacontestwhichistobecarriedonbythoughtsandnotbybites.Thehighestplacesinthehierarchyofcivilizationwillassuredlynotbewithinthereachofourduskycousins,thoughitisbynomeansnecessarythattheyshouldberestrictedtothelowest.Butwhateverthepositionofstableequilibriumintowhichthelawsofsocialgravitationmaybringthenegro,allresponsibilityfortheresultwillhenceforwardliebetweenNatureandhim.Thewhitemanmaywashhishandsofit,andtheCaucasianconsciencebevoidofreproachforevermore.Andthis,ifwelooktothebottomofthematter,istherealjustificationfortheabolitionpolicy.

Thedoctrineofequalnaturalrightsmaybeanillogicaldelusion;emancipationmayconverttheslavefromawellfedanimalintoapauperisedman;mankindmayevenhavetodowithoutcottonshirts;butalltheseevilsmustbefaced,ifthemorallaw,thatnohumanbeingcanarbitrarilydominateoveranotherwithoutgrievousdamagetohisownnature,be,asmanythink,asreadilydemonstrablebyexperimentasanyphysicaltruth.Ifthisbetrue,noslaverycanbeabolishedwithoutadoubleemancipation,andthemasterwillbenefitbyfreedommorethanthefreed-man.



Thelikeconsiderationsapplytoalltheotherquestionsofemancipationwhichareatpresentstirringtheworld--themultifariousdemandsthatclassesofmankindshallberelievedfromrestrictionsimposedbytheartificeofman,andnotbythenecessitiesofNature.Oneofthemostimportant,ifnotthemostimportant,ofallthese,isthatwhichdailythreatenstobecomethe"irrepressible"womanquestion.Whatsocialandpoliticalrightshavewomen?Whatoughttheytobeallowed,ornotallowed,todo,be,andsuffer?And,asinvolvedin,andunderlyingallthesequestions,howoughttheytobeeducated?

Therearephilogynistsasfanaticalasany"misogynists"who,reversingourantiquatednotions,bidthemanlookuponthewomanasthehighertypeofhumanity;whoaskustoregardthefemaleintellectastheclearerandthequicker,ifnotthestronger;whodesireustolookuptothefemininemoralsenseasthepurerandthenobler;andbidmanabdicatehisusurpedsovereigntyoverNatureinfavourofthefemaleline.Ontheotherhand,therearepersonsnottobeoutdoneinallloyaltyandjustrespectforwoman-kind,butbynaturehardofheadandhatersofdelusion,howevercharming,whonotonlyrepudiatethenewwoman-worshipwhichsomanysentimentalistsandsomephilosophersaredesirousofsettingup,but,carryingtheiraudacityfurther,denyeventhenaturalequalityofthesexes.Theyassert,onthecontrary,thatineveryexcellentcharacter,whethermentalorphysical,theaveragewoman

isinferiortotheaverageman,inthesenseofhavingthatcharacterlessinquantity,andlowerinquality.Tellthesepersonsoftherapidperceptionsandtheinstinctiveintellectualinsightofwomen,andtheyreplythatthefemininementalpeculiarities,whichpassunderthesenames,aremerelytheoutcomeofagreaterimpressibilitytothesuperficialaspectsofthings,andoftheabsenceofthatrestraintuponexpression,which,inmen,isimposedbyreflectionandasenseofresponsibility.Talkofthepassiveenduranceoftheweakersex,andopponentsofthiskindremindyouthatJobwasaman,andthat,untilquiterecenttimes,patienceandlong-sufferingwerenotcountedamongthespeciallyfemininevirtues.Claimpassionatetendernessasespeciallyfeminine,andtheinquiryismadewhetherallthebestlove-poetryinexistence(except,perhaps,the"Sonnetsfromthe

Portuguese")hasnotbeenwrittenbymen;whetherthesongwhichembodiestheidealofpureandtenderpassion--Adelaida--waswrittenby _Frau_Beethoven;whetheritwastheFornarina,orRaphael,whopaintedtheSistineMadonna.Nay,wehaveknownonesuchhereticgosofarastolayhishandsuponthearkitself,sotospeak,andtodefendthestartlingparadoxthat,eveninphysicalbeauty,manisthesuperior.Headmitted,indeed,thattherewasabriefperiodofearlyyouthwhenitmightbehardtosaywhethertheprizeshouldbeawardedtothegracefulundulationsofthefemalefigure,ortheperfectbalanceandsupplevigourofthemaleframe.ButwhileournewParismighthesitatebetweentheyouthfulBacchusandtheVenusemergingfromthefoam,heaverredthat,whenVenusandBacchushadreachedthirty,thepointnolongeradmittedofadoubt;themaleformhavingthenattaineditsgreatest

nobility,whilethefemaleisfargoneindecadence;andthat,atthisepoch,womanlybeauty,sofarasitisindependentofgraceorexpression,isaquestionofdraperyandaccessories.

Supposing,however,thatalltheseargumentshaveacertainfoundation;admittingforamoment,thattheyarecomparabletothosebywhichtheinferiorityofthenegrotothewhitemanmaybedemonstrated,aretheyofanyvalueasagainstwoman-emancipation?Dotheyaffordusthesmallestgroundforrefusingtoeducatewomenaswellasmen--togivewomenthesamecivilandpoliticalrightsasmen?Nomistakeisso



commonlymadebycleverpeopleasthatofassumingacausetobehadbecausetheargumentsofitssupportersare,toagreatextent,nonsensical.Andweconceivethatthosewhomaylaughattheargumentsoftheextremephilogynists,mayyetfeelboundtoworkheartandsoultowardstheattainmentoftheirpracticalends.

Asregardseducation,forexample.Grantingtheallegeddefectsofwomen,isitnotsomewhatabsurdtosanctionandmaintainasystemofeducationwhichwouldseemtohavebeenspeciallycontrivedtoexaggerateallthesedefects?

Naturallynotsofirmlystrung,norsowellbalanced,asboys,girlsareingreatmeasuredebarredfromthesportsandphysicalexerciseswhicharejustlythoughtabsolutelynecessaryforthefulldevelopmentofthevigourofthemorefavouredsex.Womenare,bynature,moreexcitablethanmen--pronetobesweptbytidesofemotion,proceedingfromhiddenandinward,aswellasfromobviousandexternalcauses;andfemaleeducationdoesitsbesttoweakeneveryphysicalcounterpoisetothisnervousmobility--tendsinallwaystostimulatetheemotionalpartofthemindandstunttherest.Wefindgirlsnaturallytimid,inclinedtodependence,bornconservatives;andweteachthemthatindependenceisunladylike;thatblindfaithistherightframeofmind;andthatwhateverwemaybepermitted,andindeedencouraged,todotoourbrother,oursisteristobelefttothetyrannyofauthorityand

tradition.Withfewinsignificantexceptions,girlshavebeeneducatedeithertobedrudges,ortoys,beneathman;orasortofangelsabovehim;thehighestidealaimedatoscillatingbetweenClärchenandBeatrice.Thepossibilitythattheidealofwomanhoodliesneitherinthefairsaint,norinthefairsinner;thatthefemaletypeofcharacterisneitherbetternorworsethanthemale,butonlyweaker;thatwomenaremeantneithertobemen'sguidesnortheirplaythings,buttheircomrades,theirfellowsandtheirequals,sofarasNatureputsnobartothatequality,doesnotseemtohaveenteredintothemindsofthosewhohavehadtheconductoftheeducationofgirls.

Ifthepresentsystemoffemaleeducationstandsself-condemned,asinherentlyabsurd;andifthatwhichwehavejustindicatedisthetrue

positionofwoman,whatisthefirststeptowardsabetterstateofthings?Wereply,emancipategirls.Recognisethefactthattheysharethesenses,perceptions,feelings,reasoningpowers,emotions,ofboys,andthatthemindoftheaveragegirlislessdifferentfromthatoftheaverageboy,thanthemindofoneboyisfromthatofanother;sothatwhateverargumentjustifiesagiveneducationforallboys,justifiesitsapplicationtogirlsaswell.Sofarfromimposingartificialrestrictionsupontheacquirementofknowledgebywomen,throweveryfacilityintheirway.LetourFaustinas,iftheywill,toilthroughthewholeroundof

"JuristereiundMedizin,Undleider!auchPhilosophie."

Letushave"sweetgirlgraduates"byallmeans.Theywillbenonethelesssweetforalittlewisdom;andthe"goldenhair"willnotcurllessgracefullyoutsidetheheadbyreasonoftherebeingbrainswithin.Nay,ifobviouspracticaldifficultiescanbeovercome,letthosewomenwhofeelinclinedtodosodescendintothegladiatorialarenaoflife,notmerelyintheguiseof_retiariæ_,asheretofore,butasbold _sicariæ_,breastingtheopenfray.Letthem,iftheysoplease,becomemerchants,barristers,politicians.Letthemhaveafairfield,butletthemunderstand,asthenecessarycorrelative,thattheyaretohaveno



favour.LetNaturealonesitabovethelists,"raininfluenceandjudgetheprize."

Andtheresult?Forourparts,thoughlothtoprophesy,webelieveitwillbethatofotheremancipations.Womenwillfindtheirplace,anditwillneitherbethatinwhichtheyhavebeenheld,northattowhichsomeofthemaspire.Nature'soldsaliquelawwillnotberepealed,andnochangeofdynastywillbeeffected.Thebigchests,themassivebrains,thevigorousmusclesandstoutframes,ofthebestmenwillcarrytheday,wheneveritisworththeirwhiletocontesttheprizesoflifewiththebestwomen.Andthehardshipofitis,thattheveryimprovementofthewomenwilllessentheirchances.Bettermotherswillbringforthbettersons,andtheimpetusgainedbytheonesexwillbetransmitted,inthenextgeneration,totheother.ThemostDarwinianoftheoristswillnotventuretopropoundthedoctrine,thatthephysicaldisabilitiesunderwhichwomenhavehithertolaboured,inthestruggleforexistencewithmen,arelikelytoberemovedbyeventhemostskilfullyconductedprocessofeducationalselection.

Weare,indeed,fullypreparedtobelievethatthebearingofchildrenmay,andought,tobecomeasfreefromdangerandlongdisability,tothecivilizedwoman,asitistothesavage;norisitimprobablethat,associetyadvancestowardsitsrightorganization,motherhoodwilloccupyalessspaceofwoman'slifethanithashithertodone.But

still,unlessthehumanspeciesistocometoanendaltogether--aconsummationwhichcanhardlybedesiredbyeventhemostardentadvocateof"women'srights"--somebodymustbegoodenoughtotakethetroubleandresponsibilityofannuallyaddingtotheworldexactlyasmanypeopleasdieoutofit.Inconsequenceofsomedomesticdifficulties,SydneySmithissaidtohavesuggestedthatitwouldhavebeengoodforthehumanracehadthemodelofferedbythehivebeenfollowed,andhadalltheworkingpartofthefemalecommunitybeenneuters.Failinganythorough-goingreformofthiskind,weseenothingforitbuttheolddivisionofhumanityintomenpotentially,oractually,fathers,andwomenpotentially,ifnotactually,mothers.Andwefearthatsolongasthispotentialmotherhoodisherlot,womanwillbefoundtobefearfullyweightedintheraceoflife.

ThedutyofmanistoseethatnotagrainispileduponthatloadbeyondwhatNatureimposes;thatinjusticeisnotaddedtoinequality.

III.

ALIBERALEDUCATION:ANDWHERETOFINDIT.

ThebusinesswhichtheSouthLondonWorkingMen'sCollegehasundertaken

isagreatwork;indeed,Imightsay,thatEducation,withwhichthatcollegeproposestograpple,isthegreatestworkofallthosewhichliereadytoaman'shandjustatpresent.

And,atlength,thisfactisbecominggenerallyrecognised.Youcannotgoanywherewithouthearingabuzzofmoreorlessconfusedandcontradictorytalkonthissubject--norcanyoufailtonoticethat,inonepointatanyrate,thereisaverydecidedadvanceuponlikediscussionsinformerdays.Nobodyoutsidetheagriculturalinterestnowdarestosaythateducationisabadthing.Ifanyrepresentativeofthe



oncelargeandpowerfulparty,which,informerdays,proclaimedthisopinion,stillexistsinasemi-fossilstate,hekeepshisthoughtstohimself.Infact,thereisachorusofvoices,almostdistressingintheirharmony,raisedinfavourofthedoctrinethateducationisthegreatpanaceaforhumantroubles,andthat,ifthecountryisnotshortlytogotothedogs,everybodymustbeeducated.

Thepoliticianstellus,"youmusteducatethemassesbecausetheyaregoingtobemasters."Theclergyjoininthecryforeducation,fortheyaffirmthatthepeoplearedriftingawayfromchurchandchapelintothebroadestinfidelity.Themanufacturersandthecapitalistsswellthechoruslustily.Theydeclarethatignorancemakesbadworkmen;thatEnglandwillsoonbeunabletoturnoutcottongoods,orsteamengines,cheaperthanotherpeople;andthen,Ichabod!Ichabod!theglorywillbedepartedfromus.Andafewvoicesareliftedupinfavourofthedoctrinethatthemassesshouldbeeducatedbecausetheyaremenandwomenwithunlimitedcapacitiesofbeing,doing,andsuffering,andthatitisastruenow,aseveritwas,thatthepeopleperishforlackofknowledge.

Thesemembersoftheminority,withwhomIconfessIhaveagooddealofsympathy,aredoubtfulwhetheranyoftheotherreasonsurgedinfavouroftheeducationofthepeopleareofmuchvalue--whether,indeed,someofthemarebaseduponeitherwiseornoblegroundsofaction.They

questionifitbewisetotellpeoplethatyouwilldoforthem,outoffearoftheirpower,whatyouhaveleftundone,solongasyouronlymotivewascompassionfortheirweaknessandtheirsorrows.And,ifignoranceofeverythingwhichitisneedfularulershouldknowislikelytodosomuchharminthegoverningclassesofthefuture,whyisit,theyaskreasonablyenough,thatsuchignoranceinthegoverningclassesofthepasthasnotbeenviewedwithequalhorror?

Comparetheaverageartisanandtheaveragecountrysquire,anditmaybedoubtedifyouwillfindapintochoosebetweenthetwoinpointofignorance,classfeeling,orprejudice.Itistruethattheignoranceisofadifferentsort--thattheclassfeelingisinfavourofadifferentclass,andthattheprejudicehasadistinctflavourof

wrong-headednessineachcase--butitisquestionableiftheoneiseitherabitbetter,orabitworsethantheother.Theoldprotectionisttheoryisthedoctrineoftradesunionsasappliedbythesquires,andthemoderntradesunionismisthedoctrineofthesquiresappliedbytheartisans.Whyshouldwebeworseoffunderone_régime_ thanundertheother?

Again,thisscepticalminorityaskstheclergytothinkwhetheritisreallywantofeducationwhichkeepsthemassesawayfromtheirministrations--whetherthemostcompletelyeducatedmenarenotasopentoreproachonthisscoreastheworkmen;andwhether,perchance,thismaynotindicatethatitisnoteducationwhichliesatthebottomofthematter?

Oncemore,thesepeople,whomthereisnopleasing,venturetodoubtwhethertheglory,whichrestsuponbeingabletoundersellalltherestoftheworld,isaverysafekindofglory--whetherwemaynotpurchaseittoodear;especiallyifwealloweducation,whichoughttobedirectedtothemakingofmen,tobedivertedintoaprocessofmanufacturinghumantools,wonderfullyadroitintheexerciseofsometechnicalindustry,butgoodfornothingelse.

And,finally,thesepeopleinquirewhetheritisthemassesalonewho



needareformedandimprovededucation.Theyaskwhethertherichestofourpublicschoolsmightnotwellbemadetosupplyknowledge,aswellasgentlemanlyhabits,astrongclassfeeling,andeminentproficiencyincricket.Theyseemtothinkthatthenoblefoundationsofourolduniversitiesarehardlyfulfillingtheirfunctionsintheirpresentpostureofhalf-clericalseminaries,halfracecourses,wheremenaretrainedtowinaseniorwranglership,oradouble-first,ashorsesaretrainedtowinacup,withaslittlereferencetotheneedsofafter-lifeinthecaseofthemanasinthatoftheracer.And,whileaszealousforeducationastherest,theyaffirmthat,iftheeducationofthericherclassesweresuchastofitthemtobetheleadersandthegovernorsofthepoorer;and,iftheeducationofthepoorerclassesweresuchastoenablethemtoappreciatereallywiseguidanceandgoodgovernance;thepoliticiansneednotfearmob-law,northeclergylamenttheirwantofflocks,northecapitalistsprognosticatetheannihilationoftheprosperityofthecountry.

Suchisthediversityofopinionuponthewhyandthewhereforeofeducation.Andmyhearerswillbepreparedtoexpectthatthepracticalrecommendationswhichareputforwardarenotlessdiscordant.Thereisaloudcryforcompulsoryeducation.WeEnglish,inspiteofconstantexperiencetothecontrary,preserveatouchingfaithintheefficacyofactsofparliament;andIbelieveweshouldhavecompulsoryeducationinthecourseofnextsession,ifthereweretheleastprobabilitythat

halfadozenleadingstatesmenofdifferentpartieswouldagreewhatthateducationshouldbe.

Someholdthateducationwithouttheologyisworsethannone.Othersmaintain,quiteasstrongly,thateducationwiththeologyisinthesamepredicament.Butthisiscertain,thatthosewhoholdthefirstopinioncanbynomeansagreewhattheologyshouldbetaught;andthatthosewhomaintainthesecondareinasmallminority.

Atanyrate"makepeoplelearntoread,write,andcipher,"sayagreatmany;andtheadviceisundoubtedlysensibleasfarasitgoes.But,ashashappenedtomeinformerdays,thosewho,indespairofgettinganythingbetter,advocatethismeasure,aremetwiththeobjectionthat

itisverylikemakingachildpractisetheuseofaknife,fork,andspoon,withoutgivingitaparticleofmeat.Ireallydon'tknowwhatreplyistobemadetosuchanobjection.

Butitwouldbeunprofitabletospendmoretimeindisentangling,orratherinshowinguptheknotsin,theravelledskeinsofourneighbours.Muchmoretothepurposeisittoaskifwepossessanyclueofourownwhichmayguideusamongtheseentanglements.Andbywayofabeginning,letusaskourselves--Whatiseducation?Aboveallthings,whatisouridealofathoroughlyliberaleducation?--ofthateducationwhich,ifwecouldbeginlifeagain,wewouldgiveourselves--ofthateducationwhich,ifwecouldmouldthefatestoourownwill,wewouldgiveourchildren.Well,Iknownotwhatmaybeyourconceptionsupon

thismatter,butIwilltellyoumine,andIhopeIshallfindthatourviewsarenotverydiscrepant.

Supposeitwereperfectlycertainthatthelifeandfortuneofeveryoneofuswould,onedayorother,dependuponhiswinningorlosingagameatchess.Don'tyouthinkthatweshouldallconsiderittobeaprimarydutytolearnatleastthenamesandthemovesofthepieces;tohaveanotionofagambit,andakeeneyeforallthemeansofgivingandgettingoutofcheck?Doyounotthinkthatweshouldlookwitha



disapprobationamountingtoscorn,uponthefatherwhoallowedhisson,orthestatewhichalloweditsmembers,togrowupwithoutknowingapawnfromaknight?

Yetitisaveryplainandelementarytruth,thatthelife,thefortune,andthehappinessofeveryoneofus,and,moreorless,ofthosewhoareconnectedwithus,dodependuponourknowingsomethingoftherulesofagameinfinitelymoredifficultandcomplicatedthanchess.Itisagamewhichhasbeenplayedforuntoldages,everymanandwomanofusbeingoneofthetwoplayersinagameofhisorherown.Thechess-boardistheworld,thepiecesarethephenomenaoftheuniverse,therulesofthegamearewhatwecallthelawsofNature.Theplayerontheothersideishiddenfromus.Weknowthathisplayisalwaysfair,just,andpatient.Butalsoweknow,toourcost,thatheneveroverlooksamistake,ormakesthesmallestallowanceforignorance.Tothemanwhoplayswell,thehigheststakesarepaid,withthatsortofoverflowinggenerositywithwhichthestrongshowsdelightinstrength.Andonewhoplaysillischeckmated--withouthaste,butwithoutremorse.

MymetaphorwillremindsomeofyouofthefamouspictureinwhichRetzschhasdepictedSatanplayingatchesswithmanforhissoul.Substituteforthemockingfiendinthatpicture,acalm,strongangelwhoisplayingforlove,aswesay,andwouldratherlosethanwin--andIshouldacceptitasanimageofhumanlife.

Well,whatImeanbyEducationislearningtherulesofthismightygame.Inotherwords,educationistheinstructionoftheintellectinthelawsofNature,underwhichnameIincludenotmerelythingsandtheirforces,butmenandtheirways;andthefashioningoftheaffectionsandofthewillintoanearnestandlovingdesiretomoveinharmonywiththoselaws.Forme,educationmeansneithermorenorlessthanthis.Anythingwhichprofessestocallitselfeducationmustbetriedbythisstandard,andifitfailstostandthetest,Iwillnotcalliteducation,whatevermaybetheforceofauthority,orofnumbers,upontheotherside.

Itisimportanttorememberthat,instrictness,thereisnosuchthing

asanuneducatedman.Takeanextremecase.Supposethatanadultman,inthefullvigourofhisfaculties,couldbesuddenlyplacedintheworld,asAdamissaidtohavebeen,andthenlefttodoashebestmight.Howlongwouldhebeleftuneducated?Notfiveminutes.Naturewouldbegintoteachhim,throughtheeye,theear,thetouch,thepropertiesofobjects.Painandpleasurewouldbeathiselbowtellinghimtodothisandavoidthat;andbyslowdegreesthemanwouldreceiveaneducation,which,ifnarrow,wouldbethorough,real,andadequatetohiscircumstances,thoughtherewouldbenoextrasandveryfewaccomplishments.

AndiftothissolitarymanenteredasecondAdam,or,betterstill,anEve,anewandgreaterworld,thatofsocialandmoralphenomena,would

berevealed.Joysandwoes,comparedwithwhichallothersmightseembutfaintshadows,wouldspringfromthenewrelations.Happinessandsorrowwouldtaketheplaceofthecoarsermonitors,pleasureandpain;butconductwouldstillbeshapedbytheobservationofthenaturalconsequencesofactions;or,inotherwords,bythelawsofthenatureofman.

ToeveryoneofustheworldwasonceasfreshandnewastoAdam.Andthen,longbeforeweweresusceptibleofanyothermodeofinstruction,Naturetookusinhand,andeveryminuteofwakinglifebroughtits



educationalinfluence,shapingouractionsintoroughaccordancewithNature'slaws,sothatwemightnotbeendeduntimelybytoogrossdisobedience.NorshouldIspeakofthisprocessofeducationaspast,foranyone,beheasoldashemay.Foreveryman,theworldisasfreshasitwasatthefirstday,andasfullofuntoldnoveltiesforhimwhohastheeyestoseethem.AndNatureisstillcontinuingherpatienteducationofusinthatgreatuniversity,theuniverse,ofwhichweareallmembers--NaturehavingnoTest-Acts.

ThosewhotakehonoursinNature'suniversity,wholearnthelawswhichgovernmenandthingsandobeythem,arethereallygreatandsuccessfulmeninthisworld.Thegreatmassofmankindarethe"Poll,"whopickupjustenoughtogetthroughwithoutmuchdiscredit.Thosewhowon'tlearnatallareplucked;andthenyoucan'tcomeupagain.Nature'spluckmeansextermination.

ThusthequestionofcompulsoryeducationissettledsofarasNatureisconcerned.Herbillonthatquestionwasframedandpassedlongago.But,likeallcompulsorylegislation,thatofNatureisharshandwastefulinitsoperation.Ignoranceisvisitedassharplyaswilfuldisobedience--incapacitymeetswiththesamepunishmentascrime.Nature'sdisciplineisnotevenawordandablow,andtheblowfirst;buttheblowwithouttheword.Itislefttoyoutofindoutwhyyourearsareboxed.

Theobjectofwhatwecommonlycalleducation--thateducationinwhichmanintervenesandwhichIshalldistinguishasartificialeducation--istomakegoodthesedefectsinNature'smethods;topreparethechildtoreceiveNature'seducation,neitherincapablynorignorantly,norwithwilfuldisobedience;andtounderstandthepreliminarysymptomsofherdispleasure,withoutwaitingfortheboxontheear.Inshort,allartificialeducationoughttobeananticipationofnaturaleducation.Andaliberaleducationisanartificialeducation,whichhasnotonlypreparedamantoescapethegreatevilsofdisobediencetonaturallaws,buthastrainedhimtoappreciateandtoseizeupontherewards,whichNaturescatterswithasfreeahandasherpenalties.

Thatman,Ithink,hashadaliberaleducation,whohasbeensotrainedinyouththathisbodyisthereadyservantofhiswill,anddoeswitheaseandpleasurealltheworkthat,asamechanism,itiscapableof;whoseintellectisaclear,cold,logicengine,withallitspartsofequalstrength,andinsmoothworkingorder;ready,likeasteamengine,tobeturnedtoanykindofwork,andspinthegossamersaswellasforgetheanchorsofthemind;whosemindisstoredwithaknowledgeofthegreatandfundamentaltruthsofNatureandofthelawsofheroperations;onewho,nostuntedascetic,isfulloflifeandfire,butwhosepassionsaretrainedtocometoheelbyavigorouswill,theservantofatenderconscience;whohaslearnedtoloveallbeauty,whetherofNatureorofart,tohateallvileness,andtorespectothersashimself.

Suchanoneandnoother,Iconceive,hashadaliberaleducation;forheis,ascompletelyasamancanbe,inharmonywithNature.Hewillmakethebestofher,andsheofhim.Theywillgetontogetherrarely;sheashiseverbeneficentmother;heashermouth-piece,herconsciousself,herministerandinterpreter.

Whereissuchaneducationasthistobehad?Whereisthereanyapproximationtoit?Hasanyonetriedtofoundsuchaneducation?



Lookingoverthelengthandbreadthoftheseislands,Iamafraidthatallthesequestionsmustreceiveanegativeanswer.Considerourprimaryschools,andwhatistaughtinthem.Achildlearns:--

1.Toread,write,andcipher,moreorlesswell;butinaverylargeproportionofcasesnotsowellastotakepleasureinreading,ortobeabletowritethecommonestletterproperly.

2.Aquantityofdogmatictheology,ofwhichthechild,ninetimesoutoften,understandsnexttonothing.

3.Mixedupwiththis,soastoseemtostandorfallwithit,afewofthebroadestandsimplestprinciplesofmorality.This,tomymind,ismuchasifamanofscienceshouldmakethestoryofthefalloftheappleinNewton'sgarden,anintegralpartofthedoctrineofgravitation,andteachitasofequalauthoritywiththelawoftheinversesquares.

4.AgooddealofJewishhistoryandSyriangeography,and,perhaps,alittlesomethingaboutEnglishhistoryandthegeographyofthechild'sowncountry.ButIdoubtifthereisaprimaryschoolinEnglandinwhichhangsamapofthehundredinwhichthevillagelies,sothatthechildrenmaybepracticallytaughtbyitwhatamapmeans.

5.Acertainamountofregularity,attentiveobedience,respectforothers:obtainedbyfear,ifthemasterbeincompetentorfoolish;byloveandreverence,ifhebewise.

SofarasthisschoolcourseembracesatraininginthetheoryandpracticeofobediencetothemorallawsofNature,Igladlyadmit,notonlythatitcontainsavaluableeducationalelement,butthat,sofar,itdealswiththemostvaluableandimportantpartofalleducation.Yet,contrastwhatisdoneinthisdirectionwithwhatmightbedone;withthetimegiventomattersofcomparativelynoimportance;withtheabsenceofanyattentiontothingsofthehighestmoment;andoneistemptedtothinkofFalstaff'sbilland"thehalfpennyworthofbreadtoallthatquantityofsack."

Letusconsiderwhatachildthus"educated"knows,andwhatitdoesnotknow.Beginwiththemostimportanttopicofall--morality,astheguideofconduct.Thechildknowswellenoughthatsomeactsmeetwithapprobationandsomewithdisapprobation.Butithasneverheardthatthereliesinthenatureofthingsareasonforeverymorallaw,ascogentandaswelldefinedasthatwhichunderlieseveryphysicallaw;thatstealingandlyingarejustascertaintobefollowedbyevilconsequences,asputtingyourhandinthefire,orjumpingoutofagarretwindow.Again,thoughthescholarmayhavebeenmadeacquainted,indogmaticfashion,withthebroadlawsofmorality,hehashadnotrainingintheapplicationofthoselawstothedifficultproblemswhichresultfromthecomplexconditionsofmoderncivilization.Would

itnotbeveryhardtoexpectanyonetosolveaprobleminconicsectionswhohadmerelybeentaughttheaxiomsanddefinitionsofmathematicalscience?

Aworkmanhastobearhardlabour,andperhapsprivation,whileheseesothersrollinginwealth,andfeedingtheirdogswithwhatwouldkeephischildrenfromstarvation.Woulditnotbewelltohavehelpedthatmantocalmthenaturalpromptingsofdiscontentbyshowinghim,inhisyouth,thenecessaryconnexionofthemorallawwhichprohibitsstealingwiththestabilityofsociety--byprovingtohim,onceforall,thatit



isbetterforhisownpeople,betterforhimself,betterforfuturegenerations,thatheshouldstarvethansteal?Ifyouhavenofoundationofknowledge,orhabitofthought,toworkupon,whatchancehaveyouofpersuadingahungrymanthatacapitalistisnotathief"withacircumbendibus?"Andifhehonestlybelievesthat,ofwhatavailisittoquotethecommandmentagainststealing,whenheproposestomakethecapitalistdisgorge?

Again,thechildlearnsabsolutelynothingofthehistoryorthepoliticalorganizationofhisowncountry.Hisgeneralimpressionis,thateverythingofmuchimportancehappenedaverylongwhileago;andthattheQueenandthegentlefolksgovernthecountrymuchafterthefashionofKingDavidandtheeldersandnoblesofIsrael--hissolemodels.Willyougiveamanwiththismuchinformationavote?Ineasytimeshesellsitforapotofbeer.Whyshouldhenot?Itisofaboutasmuchusetohimasachignon,andheknowsasmuchwhattodowithit,foranyotherpurpose.Inbadtimes,onthecontrary,heapplieshissimpletheoryofgovernment,andbelievesthathisrulersarethecauseofhissufferings--abeliefwhichsometimesbearsremarkablepracticalfruits.

Leastofall,doesthechildgatherfromthisprimary"education"ofoursaconceptionofthelawsofthephysicalworld,oroftherelationsofcauseandeffecttherein.Andthisisthemoretobelamented,asthe

poorareespeciallyexposedtophysicalevils,andaremoreinterestedinremovingthemthananyotherclassofthecommunity.Ifanyoneisconcernedinknowingtheordinarylawsofmechanicsonewouldthinkitisthehand-labourer,whosedailytoilliesamongleversandpulleys;oramongtheotherimplementsofartisanwork.Andifanyoneisinterestedinthelawsofhealth,itisthepoorworkman,whosestrengthiswastedbyill-preparedfood,whosehealthissappedbybadventilationandbaddrainage,andhalfwhosechildrenaremassacredbydisorderswhichmightbeprevented.Notonlydoesourpresentprimaryeducationcarefullyabstainfromhintingtotheworkmanthatsomeofhisgreatestevilsaretraceabletomerephysicalagencies,whichcouldberemovedbyenergy,patience,andfrugality;butitdoesworse--itrendershim,sofarasitcan,deaftothosewhocouldhelphim,andtriestosubstitutean

OrientalsubmissiontowhatisfalselydeclaredtobethewillofGod,forhisnaturaltendencytostriveafterabettercondition.

Whatwonderthen,ifveryrecently,anappealhasbeenmadetostatisticsfortheprofoundlyfoolishpurposeofshowingthateducationisofnogood--thatitdiminishesneithermisery,norcrime,amongthemassesofmankind?Ireply,whyshouldthethingwhichhasbeencallededucationdoeithertheoneortheother?IfIamaknaveorafool,teachingmetoreadandwritewon'tmakemelessofeitheroneortheother--unlesssomebodyshowsmehowtoputmyreadingandwritingtowiseandgoodpurposes.

Supposeanyoneweretoarguethatmedicineisofnouse,becauseit

couldbeprovedstatistically,thatthepercentageofdeathswasjustthesame,amongpeoplewhohadbeentaughthowtoopenamedicinechest,andamongthosewhodidnotsomuchasknowthekeybysight.Theargumentisabsurd;butitisnotmorepreposterousthanthatagainstwhichIamcontending.Theonlymedicineforsuffering,crime,andalltheotherwoesofmankind,iswisdom.Teachamantoreadandwrite,andyouhaveputintohishandsthegreatkeysofthewisdombox.Butitisquiteanothermatterwhetherheeveropenstheboxornot.Andheisaslikelytopoisonastocurehimself,if,withoutguidance,heswallowsthefirstdrugthatcomestohand.Inthesetimesamanmayaswellbe



purblind,asunabletoread--lame,asunabletowrite.ButIprotestthat,ifIthoughtthealternativewereanecessaryone,Iwouldratherthatthechildrenofthepoorshouldgrowupignorantofboththesemightyarts,thanthattheyshouldremainignorantofthatknowledgetowhichtheseartsaremeans.

Itmaybesaidthatalltheseanimadversionsmayapplytoprimaryschools,butthatthehigherschools,atanyrate,mustbeallowedtogivealiberaleducation.Infact,theyprofessedlysacrificeeverythingelsetothisobject.

Letusinquireintothismatter.Whatdothehigherschools,thosetowhichthegreatmiddleclassofthecountrysendsitchildren,teach,overandabovetheinstructiongivenintheprimaryschools?ThereisalittlemorereadingandwritingofEnglish.But,forallthat,everyoneknowsthatitisararethingtofindaboyofthemiddleorupperclasseswhocanreadalouddecently,orwhocanputhisthoughtsonpaperinclearandgrammatical(tosaynothingofgoodorelegant)language.The"ciphering"ofthelowerschoolsexpandsintoelementarymathematicsinthehigher;intoarithmetic,withalittlealgebra,alittleEuclid.ButIdoubtifoneboyinfivehundredhaseverheardtheexplanationofaruleofarithmetic,orknowshisEuclidotherwisethanbyrote.

Oftheology,themiddleclassschoolboygetsratherlessthanpoorerchildren,lessabsolutelyandlessrelatively,becausetherearesomanyotherclaimsuponhisattention.Iventuretosaythat,inthegreatmajorityofcases,hisideasonthissubjectwhenheleavesschoolareofthemostshadowyandvaguedescription,andassociatedwithpainfulimpressionsofthewearyhoursspentinlearningcollectsandcatechismbyheart.

Moderngeography,modernhistory,modernliterature;theEnglishlanguageasalanguage;thewholecircleofthesciences,physical,moral,andsocial,areevenmorecompletelyignoredinthehigherthaninthelowerschools.Uptillwithinafewyearsback,aboymighthave

passedthroughanyoneofthegreatpublicschoolswiththegreatestdistinctionandcredit,andmightneversomuchashaveheardofoneofthesubjectsIhavejustmentioned.Hemightneverhaveheardthattheearthgoesroundthesun;thatEnglandunderwentagreatrevolutionin1688,andFranceanotherin1789;thatthereoncelivedcertainnotablemencalledChaucer,Shakspeare,Milton,Voltaire,Goethe,Schiller.ThefirstmightbeaGermanandthelastanEnglishmanforanythinghecouldtellyoutothecontrary.Andasforscience,theonlyideathewordwouldsuggesttohismindwouldbedexterityinboxing.

Ihavesaidthatthiswasthestateofthingsafewyearsback,forthesakeofthefewrighteouswhoaretobefoundamongtheeducationalcitiesoftheplain.ButIwouldnothaveyoutoosanguineaboutthe

result,ifyousoundthemindsoftheexistinggenerationofpublicschool-boys,onsuchtopicsasthoseIhavementioned.

Nowletuspausetoconsiderthiswonderfulstateofaffairs;forthetimewillcomewhenEnglishmenwillquoteitasthestockexampleofthestolidstupidityoftheirancestorsinthenineteenthcentury.Themostthoroughlycommercialpeople,thegreatestvoluntarywanderersandcoloniststheworldhaseverseen,arepreciselythemiddleclassesofthiscountry.Iftherebeapeoplewhichhasbeenbusymakinghistoryonthegreatscaleforthelastthreehundredyears--andthemost



profoundlyinterestinghistory--historywhich,ifithappenedtobethatofGreeceorRome,weshouldstudywithavidity--itistheEnglish.Iftherebeapeoplewhich,duringthesameperiod,hasdevelopedaremarkableliterature,itisourown.IftherebeanationwhoseprosperitydependsabsolutelyandwhollyupontheirmasteryovertheforcesofNature,upontheirintelligentapprehensionof,andobedienceto,thelawsofthecreationanddistributionofwealth,andofthestableequilibriumoftheforcesofsociety,itispreciselythisnation.Andyetthisiswhatthesewonderfulpeopletelltheirsons:--"Atthecostoffromonetotwothousandpoundsofourhardearnedmoney,wedevotetwelveofthemostpreciousyearsofyourlivestoschool.Thereyoushalltoil,orbesupposedtotoil;butthereyoushallnotlearnonesinglethingofallthoseyouwillmostwanttoknow,directlyyouleaveschoolandenteruponthepracticalbusinessoflife.Youwillinallprobabilitygointobusiness,butyoushallnotknowwhere,orhow,anyarticleofcommerceisproduced,orthedifferencebetweenanexportoranimport,orthemeaningoftheword'capital.'Youwillverylikelysettleinacolony,butyoushallnotknowwhetherTasmaniaispartofNewSouthWales,or_viceversâ_.

"Veryprobablyyoumaybecomeamanufacturer,butyoushallnotbeprovidedwiththemeansofunderstandingtheworkingofoneofyourownsteam-engines,orthenatureoftherawproductsyouemploy;and,whenyouareaskedtobuyapatent,youshallnothavetheslightestmeansof

judgingwhethertheinventorisanimpostorwhoiscontraveningtheelementaryprinciplesofscience,oramanwhowillmakeyouasrichasCroesus.

"YouwillverylikelygetintotheHouseofCommons.Youwillhavetotakeyourshareinmakinglawswhichmayproveablessingoracursetomillionsofmen.Butyoushallnothearonewordrespectingthepoliticalorganizationofyourcountry;themeaningofthecontroversybetweenfreetradersandprotectionistsshallneverhavebeenmentionedtoyou:youshallnotsomuchasknowthattherearesuchthingsaseconomicallaws.

"Thementalpowerwhichwillbeofmostimportanceinyourdailylife

willbethepowerofseeingthingsastheyarewithoutregardtoauthority;andofdrawingaccurategeneralconclusionsfromparticularfacts.Butatschoolandatcollegeyoushallknowofnosourceoftruthbutauthority;norexerciseyourreasoningfacultyuponanythingbutdeductionfromthatwhichislaiddownbyauthority.

"Youwillhavetowearyyoursoulwithwork,andmanyatimeeatyourbreadinsorrowandinbitterness,andyoushallnothavelearnedtotakerefugeinthegreatsourceofpleasurewithoutalloy,thesereneresting-placeforwornhumannature,--theworldofart."

SaidInotrightlythatweareawonderfulpeople?Iamquitepreparedtoallow,thateducationentirelydevotedtotheseomittedsubjects

mightnotbeacompletelyliberaleducation.Butisaneducationwhichignoresthemall,aliberaleducation?Nay,isittoomuchtosaythattheeducationwhichshouldembracethesesubjectsandnoothers,wouldbearealeducation,thoughanincompleteone;whileaneducationwhichomitsthemisreallynotaneducationatall,butamoreorlessusefulcourseofintellectualgymnastics?

Forwhatdoesthemiddle-classschoolputintheplaceofallthesethingswhichareleftout?Itsubstituteswhatisusuallycomprised



underthecompendioustitleofthe"classics"--thatistosay,thelanguages,theliterature,andthehistoryoftheancientGreeksandRomans,andthegeographyofsomuchoftheworldaswasknowntothesetwogreatnationsofantiquity.Now,donotexpectmetodepreciatetheearnestandenlightenedpursuitofclassicallearning.Ihavenottheleastdesiretospeakillofsuchoccupations,noranysympathywiththosewhorunthemdown.Onthecontrary,ifmyopportunitieshadlaininthatdirection,thereisnoinvestigationintowhichIcouldhavethrownmyselfwithgreaterdelightthanthatofantiquity.

Whatsciencecanpresentgreaterattractionsthanphilology?Howcanaloverofliteraryexcellencefailtorejoiceintheancientmasterpieces?AndwithwhatconsistencycouldI,whosebusinessliessomuchintheattempttodecipherthepast,andtobuildupintelligibleformsoutofthescatteredfragmentsoflong-extinctbeings,failtotakeasympathetic,thoughanunlearned,interestinthelaboursofaNiebuhr,aGibbon,oraGrote?Classicalhistoryisagreatsectionofthepalæontologyofman;andIhavethesamedoublerespectforitasforotherkindsofpalæontology--thatistosay,arespectforthefactswhichitestablishesasforallfacts,andastillgreaterrespectforitasapreparationforthediscoveryofalawofprogress.

Butiftheclassicsweretaughtastheymightbetaught--ifboysandgirlswereinstructedinGreekandLatin,notmerelyaslanguages,but

asillustrationsofphilologicalscience;ifavividpictureoflifeontheshoresoftheMediterranean,twothousandyearsago,wereimprintedonthemindsofscholars;ifancienthistoryweretaught,notasawearyseriesoffeudsandfights,buttracedtoitscausesinsuchmenplacedundersuchconditions;if,lastly,thestudyoftheclassicalbookswerefollowedinsuchamannerastoimpressboyswiththeirbeauties,andwiththegrandsimplicityoftheirstatementoftheeverlastingproblemsofhumanlife,insteadofwiththeirverbalandgrammaticalpeculiarities;Istillthinkitaslittleproperthattheyshouldformthebasisofaliberaleducationforourcontemporaries,asIshouldthinkitfittingtomakethatsortofpalæontologywithwhichIamfamiliar,theback-boneofmoderneducation.

ItiswonderfulhowcloseaparalleltoclassicaltrainingcouldbemadeoutofthatpalæontologytowhichIrefer.InthefirstplaceIcouldgetupanosteologicalprimersoarid,sopedanticinitsterminology,soaltogetherdistastefultotheyouthfulmind,astobeattherecentfamousproductionofthehead-mastersoutofthefieldinalltheseexcellences.Next,Icouldexercisemyboysuponeasyfossils,andbringoutalltheirpowersofmemoryandalltheiringenuityintheapplicationofmyosteo-grammaticalrulestotheinterpretation,orconstruing,ofthosefragments.Tothosewhohadreachedthehigherclasses,Imightsupplyoddbonestobebuiltupintoanimals,givinggreathonourandrewardtohimwhosucceededinfabricatingmonstersmostentirelyinaccordancewiththerules.Thatwouldanswertoverse-makingandessay-writinginthedeadlanguages.

Tobesure,ifagreatcomparativeanatomistweretolookatthesefabricationshemightshakehishead,orlaugh.Butwhatthen?Wouldsuchacatastrophedestroytheparallel?WhatthinkyouwouldCicero,orHorace,saytotheproductionofthebestsixthformgoing?AndwouldnotTerencestophisearsandrunoutifhecouldbepresentatanEnglishperformanceofhisownplays?WouldHamlet,inthemouthsofasetofFrenchactors,whoshouldinsistonpronouncingEnglishafterthefashionoftheirowntongue,bemorehideouslyridiculous?



ButitwillbesaidthatIamforgettingthebeauty,andthehumaninterest,whichappertaintoclassicalstudies.TothisIreplythatitisonlyaverystrongmanwhocanappreciatethecharmsofalandscape,asheistoilingupasteephill,alongabadroad.Whatwithshort-windedness,stones,ruts,andapervadingsenseofthewisdomofrestandbethankful,mostofushavelittleenoughsenseofthebeautifulunderthesecircumstances.Theordinaryschool-boyispreciselyinthiscase.HefindsParnassusuncommonlysteep,andthereisnochanceofhishavingmuchtimeorinclinationtolookabouthimtillhegetstothetop.Andninetimesoutoftenhedoesnotgettothetop.

Butifthisbeafairpictureoftheresultsofclassicalteachingatitsbest--andIgatherfromthosewhohaveauthoritytospeakonsuchmattersthatitisso--whatistobesaidofclassicalteachingatitsworst,orinotherwords,oftheclassicsofourordinarymiddle-classschools[2]?Iwilltellyou.Itmeansgettingupendlessformsandrulesbyheart.ItmeansturningLatinandGreekintoEnglish,forthemeresakeofbeingabletodoit,andwithoutthesmallestregardtotheworth,orworthlessness,oftheauthorread.Itmeansthelearningofinnumerable,notalwaysdecent,fablesinsuchashapethatthemeaningtheyoncehadisdriedupintouttertrash;andtheonlyimpressionleftuponaboy'smindis,thatthepeoplewhobelievedsuchthingsmusthavebeenthegreatestidiotstheworldeversaw.Anditmeans,finally,that

afteradozenyearsspentatthiskindofwork,thesufferershallbeincompetenttointerpretapassageinanauthorhehasnotalreadygotup;thatheshallloathethesightofaGreekorLatinbook;andthatheshallneveropen,orthinkof,aclassicalwriteragain,until,wonderfultorelate,heinsistsuponsubmittinghissonstothesameprocess.

Thesebeyourgods,OIsrael!Forthesakeofthisnetresult(andrespectability)theBritishfatherdenieshischildrenalltheknowledgetheymightturntoaccountinlife,notmerelyfortheachievementofvulgarsuccess,butforguidanceinthegreatcrisesofhumanexistence.Thisisthestoneheofferstothosewhomheisboundbythestrongestandtenderesttiestofeedwithbread.

Ifprimaryandsecondaryeducationareinthisunsatisfactorystate,whatistobesaidtotheuniversities?Thisisanawfulsubject,andoneIalmostfeartotouchwithmyunhallowedhands;butIcantellyouwhatthosesaywhohaveauthoritytospeak.

TheRectorofLincolnCollege,inhislatelypublished,valuable"SuggestionsforAcademicalOrganizationwithespecialreferencetoOxford,"tellsus(p.127):--

"Thecollegeswere,intheirorigin,endowments,notfortheelementsofageneralliberaleducation,butfortheprolongedstudyofspecialand

professionalfacultiesbymenofriperage.Theuniversitiesembracedboththeseobjects.Thecolleges,whiletheyincidentallyaidedinelementaryeducation,werespeciallydevotedtothehighestlearning....

"Thiswasthetheoryofthemiddle-ageuniversityandthedesignofcollegiatefoundationsintheirorigin.Timeandcircumstanceshavebroughtaboutatotalchange.Thecollegesnolongerpromotetheresearchesofscience,ordirectprofessionalstudy.Hereandtherecollegewallsmayshelteranoccasionalstudent,butnotinlargerproportionsthanmaybefoundinprivatelife.Elementaryteachingof



youthsundertwentyisnowtheonlyfunctionperformedbytheuniversity,andalmosttheonlyobjectofcollegeendowments.Collegeswerehomesforthelife-studyofthehighestandmostabstrusepartsofknowledge.Theyhavebecomeboardingschoolsinwhichtheelementsofthelearnedlanguagesaretaughttoyouths."

IfMr.Pattison'shighposition,andhisobviousloveandrespectforhisuniversity,beinsufficienttoconvincetheoutsideworldthatlanguagesosevereisyetnomorethanjust,theauthorityoftheCommissionerswhoreportedontheUniversityofOxfordin1850isopentonochallenge.Yettheywrite:--

"ItisgenerallyacknowledgedthatbothOxfordandthecountryatlargesuffergreatlyfromtheabsenceofabodyoflearnedmendevotingtheirlivestothecultivationofscience,andtothedirectionofacademicaleducation.

"ThefactthatsofewbooksofprofoundresearchemanatefromtheUniversityofOxford,materiallyimpairsitscharacterasaseatoflearning,andconsequentlyitsholdontherespectofthenation."

CambridgecanclaimnoexemptionfromthereproachesaddressedtoOxford.Andthusthereseemsnoescapefromtheadmissionthatwhatwefondlycallourgreatseatsoflearningaresimply"boardingschools"

forbiggerboys;thatlearnedmenarenotmorenumerousinthemthanoutofthem;thattheadvancementofknowledgeisnottheobjectoffellowsofcolleges;that,inthephilosophiccalmandmeditativestillnessoftheirgreenswardedcourts,philosophydoesnotthrive,andmeditationbearsfewfruits.

Itismygreatgoodfortunetoreckonamongstmyfriendsresidentmembersofbothuniversities,whoaremenoflearningandresearch,zealouscultivatorsofscience,keepingbeforetheirmindsanobleidealofauniversity,anddoingtheirbesttomakethatidealareality;and,tome,theywouldnecessarilytypifytheuniversities,didnottheauthoritativestatementsIhavequotedcompelmetobelievethattheyareexceptional,andnotrepresentativemen.Indeed,uponcalm

consideration,severalcircumstancesleadmetothinkthattheRectorofLincolnCollegeandtheCommissionerscannotbefarwrong.

Ibelievetherecanbenodoubtthattheforeignerwhoshouldwishtobecomeacquaintedwiththescientific,ortheliterary,activityofmodernEngland,wouldsimplylosehistimeandhispainsifhevisitedouruniversitieswiththatobject.

And,asforworksofprofoundresearchonanysubject,and,aboveall,inthatclassicalloreforwhichtheuniversitiesprofesstosacrificealmosteverythingelse,why,athird-rate,poverty-strickenGermanuniversityturnsoutmoreproduceofthatkindinoneyear,thanourvastandwealthyfoundationselaborateinten.

Askthemanwhoisinvestigatinganyquestion,profoundlyandthoroughly--beithistorical,philosophical,philological,physical,literary,ortheological;whoistryingtomakehimselfmasterofanyabstractsubject(except,perhaps,politicaleconomyandgeology,bothofwhichareintenselyAnglicansciences)whetherheisnotcompelledtoreadhalfadozentimesasmanyGerman,asEnglish,books?Andwhether,oftheseEnglishbooks,morethanoneintenistheworkofafellowofacollege,oraprofessorofanEnglishuniversity?



IsthisfromanylackofpowerintheEnglishascomparedwiththeGermanmind?ThecountrymenofGroteandofMill,ofFaraday,ofRobertBrown,ofLyell,andofDarwin,togonofurtherbackthanthecontemporariesofmenofmiddleage,canaffordtosmileatsuchasuggestion.Englandcanshownow,asshehasbeenabletoshowineverygenerationsincecivilizationspreadovertheWest,individualmenwhoholdtheirownagainsttheworld,andkeepalivetheoldtraditionofherintellectualeminence.

But,inthemajorityofcases,thesemenarewhattheyareinvirtueoftheirnativeintellectualforce,andofastrengthofcharacterwhichwillnotrecogniseimpediments.TheyarenottrainedinthecourtsoftheTempleofScience,butstormthewallsofthatedificeinallsortsofirregularways,andwithmuchlossoftimeandpower,inordertoobtaintheirlegitimatepositions.

Ouruniversitiesnotonlydonotencouragesuchmen;donotofferthempositions,inwhichitshouldbetheirhighestdutytodo,thoroughly,thatwhichtheyaremostcapableofdoing;but,asfaraspossible,universitytrainingshutsoutofthemindsofthoseamongthem,whoaresubjectedtoit,theprospectthatthereisanythingintheworldforwhichtheyarespeciallyfitted.ImaginethesuccessoftheattempttostilltheintellectualhungerairyofthemenIhavementioned,byputtingbeforehim,astheobjectofexistence,thesuccessfulmimicry

ofthemeasureofaGreeksong,ortherollofCiceronianprose!Imaginehowmuchsuccesswouldbelikelytoattendtheattempttopersuadesuchmen,thattheeducationwhichleadstoperfectioninsucheleganciesisalonetobecalledculture;whilethefactsofhistory,theprocessofthought,theconditionsofmoralandsocialexistence,andthelawsofphysicalnature,arelefttobedealtwithastheymay,byoutsidebarbarians!

ItisnotthusthattheGermanuniversities,frombeingbeneathnoticeacenturyago,havebecomewhattheyarenow--themostintenselycultivatedandthemostproductiveintellectualcorporationstheworldhaseverseen.

Thestudentwhorepairstothemseesinthelistofclassesandofprofessorsafairpictureoftheworldofknowledge.Whateverheneedstoknowthereissomeonereadytoteachhim,someonecompetenttodisciplinehiminthewayoflearning;whateverhisspecialbent,lethimbutbeableanddiligent,andinduetimeheshallfinddistinctionandacareer.Amonghisprofessors,heseesmenwhosenamesareknownandreveredthroughoutthecivilizedworld;andtheirlivingexampleinfectshimwithanobleambition,andaloveforthespiritofwork.

TheGermansdominatetheintellectualworldbyvirtueofthesamesimplesecretasthatwhichmadeNapoleonthemasterofoldEurope.Theyhavedeclared_lacarrièreouverteauxtalents_,andeveryBurschmarcheswithaprofessor'sgowninhisknapsack.Lethimbecomeagreatscholar,

ormanofscience,andministerswillcompeteforhisservices.InGermany,theydonotleavethechanceofhisholdingtheofficehewouldrenderillustrioustothetendermerciesofahotcanvass,andthefinalwisdomofamobofcountryparsons.

Inshort,inGermany,theuniversitiesareexactlywhattheRectorofLincolnandtheCommissionerstellustheEnglishuniversitiesarenot;thatistosay,corporations"oflearnedmendevotingtheirlivestothecultivationofscience,andthedirectionofacademicaleducation."Theyarenot"boardingschoolsforyouths,"norclericalseminaries;but



institutionsforthehighercultureofmen,inwhichthetheologicalfacultyisofnomoreimportance,orprominence,thantherest;andwhicharetruly"universities,"sincetheystrivetorepresentandembodythetotalityofhumanknowledge,andtofindroomforallformsofintellectualactivity.

Mayzealousandclear-headedreformerslikeMr.Pattisonsucceedintheirnobleendeavourstoshapeouruniversitiestowardssomesuchidealasthis,withoutlosingwhatisvaluableanddistinctiveintheirsocialtone!Butuntiltheyhavesucceeded,aliberaleducationwillbenomoreobtainableinourOxfordandCambridgeUniversitiesthaninourpublicschools.

IfIamjustifiedinmyconceptionoftheidealofaliberaleducation;andifwhatIhavesaidabouttheexistingeducationalinstitutionsofthecountryisalsotrue,itisclearthatthetwohavenosortofrelationtooneanother;thatthebestofourschoolsandthemostcompleteofouruniversitytrainingsgivebutanarrow,one-sided,andessentiallyilliberaleducation--whiletheworstgivewhatisreallynexttonoeducationatall.TheSouthLondonWorking-Men'sCollegecouldnotcopyanyoftheseinstitutionsifitwould.Iamboldenoughtoexpresstheconvictionthatitoughtnotifitcould.

Forwhatiswantedistherealityandnotthemerenameofaliberaleducation;andthisCollegemuststeadilysetbeforeitselftheambitiontobeabletogivethateducationsoonerorlater.Atpresentwearebutbeginning,sharpeningoureducationaltools,asitwere,and,exceptamodicumofphysicalscience,wearenotabletooffermuchmorethanistobefoundinanordinaryschool.

Moralandsocialscience--oneofthegreatestandmostfruitfulofourfutureclasses,Ihope--atpresentlacksonlyonethinginourprogramme,andthatisateacher.Aconsiderablewant,nodoubt;butitmustberecollectedthatitismuchbettertowantateacherthantowantthedesiretolearn.

Further,weneedwhat,forwantofabettername,ImustcallPhysicalGeography.WhatImeanisthatwhichtheGermanscall"_Erdkunde_."Itisadescriptionoftheearth,ofitsplaceandrelationtootherbodies;ofitsgeneralstructure,andofitsgreatfeatures--winds,tides,mountains,plains;ofthechiefformsofthevegetableandanimalworlds,ofthevarietiesofman.Itisthepeguponwhichthegreatestquantityofusefulandentertainingscientificinformationcanbesuspended.

LiteratureisnotupontheCollegeprogramme;butIhopesomedaytoseeitthere.Forliteratureisthegreatestofallsourcesofrefinedpleasure,andoneofthegreatusesofaliberaleducationistoenableustoenjoythatpleasure.Thereisscopeenoughforthepurposesof

liberaleducationinthestudyoftherichtreasuresofourownlanguagealone.Allthatisneededisdirection,andthecultivationofarefinedtastebyattentiontosoundcriticism.ButthereisnoreasonwhyFrenchandGermanshouldnotbemasteredsufficientlytoreadwhatisworthreadinginthoselanguages,withpleasureandwithprofit.

Andfinally,by-and-by,wemusthaveHistory;treatednotasasuccessionofbattlesanddynasties;notasaseriesofbiographies;notasevidencethatProvidencehasalwaysbeenonthesideofeitherWhigsorTories;butasthedevelopmentofmanintimespast,andinother



conditionsthanourown.

But,asitisoneoftheprinciplesofourCollegetobeself-supporting,thepublicmustlead,andwemustfollow,inthesematters.IfmyhearerstaketoheartwhatIhavesaidaboutliberaleducation,theywilldesirethesethings,andIdoubtnotweshallbeabletosupplythem.Butwemustwaittillthedemandismade.

FOOTNOTE:

[2]Forajustificationofwhatisheresaidabouttheseschools,seethatvaluablebook,"EssaysonaLiberalEducation,"_passim_.

IV.

SCIENTIFICEDUCATION:NOTESOFANAFTER-DINNERSPEECH.

[MR.THACKERAY,talkingofafter-dinnerspeeches,haslamentedthat"onenevercanrecollectthefinethingsonethoughtofinthecab,"ingoingtotheplaceofentertainment.Iamnotawarethatthereareany"finethings"inthefollowingpages,but

suchastherearestandtoaspeechwhichreallydidgetitselfspoken,atthehospitabletableoftheLiverpoolPhilomathicSociety,moreorlessinthepositionofwhat"onethoughtofinthecab."]

TheintroductionofscientifictrainingintothegeneraleducationofthecountryisatopicuponwhichIcouldnothavespoken,withoutsomemoreorlessapologeticintroduction,afewyearsago.Butuponthis,asuponothermatters,publicopinionhasoflateundergonearapidmodification.CommitteesofbothHousesoftheLegislaturehaveagreedthatsomethingmustbedoneinthisdirection,andhaveeventhrownouttimidandfalteringsuggestionsastowhatshouldbedone;whileatthe

oppositepoleofsociety,committeesofworking-menhaveexpressedtheirconvictionthatscientifictrainingistheonethingneedfulfortheiradvancement,whetherasmen,orasworkmen.Onlytheotherday,itwasmydutytotakepartinthereceptionofadeputationofLondonworkingmen,whodesiredtolearnfromSirRoderickMurchison,theDirectoroftheRoyalSchoolofMines,whethertheorganizationoftheInstitutioninJermynStreetcouldbemadeavailableforthesupplyofthatscientificinstruction,theneedofwhichcouldnothavebeenapprehended,orstated,moreclearlythanitwasbythem.

TheheadsofcollegesinourgreatUniversities(whohavenotthereputationofbeingthemostmobileofpersons)have,inseveralcases,thoughtitwellthat,outofthegreatnumberofhonoursandrewardsat

theirdisposal,afewshouldhereafterbegiventothecultivatorsofthephysicalsciences.Nay,Ihearthatsomecollegeshaveevengonesofarastoappointone,or,maybe,twospecialtutorsforthepurposeofputtingthefactsandprinciplesofphysicalsciencebeforetheundergraduatemind.AndIsayitwithgratitudeandgreatrespectforthoseeminentpersons,thattheheadmastersofourpublicschools,Eton,Harrow,Winchester,haveaddressedthemselvestotheproblemofintroducinginstructioninphysicalscienceamongthestudiesofthosegreateducationalbodies,withmuchhonestyofpurposeandenlightenmentofunderstanding;andIliveinhopethat,beforelong,important



changesinthisdirectionwillbecarriedintoeffectinthosestrongholdsofancientprescription.Infact,suchchangeshavealreadybeenmade,andphysicalscience,evennow,constitutesarecognisedelementoftheschoolcurriculuminHarrowandRugby,whilstIunderstandthatamplepreparationsforsuchstudiesarebeingmadeatEtonandelsewhere.

Lookingatthesefacts,Imightperhapssparemyselfthetroubleofgivinganyreasonsfortheintroductionofphysicalscienceintoelementaryeducation;yetIcannotbutthinkthatitmaybewell,ifIplacebeforeyousomeconsiderationswhich,perhaps,havehardlyreceivedfullattention.

Atothertimes,andinotherplaces,Ihaveendeavouredtostatethehigherandmoreabstractarguments,bywhichthestudyofphysicalsciencemaybeshowntobeindispensabletothecompletetrainingofthehumanmind;butIdonotwishittobesupposedthat,becauseIhappentobedevotedtomoreorlessabstractand"unpractical"pursuits,IaminsensibletotheweightwhichoughttobeattachedtothatwhichhasbeensaidtobetheEnglishconceptionofParadise--"namely,gettingon."Ilookuponit,that"gettingon"isaveryimportantmatterindeed.Idonotmeanmerelyforthesakeofthecoarseandtangibleresultsofsuccess,butbecausehumanityissoconstitutedthatavastnumberofuswouldneverbeimpelledtothosestretchesofexertion

whichmakeuswiserandmorecapablemen,ifitwerenotfortheabsolutenecessityofputtingonourfacultiesallthestraintheywillbear,forthepurposeof"gettingon"inthemostpracticalsense.

Nowthevalueofaknowledgeofphysicalscienceasameansofgettingon,isindubitable.Therearehardlyanyofourtrades,exceptthemerelyhucksteringones,inwhichsomeknowledgeofsciencemaynotbedirectlyprofitabletothepursuerofthatoccupation.Asindustryattainshigherstagesofitsdevelopment,asitsprocessesbecomemorecomplicatedandrefined,andcompetitionmorekeen,thesciencesaredraggedin,onebyone,totaketheirshareinthefray;andhewhocanbestavailhimselfoftheirhelpisthemanwhowillcomeoutuppermostinthatstruggleforexistencewhichgoesonasfiercelybeneaththe

smoothsurfaceofmodernsociety,asamongthewildinhabitantsofthewoods.

But,inadditiontothebearingofscienceonordinarypracticallife,letmedirectyourattentiontoitsimmenseinfluenceonseveraloftheprofessions.Iaskanyonewhohasadoptedthecallingofanengineer,howmuchtimehelostwhenheleftschool,becausehehadtodevotehimselftopursuitswhichwereabsolutelynovelandstrange,andofwhichhehadnotobtainedtheremotestconceptionfromhisinstructors?HehadtofamiliarizehimselfwithideasofthecourseandpowersofNature,towhichhisattentionhadneverbeendirectedduringhisschool-life,andtolearn,forthefirsttime,thataworldoffactsliesoutsideandbeyondtheworldofwords.Iappealtothosewhoknow

whatEngineeringis,tosayhowfarIamrightinrespecttothatprofession;butwithregardtoanother,ofnolessimportance,Ishallventuretospeakofmyownknowledge.Thereisnooneofwhomaynotatanymomentbethrown,boundandfootbyphysicalincapacity,intothehandsofamedicalpractitioner.Thechancesoflifeanddeathforallandeachofusmay,atanymoment,dependontheskillwithwhichthatpractitionerisabletomakeoutwhatiswronginourbodilyframes,andonhisabilitytoapplytheproperremedytothedefect.

Thenecessitiesofmodernlifearesuch,andtheclassfromwhichthe



medicalprofessionischieflyrecruitedissosituated,thatfewmedicalmencanhopetospendmorethanthreeorfour,oritmaybefive,yearsinthepursuitofthosestudieswhichareimmediatelygermanetophysic.Howisthatalltoobriefperiodspentatpresent?Ispeakasanoldexaminer,havingservedsomeelevenortwelveyearsinthatcapacityintheUniversityofLondon,andthereforehavingapracticalacquaintancewiththesubject;butImightfortifymyselfbytheauthorityofthePresidentoftheCollegeofSurgeons,Mr.Quain,whomIheardtheotherdayinanadmirableaddress(theHunterianOration)dealfullyandwiselywiththisverytopic[3].

Ayoungmancommencingthestudyofmedicineisatoncerequiredtoendeavourtomakeanacquaintancewithanumberofsciences,suchasPhysics,asChemistry,asBotany,asPhysiology,whichareabsolutelyandentirelystrangetohim,howeverexcellenthisso-callededucationatschoolmayhavebeen.Notonlyishedevoidofallapprehensionofscientificconceptions,notonlydoeshefailtoattachanymeaningtothewords"matter,""force,"or"law"intheirscientificsenses,but,worsestill,hehasnonotionofwhatitistocomeintocontactwithnature,ortolayhismindalongsideofaphysicalfact,andtrytoconquerit,inthewayourgreatnavalherotoldhiscaptainstomastertheirenemies.Hiswholemindhasbeengiventobooks,andIamhardlyexaggeratingifIsaythattheyaremorerealtohimthanNature.Heimaginesthatallknowledgecanbegotoutofbooks,andrestsuponthe

authorityofsomemasterorother;nordoesheentertainanymisgivingthatthemethodoflearningwhichledtoproficiencyintherulesofgrammar,willsufficetoleadhimtoamasteryofthelawsofNature.Theyoungster,thusunpreparedforseriousstudy,isturnedlooseamonghismedicalstudies,withtheresult,inninecasesoutoften,thatthefirstyearofhiscurriculumisspentinlearninghowtolearn.Indeed,heislucky,ifattheendofthefirstyear,bytheexertionsofhisteachersandhisownindustry,hehasacquiredeventhatartofarts.Afterwhichthereremainnotmorethanthree,orperhapsfour,yearsfortheprofitablestudyofsuchvastsciencesasAnatomy,Physiology,Therapeutics,Medicine,Surgery,Obstetrics,andthelike,uponhisknowledgeorignoranceofwhichitdependswhetherthepractitionershalldiminish,orincrease,thebillsofmortality.Nowwhatisitbut

thepreposterousconditionofordinaryschooleducationwhichpreventsayoungmanofseventeen,destinedforthepracticeofmedicine,frombeingfullypreparedforthestudyofnature;andfromcomingtothemedicalschool,equippedwiththatpreliminaryknowledgeoftheprinciplesofPhysics,ofChemistry,andofBiology,uponwhichhehasnowtowasteoneofthepreciousyears,everymomentofwhichoughttobegiventothosestudieswhichbeardirectlyupontheknowledgeofhisprofession?

Thereisanotherprofession,tothemembersofwhich,Ithink,acertainpreliminaryknowledgeofphysicalsciencemightbequiteasvaluableastothemedicalman.Thepractitionerofmedicinesetsbeforehimselfthenobleobjectoftakingcareofman'sbodilywelfare;butthemembersof

thisotherprofessionundertaketo"ministertomindsdiseased,"and,sofarasmaybe,todiminishsinandsoftensorrow.Likethemedicalprofession,theclerical,ofwhichInowspeak,restsitspowertohealuponitsknowledgeoftheorderoftheuniverse--uponcertaintheoriesofman'srelationtothatwhichliesoutsidehim.Itisnotmybusinesstoexpressanyopinionaboutthesetheories.Imerelywishtopointoutthat,likeallothertheories,theyareprofessedlybaseduponmatteroffact.ThustheclericalprofessionhastodealwiththefactsofNaturefromacertainpointofview;andhenceitcomesintocontactwiththatofthemanofscience,whohastotreatthesamefactsfromanother



pointofview.Youknowhowoftenthatcontactistobedescribedascollision,orviolentfriction;andhowgreattheheat,howlittlethelight,whichcommonlyresultsfromit.

Intheinterestsoffairplay,tosaynothingofthoseofmankind,Iask,Whydonottheclergyasabodyacquire,asapartoftheirpreliminaryeducation,somesuchtinctureofphysicalscienceaswillputtheminapositiontounderstandthedifficultiesinthewayofacceptingtheirtheories,whichareforceduponthemindofeverythoughtfulandintelligentman,whohastakenthetroubletoinstructhimselfintheelementsofnaturalknowledge?

SometimeagoIattendedalargemeetingoftheclergy,forthepurposeofdeliveringanaddresswhichIhadbeeninvitedtogive.Ispokeofsomeofthemostelementaryfactsinphysicalscience,andofthemannerinwhichtheydirectlycontradictcertainoftheordinaryteachingsoftheclergy.Theresultwas,that,afterIhadfinished,onesectionoftheassembledecclesiasticsattackedmewithalltheintemperanceofpiouszeal,forstatingfactsandconclusionswhichnocompetentjudgedoubts;while,afterthefirstspeakershadsubsided,amidstthecheersofthegreatmajorityoftheircolleagues,themorerationalminorityrosetotellmethatIhadtakenwhollysuperfluouspains,thattheyalreadyknewallaboutwhatIhadtoldthem,andperfectlyagreedwithme.Ahard-headedfriendofmine,whowaspresent,putthenotunnatural

question,"Thenwhydon'tyousaysoinyourpulpits?"towhichinquiryIheardnoreply.

Infacttheclergyareatpresentdivisibleintothreesections:animmensebodywhoareignorantandspeakout;asmallproportionwhoknowandaresilent;andaminuteminoritywhoknowandspeakaccordingtotheirknowledge.Bytheclergy,ImeanespeciallytheProtestantclergy.Ourgreatantagonist--Ispeakasamanofscience--theRomanCatholicChurch,theonegreatspiritualorganizationwhichisabletoresist,andmust,asamatteroflifeanddeath,resist,theprogressofscienceandmoderncivilization,managesheraffairsmuchbetter.

Itwasmyfortunesometimeagotopayavisittooneofthemost

importantoftheinstitutionsinwhichtheclergyoftheRomanCatholicChurchintheseislandsaretrained;anditseemedtomethatthedifferencebetweenthesemenandthecomfortablechampionsofAnglicanismandofDissent,wascomparabletothedifferencebetweenourgallantVolunteersandthetrainedveteransofNapoleon'sOldGuard.

TheCatholicpriestistrainedtoknowhisbusiness,anddoiteffectually.Theprofessorsofthecollegeinquestion,learned,zealous,anddetermined,men,permittedmetospeakfranklywiththem.Wetalkedlikeoutpostsofopposedarmiesduringatruce--asfriendlyenemies;andwhenIventuredtopointoutthedifficultiestheirstudentswouldhavetoencounterfromscientificthought,theyreplied:"OurChurchhaslastedmanyages,andhaspassedsafelythroughmany

storms.Thepresentisbutanewgustoftheoldtempest,andwedonotturnoutouryoungmenlessfittedtoweatherit,thantheyhavebeen,informertimes,tocopewiththedifficultiesofthosetimes.Theheresiesofthedayareexplainedtothembytheirprofessorsofphilosophyandscience,andtheyaretaughthowthoseheresiesaretobemet."

Iheartilyrespectanorganizationwhichfacesitsenemiesinthisway;andIwishthatallecclesiasticalorganizationswereinaseffectiveacondition.Ithinkitwouldbebetter,notonlyforthem,butforus.



Thearmyofliberalthoughtis,atpresent,inverylooseorder;andmanyaspiritedfree-thinkermakesuseofhisfreedommainlytoventnonsense.Weshouldhethebetterforavigorousandwatchfulenemytohammerusintocohesionanddiscipline;andI,forone,lamentthatthebenchofBishopscannotshowamanofthecalibreofButlerofthe"Analogy,"who,ifhewerealive,wouldmakeshortworkofmuchofthecurrent_àpriori_"infidelity."

IhopeyouwillconsiderthattheargumentsIhavenowstated,eveniftherewerenobetterones,constituteasufficientapologyforurgingtheintroductionofscienceintoschools.ThenextquestiontowhichIhavetoaddressmyselfis,Whatsciencesoughttobethustaught?Andthisisoneofthemostimportantofquestions,becausemyside(IamafraidIamaterriblycandidfriend)sometimesspoilsitscausebygoinginfortoomuch.Thereareotherformsofculturebesidephysicalscience;andIshouldbeprofoundlysorrytoseethefactforgotten,oreventoobserveatendencytostarve,orcripple,literary,oræsthetic,cultureforthesakeofscience.Suchanarrowviewofthenatureofeducationhasnothingtodowithmyfirmconvictionthatacompleteandthoroughscientificcultureoughttobeintroducedintoallschools.Bythis,however,Idonotmeanthateveryschoolboyshouldbetaughteverythinginscience.Thatwouldbeaveryabsurdthingtoconceive,andaverymischievousthingtoattempt.WhatImeanis,thatnoboynor

girlshouldleaveschoolwithoutpossessingagraspofthegeneralcharacterofscience,andwithouthavingbeendisciplined,moreorless,inthemethodsofallsciences;sothat,whenturnedintotheworldtomaketheirownway,theyshallbepreparedtofacescientificproblems,notbyknowingatoncetheconditionsofeveryproblem,orbybeingableatoncetosolveit;butbybeingfamiliarwiththegeneralcurrentofscientificthought,andbybeingabletoapplythemethodsofscienceintheproperway,whentheyhaveacquaintedthemselveswiththeconditionsofthespecialproblem.

ThatiswhatIunderstandbyscientificeducation.Tofurnishaboywithsuchaneducation,itisbynomeansnecessarythatheshoulddevotehiswholeschoolexistencetophysicalscience:infact,noonewouldlament

soone-sidedaproceedingmorethanI.Naymore,itisnotnecessaryforhimtogiveupmorethanamoderateshareofhistimetosuchstudies,iftheybeproperlyselectedandarranged,andifhebetrainedintheminafittingmanner.

Iconceivethepropercoursetobesomewhatasfollows.Tobeginwith,leteverychildbeinstructedinthosegeneralviewsofthephenomenaofNatureforwhichwehavenoexactEnglishname.ThenearestapproximationtoanameforwhatImean,whichwepossess,is"physicalgeography."TheGermanshaveabetter,"Erdkunde,"("earthknowledge"or"geology"initsetymologicalsense,)thatistosay,ageneralknowledgeoftheearth,andwhatisonit,init,andaboutit.Ifanyonewhohashadexperienceofthewaysofyoungchildrenwillcallto

mindtheirquestions,hewillfindthatsofarastheycanbeputintoanyscientificcategory,theycomeunderthisheadof"Erdkunde."Thechildasks,"Whatisthemoon,andwhydoesitshine?""Whatisthiswater,andwheredoesitrun?""Whatisthewind?""Whatmakesthewavesinthesea?""Wheredoesthisanimallive,andwhatistheuseofthatplant?"Andifnotsnubbedandstuntedbybeingtoldnottoaskfoolishquestions,thereisnolimittotheintellectualcravingofayoungchild;noranyboundstotheslow,butsolid,accretionofknowledgeanddevelopmentofthethinkingfacultyinthisway.Toallsuchquestions,answerswhicharenecessarilyincomplete,thoughtrueasfarastheygo,



maybegivenbyanyteacherwhoseideasrepresentrealknowledgeandnotmerebooklearning;andapanoramicviewofNature,accompaniedbyastronginfusionofthescientifichabitofmind,maythusbeplacedwithinthereachofeverychildofnineorten.

AfterthispreliminaryopeningoftheeyestothegreatspectacleofthedailyprogressofNature,asthereasoningfacultiesofthechildgrow,andhebecomesfamiliarwiththeuseofthetoolsofknowledge--reading,writing,andelementarymathematics--heshouldpassontowhatis,inthemorestrictsense,physicalscience.Nowtherearetwokindsofphysicalscience:theoneregardsformandtherelationofformstooneanother;theotherdealswithcausesandeffects.Inmanyofwhatwetermoursciences,thesetwokindsaremixeduptogether;butsystematicbotanyisapureexampleoftheformerkind,andphysicsofthelatterkind,ofscience.Everyeducationaladvantagewhichtraininginphysicalsciencecangiveisobtainablefromtheproperstudyofthesetwo;andIshouldbecontented,forthepresent,ifthey,addedtoour"Erdkunde,"furnishedthewholeofthescientificcurriculumofschools.IndeedIconceiveitwouldbeoneofthegreatestboonswhichcouldbeconferreduponEngland,ifhenceforwardeverychildinthecountrywereinstructedinthegeneralknowledgeofthethingsaboutit,intheelementsofphysics,andofbotany.ButIshouldbestillbetterpleasediftherecouldbeaddedsomewhatofchemistry,andanelementaryacquaintancewithhumanphysiology.

Sofarasschooleducationisconcerned,Iwanttogonofurtherjustnow;andIbelievethatsuchinstructionwouldmakeanexcellentintroductiontothatpreparatoryscientifictrainingwhich,asIhaveindicated,issoessentialforthesuccessfulpursuitofourmostimportantprofessions.Butthismodicumofinstructionmustbesogivenastoensurerealknowledgeandpracticaldiscipline.Ifscientificeducationistobedealtwithasmerebookwork,itwillbebetternottoattemptit,buttosticktotheLatinGrammar,whichmakesnopretencetobeanythingbutbookwork.

Ifthegreatbenefitsofscientifictrainingaresought,itisessentialthatsuchtrainingshouldbereal:thatistosay,thatthemindofthe

scholarshouldbebroughtintodirectrelationwithfact,thatheshouldnotmerelybetoldathing,butmadetoseebytheuseofhisownintellectandabilitythatthethingis_so_andnootherwise.Thegreatpeculiarityofscientifictraining,thatinvirtueofwhichitcannotbereplacedbyanyotherdisciplinewhatsoever,isthisbringingoftheminddirectlyintocontactwithfact,andpractisingtheintellectinthecompletestformofinduction;thatistosay,indrawingconclusionsfromparticularfactsmadeknownbyimmediateobservationofNature.

Theotherstudieswhichenterintoordinaryeducationdonotdisciplinethemindinthisway.Mathematicaltrainingisalmostpurelydeductive.Themathematicianstartswithafewsimplepropositions,theproofofwhichissoobviousthattheyarecalledself-evident,andtherestof

hisworkconsistsofsubtledeductionsfromthem.Theteachingoflanguages,atanyrateasordinarilypractised,isofthesamegeneralnature,--authorityandtraditionfurnishthedata,andthementaloperationsofthescholararedeductive.

Again:ifhistorybethesubjectofstudy,thefactsarestilltakenupontheevidenceoftraditionandauthority.YoucannotmakeaboyseethebattleofThermopylæforhimself,orknow,ofhisownknowledge,thatCromwellonceruledEngland.Thereisnogettingintodirectcontactwithnaturalfactbythisroad;thereisnodispensingwith



authority,butratherarestinguponit.

Inalltheserespects,sciencediffersfromothereducationaldiscipline,andpreparesthescholarforcommonlife.Whathavewetodoinevery-daylife?Mostofthebusinesswhichdemandsourattentionismatteroffact,whichneeds,inthefirstplace,tobeaccuratelyobservedorapprehended;inthesecond,tobeinterpretedbyinductiveanddeductivereasonings,whicharealtogethersimilarintheirnaturetothoseemployedinscience.Intheonecase,asintheother,whateveristakenforgrantedissotakenatone'sownperil;factandreasonaretheultimatearbiters,andpatienceandhonestyarethegreathelpersoutofdifficulty.

Butifscientifictrainingistoyielditsmosteminentresults,itmust,Irepeat,bemadepractical.Thatistosay,inexplainingtoachildthegeneralphenomenaofNature,youmust,asfaraspossible,giverealitytoyourteachingbyobject-lessons;inteachinghimbotany,hemusthandletheplantsanddissecttheflowersforhimself;inteachinghimphysicsandchemistry,youmustnotbesolicitoustofillhimwithinformation,butyoumustbecarefulthatwhathelearnsheknowsofhisownknowledge.Don'tbesatisfiedwithtellinghimthatamagnetattractsiron.Lethimseethatitdoes;lethimfeelthepulloftheoneupontheotherforhimself.And,especially,tellhimthatitishisdutytodoubtuntilheiscompelled,bytheabsoluteauthorityof

Nature,tobelievethatwhichiswritteninbooks.Pursuethisdisciplinecarefullyandconscientiously,andyoumaymakesurethat,howeverscantymaybethemeasureofinformationwhichyouhavepouredintotheboy'smind,youhavecreatedanintellectualhabitofpricelessvalueinpracticallife.

Oneisconstantlyasked,Whenshouldthisscientificeducationbecommenced?Ishouldsaywiththedawnofintelligence.AsIhavealreadysaid,achildseeksforinformationaboutmattersofphysicalscienceassoonasitbeginstotalk.Thefirstteachingitwantsisanobject-lessonofonesortoranother;andassoonasitisfitforsystematicinstructionofanykind,itisfitforamodicumofscience.

Peopletalkofthedifficultyofteachingyoungchildrensuchmatters,andinthesamebreathinsistupontheirlearningtheirCatechism,whichcontainspropositionsfarhardertocomprehendthananythingintheeducationalcourseIhaveproposed.Again,Iamincessantlytoldthatwe,whoadvocatetheintroductionofscienceintoschools,makenoallowanceforthestupidityoftheaverageboyorgirl;but,inmybelief,thatstupidity,inninecasesoutoften,"_fit,nonnascitur_,"andisdevelopedbyalongprocessofparentalandpedagogicrepressionofthenaturalintellectualappetites,accompaniedbyapersistentattempttocreateartificialonesforfoodwhichisnotonlytasteless,butessentiallyindigestible.

Thosewhourgethedifficultyofinstructingyoungpeopleinscienceare

apttoforgetanotherveryimportantconditionofsuccess--importantinallkindsofteaching,butmostessential,Iamdisposedtothink,whenthescholarsareveryyoung.Thisconditionis,thattheteachershouldhimselfreallyandpracticallyknowhissubject.Ifhedoes,hewillbeabletospeakofitintheeasylanguage,andwiththecompletenessofconviction,withwhichhetalksofanyordinaryevery-daymatter.Ifhedoesnot,hewillbeafraidtowanderbeyondthelimitsofthetechnicalphraseologywhichhehasgotup;andadeaddogmatism,whichoppresses,orraisesopposition,willtaketheplaceofthelivelyconfidence,bornofpersonalconviction,whichcheersandencouragestheeminently



sympatheticmindofchildhood.

Ihavealreadyhintedthatsuchscientifictrainingasweseekformaybegivenwithoutmakinganyextravagantclaimuponthetimenowdevotedtoeducation.Weaskonlyfor"amostfavourednation"clauseinourtreatywiththeschoolmaster;wedemandnomorethanthatscienceshallhaveasmuchtimegiventoitasanyothersinglesubject--sayfourhoursaweekineachclassofanordinaryschool.

Forthepresent,Ithinkmenofsciencewouldbewellcontentwithsuchanarrangementasthis;but,speakingformyself,Idonotpretendtobelievethatsuchanarrangementcanbe,orwillbe,permanent.Inthesetimestheeducationaltreeseemstometohaveitsrootsintheair,itsleavesandflowersintheground;and,Iconfess,Ishouldverymuchliketoturnitupsidedown,sothatitsrootsmightbesolidlyembeddedamongthefactsofNature,anddrawthenceasoundnutrimentforthefoliageandfruitofliteratureandofart.Noeducationalsystemcanhaveaclaimtopermanence,unlessitrecognisesthetruththateducationhastwogreatendstowhicheverythingelsemustbesubordinated.Theoneoftheseistoincreaseknowledge;theotheristodeveloptheloveofrightandthehatredofwrong.

Withwisdomanduprightnessanationcanmakeitswayworthily,andbeautywillfollowinthefootstepsofthetwo,evenifshebenot

speciallyinvited;whilethereisperhapsnosightinthewholeworldmoresaddeningandrevoltingthanisofferedbymensunkinignoranceofeverythingbutwhatothermenhavewritten;seeminglydevoidofmoralbelieforguidance;butwiththesenseofbeautysokeen,andthepowerofexpressionsocultivated,thattheirsensualcaterwaulingmaybealmostmistakenforthemusicofthespheres.

Atpresent,educationisalmostentirelydevotedtothecultivationofthepowerofexpression,andofthesenseofliterarybeauty.Thematterofhavinganythingtosay,beyondahashofotherpeople'sopinions,orofpossessinganycriterionofbeauty,sothatwemaydistinguishbetweentheGodlikeandthedevilish,isleftasideasofnomoment.IthinkIdonoterrinsayingthatifscienceweremadethefoundationof

education,insteadofbeing,atmost,stuckonascornicetotheedifice,thisstateofthingscouldnotexist.

Inadvocatingtheintroductionofphysicalscienceasaleadingelementineducation,Ibynomeansreferonlytothehigherschools.Onthecontrary,Ibelievethatsuchachangeisevenmoreimperativelycalledforinthoseprimaryschools,inwhichthechildrenofthepoorareexpectedtoturntothebestaccountthelittletimetheycandevotetotheacquisitionofknowledge.Agreatstepinthisdirectionhasalreadybeenmadebytheestablishmentofscience-classesundertheDepartmentofScienceandArt,--ameasurewhichcameintoexistenceunnoticed,butwhichwill,Ibelieve,turnouttobeofmoreimportancetothewelfareofthepeople,thanmanypoliticalchanges,overwhichthenoiseof

battlehasrenttheair.

UndertheregulationstowhichIrefer,aschoolmastercansetupaclassinoneormorebranchesofscience;hispupilswillbeexamined,andtheStatewillpayhim,atacertainrate,forallwhosucceedinpassing.Ihaveactedasanexaminerunderthissystemfromthebeginningofitsestablishment,andthisyearIexpecttohavenotfewerthanacoupleofthousandsetsofanswerstoquestionsinPhysiology,mainlyfromyoungpeopleoftheartisanclass,whohavebeentaughtintheschoolswhicharenowscatteredalloverGreatBritainandIreland.



Someofmycolleagues,whohavetodealwithsubjectssuchasGeometry,forwhichthepresentteachingpowerisbetterorganized,Iunderstandarelikelytohavethreeorfourtimesasmanypapers.Sofarasmyownsubjectsareconcerned,Icanundertaketosaythatagreatdealoftheteaching,theresultsofwhicharebeforemeintheseexaminations,isverysoundandgood;andIthinkitisinthepoweroftheexaminers,notonlytokeepupthepresentstandard,buttocauseanalmostunlimitedimprovement.Nowwhatdoesthismean?Itmeansthatbyholdingoutaverymoderateinducement,themastersofprimaryschoolsinmanypartsofthecountryhavebeenledtoconvertthemintolittlefociofscientificinstruction;andthattheyandtheirpupilshavecontrivedtofind,ortomake,timeenoughtocarryoutthisobjectwithaveryconsiderabledegreeofefficiency.Thatefficiencywill,Idoubtnot,beverymuchincreasedasthesystembecomesknownandperfected,evenwiththeverylimitedleisurelefttomastersandteachersonweek-days.Andthisleadsmetoask,Whyshouldscientificteachingbelimitedtoweek-days?

Ecclesiastically-mindedpersonsareinthehabitofcallingthingstheydonotlikebyveryhardnames,andIshouldnotwonderiftheybrandthepropositionIamabouttomakeasblasphemous,andworse.But,notmindingthis,Iventuretoask,WouldtherereallybeanythingwronginusingpartofSundayforthepurposeofinstructingthosewhohavenootherleisure,inaknowledgeofthephenomenaofNature,andofman's

relationtonature?IshouldliketoseeascientificSunday-schoolineveryparish,notforthepurposeofsupersedinganyexistingmeansofteachingthepeoplethethingsthatarefortheirgood,butsidebysidewiththem.Icannotbutthinkthatthereisroomforallofustoworkinhelpingtobridgeoverthegreatabyssofignorancewhichliesatourfeet.

AndifanyoftheecclesiasticalpersonstowhomIhavereferred,objectthattheyfinditderogatorytothehonouroftheGodwhomtheyworship,toawakenthemindsoftheyoungtotheinfinitewonderandmajestyoftheworkswhichtheyproclaimHis,andtoteachthemthoselawswhichmustneedsbeHislaws,andthereforeofallthingsneedfulformanto

know--Icanonlyrecommendthemtobeletbloodandputonlowdiet.Theremustbesomethingverywronggoingonintheinstrumentoflogic,ifitturnsoutsuchconclusionsfromsuchpremisses.

FOOTNOTE:

[3]Mr.Quain'swords(_MedicalTimesandGazette_,February20)are:--"AfewwordsastoourspecialMedicalcourseofinstructionandtheinfluenceuponitofsuchchangesintheelementaryschoolsasIhavementioned.Thestudentnowentersatonceuponseveralsciences--physics,chemistry,anatomy,physiology,botany,pharmacy,therapeutics--allthese,thefactsandthelanguageandthelawsofeach,tobemasteredineighteenmonths.Uptothebeginningofthe

Medicalcoursemanyhavelearnedlittle.WecannotclaimanythingbetterthantheExamineroftheUniversityofLondonandtheCambridgeLecturerhavereportedfortheirUniversities.Supposingthatatschoolyoungpeoplehadacquiredsomeexactelementaryknowledgeinphysics,chemistry,andabranchofnaturalhistory--saybotany--withthephysiologyconnectedwithit,theywouldthenhavegainednecessaryknowledge,withsomepracticeininductivereasoning.Thewholestudiesareprocessesofobservationandinduction--thebestdisciplineofthemindforthepurposesoflife--forourpurposesnotlessthanany.'Bysuchstudy(saysDr.Whewell)ofoneormoredepartmentsofinductive



sciencethemindmayescapefromthethraldomofmerewords.'BythatplantheburdenoftheearlyMedicalcoursewouldbemuchlightened,andmoretimedevotedtopracticalstudies,includingSirThomasWatson's'finalandsupremestage'oftheknowledgeofMedicine."

V.

ONTHEEDUCATIONALVALUEOFTHENATURALHISTORYSCIENCES.

ThesubjecttowhichIhavetobegyourattentionduringtheensuinghouris"TheRelationofPhysiologicalSciencetootherbranchesofKnowledge."

Hadcircumstancespermittedofthedelivery,intheirstrictlogicalorder,ofthatseriesofdiscoursesofwhichthepresentlectureisamember,IshouldhaveprecededmyfriendandcolleagueMr.Henfrey,whoaddressedyouonMondaylast;butwhile,forthesakeofthatorder,ImustbegyoutosupposethatthisdiscussionoftheEducationalbearingsofBiologyingeneral_does_precedethatofSpecialZoologyandBotany,Iamrejoicedtobeabletotakeadvantageofthelightthusalready

thrownuponthetendencyandmethodsofPhysiologicalScience.RegardingPhysiologicalScience,then,initswidestsense--astheequivalentof_Biology_--theScienceofIndividualLife--wehavetoconsiderinsuccession:

1.Itspositionandscopeasabranchofknowledge.

2.Itsvalueasameansofmentaldiscipline.

3.Itsworthaspracticalinformation.

Andlastly,

4.AtwhatperioditmaybestbemadeabranchofEducation.

Ourconclusionsonthefirstoftheseheadsmustdepend,ofcourse,uponthenatureofthesubject-matterofBiology;andIthinkafewpreliminaryconsiderationswillplacebeforeyouinaclearlightthevastdifferencewhichexistsbetweenthelivingbodieswithwhichPhysiologicalscienceisconcerned,andtheremainderoftheuniverse;--betweenthephænomenaofNumberandSpace,ofPhysicalandofChemicalforce,ontheonehand,andthoseofLifeontheother.

Themathematician,thephysicist,andthechemistcontemplatethingsinaconditionofrest;theylookuponastateofequilibriumasthatto

whichallbodiesnormallytend.

Themathematiciandoesnotsupposethataquantitywillalter,orthatagivenpointinspacewillchangeitsdirectionwithregardtoanotherpoint,spontaneously.Anditisthesamewiththephysicist.WhenNewtonsawtheapplefall,heconcludedatoncethattheactoffallingwasnottheresultofanypowerinherentintheapple,butthatitwastheresultoftheactionofsomethingelseontheapple.Inasimilarmanner,allphysicalforceisregardedasthedisturbanceofanequilibriumtowhichthingstendedbeforeitsexertion,--towhichthey



willtendagainafteritscessation.

Thechemistequallyregardschemicalchangeinaastheeffectoftheactionofsomethingexternaltothebodychanged.Achemicalcompoundonceformedwouldpersistforever,ifnoalterationtookplaceinsurroundingconditions.

ButtothestudentofLifetheaspectofnatureisreversed.Here,incessant,and,sofarasweknow,spontaneouschangeistherule,resttheexception--theanomalytobeaccountedfor.Livingthingshavenoinertia,andtendtonoequilibrium.

Permitme,however,togivemoreforceandclearnesstothesesomewhatabstractconsiderations,byanillustrationortwo.

Imagineavesselfullofwater,attheordinarytemperature,inanatmospheresaturatedwithvapour.The_quantity_andthe_figure_ofthatwaterwillnotchange,sofarasweknow,forever.

Supposealumpofgoldbethrownintothevessel--motionanddisturbanceoffigureexactlyproportionaltothemomentumofthegoldwilltakeplace.Butafteratimetheeffectsofthisdisturbancewillsubside--equilibriumwillberestored,andthewaterwillreturntoitspassivestate.

Exposethewatertocold--itwillsolidify--andinsodoingitsparticleswillarrangethemselvesindefinitecrystallineshapes.Butonceformed,thesecrystalschangenofurther.

Again,substituteforthelumpofgoldsomesubstancecapableofenteringintochemicalrelationswiththewater:--say,amassofthatsubstancewhichiscalled"protein"--thesubstanceofflesh:--averyconsiderabledisturbanceofequilibriumwilltakeplace--allsortsofchemicalcompositionsanddecompositionswilloccur;butintheend,asbefore,theresultwillbetheresumptionofaconditionofrest.

Insteadofsuchamassof_dead_protein,however,takeaparticleof

_living_protein--oneofthoseminutemicroscopiclivingthingswhichthrongourpools,andareknownasInfusoria--suchacreature,forinstance,asanEuglena,andplaceitinourvesselofwater.Itisaroundmassprovidedwithalongfilament,andexceptinthispeculiarityofshape,presentsnoappreciablephysicalorchemicaldifferencewherebyitmightbedistinguishedfromtheparticleofdeadprotein.

Butthedifferenceinthephænomenatowhichitwillgiveriseisimmense:inthefirstplaceitwilldevelopavastquantityofphysicalforce--cleavingthewaterinalldirectionswithconsiderablerapiditybymeansofthevibrationsofthelongfilamentorcilium.

Noristheamountofchemicalenergywhichthelittlecreaturepossesses

lessstriking.Itisaperfectlaboratoryinitself,anditwillactandreactuponthewaterandthematterscontainedtherein;convertingthemintonewcompoundsresemblingitsownsubstance,and,atthesametime,givingupportionsofitsownsubstancewhichhavebecomeeffete.

Furthermore,theEuglenawillincreaseinsize;butthisincreaseisbynomeansunlimited,astheincreaseofacrystalmightbe.Afterithasgrowntoacertainextentitdivides,andeachportionassumestheformoftheoriginal,andproceedstorepeattheprocessofgrowthanddivision.



Noristhisall.Forafteraseriesofsuchdivisionsandsubdivisions,theseminutepointsassumeatotallynewform,losetheirlongtails--roundthemselves,andsecreteasortofenvelopeorbox,inwhichtheyremainshutupforatime,eventuallytoresume,directlyorindirectly,theirprimitivemodeofexistence.

Now,sofarasweknow,thereisnonaturallimittotheexistenceoftheEuglena,orofanyotherlivinggerm.Alivingspeciesoncelaunchedintoexistencetendstoliveforever.

Considerhowwidelydifferentthislivingparticleisfromthedeadatomswithwhichthephysicistandchemisthavetodo!

Theparticleofgoldfallstothebottomandrests--theparticleofdeadproteindecomposesanddisappears--italsorests:butthe_living_ proteinmassneithertendstoexhaustionofitsforcesnortoanypermanencyofform,butisessentiallydistinguishedasadisturberofequilibriumsofarasforceisconcerned,--asundergoingcontinualmetamorphosisandchange,inpointofform.

Tendencytoequilibriumofforceandtopermanencyofformthen,arethecharactersofthatportionoftheuniversewhichdoesnotlive--thedomainofthechemistandphysicist.

Tendencytodisturbexistingequilibrium,--totakeonformswhichsucceedoneanotherindefinitecycles,isthecharacterofthelivingworld.

Whatisthecauseofthiswonderfuldifferencebetweenthedeadparticleandthelivingparticleofmatterappearinginotherrespectsidentical?thatdifferencetowhichwegivethenameofLife?

I,forone,cannottellyou.Itmaybethat,byandby,philosopherswilldiscoversomehigherlawsofwhichthefactsoflifeareparticularcases--verypossiblytheywillfindoutsomebondbetweenphysico-chemicalphænomenaontheonehand,andvitalphænomenaonthe

other.Atpresent,however,weassuredlyknowofnone;andIthinkweshallexerciseawisehumilityinconfessingthat,forusatleast,thissuccessiveassumptionofdifferentstates--(externalconditionsremainingthesame)--this_spontaneityofaction_--ifImayuseatermwhichimpliesmorethanIwouldbeanswerablefor--whichconstitutessovastandplainapracticaldistinctionbetweenlivingbodiesandthosewhichdonotlive,isanultimatefact;indicatingassuch,theexistenceofabroadlineofdemarcationbetweenthesubject-matterofBiologicalandthatofallothersciences.

ForIwouldhaveitunderstoodthatthissimpleEuglenaisthetypeof _all_livingthings,sofarasthedistinctionbetweentheseandinertmatterisconcerned.Thatcycleofchanges,whichisconstitutedby

perhapsnotmorethantwoorthreestepsintheEuglena,isasclearlymanifestedinthemultitudinousstagesthroughwhichthegermofanoakorofamanpasses.WhateverformstheLivingBeingmaytakeon,whethersimpleorcomplex,_production_,_growth_,_reproduction_,arethephænomenawhichdistinguishitfromthatwhichdoesnotlive.

Ifthisbetrue,itisclearthatthestudent,inpassingfromthephysico-chemicaltothephysiologicalsciences,entersuponatotallyneworderoffacts;anditwillnextbeforustoconsiderhowfarthesenewfactsinvolve_new_methods,orrequireamodificationofthosewith



whichheisalreadyacquainted.Nowagreatdealissaidaboutthepeculiarityofthescientificmethodingeneral,andofthedifferentmethodswhicharepursuedinthedifferentsciences.TheMathematicsaresaidtohaveonespecialmethod;Physicsanother,Biologyathird,andsoforth.Formyownpart,ImustconfessthatIdonotunderstandthisphraseology.

SofarasIcanarriveatanyclearcomprehensionofthematter,Scienceisnot,asmanywouldseemtosuppose,amodificationoftheblackart,suitedtothetastesofthenineteenthcentury,andflourishingmainlyinconsequenceofthedecayoftheInquisition.

Scienceis,Ibelieve,nothingbut_trainedandorganizedcommonsense_,differingfromthelatteronlyasaveteranmaydifferfromarawrecruit:anditsmethodsdifferfromthoseofcommonsenseonlysofarastheguardsman'scutandthrustdifferfromthemannerinwhichasavagewieldshisclub.Theprimarypoweristhesameineachcase,andperhapstheuntutoredsavagehasthemorebrawnyarmofthetwo.The _real_advantageliesinthepointandpolishoftheswordsman'sweapon;inthetrainedeyequicktospyouttheweaknessoftheadversary;inthereadyhandprompttofollowitontheinstant.Butafterall,theswordexerciseisonlythehewingandpokingoftheclubmandevelopedandperfected.

So,thevastresultsobtainedbySciencearewonbynomysticalfaculties,bynomentalprocesses,otherthanthosewhicharepractisedbyeveryoneofus,inthehumblestandmeanestaffairsoflife.Adetectivepolicemandiscoversaburglarfromthemarksmadebyhisshoe,byamentalprocessidenticalwiththatbywhichCuvierrestoredtheextinctanimalsofMontmartrefromfragmentsoftheirbones.Nordoesthatprocessofinductionanddeductionbywhichalady,findingastainofapeculiarkinduponherdress,concludesthatsomebodyhasupsettheinkstandthereon,differinanyway,inkind,fromthatbywhichAdamsandLeverrierdiscoveredanewplanet.

Themanofscience,infact,simplyuseswithscrupulousexactness,themethodswhichweall,habituallyandateverymoment,usecarelessly;

andthemanofbusinessmustasmuchavailhimselfofthescientificmethod--mustbeastrulyamanofscience--astheveriestbookwormofusall;thoughIhavenodoubtthatthemanofbusinesswillfindhimselfouttobeaphilosopherwithasmuchsurpriseasM.Jourdainexhibited,whenhediscoveredthathehadbeenallhislifetalkingprose.If,however,therebenorealdifferencebetweenthemethodsofscienceandthoseofcommonlife,itwouldseem,onthefaceofthematter,highlyimprobablethatthereshouldbeanydifferencebetweenthemethodsofthedifferentsciences;nevertheless,itisconstantlytakenforgranted,thatthereisaverywidedifferencebetweenthePhysiologicalandothersciencesinpointofmethod.

Inthefirstplaceitissaid--andItakethispointfirst,becausethe

imputationistoofrequentlyadmittedbyPhysiologiststhemselves--thatBiologydiffersfromthePhysico-chemicalandMathematicalsciencesinbeing"inexact."

Now,thisphrase"inexact"mustrefereithertothe_methods_ortothe _results_ofPhysiologicalscience.

Itcannotbecorrecttoapplyittothemethods;for,asIhopetoshowyoubyandby,theseareidenticalinallsciences,andwhateveristrueofPhysiologicalmethodistrueofPhysicalandMathematicalmethod.



Isitthenthe_results_ofBiologicalsciencewhichare"inexact"?Ithinknot.IfIsaythatrespirationisperformedbythelungs;thatdigestioniseffectedinthestomach;thattheeyeistheorganofsight;thatthejawsofavertebratedanimalneveropensideways,butalwaysupanddown;whilethoseofanannuloseanimalalwaysopensideways,andneverupanddown--IamenumeratingpropositionswhichareasexactasanythinginEuclid.HowthenhasthisnotionoftheinexactnessofBiologicalsciencecomeabout?Ibelievefromtwocauses:first,because,inconsequenceofthegreatcomplexityofthescienceandthemultitudeofinterferingconditions,weareveryoftenonlyenabledtopredictapproximativelywhatwilloccurundergivencircumstances;andsecondly,because,onaccountofthecomparativeyouthofthePhysiologicalsciences,agreatmanyoftheirlawsarestillimperfectlyworkedout.But,inaneducationalpointofview,itismostimportanttodistinguishbetweentheessenceofascienceandtheaccidentswhichsurroundit;andessentially,themethodsandresultsofPhysiologyareasexactasthoseofPhysicsorMathematics.

ItissaidthatthePhysiologicalmethodisespecially_comparative_[4];andthisdictumalsofindsfavourintheeyesofmany.IshouldbesorrytosuggestthatthespeculatorsonscientificclassificationhavebeenmisledbytheaccidentofthenameofoneleadingbranchofBiology--_ComparativeAnatomy_;butIwouldaskwhether_comparison_,

andthatclassificationwhichistheresultofcomparison,arenottheessenceofeverysciencewhatsoever?Howisitpossibletodiscoverarelationofcauseandeffectof_any_kindwithoutcomparingaseriesofcasestogetherinwhichthesupposedcauseandeffectoccursingly,orcombined?SofarfromcomparisonbeinginanywaypeculiartoBiologicalscience,itis,Ithink,theessenceofeveryscience.

AspeculativephilosopheragaintellsusthattheBiologicalsciencesaredistinguishedbybeingsciencesofobservationandnotofexperiment![5]

Ofallthestrangeassertionsintowhichspeculationwithoutpracticalacquaintancewithasubjectmayleadevenanableman,Ithinkthisis

theverystrangest.Physiologynotanexperimentalscience!Why,thereisnotafunctionofasingleorganinthebodywhichhasnotbeendeterminedwhollyandsolelybyexperiment.HowdidHarveydeterminethenatureofthecirculation,exceptbyexperiment?HowdidSirCharlesBelldeterminethefunctionsoftherootsofthespinalnerves,savebyexperiment?Howdoweknowtheuseofanerveatall,exceptbyexperiment?Nay,howdoyouknoweventhatyoureyeisyourseeingapparatus,unlessyoumaketheexperimentofshuttingit;orthatyourearisyourhearingapparatus,unlessyoucloseitupandtherebydiscoverthatyoubecomedeaf?

ItwouldreallybemuchmoretruetosaythatPhysiologyis_the_ experimentalscience_parexcellence_ofallsciences;thatinwhich

thereisleasttobelearntbymereobservation,andthatwhichaffordsthegreatestfieldfortheexerciseofthosefacultieswhichcharacterisetheexperimentalphilosopher.Iconfess,ifanyoneweretoaskmeforamodelapplicationofthelogicofexperiment,IshouldknownobetterworktoputintohishandsthanBernard'slateResearchesontheFunctionsoftheLiver.[6]

Nottogivethislectureatoocontroversialtone,however,Imustonlyadverttoonemoredoctrine,heldbyathinkerofourownageandcountry,whoseopinionsareworthyofallrespect.Itis,thatthe



Biologicalsciencesdifferfromallothers,inasmuchasin_them_ classificationtakesplacebytypeandnotbydefinition.[7]

Itissaid,inshort,thatanatural-historyclassisnotcapableofbeingdefined--thattheclassRosaceæ,forinstance,ortheclassofFishes,isnotaccuratelyandabsolutelydefinable,inasmuchasitsmemberswillpresentexceptionstoeverypossibledefinition;andthatthemembersoftheclassareunitedtogetheronlybythecircumstancethattheyareallmorelikesomeimaginaryaverageroseoraveragefish,thantheyresembleanythingelse.

Buthere,asbefore,Ithinkthedistinctionhasarisenentirelyfromconfusingatransitoryimperfectionwithanessentialcharacter.Solongasourinformationconcerningthemisimperfect,weclassallobjectstogetheraccordingtoresemblanceswhichwe_feel_,butcannot_define_:wegroupthemround_types_,inshort.Thus,ifyouaskanordinarypersonwhatkindsofanimalsthereare,hewillprobablysay,beasts,birds,reptiles,fishes,insects,&c.Askhimtodefineabeastfromareptile,andhecannotdoit;buthesays,thingslikeacoworahorsearebeasts,andthingslikeafrogoralizardarereptiles.Yousee_hedoes_classbytype,andnotbydefinition.ButhowdoesthisclassificationdifferfromthatofthescientificZoologist?Howdoesthemeaningofthescientificclass-nameof"Mammalia"differfromtheunscientificof"Beasts"?

Why,exactlybecausetheformerdependsonadefinition,thelatteronatype.TheclassMammaliaisscientificallydefinedas"allanimalswhichhaveavertebratedskeletonandsuckletheiryoung."Hereisnoreferencetotype,butadefinitionrigorousenoughforageometrician.Andsuchisthecharacterwhicheveryscientificnaturalistrecognisesasthattowhichhisclassesmustaspire--knowing,ashedoes,thatclassificationbytypeissimplyanacknowledgmentofignoranceandatemporarydevice.

Somuchinthewayofnegativeargumentasagainstthereputeddifferences,betweenBiologicalandothermethods.Nosuchdifferences,Ibelieve,reallyexist.Thesubject-matterofBiologicalscienceis

differentfromthatofothersciences,butthemethodsofallareidentical;andthesemethodsare--

1._Observation_offacts--includingunderthisheadthat_artificialobservation_whichiscalled_experiment_.

2.Thatprocessoftyingupsimilarfactsintobundles,ticketedandreadyforuse,whichiscalled_Comparison_and_Classification_,--theresultsoftheprocess,theticketedbundles,beingnamed_Generalpropositions_.

3._Deduction_,whichtakesusfromthegeneralpropositiontofactsagain--teachesus,ifImaysosay,toanticipatefromtheticketwhat

isinsidethebundle.Andfinally--

4._Verification_,whichistheprocessofascertainingwhether,inpointoffact,ouranticipationisacorrectone.

Sucharethemethodsofallsciencewhatsoever;butperhapsyouwillpermitmetogiveyouanillustrationoftheiremploymentinthescienceofLife;andIwilltakeasaspecialcase,theestablishmentofthedoctrineofthe_CirculationoftheBlood_.



Inthiscase,_simpleobservation_yieldsusaknowledgeoftheexistenceofthebloodfromsomeaccidentalhæmorrhage,wewillsay:wemayevengrantthatitinformsusofthelocalizationofthisbloodinparticularvessels,theheart,&c.,fromsomeaccidentalcutorthelike.Itteachesalsotheexistenceofapulseinvariouspartsofthebody,andacquaintsuswiththestructureoftheheartandvessels.

Here,however,_simpleobservation_stops,andwemusthaverecourseto _experiment_.

Youtieavein,andyoufindthatthebloodaccumulatesonthesideoftheligatureoppositetheheart.Youtieanartery,andyoufindthatthebloodaccumulatesonthesideneartheheart.Openthechest,andyouseetheheartcontractingwithgreatforce.Makeopeningsintoitsprincipalcavities,andyouwillfindthatallthebloodflowsout,andnomorepressureisexertedoneithersideofthearterialorvenousligature.

Nowallthesefacts,takentogether,constitutetheevidencethatthebloodispropelledbytheheartthroughthearteries,andreturnsbytheveins--that,inshort,thebloodcirculates.

Supposeourexperimentsandobservationshavebeenmadeonhorses,thenwegroupandticketthemintoageneralproposition,thus:--_allhorses

haveacirculationoftheirblood_.Henceforwardahorseisasortofindicationorlabel,tellinguswhereweshallfindapeculiarseriesofphænomenacalledthecirculationoftheblood.

Hereisour_generalproposition_then.

Howandwhenarewejustifiedinmakingournextstep--a_deduction_ fromit?

Supposeourphysiologist,whoseexperienceislimitedtohorses,meetswithazebraforthefirsttime,--willhesupposethatthis

generalizationholdsgoodforzebrasalso?

Thatdependsverymuchonhisturnofmind.Butwewillsupposehimtobeaboldman.Hewillsay,"Thezebraiscertainlynotahorse,butitisverylikeone,--solike,thatitmustbethe'ticket'ormarkofablood-circulationalso;and,Iconcludethatthezebrahasacirculation."

Thatisadeduction,averyfairdeduction,butbynomeanstobeconsideredscientificallysecure.Thislastqualityinfactcanonlybegivenby_verification_--thatis,bymakingazebrathesubjectofalltheexperimentsperformedonthehorse.Ofcourse,inthepresentcase,the_deduction_wouldbe_confirmed_bythisprocessofverification,

andtheresultwouldbe,notmerelyapositivewideningofknowledge,butafairincreaseofconfidenceinthetruthofone'sgeneralizationsinothercases.

Thus,havingsettledthepointinthezebraandhorse,ourphilosopherwouldhavegreatconfidenceintheexistenceofacirculationintheass.Nay,Ifancymostpersonswouldexcusehim,ifinthiscasehedidnottakethetroubletogothroughtheprocessofverificationatall;anditwouldnotbewithoutaparallelinthehistoryofthehumanmind,ifourimaginaryphysiologistnowmaintainedthathewasacquaintedwith



asininecirculation_àpriori_.

However,ifImightimpressanycautionuponyourminds,itis,theutterlyconditionalnatureofallourknowledge,--thedangerofneglectingtheprocessofverificationunderanycircumstances;andthefilmuponwhichwerest,themomentourdeductionscarryusbeyondthereachofthisgreatprocessofverification.Thereisnobetterinstanceofthisthanisaffordedbythehistoryofourknowledgeofthecirculationofthebloodintheanimalkingdomuntiltheyear1824.Ineveryanimalpossessingacirculationatall,whichhadbeenobserveduptothattime,thecurrentofthebloodwasknowntotakeonedefiniteandinvariabledirection.Now,thereisaclassofanimalscalled _Ascidians_,whichpossessaheartandacirculation,anduptotheperiodofwhichIspeak,noonewouldhavedreamtofquestioningtheproprietyofthededuction,thatthesecreatureshaveacirculationinonedirection;norwouldanyonehavethoughtitworthwhiletoverifythepoint.But,inthatyear,M.vonHasselthappeningtoexamineatransparentanimalofthisclass,foundtohisinfinitesurprise,thatafterthehearthadbeatacertainnumberoftimes,itstopped,andthenbeganbeatingtheoppositeway--soastoreversethecourseofthecurrent,whichreturnedbyandbytoitsoriginaldirection.

Ihavemyselftimedtheheartoftheselittleanimals.Ifounditasregularaspossibleinitsperiodsofreversal:andIknownospectacle

intheanimalkingdommorewonderfulthanthatwhichitpresents--allthemorewonderfulthattothisdayitremainsanuniquefact,peculiartothisclassamongthewholeanimatedworld.AtthesametimeIknowofnomorestrikingcaseofthenecessityofthe_verification_ofeventhosedeductionswhichseemfoundedonthewidestandsafestinductions.

SucharethemethodsofBiology--methodswhichareobviouslyidenticalwiththoseofallothersciences,andthereforewhollyincompetenttoformthegroundofanydistinctionbetweenitandthem.[8]

ButIshallbeaskedatonce,Doyoumeantosaythatthereisnodifferencebetweenthehabitofmindofamathematicianandthatofanaturalist?DoyouimaginethatLaplacemighthavebeenputintothe

JardindesPlantes,andCuvierintotheObservatory,withequaladvantagetotheprogressofthesciencestheyprofessed?

TowhichIwouldreply,thatnothingcouldbefurtherfrommythoughts.Butdifferenthabitsandvariousspecialtendenciesoftwosciencesdonotimplydifferentmethods.Themountaineerandthemanoftheplainshaveverydifferenthabitsofprogression,andeachwouldbeatalossintheother'splace;butthemethodofprogression,byputtingonelegbeforetheother,isthesameineachcase.Everystepofeachisacombinationofaliftandapush;butthemountaineerliftsmoreandthelowlanderpushesmore.AndIthinkthecaseoftwosciencesresemblesthis.

Idonotquestionforamoment,thatwhiletheMathematicianisbusiedwithdeductions_from_generalpropositions,theBiologistismoreespeciallyoccupiedwithobservation,comparison,andthoseprocesseswhichlead_to_generalpropositions.AllIwishtoinsistuponis,thatthisdifferencedependsnotonanyfundamentaldistinctioninthesciencesthemselves,butontheaccidentsoftheirsubject-matter,oftheirrelativecomplexity,andconsequentrelativeperfection.

TheMathematiciandealswithtwopropertiesofobjectsonly,numberandextension,andalltheinductionshewantshavebeenformedandfinished



agesago.Heisoccupiednowwithnothingbutdeductionandverification.

TheBiologistdealswithavastnumberofpropertiesofobjects,andhisinductionswillnotbecompleted,Ifear,foragestocome;butwhentheyare,hissciencewillbeasdeductiveandasexactastheMathematicsthemselves.

SuchistherelationofBiologytothosescienceswhichdealwithobjectshavingfewerpropertiesthanitself.Butasthestudent,inreachingBiology,looksbackuponsciencesofalesscomplexandthereforemoreperfectnature;so,ontheotherhand,doeshelookforwardtoothermorecomplexandlessperfectbranchesofknowledge.Biologydealsonlywithlivingbeingsasisolatedthings--treatsonlyofthelifeoftheindividual:butthereisahigherdivisionofsciencestill,whichconsiderslivingbeingsasaggregates--whichdealswiththerelationoflivingbeingsonetoanother--thesciencewhich_observes_ men--whose_experiments_aremadebynationsoneuponanother,inbattle-fields--whose_generalpropositions_areembodiedinhistory,morality,andreligion--whose_deductions_leadtoourhappinessorourmisery,--andwhose_verifications_sooftencometoolate,andserveonly

"Topointamoraloradornatale"--

ImeanthescienceofSocietyor_Sociology_.

IthinkitisoneofthegrandestfeaturesofBiology,thatitoccupiesthiscentralpositioninhumanknowledge.Thereisnosideofthehumanmindwhichphysiologicalstudyleavesuncultivated.Connectedbyinnumerabletieswithabstractscience,Physiologyisyetinthemostintimaterelationwithhumanity;andbyteachingusthatlawandorder,andadefiniteschemeofdevelopment,regulateeventhestrangestandwildestmanifestationsofindividuallife,shepreparesthestudenttolookforagoalevenamidsttheerraticwanderingsofmankind,andtobelievethathistoryofferssomethingmorethananentertainingchaos--ajournalofatoilsome,tragi-comicmarchnowhither.

Theprecedingconsiderationshave,Ihope,servedtoindicatethereplieswhichbefitthetwofirstofthequestionswhichIsetbeforeyouatstarting,viz.whatistherangeandpositionofPhysiologicalScienceasabranchofknowledge,andwhatisitsvalueasameansofmentaldiscipline.

Its_subject-matter_isalargemoietyoftheuniverse--its_position_ ismidwaybetweenthephysico-chemicalandthesocialsciences.Its _value_asabranchofdisciplineispartlythatwhichithasincommonwithallsciences--thetrainingandstrengtheningofcommonsense;partlythatwhichismorepeculiartoitself--thegreatexercisewhichitaffordstothefacultiesofobservationandcomparison;andImay

add,the_exactness_ofknowledgewhichitrequiresonthepartofthoseamongitsvotarieswhodesiretoextenditsboundaries.

IfwhathasbeensaidastothepositionandscopeofBiologybecorrect,ourthirdquestion--Whatisthepracticalvalueofphysiologicalinstruction?--might,onewouldthink,belefttoansweritself.

Onothergroundseven,weremankinddeservingofthetitle"rational,"whichtheyarrogatetothemselves,therecanbenoquestionthatthey



wouldconsider,asthemostnecessaryofallbranchesofinstructionforthemselvesandfortheirchildren,thatwhichprofessestoacquaintthemwiththeconditionsoftheexistencetheyprizesohighly--whichteachesthemhowtoavoiddiseaseandtocherishhealth,inthemselvesandthosewhoaredeartothem.

Iamaddressing,Iimagine,anaudienceofeducatedpersons;andyetIdareventuretoassertthat,withtheexceptionofthoseofmyhearerswhomaychancetohavereceivedamedicaleducation,thereisnotonewhocouldtellmewhatisthemeaninganduseofanactwhichheperformsascoreoftimeseveryminute,andwhosesuspensionwouldinvolvehisimmediatedeath;--Imeantheactofbreathing--orwhocouldstateinprecisetermswhyitisthataconfinedatmosphereisinjurioustohealth.

The_practicalvalue_ofPhysiologicalknowledge!Whyisitthateducatedmencanbefoundtomaintainthataslaughter-houseinthemidstofagreatcityisratheragoodthingthanotherwise?--thatmotherspersistinexposingthelargestpossibleamountofsurfaceoftheirchildrentothecold,bytheabsurdstyleofdresstheyadopt,andthenmarvelatthepeculiardispensationofProvidence,whichremovestheirinfantsbybronchitisandgastricfever?Whyisitthatquackeryridesrampantovertheland;andthatnotlongago,oneofthelargestpublicroomsinthisgreatcitycouldbefilledbyanaudiencegravely

listeningtothereverendexpositorofthedoctrine--thatthesimplephysiologicalphenomenaknownasspirit-rapping,table-turning,phreno-magnetism,andbyIknownotwhatotherabsurdandinappropriatenames,areduetothedirectandpersonalagencyofSatan?

Whyisallthis,exceptfromtheutterignoranceastothesimplestlawsoftheirownanimallife,whichprevailsamongeventhemosthighlyeducatedpersonsinthiscountry?

ButthereareotherbranchesofBiologicalScience,besidesPhysiologyproper,whosepracticalinfluence,thoughlessobvious,isnot,asIbelieve,lesscertain.Ihaveheardeducatedmenspeakwithanill-disguisedcontemptofthestudiesofthenaturalist,andask,not

withoutashrug,"Whatistheuseofknowingallaboutthesemiserableanimals--whatbearinghasitonhumanlife?"

Iwillendeavourtoanswerthatquestion.ItakeitthatallwilladmitthereisdefiniteGovernmentofthisuniverse--thatitspleasuresandpainsarenotscatteredatrandom,butaredistributedinaccordancewithorderlyandfixedlaws,andthatitisonlyinaccordancewithallweknowoftherestoftheworld,thatthereshouldbeanagreementbetweenoneportionofthesensitivecreationandanotherinthesematters.

Surelythenitinterestsustoknowthelotofotheranimalcreatures--howeverfarbelowus,theyarestillthesolecreatedthings

whichsharewithusthecapabilityofpleasureandthesusceptibilitytopain.

Icannotbutthinkthathewhofindsacertainproportionofpainandevilinseparablywovenupinthelifeoftheveryworms,willbearhisownsharewithmorecourageandsubmission;andwill,atanyrate,viewwithsuspicionthoseweaklyamiabletheoriesoftheDivinegovernment,whichwouldhaveusbelievepaintobeanoversightandamistake,--tobecorrectedbyandby.Ontheotherhand,thepredominanceofhappinessamonglivingthings--theirlavishbeauty--thesecretandwonderful



haveagreateraffinitywiththistype-speciesthanwithanyothers,formthegenus,andarerangedaboutit,deviatingfromitinvariousdirectionsanddifferentdegrees."--WHEWELL,_ThePhilosophyoftheInductiveSciences_,vol.i.pp.476,477.

[8]Saveforthepleasureofdoingso,IneedhardlypointoutmyobligationstoMr.J.S.Mill's"SystemofLogic,"inthisviewofscientificmethod.

VI.

ONTHESTUDYOFZOOLOGY.

Naturalhistoryisthenamefamiliarlyappliedtothestudyofthepropertiesofsuchnaturalbodiesasminerals,plants,andanimals;thescienceswhichembodytheknowledgemanhasacquireduponthesesubjectsarecommonlytermedNaturalSciences,incontradistinctiontoother,so-called"physical,"sciences;andthosewhodevotethemselvesespeciallytothepursuitofsuchscienceshavebeen,andare,commonlytermed"Naturalists."

Linnæuswasanaturalistinthiswidesense,andhis"SystemaNaturæ"wasaworkuponnaturalhistory,inthebroadestacceptationoftheterm;init,thatgreatmethodizingspiritembodiedallthatwasknowninhistimeofthedistinctivecharactersofminerals,animals,andplants.ButtheenormousstimuluswhichLinnæusgavetotheinvestigationofnaturesoonrendereditimpossiblethatanyonemanshouldwriteanother"SystemaNaturæ,"andextremelydifficultforanyonetobecomeanaturalistsuchasLinnæuswas.

Greatashavebeentheadvancesmadebyallthethreebranchesofscience,ofoldincludedunderthetitleofnaturalhistory,therecanbenodoubtthatzoologyandbotanyhavegrowninanenormouslygreater

ratiothanmineralogy;andhence,asIsuppose,thenameof"naturalhistory"hasgraduallybecomemoreandmoredefinitelyattachedtotheseprominentdivisionsofthesubject,andby"naturalist"peoplehavemeantmoreandmoredistinctlytoimplyastudentofthestructureandfunctionsoflivingbeings.

Howeverthismaybe,itiscertainthattheadvanceofknowledgehasgraduallywidenedthedistancebetweenmineralogyanditsoldassociates,whileithasdrawnzoologyandbotanyclosertogether;sothatoflateyearsithasbeenfoundconvenient(andindeednecessary)toassociatethescienceswhichdealwithvitalityandallitsphenomenaunderthecommonheadof"biology;"andthebiologistshavecometorepudiateanyblood-relationshipwiththeirfoster-brothers,the

mineralogists.

Certainbroadlawshaveageneralapplicationthroughoutboththeanimalandthevegetableworlds,butthegroundcommontothesekingdomsofnatureisnotofverywideextent,andthemultiplicityofdetailsissogreat,thatthestudentoflivingbeingsfindshimselfobligedtodevotehisattentionexclusivelyeithertotheoneortheother.Ifheelectstostudyplants,underanyaspect,weknowatoncewhattocallhim;heisabotanist,andhisscienceisbotany.Butiftheinvestigationofanimallifebehischoice,thenamegenerallyappliedtohimwillvary,



accordingtothekindofanimalshestudies,ortheparticularphenomenaofanimallifetowhichheconfineshisattention.Ifthestudyofmanishisobject,heiscalledananatomist,oraphysiologist,oranethnologist;butifhedissectsanimals,orexaminesintothemodeinwhichtheirfunctionsareperformed,heisacomparativeanatomistorcomparativephysiologist.Ifheturnshisattentiontofossilanimals,heisapalæontologist.Ifhismindismoreparticularlydirectedtothedescription,specificdiscrimination,classification,anddistributionofanimals,heistermedazoologist.

Forthepurposesofthepresentdiscourse,however,Ishallrecognisenoneofthesetitlessavethelast,whichIshallemployastheequivalentofbotanist,andIshallusethetermzoologyasdenotingthewholedoctrineofanimallife,incontradistinctiontobotany,whichsignifiesthewholedoctrineofvegetablelife.

Employedinthissense,zoology,likebotany,isdivisibleintothreegreatbutsubordinatesciences,morphology,physiology,anddistribution,eachofwhichmay,toaverygreatextent,bestudiedindependentlyoftheother.

Zoologicalmorphologyisthedoctrineofanimalformorstructure.Anatomyisoneofitsbranches,developmentisanother;whileclassificationistheexpressionoftherelationswhichdifferent

animalsbeartooneanother,inrespectoftheiranatomyandtheirdevelopment.

Zoologicaldistributionisthestudyofanimalsinrelationtotheterrestrialconditionswhichobtainnow,orhaveobtainedatanypreviousepochoftheearth'shistory.

Zoologicalphysiology,lastly,isthedoctrineofthefunctionsoractionsofanimals.Itregardsanimalbodiesasmachinesimpelledbycertainforces,andperforminganamountofwork,whichcanbeexpressedintermsoftheordinaryforcesofnature.Thefinalobjectofphysiologyistodeducethefactsofmorphology,ontheonehand,andthoseofdistributionontheother,fromthelawsofthemolecular

forcesofmatter.

Suchisthescopeofzoology.ButifIweretocontentmyselfwiththeenunciationofthesedrydefinitions,Ishouldillexemplifythatmethodofteachingthisbranchofphysicalscience,whichitismychiefbusinessto-nighttorecommend.Letusturnawaythenfromabstractdefinitions.Letustakesomeconcretelivingthing,someanimal,thecommonerthebetter,andletusseehowtheapplicationofcommonsenseandcommonlogictotheobviousfactsitpresents,inevitablyleadsusintoallthesebranchesofzoologicalscience.

Ihavebeforemealobster.WhenIexamineit,whatappearstobethemoststrikingcharacteritpresents?Why,Iobservethatthispartwhich

wecallthetailofthelobster,ismadeupofsixdistincthardringsandaseventhterminalpiece.IfIseparateoneofthemiddlerings,saythethird,Ifinditcarriesuponitsundersurfaceapairoflimbsorappendages,eachofwhichconsistsofastalkandtwoterminalpieces.SothatIcanrepresentatransversesectionoftheringanditsappendagesuponthediagramboardinthisway.

IfInowtakethefourthringIfindithasthesamestructure,andsohavethefifthandthesecond;sothat,ineachofthesedivisionsofthetail,Ifindpartswhichcorrespondwithoneanother,aringandtwo



appendages;andineachappendageastalkandtwoendpieces.Thesecorrespondingpartsarecalled,inthetechnicallanguageofanatomy,"homologousparts."Theringofthethirddivisionisthe"homologue"oftheringofthefifth,theappendageoftheformeristhehomologueoftheappendageofthelatter.And,aseachdivisionexhibitscorrespondingpartsincorrespondingplaces,wesaythatallthedivisionsareconstructeduponthesameplan.Butnowletusconsiderthesixthdivision.Itissimilarto,andyetdifferentfrom,theothers.Theringisessentiallythesameasintheotherdivisions;buttheappendageslookatfirstasiftheywereverydifferent;andyetwhenweregardthemclosely,whatdowefind?Astalkandtwoterminaldivisions,exactlyasintheothers,butthestalkisveryshortandverythick,theterminaldivisionsareverybroadandflat,andoneofthemisdividedintotwopieces.

Imaysay,therefore,thatthesixthsegmentisliketheothersinplan,butthatitismodifiedinitsdetails.

Thefirstsegmentisliketheothers,sofarasitsringisconcerned,andthoughitsappendagesdifferfromanyofthoseyetexaminedinthesimplicityoftheirstructure,partscorrespondingwiththestemandoneofthedivisionsoftheappendagesoftheothersegmentscanbereadilydiscernedinthem.

Thusitappearsthatthelobster'stailiscomposedofaseriesofsegmentswhicharefundamentallysimilar,thougheachpresentspeculiarmodificationsoftheplancommontoall.ButwhenIturntotheforepartofthebodyIsee,atfirst,nothingbutagreatshield-likeshell,calledtechnicallythe"carapace,"endinginfrontinasharpspine,oneithersideofwhicharethecuriouscompoundeyes,setupontheendsofstoutmoveablestalks.Behindthese,ontheundersideofthebody,aretwopairsoflongfeelers,orantennæ,followedbysixpairsofjaws,foldedagainstoneanotheroverthemouth,andfivepairsoflegs,theforemostofthesebeingthegreatpinchers,orclaws,ofthelobster.

Itlooks,atfirst,alittlehopelesstoattempttofindinthiscomplexmassaseriesofrings,eachwithitspairofappendages,suchasIhave

shownyouintheabdomen,andyetitisnotdifficulttodemonstratetheirexistence.Stripoffthelegs,andyouwillfindthateachpairisattachedtoaverydefinitesegmentoftheunderwallofthebody;butthesesegments,insteadofbeingthelowerpartsoffreerings,asinthetail,aresuchpartsofringswhichareallsolidlyunitedandboundtogether;andthelikeistrueofthejaws,thefeelers,andtheeye-stalks,everypairofwhichisborneuponitsownspecialsegment.Thustheconclusionisgraduallyforceduponus,thatthebodyofthelobsteriscomposedofasmanyringsastherearepairsofappendages,namely,twentyinall,butthatthesixhindmostringsremainfreeandmoveable,whilethefourteenfrontringsbecomefirmlysolderedtogether,theirbacksformingonecontinuousshield--thecarapace.

Unityofplan,diversityinexecution,isthelessontaughtbythestudyoftheringsofthebody,andthesameinstructionisgivenstillmoreemphaticallybytheappendages.IfIexaminetheoutermostjawIfinditconsistsofthreedistinctportions,aninner,amiddle,andanouter,mounteduponacommonstem;andifIcomparethisjawwiththelegsbehindit,orthejawsinfrontofit,Ifinditquiteeasytosee,that,inthelegs,itisthepartoftheappendagewhichcorrespondswiththeinnerdivision,whichbecomesmodifiedintowhatweknowfamiliarlyasthe"leg,"whilethemiddledivision,disappears,andtheouterdivisionishiddenunderthecarapace.Norisitmoredifficultto



discernthat,intheappendagesofthetail,themiddledivisionappearsagainandtheoutervanishes;while,ontheotherhand,intheforemostjaw,theso-calledmandible,theinnerdivisiononlyisleft;and,inthesameway,thepartsofthefeelersandoftheeye-stalkscanbeidentifiedwiththoseofthelegsandjaws.

Butwhitherdoesallthistend?Totheveryremarkableconclusionthataunityofplan,ofthesamekindasthatdiscoverableinthetailorabdomenofthelobster,pervadesthewholeorganizationofitsskeleton,sothatIcanreturntothediagramrepresentinganyoneoftheringsofthetail,whichIdrewupontheboard,andbyaddingathirddivisiontoeachappendage,Icanuseitasasortofschemeorplanofanyringofthebody.Icangivenamestoallthepartsofthatfigure,andthenifItakeanysegmentofthebodyofthelobster,Icanpointouttoyouexactly,whatmodificationthegeneralplanhasundergoneinthatparticularsegment;whatparthasremainedmoveable,andwhathasbecomefixedtoanother;whathasbeenexcessivelydevelopedandmetamorphosed,andwhathasbeensuppressed.

ButIimagineIhearthequestion,Howisallthistobetested?Nodoubtitisaprettyandingeniouswayoflookingatthestructureofanyanimal,butisitanythingmore?DoesNatureacknowledge,inanydeeperway,thisunityofplanweseemtotrace?

Theobjectionsuggestedbythesequestionsisaveryvalidandimportantone,andmorphologywasinanunsoundstate,solongasitresteduponthemereperceptionoftheanalogieswhichobtainbetweenfullyformedparts.Theuncheckedingenuityofspeculativeanatomistsproveditselffullycompetenttospinanynumberofcontradictoryhypothesesoutofthesamefacts,andendlessmorphologicaldreamsthreatenedtosupplantscientifictheory.

Happily,however,thereisacriterionofmorphologicaltruth,andasuretestofallhomologies.Ourlobsterhasnotalwaysbeenwhatweseeit;itwasonceanegg,asemifluidmassofyolk,notsobigasapin'shead,containedinatransparentmembrane,andexhibitingnottheleasttraceofanyoneofthoseorgans,whosemultiplicityandcomplexity,in

theadult,aresosurprising.Afteratimeadelicatepatchofcellularmembraneappearedupononefaceofthisyolk,andthatpatchwasthefoundationofthewholecreature,theclayoutofwhichitwouldbemoulded.Graduallyinvestingtheyolk,itbecamesubdividedbytransverseconstrictionsintosegments,theforerunnersoftheringsofthebody.Upontheventralsurfaceofeachoftheringsthussketchedout,apairofbud-likeprominencesmadetheirappearance--therudimentsoftheappendagesofthering.Atfirst,alltheappendageswerealike,but,astheygrew,mostofthembecamedistinguishedintoastemandtwoterminaldivisions,towhich,inthemiddlepartofthebody,wasaddedathirdouterdivision;anditwasonlyatalaterperiod,thatbythemodification,orabortion,ofcertainoftheseprimitiveconstituents,thelimbsacquiredtheirperfectform.

Thusthestudyofdevelopmentprovesthatthedoctrineofunityofplanisnotmerelyafancy,thatitisnotmerelyonewayoflookingatthematter,butthatitistheexpressionofdeep-seatednaturalfacts.Thelegsandjawsofthelobstermaynotmerelyberegardedasmodificationsofacommontype,--infactandinnaturetheyareso,--thelegandthejawoftheyounganimalbeing,atfirst,indistinguishable.

Thesearewonderfultruths,themoresobecausethezoologistfindsthemtobeofuniversalapplication.Theinvestigationofapolype,ofa



snail,ofafish,ofahorse,orofaman,wouldhaveledus,thoughbyalesseasypath,perhaps,toexactlythesamepoint.Unityofplaneverywherelieshiddenunderthemaskofdiversityofstructure--thecomplexiseverywhereevolvedoutofthesimple.Everyanimalhasatfirsttheformofanegg,andeveryanimalandeveryorganicpart,inreachingitsadultstate,passesthroughconditionscommontootheranimalsandotheradultparts;andthisleadsmetoanotherpoint.Ihavehithertospokenasifthelobsterwerealoneintheworld,but,asIneedhardlyremindyou,therearemyriadsofotheranimalorganisms.Ofthese,some,suchasmen,horses,birds,fishes,snails,slugs,oysters,corals,andsponges,arenotintheleastlikethelobster.Butotheranimals,thoughtheymaydifferagooddealfromthelobster,areyeteitherverylikeit,orarelikesomethingthatislikeit.Thecrayfish,therocklobster,andtheprawn,andtheshrimp,forexample,howeverdifferent,areyetsolikelobsters,thatachildwouldgroupthemasofthelobsterkind,incontradistinctiontosnailsandslugs;andtheselastagainwouldformakindbythemselves,incontradistinctiontocows,horses,andsheep,thecattlekind.

Butthisspontaneousgroupinginto"kinds"isthefirstessayofthehumanmindatclassification,orthecallingbyacommonnameofthosethingsthatarealike,andthearrangingtheminsuchamannerasbesttosuggestthesumoftheirlikenessesandunlikenessestootherthings.

Thosekindswhichincludenoothersubdivisionsthanthesexes,orvariousbreeds,arecalled,intechnicallanguage,species.TheEnglishlobsterisaspecies,ourcrayfishisanother,ourprawnisanother.Inothercountries,however,therearelobsters,crayfish,andprawns,verylikeours,andyetpresentingsufficientdifferencestodeservedistinction.Naturalists,therefore,expressthisresemblanceandthisdiversitybygroupingthemasdistinctspeciesofthesame"genus."Butthelobsterandthecrayfish,thoughbelongingtodistinctgenera,havemanyfeaturesincommon,andhencearegroupedtogetherinanassemblagewhichiscalledafamily.Moredistantresemblancesconnectthelobsterwiththeprawnandthecrab,whichareexpressedbyputtingalltheseintothesameorder.Again,moreremote,butstillverydefinite,resemblancesunitethelobsterwiththewoodlouse,thekingcrab,the

water-flea,andthebarnacle,andseparatethemfromallotheranimals;whencetheycollectivelyconstitutethelargergroup,orclass, _Crustacea_.Butthe_Crustacea_exhibitmanypeculiarfeaturesincommonwithinsects,spiders,andcentipedes,sothatthesearegroupedintothestilllargerassemblageor"province"_Articulata_;and,finally,therelationswhichthesehavetowormsandotherloweranimals,areexpressedbycombiningthewholevastaggregateintothesub-kingdomof_Annulosa_.

IfIhadworkedmywayfromaspongeinsteadofalobster,Ishouldhavefounditassociated,byliketies,withagreatnumberofotheranimalsintothesub-kingdom_Protozoa_;ifIhadselectedafresh-waterpolypeoracoral,themembersofwhatnaturaliststermthesub-kingdom

_Cælenterata_wouldhavegroupedthemselvesaroundmytype;hadasnailbeenchosen,theinhabitantsofallunivalveandbivalve,landandwater,shells,thelampshells,thesquids,andthesea-matwouldhavegraduallylinkedthemselvesontoitasmembersofthesamesub-kingdomof_Mollusca_;andfinally,startingfromman,Ishouldhavebeencompelledtoadmitfirst,theape,therat,thehorse,thedog,intothesameclass;andthenthebird,thecrocodile,theturtle,thefrog,andthefish,intothesamesub-kingdomof_Vertebrata_.

AndifIhadfollowedoutallthesevariouslinesofclassification



fully,Ishoulddiscoverintheendthattherewasnoanimal,eitherrecentorfossil,whichdidnotatoncefallintooneorotherofthesesub-kingdoms.Inotherwords,everyanimalisorganizedupononeorotherofthefive,ormore,plans,whoseexistencerendersourclassificationpossible.Andsodefinitelyandpreciselymarkedisthestructureofeachanimal,that,inthepresentstateofourknowledge,thereisnottheleastevidencetoprovethataform,intheslightestdegreetransitionalbetweenanyofthetwogroups_Vertebrata,Annulosa,Mollusca_,and_Cælenterata_,eitherexists,orhasexisted,duringthatperiodoftheearth'shistorywhichisrecordedbythegeologist.Nevertheless,youmustnotforamomentsuppose,becausenosuchtransitionalformsareknown,thatthemembersofthesub-kingdomsaredisconnectedfrom,orindependentof,oneanother.Onthecontrary,intheirearliestconditiontheyareallalike,andtheprimordialgermsofaman,adog,abird,afish,abeetle,asnail,andapolypeare,innoessentialstructuralrespects,distinguishable.

Inthisbroadsense,itmaywithtruthbesaid,thatalllivinganimals,andallthosedeadcreationswhichgeologyreveals,areboundtogetherbyanall-pervadingunityoforganization,ofthesamecharacter,thoughnotequalindegree,tothatwhichenablesustodiscernoneandthesameplanamidstthetwentydifferentsegmentsofalobster'sbody.Trulyithasbeensaid,thattoacleareyethesmallestfactisawindowthroughwhichtheInfinitemaybeseen.

Turningfromthesepurelymorphologicalconsiderations,letusnowexamineintothemannerinwhichtheattentivestudyofthelobsterimpelsusintootherlinesofresearch.

LobstersarefoundinalltheEuropeanseas;butontheoppositeshoresoftheAtlanticandintheseasofthesouthernhemispheretheydonotexist.Theyare,however,representedintheseregionsbyverycloselyallied,butdistinctforms--the_HomarusAmericanus_andthe_HomarusCapensis_:sothatwemaysaythattheEuropeanhasonespeciesof _Homarus_;theAmerican,another;theAfrican,another;andthustheremarkablefactsofgeographicaldistributionbegintodawnuponus.

Again,ifweexaminethecontentsoftheearth'scrust,weshallfindinthelatterofthosedeposits,whichhaveservedasthegreatburyinggroundsofpastages,numberlesslobster-likeanimals,butnonesosimilartoourlivinglobsterastomakezoologistssurethattheybelongedeventothesamegenus.Ifwegostillfurtherbackintime,wediscover,intheoldestrocksofall,theremainsofanimals,constructedonthesamegeneralplanasthelobster,andbelongingtothesamegreatgroupof_Crustacea_;butforthemostparttotallydifferentfromthelobster,andindeedfromanyotherlivingformofcrustacean;andthuswegainanotionofthatsuccessivechangeoftheanimalpopulationoftheglobe,inpastages,whichisthemoststrikingfactrevealedbygeology.

Consider,now,whereourinquirieshaveledus.Westudiedourtypemorphologically,whenwedetermineditsanatomyanditsdevelopment,andwhencomparingit,intheserespects,withotheranimals,wemadeoutitsplaceinasystemofclassification.Ifweweretoexamineeveryanimalinasimilarmanner,weshouldestablishacompletebodyofzoologicalmorphology.

Again,weinvestigatedthedistributionofourtypeinspaceandintime,and,ifthelikehadbeendonewitheveryanimal,thesciencesofgeographicalandgeologicaldistributionwouldhaveattainedtheir



limit.

Butyouwillobserveoneremarkablecircumstance,that,uptothispoint,thequestionofthelifeoftheseorganismshasnotcomeunderconsideration.Morphologyanddistributionmightbestudiedalmostaswell,ifanimalsandplantswereapeculiarkindofcrystals,andpossessednoneofthosefunctionswhichdistinguishlivingbeingssoremarkably.Butthefactsofmorphologyanddistributionhavetobeaccountedfor,andthescience,whoseaimitistoaccountforthem,isPhysiology.

Letusreturntoourlobsteroncemore.Ifwewatchedthecreatureinitsnativeelement,weshouldseeitclimbingactivelythesubmergedrocks,amongwhichitdelightstolive,bymeansofitsstronglegs;orswimmingbypowerfulstrokesofitsgreattail,theappendagesofwhosesixthjointarespreadoutintoabroadfan-likepropeller:seizeit,anditwillshowyouthatitsgreatclawsarenomeanweaponsofoffence;suspendapieceofcarrionamongitshaunts,anditwillgreedilydevourit,tearingandcrushingthefleshbymeansofitsmultitudinousjaws.

Supposethatwehadknownnothingofthelobsterbutasaninertmass,anorganiccrystal,ifImayusethephrase,andthatwecouldsuddenlyseeitexertingallthesepowers,whatwonderfulnewideasandnew

questionswouldariseinourminds!Thegreatnewquestionwouldbe,"Howdoesallthistakeplace?"thechiefnewideawouldbe,theideaofadaptationtopurpose,--thenotion,thattheconstituentsofanimalbodiesarenotmereunconnectedparts,butorgansworkingtogethertoanend.Letusconsiderthetailofthelobsteragainfromthispointofview.Morphologyhastaughtusthatitisaseriesofsegmentscomposedofhomologousparts,whichundergovariousmodifications--beneathandthroughwhichacommonplanofformationisdiscernible.ButifIlookatthesamepartphysiologically,Iseethatitisamostbeautifullyconstructedorganoflocomotion,bymeansofwhichtheanimalcanswiftlypropelitselfeitherbackwardsorforwards.

Buthowisthisremarkablepropulsivemachinemadetoperformits

functions?IfIweresuddenlytokilloneoftheseanimalsandtotakeoutallthesoftparts,Ishouldfindtheshelltobeperfectlyinert,tohavenomorepowerofmovingitselfthanispossessedbythemachineryofamill,whendisconnectedfromitssteam-engineorwater-wheel.ButifIweretoopenit,andtakeoutthevisceraonly,leavingthewhiteflesh,Ishouldperceivethatthelobstercouldbendandextenditstailaswellasbefore.IfIweretocutoffthetail,Ishouldceasetofindanyspontaneousmotioninit;butonpinchinganyportionoftheflesh,Ishouldobservethatitunderwentaverycuriouschange--eachfibrebecomingshorterandthicker.Bythisactofcontraction,asitistermed,thepartstowhichtheendsofthefibreareattachedare,ofcourse,approximated;andaccordingtotherelationsoftheirpointsofattachmenttothecentresofmotionofthe

differentrings,thebendingortheextensionofthetailresults.Closeobservationofthenewlyopenedlobsterwouldsoonshowthatallitsmovementsareduetothesamecause--theshorteningandthickeningofthesefleshyfibres,whicharetechnicallycalledmuscles.

Here,then,isacapitalfact.Themovementsofthelobsterareduetomuscularcontractility.Butwhydoesamusclecontractatonetimeandnotatanother?Whydoesonewholegroupofmusclescontractwhenthelobsterwishestoextendhistail,andanothergroup,whenhedesirestobendit?Whatisitoriginates,directs,andcontrolsthemotivepower?



Experiment,thegreatinstrumentfortheascertainmentoftruthinphysicalscience,answersthisquestionforus.Intheheadofthelobsterthereliesasmallmassofthatpeculiartissuewhichisknownasnervoussubstance.Cordsofsimilarmatterconnectthisbrainofthelobster,directlyorindirectly,withthemuscles.Now,ifthesecommunicatingcordsarecut,thebrainremainingentire,thepowerofexertingwhatwecallvoluntarymotioninthepartsbelowthesectionisdestroyed;andontheotherhand,if,thecordsremainingentire,thebrainmassbedestroyed,thesamevoluntarymobilityisequallylost.Whencetheinevitableconclusionis,thatthepoweroforiginatingthesemotionsresidesinthebrain,andispropagatedalongthenervouscords.

Inthehigheranimalsthephænomenawhichattendthistransmissionhavebeeninvestigated,andtheexertionofthepeculiarenergywhichresidesinthenerveshasbeenfoundtobeaccompaniedbyadisturbanceoftheelectricalstateoftheirmolecules.

Ifwecouldexactlyestimatethesignificationofthisdisturbance;ifwecouldobtainthevalueofagivenexertionofnerveforcebydeterminingthequantityofelectricity,orofheat,ofwhichitistheequivalent;ifwecouldascertainuponwhatarrangement,orotherconditionofthemoleculesofmatter,themanifestationofthenervousandmuscularenergiesdepends,(anddoubtlesssciencewillsomedayor

otherascertainthesepoints,)physiologistswouldhaveattainedtheirultimategoalinthisdirection;theywouldhavedeterminedtherelationofthemotiveforceofanimalstotheotherformsofforcefoundinnature;andifthesameprocesshadbeensuccessfullyperformedforalltheoperationswhicharecarriedonin,andby,theanimalframe,physiologywouldbeperfect,andthefactsofmorphologyanddistributionwouldbededuciblefromthelawswhichphysiologistshadestablished,combinedwiththosedeterminingtheconditionofthesurroundinguniverse.

Thereisnotafragmentoftheorganismofthishumbleanimal,whosestudywouldnotleadusintoregionsofthoughtaslargeasthosewhichIhavebrieflyopeneduptoyou;butwhatIhavebeensaying,Itrust,

hasnotonlyenabledyoutoformaconceptionofthescopeandpurportofzoology,buthasgivenyouanimperfectexampleofthemannerinwhich,inmyopinion,thatscience,orindeedanyphysicalscience,maybebesttaught.Thegreatmatteris,tomaketeachingrealandpractical,byfixingtheattentionofthestudentonparticularfacts;butatthesametimeitshouldberenderedbroadandcomprehensive,byconstantreferencetothegeneralizationsofwhichallparticularfactsareillustrations.Thelobsterhasservedasatypeofthewholeanimalkingdom,anditsanatomyandphysiologyhaveillustratedforussomeofthegreatesttruthsofbiology.ThestudentwhohasonceseenforhimselfthefactswhichIhavedescribed,hashadtheirrelationsexplainedtohim,andhasclearlycomprehendedthem,has,sofar,aknowledgeofzoology,whichisrealandgenuine,howeverlimiteditmay

be,andwhichisworthmorethanallthemerereadingknowledgeofthesciencehecouldeveracquire.Hiszoologicalinformationis,sofar,knowledgeandnotmerehearsay.

Andifitweremybusinesstofityouforthecertificateinzoologicalsciencegrantedbythisdepartment,IshouldpursueacoursepreciselysimilarinprincipletothatwhichIhavetakento-night.Ishouldselectafresh-watersponge,afresh-waterpolypeora_Cyanæa_,afresh-watermussel,alobster,afowl,astypesofthefiveprimarydivisionsoftheanimalkingdom.Ishouldexplaintheirstructurevery



fully,andshowhoweachillustratedthegreatprinciplesofzoology.Havinggoneverycarefullyandfullyoverthisground,Ishouldfeelthatyouhadasafefoundation,andIshouldthentakeyouinthesameway,butlessminutely,oversimilarlyselectedillustrativetypesoftheclasses;andthenIshoulddirectyourattentiontothespecialformsenumeratedundertheheadoftypes,inthissyllabus,andtotheotherfactstherementioned.

Thatwould,speakinggenerally,bemyplan.ButIhaveundertakentoexplaintoyouthebestmodeofacquiringandcommunicatingaknowledgeofzoology,andyoumaythereforefairlyaskmeforamoredetailedandpreciseaccountofthemannerinwhichIshouldproposetofurnishyouwiththeinformationIreferto.

Myownimpressionis,thatthebestmodelforallkindsoftraininginphysicalscienceisthataffordedbythemethodofteachinganatomy,inuseinthemedicalschools.Thismethodconsistsofthreeelements--lectures,demonstrations,andexaminations.

Theobjectoflecturesis,inthefirstplace,toawakentheattentionandexcitetheenthusiasmofthestudent;andthis,Iamsure,maybeeffectedtoafargreaterextentbytheoraldiscourseandbythepersonalinfluenceofarespectedteacherthaninanyotherway.Secondly,lectureshavethedoubleuseofguidingthestudenttothe

salientpointsofasubject,andatthesametimeforcinghimtoattendtothewholeofit,andnotmerelytothatpartwhichtakeshisfancy.Andlastly,lecturesaffordthestudenttheopportunityofseekingexplanationsofthosedifficultieswhichwill;andindeedoughtto,ariseinthecourseofhisstudies.

Butforastudenttoderivetheutmostpossiblevaluefromlectures,severalprecautionsareneedful.

Ihaveastrongimpressionthatthebetteradiscourseis,asanoration,theworseitisasalecture.Theflowofthediscoursecarriesyouonwithoutproperattentiontoitssense;youdropawordoraphrase,youlosetheexactmeaningforamoment,andwhileyoustriveto

recoveryourself,thespeakerhaspassedontosomethingelse.

ThepracticeIhaveadoptedoflateyears,inlecturingtostudents,istocondensethesubstanceofthehour'sdiscourseintoafewdrypropositions,whicharereadslowlyandtakendownfromdictation;thereadingofeachbeingfollowedbyafreecommentary,expandingandillustratingtheproposition,explainingterms,andremovinganydifficultiesthatmaybeattackableinthatway,bydiagramsmaderoughly,andseentogrowunderthelecturer'shand.Inthismanneryou,atanyrate,insuretheco-operationofthestudenttoacertainextent.Hecannotleavethelecture-roomentirelyemptyifthetakingofnotesisenforced;andastudentmustbepreternaturallydullandmechanical,ifhecantakenotesandhearthemproperlyexplained,andyetlearn

nothing.

WhatbooksshallIread?isaquestionconstantlyputbythestudenttotheteacher.Myreplyusuallyis,"None:writeyournotesoutcarefullyandfully;strivetounderstandthemthoroughly;cometomefortheexplanationofanythingyoucannotunderstand;andIwouldratheryoudidnotdistractyourmindbyreading."Aproperlycomposedcourseoflecturesoughttocontainfullyasmuchmatterasastudentcanassimilateinthetimeoccupiedbyitsdelivery;andtheteachershouldalwaysrecollectthathisbusinessistofeed,andnottocramthe



intellect.Indeed,Ibelievethatastudentwhogainsfromacourseoflecturesthesimplehabitofconcentratinghisattentionuponadefinitelylimitedseriesoffacts,untiltheyarethoroughlymastered,hasmadeastepofimmeasurableimportance.

But,howevergoodlecturesmaybe,andhoweverextensivethecourseofreadingbywhichtheyarefollowedup,theyarebutaccessoriestothegreatinstrumentofscientificteaching--demonstration.IfIinsistunweariedly,nayfanatically,upontheimportanceofphysicalscienceasaneducationalagent,itisbecausethestudyofanybranchofscience,ifproperlyconducted,appearstometofillupavoidleftbyallothermeansofeducation.Ihavethegreatestrespectandloveforliterature;nothingwouldgrievememorethantoseeliterarytrainingotherthanaveryprominentbranchofeducation:indeed,Iwishthatrealliterarydisciplinewerefarmoreattendedtothanitis;butIcannotshutmyeyestothefact,thatthereisavastdifferencebetweenmenwhohavehadapurelyliterary,andthosewhohavehadasoundscientific,training.

Seekingforthecauseofthisdifference,IimagineIcanfinditinthefact,that,intheworldofletters,learningandknowledgeareone,andbooksarethesourceofboth;whereasinscience,asinlife,learningandknowledgearedistinct,andthestudyofthings,andnotofbooks,isthesourceofthelatter.

Allthatliteraturehastobestowmaybeobtainedbyreadingandbypracticalexerciseinwriting,andinspeaking;butIdonotexaggeratewhenIsay,thatnoneofthebestgiftsofsciencearetobewonbythesemeans.Onthecontrary,thegreatbenefitwhichascientificeducationbestows,whetherastrainingorasknowledge,isdependentupontheextenttowhichthemindofthestudentisbroughtintoimmediatecontactwithfacts--uponthedegreetowhichhelearnsthehabitofappealingdirectlytoNature,andofacquiringthroughhissensesconcreteimagesofthosepropertiesofthings,whichare,andalwayswillbe,butapproximativelyexpressedinhumanlanguage.OurwayoflookingatNature,andofspeakingabouther,variesfromyeartoyear;butafactonceseen,arelationofcauseandeffect,once

demonstrativelyapprehended,arepossessionswhichneitherchangenorpassaway,but,onthecontrary,formfixedcentres,aboutwhichothertruthsaggregatebynaturalaffinity.

Therefore,thegreatbusinessofthescientificteacheris,toimprintthefundamental,irrefragablefactsofhisscience,notonlybywordsuponthemind,butbysensibleimpressionsupontheeye,andear,andtouchofthestudent,insocompleteamanner,thateverytermused,orlawenunciated,shouldafterwardscallupvividimagesoftheparticularstructural,orother,factswhichfurnishedthedemonstrationofthelaw,ortheillustrationoftheterm.

Nowthisimportantoperationcanonlybeachievedbyconstant

demonstration,whichmaytakeplacetoacertainimperfectextentduringalecture,butwhichoughtalsotobecarriedonindependently,andwhichshouldbeaddressedtoeachindividualstudent,theteacherendeavouring,notsomuchtoshowathingtothelearner,astomakehimseeitforhimself.

Iamwellawarethattherearegreatpracticaldifficultiesinthewayofeffectualzoologicaldemonstrations.Thedissectionofanimalsisnotaltogetherpleasant,andrequiresmuchtime;norisiteasytosecureanadequatesupplyoftheneedfulspecimens.Thebotanisthas



science,whichinfeststhemindsofthemosthighlyeducatedandintelligentclassesofthecommunity.ButifIdidnotfeelwellassuredthattheyarecapableofbeingeasilyandsatisfactorilyanswered;thattheyhavebeenansweredoverandoveragain;andthatthetimewillcomewhenmenofliberaleducationwillblushtoraisesuchquestions,--Ishouldbeashamedofmypositionhereto-night.Withoutdoubt,itisyourgreatandveryimportantfunctiontocarryoutelementaryeducation;withoutquestion,anythingthatshouldinterferewiththefaithfulfulfilmentofthatdutyonyourpartwouldbeagreatevil;andifIthoughtthatyouracquirementoftheelementsofphysicalscience,andyourcommunicationofthoseelementstoyourpupils,involvedanysortofinterferencewithyourproperduties,Ishouldbethefirstpersontoprotestagainstyourbeingencouragedtodoanythingofthekind.

Butisittruethattheacquisitionofsuchaknowledgeofscienceasisproposed,andthecommunicationofthatknowledge,arecalculatedtoweakenyourusefulness?OrmayInotratherask,isitpossibleforyoutodischargeyourfunctionsproperlywithouttheseaids?

Whatisthepurposeofprimaryintellectualeducation?Iapprehendthatitsfirstobjectistotraintheyoungintheuseofthosetoolswherewithmenextractknowledgefromtheever-shiftingsuccessionofphenomenawhichpassbeforetheireyes;andthatitssecondobjectisto

informthemofthefundamentallawswhichhavebeenfoundbyexperiencetogovernthecourseofthings,sothattheymaynotbeturnedoutintotheworldnaked,defenceless,andapreytotheeventstheymightcontrol.

Aboyistaughttoreadhisownandotherlanguages,inorderthathemayhaveaccesstoinfinitelywiderstoresofknowledgethancouldeverbeopenedtohimbyoralintercoursewithhisfellowmen;helearnstowrite,thathismeansofcommunicationwiththerestofmankindmaybeindefinitelyenlarged,andthathemayrecordandstoreuptheknowledgeheacquires.Heistaughtelementarymathematics,thathemayunderstandallthoserelationsofnumberandform,uponwhichthetransactionsofmen,associatedincomplicatedsocieties,arebuilt,andthathemay

havesomepracticeindeductivereasoning.

Alltheseoperationsofreading,writing,andciphering,areintellectualtools,whoseuseshould,beforeallthings,belearned,andlearnedthoroughly;sothattheyouthmaybeenabledtomakehislifethatwhichitoughttobe,acontinualprogressinlearningandinwisdom.

But,inaddition,primaryeducationendeavourstofitaboyoutwithacertainequipmentofpositiveknowledge.Heistaughtthegreatlawsofmorality;thereligionofhissect;somuchhistoryandgeographyaswilltellhimwherethegreatcountriesoftheworldare,whattheyare,andhowtheyhavebecomewhattheyare.

Withoutdoubtallthesearemostfittingandexcellentthingstoteachaboy;Ishouldbeverysorrytoomitanyofthemfromanyschemeofprimaryintellectualeducation.Thesystemisexcellent,sofarasitgoes.

ButifIregarditclosely,acuriousreflectionarises.Isupposethat,fifteenhundredyearsago,thechildofanywell-to-doRomancitizenwastaughtjustthesesamethings;readingandwritinginhisown,and,perhaps,theGreektongue;theelementsofmathematics;andthe



religion,morality,history,andgeographycurrentinhistime.Furthermore,IdonotthinkIerrinaffirming,that,ifsuchaChristianRomanboy,whohadfinishedhiseducation,couldbetransplantedintooneofourpublicschools,andpassthroughitscourseofinstruction,hewouldnotmeetwithasingleunfamiliarlineofthought;amidstallthenewfactshewouldhavetolearn,notonewouldsuggestadifferentmodeofregardingtheuniversefromthatcurrentinhisowntime.

Andyetsurelythereissomegreatdifferencebetweenthecivilizationofthefourthcenturyandthatofthenineteenth,andstillmorebetweentheintellectualhabitsandtoneofthoughtofthatdayandthis?

Andwhathasmadethisdifference?Ianswerfearlessly,--Theprodigiousdevelopmentofphysicalsciencewithinthelasttwocenturies.

Moderncivilizationrestsuponphysicalscience;takeawayhergiftstoourowncountry,andourpositionamongtheleadingnationsoftheworldisgoneto-morrow;foritisphysicalscienceonly,thatmakesintelligenceandmoralenergystrongerthanbruteforce.

Thewholeofmodernthoughtissteepedinscience;ithasmadeitswayintotheworksofourbestpoets,andeventhemeremanofletters,whoaffectstoignoreanddespisescience,isunconsciouslyimpregnatedwith

herspirit,andindebtedforhisbestproductstohermethods.Ibelievethatthegreatestintellectualrevolutionmankindhasyetseenisnowslowlytakingplacebyheragency.Sheisteachingtheworldthattheultimatecourtofappealisobservationandexperiment,andnotauthority;sheisteachingittoestimatethevalueofevidence;sheiscreatingafirmandlivingfaithintheexistenceofimmutablemoralandphysicallaws,perfectobediencetowhichisthehighestpossibleaimofanintelligentbeing.

Butofallthisyouroldstereotypedsystemofeducationtakesnonote.Physicalscience,itsmethods,itsproblems,anditsdifficulties,willmeetthepoorestboyateveryturn,andyetweeducatehiminsuchamannerthatheshallentertheworldasignorantoftheexistenceofthe

methodsandfactsofscienceasthedayhewasborn.Themodernworldisfullofartillery;andweturnoutourchildrentodobattleinit,equippedwiththeshieldandswordofanancientgladiator.

Posteritywillcryshameonusifwedonotremedythisdeplorablestateofthings.Nay,ifwelivetwentyyearslonger,ourownconscienceswillcryshameonus.

Itismyfirmconvictionthattheonlywaytoremedyitis,tomaketheelementsofphysicalscienceanintegralpartofprimaryeducation.Ihaveendeavouredtoshowyouhowthatmaybedoneforthatbranchofsciencewhichitismybusinesstopursue;andIcanbutadd,thatIshouldlookuponthedaywheneveryschoolmasterthroughoutthisland

wasacentreofgenuine,howeverrudimentary,scientificknowledge,asanepochinthehistoryofthecountry.

Butletmeentreatyoutoremembermylastwords.Addressingmyselftoyou,asteachers,Iwouldsay,merebooklearninginphysicalscienceisashamandadelusion--whatyouteach,unlessyouwishtobeimpostors,thatyoumustfirstknow;andrealknowledgeinsciencemeanspersonalacquaintancewiththefacts,betheyfewormany.[9]

FOOTNOTE:



stoutestshipthateverleftdockyardwouldfounderhopelessly;andcontrasthimwiththeinvisibleanimalcules--meregelatinousspecks,multitudesofwhichcould,infact,danceuponthepointofaneedlewiththesameeaseastheangelsoftheSchoolmencould,inimagination.Withtheseimagesbeforeyourminds,youmaywellask,whatcommunityofform,orstructure,istherebetweentheanimalculeandthewhale;orbetweenthefungusandthefig-tree?And,_àfortiori_,betweenallfour?

Finally,ifweregardsubstance,ormaterialcomposition,whathiddenbondcanconnecttheflowerwhichagirlwearsinherhairandthebloodwhichcoursesthroughheryouthfulveins;or,whatisthereincommonbetweenthedenseandresistingmassoftheoak,orthestrongfabricofthetortoise,andthosebroaddisksofglassyjellywhichmaybeseenpulsatingthroughthewatersofacalmsea,butwhichdrainawaytomerefilmsinthehandwhichraisesthemoutoftheirelement?

Suchobjectionsasthesemust,Ithink,ariseinthemindofeveryonewhoponders,forthefirsttime,upontheconceptionofasinglephysicalbasisoflifeunderlyingallthediversitiesofvitalexistence;butIproposetodemonstratetoyouthat,notwithstandingtheseapparentdifficulties,athreefoldunity--namely,aunityofpower,orfaculty,aunityofform,andaunityofsubstantialcomposition--doespervadethewholelivingworld.

Noveryabstruseargumentationisneeded,inthefirstplace,toprovethatthepowers,orfaculties,ofallkindsoflivingmatter,diverseastheymaybeindegree,aresubstantiallysimilarinkind.

Goethehascondensedasurveyofallthepowersofmankindintothewell-knownepigram:--

"WarumtreibtsichdasVolksoundschreit?EswillsichernährenKinderzeugen,unddienährensogutesvermag.

*****

WeiterbringteskeinMensch,stell'ersichwieerauchwill."

Inphysiologicallanguagethismeans,thatallthemultifariousandcomplicatedactivitiesofmanarecomprehensibleunderthreecategories.Eithertheyareimmediatelydirectedtowardsthemaintenanceanddevelopmentofthebody,ortheyeffecttransitorychangesintherelativepositionsofpartsofthebody,ortheytendtowardsthecontinuanceofthespecies.Eventhosemanifestationsofintellect,offeeling,andofwill,whichwerightlynamethehigherfaculties,arenotexcludedfromthisclassification,inasmuchastoeveryonebutthesubjectofthem,theyareknownonlyastransitorychangesintherelativepositionsofpartsofthebody.Speech,gesture,andevery

otherformofhumanactionare,inthelongrun,resolvableintomuscularcontraction,andmuscularcontractionisbutatransitorychangeintherelativepositionsofthepartsofamuscle.Buttheschemewhichislargeenoughtoembracetheactivitiesofthehighestformoflife,coversallthoseofthelowercreatures.Thelowestplant,oranimalcule,feeds,grows,andreproducesitskind.Inaddition,allanimalsmanifestthosetransitorychangesofformwhichweclassunderirritabilityandcontractility;and,itismorethanprobable,thatwhenthevegetableworldisthoroughlyexplored,weshallfindallplantsinpossessionofthesamepowers,atonetimeorotheroftheirexistence.



Iamnotnowalludingtosuchphænomena,atoncerareandconspicuous,asthoseexhibitedbytheleafletsofthesensitiveplant,orthestamensofthebarberry,buttomuchmorewidely-spread,and,atthesametime,moresubtleandhidden,manifestationsofvegetablecontractility.Youaredoubtlessawarethatthecommonnettleowesitsstingingpropertytotheinnumerablestiffandneedle-like,thoughexquisitelydelicate,hairswhichcoveritssurface.Eachstinging-needletapersfromabroadbasetoaslendersummit,which,thoughroundedattheend,isofsuchmicroscopicfinenessthatitreadilypenetrates,andbreaksoffin,theskin.Thewholehairconsistsofaverydelicateoutercaseofwood,closelyappliedtotheinnersurfaceofwhichisalayerofsemifluidmatter,fullofinnumerablegranulesofextrememinuteness.Thissemi-fluidliningisprotoplasm,whichthusconstitutesakindofbag,fullofalimpidliquid,androughlycorrespondinginformwiththeinteriorofthehairwhichitfills.Whenviewedwithasufficientlyhighmagnifyingpower,theprotoplasmiclayerofthenettlehairisseentobeinaconditionofunceasingactivity.Localcontractionsofthewholethicknessofitssubstancepassslowlyandgraduallyfrompointtopoint,andgiverisetotheappearanceofprogressivewaves,justasthebendingofsuccessivestalksofcornbyabreezeproducestheapparentbillowsofacorn-field.

But,inadditiontothesemovements,andindependentlyofthem,thegranulesaredriven,inrelativelyrapidstreams,throughchannelsintheprotoplasmwhichseemtohaveaconsiderableamountofpersistence.Mostcommonly,thecurrentsinadjacentpartsoftheprotoplasmtakesimilardirections;and,thus,thereisageneralstreamuponesideofthehairanddowntheother.Butthisdoesnotpreventtheexistenceofpartialcurrentswhichtakedifferentroutes;and,sometimes,trainsofgranulesmaybeseencoursingswiftlyinoppositedirections,withinatwenty-thousandthofaninchofoneanother;while,occasionally,oppositestreamscomeintodirectcollision,and,afteralongerorshorterstruggle,onepredominates.Thecauseofthesecurrentsseemstolieincontractionsoftheprotoplasmwhichboundsthechannelsinwhichtheyflow,butwhicharesominutethatthebestmicroscopesshow

onlytheireffects,andnotthemselves.

Thespectacleaffordedbythewonderfulenergiesprisonedwithinthecompassofthemicroscopichairofaplant,whichwecommonlyregardasamerelypassiveorganism,isnoteasilyforgottenbyonewhohaswatcheditsdisplay,continuedhourafterhour,withoutpauseorsignofweakening.Thepossiblecomplexityofmanyotherorganicforms,seeminglyassimpleastheprotoplasmofthenettle,dawnsuponone;andthecomparisonofsuchaprotoplasmtoabodywithaninternalcirculation,whichhasbeenputforwardbyaneminentphysiologist,losesmuchofitsstartlingcharacter.Currentssimilartothoseofthehairsofthenettlehavebeenobservedinagreatmultitudeofverydifferentplants,andweightyauthoritieshavesuggestedthatthey

probablyoccur,inmoreorlessperfection,inallyoungvegetablecells.Ifsuchbethecase,thewonderfulnoondaysilenceofatropicalforestis,afterall,dueonlytothedulnessofourhearing;andcouldourearscatchthemurmurofthesetinyMaelstroms,astheywhirlintheinnumerablemyriadsoflivingcellswhichconstituteeachtree,weshouldbestunned,aswiththeroarofagreatcity.

Amongthelowerplants,itistheruleratherthantheexception,thatcontractilityshouldbestillmoreopenlymanifestedatsomeperiodsoftheirexistence.Theprotoplasmof_Algæ_and_Fungi_becomes,under



manycircumstances,partially,orcompletely,freedfromitswoodycase,andexhibitsmovementsofitswholemass,orispropelledbythecontractilityofone,ormore,hair-likeprolongationsofitsbody,whicharecalledvibratilecilia.And,sofarastheconditionsofthemanifestationofthephænomenaofcontractilityhaveyetbeenstudied,theyarethesamefortheplantasfortheanimal.Heatandelectricshocksinfluenceboth,andinthesameway,thoughitmaybeindifferentdegrees.Itisbynomeansmyintentiontosuggestthatthereisnodifferenceinfacultybetweenthelowestplantandthehighest,orbetweenplantsandanimals.Butthedifferencebetweenthepowersofthelowestplant,oranimal,andthoseofthehighest,isoneofdegree,notofkind,anddepends,asMilne-Edwardslongagosowellpointedout,upontheextenttowhichtheprincipleofthedivisionoflabouriscarriedoutinthelivingeconomy.Inthelowestorganismallpartsarecompetenttoperformallfunctions,andoneandthesameportionofprotoplasmmaysuccessivelytakeonthefunctionoffeeding,moving,orreproducingapparatus.Inthehighest,onthecontrary,agreatnumberofpartscombinetoperformeachfunction,eachpartdoingitsallottedshareoftheworkwithgreataccuracyandefficiency,butbeinguselessforanyotherpurpose.

Ontheotherhand,notwithstandingallthefundamentalresemblanceswhichexistbetweenthepowersoftheprotoplasminplantsandinanimals,theypresentastrikingdifference(towhichIshalladvert

moreatlengthpresently),inthefactthatplantscanmanufacturefreshprotoplasmoutofmineralcompounds,whereasanimalsareobligedtoprocureitreadymade,andhence,inthelongrun,dependuponplants.Uponwhatconditionthisdifferenceinthepowersofthetwogreatdivisionsoftheworldoflifedepends,nothingisatpresentknown.

Withsuchqualificationasarisesoutofthelast-mentionedfact,itmaybetrulysaidthattheactsofalllivingthingsarefundamentallyone.Isanysuchunitypredicableoftheirforms?Letusseekineasilyverifiedfactsforareplytothisquestion.Ifadropofbloodbedrawnbyprickingone'sfinger,andviewedwithproperprecautionsandunderasufficientlyhighmicroscopicpower,therewillbeseen,amongtheinnumerablemultitudeoflittle,circular,discoidalbodies,or

corpuscles,whichfloatinitandgiveititscolour,acomparativelysmallnumberofcolourlesscorpuscles,ofsomewhatlargersizeandveryirregularshape.Ifthedropofbloodbekeptatthetemperatureofthebody,thesecolourlesscorpuscleswillbeseentoexhibitamarvellousactivity,changingtheirformswithgreatrapidity,drawinginandthrustingoutprolongationsoftheirsubstance,andcreepingaboutasiftheywereindependentorganisms.

Thesubstancewhichisthusactiveisamassofprotoplasm,anditsactivitydiffersindetail,ratherthaninprinciple,fromthatoftheprotoplasmofthenettle.Undersundrycircumstancesthecorpusclediesandbecomesdistendedintoaroundmass,inthemidstofwhichisseenasmallersphericalbody,whichexisted,butwasmoreorlesshidden,in

thelivingcorpuscle,andiscalledits_nucleus_.Corpusclesofessentiallysimilarstructurearetobefoundintheskin,intheliningofthemouth,andscatteredthroughthewholeframeworkofthebody.Nay,more;intheearliestconditionofthehumanorganism,inthatstateinwhichithasbutjustbecomedistinguishablefromtheegginwhichitarises,itisnothingbutanaggregationofsuchcorpuscles,andeveryorganofthebodywas,once,nomorethansuchanaggregation.

Thusanucleatedmassofprotoplasmturnsouttobewhatmaybetermedthestructuralunitofthehumanbody.Asamatteroffact,thebody,in



itsearlieststate,isameremultipleofsuchunits;and,initsperfectcondition,itisamultipleofsuchunits,variouslymodified.

Butdoestheformulawhichexpressestheessentialstructuralcharacterofthehighestanimalcoveralltherest,asthestatementofitspowersandfacultiescoveredthatofallothers?Verynearly.Beastandfowl,reptileandfish,mollusk,worm,andpolype,areallcomposedofstructuralunitsofthesamecharacter,namely,massesofprotoplasmwithanucleus.Therearesundryverylowanimals,eachofwhich,structurally,isamerecolourlessblood-corpuscle,leadinganindependentlife.But,attheverybottomoftheanimalscale,eventhissimplicitybecomessimplified,andallthephænomenaoflifearemanifestedbyaparticleofprotoplasmwithoutanucleus.Noraresuchorganismsinsignificantbyreasonoftheirwantofcomplexity.Itisafairquestionwhethertheprotoplasmofthosesimplestformsoflife,whichpeopleanimmenseextentofthebottomofthesea,wouldnotoutweighthatofallthehigherlivingbeingswhichinhabitthelandputtogether.Andinancienttimes,nolessthanatthepresentday,suchlivingbeingsasthesehavebeenthegreatestofrockbuilders.

Whathasbeensaidoftheanimalworldisnolesstrueofplants.Imbeddedintheprotoplasmatthebroad,orattached,endofthenettlehair,thereliesaspheroidalnucleus.Carefulexaminationfurtherprovesthatthewholesubstanceofthenettleismadeupofarepetition

ofsuchmassesofnucleatedprotoplasm,eachcontainedinawoodencase,whichismodifiedinform,sometimesintoawoodyfibre,sometimesintoaductorspiralvessel,sometimesintoapollengrain,oranovule.Tracedbacktoitsearlieststate,thenettlearisesasthemandoes,inaparticleofnucleatedprotoplasm.Andinthelowestplants,asinthelowestanimals,asinglemassofsuchprotoplasmmayconstitutethewholeplant,ortheprotoplasmmayexistwithoutanucleus.

Underthesecircumstancesitmaywellbeasked,howisonemassofnon-nucleatedprotoplasmtobedistinguishedfromanother?whycallone"plant"andtheother"animal"?

Theonlyreplyisthat,sofarasformisconcerned,plantsandanimals

arenotseparable,andthat,inmanycases,itisamerematterofconventionwhetherwecallagivenorganismananimaloraplant.Thereisalivingbodycalled_Æthaliumsepticum_,whichappearsupondecayingvegetablesubstances,and,inoneofitsforms,iscommonuponthesurfacesoftan-pits.Inthisconditionitis,toallintentsandpurposes,afungus,andformerlywasalwaysregardedassuch;buttheremarkableinvestigationsofDeBaryhaveshownthat,inanothercondition,the_Æthalium_isanactivelylocomotivecreature,andtakesinsolidmatters,uponwhich,apparently,itfeeds,thusexhibitingthemostcharacteristicfeatureofanimality.Isthisaplant;orisitananimal?Isitboth;orisitneither?Somedecideinfavourofthelastsupposition,andestablishanintermediatekingdom,asortofbiologicalNoMan'sLandforallthesequestionableforms.But,asitisadmittedly

impossibletodrawanydistinctboundarylinebetweenthisnoman'slandandthevegetableworldontheonehand,ortheanimal,ontheother,itappearstomethatthisproceedingmerelydoublesthedifficultywhich,before,wassingle.

Protoplasm,simpleornucleated,istheformalbasisofalllife.Itistheclayofthepotter:which,bakeitandpaintitashewill,remainsclay,separatedbyartifice,andnotbynature,fromthecommonestbrickorsun-driedclod.



Thusitbecomesclearthatalllivingpowersarecognate,andthatalllivingformsarefundamentallyofonecharacter.Theresearchesofthechemisthaverevealedanolessstrikinguniformityofmaterialcompositioninlivingmatter.

Inperfectstrictness,itistruethatchemicalinvestigationcantelluslittleornothing,directly,ofthecompositionoflivingmatter,inasmuchassuchmattermustneedsdieintheactofanalysis,--anduponthisveryobviousground,objections,whichIconfessseemtometobesomewhatfrivolous,havebeenraisedtothedrawingofanyconclusionswhateverrespectingthecompositionofactuallylivingmatter,fromthatofthedeadmatteroflife,whichaloneisaccessibletous.Butobjectorsofthisclassdonotseemtoreflectthatitisalso,instrictness,truethatweknownothingaboutthecompositionofanybodywhatever,asitis.Thestatementthatacrystalofcalc-sparconsistsofcarbonateoflime,isquitetrue,ifweonlymeanthat,byappropriateprocesses,itmayberesolvedintocarbonicacidandquicklime.Ifyoupassthesamecarbonicacidovertheveryquicklimethusobtained,youwillobtaincarbonateoflimeagain;butitwillnotbecalc-spar,noranythinglikeit.Canit,therefore,besaidthatchemicalanalysisteachesnothingaboutthechemicalcompositionofcalc-spar?Suchastatementwouldbeabsurd;butitishardlymoresothanthetalkoneoccasionallyhearsabouttheuselessnessofapplyingtheresultsofchemicalanalysistothelivingbodieswhichhaveyielded

them.Onefact,atanyrate,isoutofreachofsuchrefinements,andthisis,thatalltheformsofprotoplasmwhichhaveyetbeenexaminedcontainthefourelements,carbon,hydrogen,oxygen,andnitrogen,inverycomplexunion,andthattheybehavesimilarlytowardsseveralreagents.Tothiscomplexcombination,thenatureofwhichhasneverbeendeterminedwithexactness,thenameofProteinhasbeenapplied.Andifweusethistermwithsuchcautionasmayproperlyariseoutofourcomparativeignoranceofthethingsforwhichitstands,itmaybetrulysaid,thatallprotoplasmisproteinaceous;or,asthewhite,oralbumen,ofaneggisoneofthecommonestexamplesofanearlypureproteinmatter,wemaysaythatalllivingmatterismoreorless

albuminoid.

Perhapsitwouldnotyetbesafetosaythatallformsofprotoplasmareaffectedbythedirectactionofelectricshocks;andyetthenumberofcasesinwhichthecontractionofprotoplasmisshowntobeeffectedbythisagencyincreaseseveryday.

Norcanitbeaffirmedwithperfectconfidence,thatallformsofprotoplasmareliabletoundergothatpeculiarcoagulationatatemperatureof40°--50°centigrade,whichhasbeencalled"heat-stiffening,"thoughKühne'sbeautifulresearcheshaveprovedthisoccurrencetotakeplaceinsomanyandsuchdiverselivingbeings,thatitishardlyrashtoexpectthatthelawholdsgoodforall.

Enoughhas,perhaps,beensaidtoprovetheexistenceofageneraluniformityinthecharacteroftheprotoplasm,orphysicalbasis,oflife,inwhatevergroupoflivingbeingsitmaybestudied.Butitwillbeunderstoodthatthisgeneraluniformitybynomeansexcludesanyamountofspecialmodificationsofthefundamentalsubstance.Themineral,carbonateoflime,assumesanimmensediversityofcharacters,thoughnoonedoubtsthat,underalltheseProteanchanges,itisoneandthesamething.



incompetenttoresumeitsoldfunctionsasmatteroflife.Asingularinwardlaboratory,whichIpossess,willdissolveacertainportionofthemodifiedprotoplasm;thesolutionsoformedwillpassintomyveins;andthesubtleinfluencestowhichitwillthenbesubjectedwillconvertthedeadprotoplasmintolivingprotoplasm,andtransubstantiatesheepintoman.

Noristhisall.Ifdigestionwereathingtobetrifledwith,Imightsupuponlobster,andthematteroflifeofthecrustaceanwouldundergothesamewonderfulmetamorphosisintohumanity.AndwereItoreturntomyownplacebysea,andundergoshipwreck,thecrustaceamight,andprobablywould,returnthecompliment,anddemonstrateourcommonnaturebyturningmyprotoplasmintolivinglobster.Or,ifnothingbetterweretobehad,Imightsupplymywantswithmerebread,andIshouldfindtheprotoplasmofthewheat-planttobeconvertibleintoman,withnomoretroublethanthatofthesheep,andwithfarless,Ifancy,thanthatofthelobster.

Henceitappearstobeamatterofnogreatmomentwhatanimal,orwhatplant,Ilayundercontributionforprotoplasm,andthefactspeaksvolumesforthegeneralidentityofthatsubstanceinalllivingbeings.Isharethiscatholicityofassimilationwithotheranimals,allofwhich,sofarasweknow,couldthriveequallywellontheprotoplasmofanyoftheirfellows,orofanyplant;butheretheassimilativepowers

oftheanimalworldcease.Asolutionofsmelling-saltsinwater,withaninfinitesimalproportionofsomeothersalinematters,containsalltheelementarybodieswhichenterintothecompositionofprotoplasm;but,asIneedhardlysay,ahogsheadofthatfluidwouldnotkeepahungrymanfromstarving,norwoulditsaveanyanimalwhateverfromalikefate.Ananimalcannotmakeprotoplasm,butmusttakeitready-madefromsomeotheranimal,orsomeplant--theanimal'shighestfeatofconstructivechemistrybeingtoconvertdeadprotoplasmintothatlivingmatteroflifewhichisappropriatetoitself.

Therefore,inseekingfortheoriginofprotoplasm,wemusteventuallyturntothevegetableworld.Thefluidcontainingcarbonicacid,water,andammonia,whichofferssuchaBarmecidefeasttotheanimal,isa

tablerichlyspreadtomultitudesofplants;and,withaduesupplyofonlysuchmaterials,manyaplantwillnotonlymaintainitselfinvigour,butgrowandmultiply,untilithasincreasedamillion-fold,oramillionmillion-fold,thequantityofprotoplasmwhichitoriginallypossessed;inthiswaybuildingupthematteroflife,toanindefiniteextent,fromthecommonmatteroftheuniverse.

Thus,theanimalcanonlyraisethecomplexsubstanceofdeadprotoplasmtothehigherpower,asonemaysay,oflivingprotoplasm;whiletheplantcanraisethelesscomplexsubstances--carbonicacid,water,andammonia--tothesamestageoflivingprotoplasm,ifnottothesamelevel.Buttheplantalsohasitslimitations.Someofthefungi,forexample,appeartoneedhighercompoundstostartwith;and

noknownplantcanliveupontheuncompoundedelementsofprotoplasm.Aplantsuppliedwithpurecarbon,hydrogen,oxygen,andnitrogen,phosphorus,sulphur,andthelike,wouldasinfalliblydieastheanimalinhisbathofsmelling-salts,thoughitwouldbesurroundedbyalltheconstituentsofprotoplasm.Nor,indeed,needtheprocessofsimplificationofvegetablefoodbecarriedsofarasthis,inordertoarriveatthelimitoftheplant'sthaumaturgy.Letwater,carbonicacid,andalltheotherneedfulconstituentsbesuppliedwithammonia,andanordinaryplantwillstillbeunabletomanufactureprotoplasm.



Thusthematteroflife,sofarasweknowit(andwehavenorighttospeculateonanyother),breaksup,inconsequenceofthatcontinualdeathwhichistheconditionofitsmanifestingvitality,intocarbonicacid,water,andammonia,whichcertainlypossessnopropertiesbutthoseofordinarymatter.Andoutofthesesameformsofordinarymatter,andfromnonewhicharesimpler,thevegetableworldbuildsupalltheprotoplasmwhichkeepstheanimalworldagoing.Plantsaretheaccumulatorsofthepowerwhichanimalsdistributeanddisperse.

Butitwillbeobserved,thattheexistenceofthematteroflifedependsonthepre-existenceofcertaincompounds;namely,carbonicacid,water,andammonia.Withdrawanyoneofthesethreefromtheworldandallvitalphænomenacometoanend.Theyarerelatedtotheprotoplasmoftheplant,astheprotoplasmoftheplantistothatoftheanimal.Carbon,hydrogen,oxygenandnitrogenarealllifelessbodies.Ofthese,carbonandoxygenunite,incertainproportionsandundercertainconditions,togiverisetocarbonicacid;hydrogenandoxygenproducewater;nitrogenandhydrogengiverisetoammonia.Thesenewcompoundsliketheelementarybodiesofwhichtheyarecomposed,arelifeless.Butwhentheyarebroughttogether,undercertainconditionstheygiverisetothestillmorecomplexbody,protoplasm,andthisprotoplasmexhibitsthephenomenaoflife.

Iseenobreakinthisseriesofstepsinmolecularcomplication,andI

amunabletounderstandwhythelanguagewhichisapplicabletoanyonetermoftheseriesmaynotbeusedtoanyoftheothers.Wethinkfittocalldifferentkindsofmattercarbon,oxygen,hydrogen,andnitrogen,andtospeakofthevariouspowersandactivitiesofthesesubstancesasthepropertiesofthematterofwhichtheyarecomposed.

Whenhydrogenandoxygenaremixedinacertainproportion,andanelectricsparkispassedthroughthem,theydisappear,andaquantityofwater,equalinweighttothesumoftheirweights,appearsintheirplace.Thereisnottheslightestparitybetweenthepassiveandactivepowersofthewaterandthoseoftheoxygenandhydrogenwhichhavegivenrisetoit.At32°Fahrenheit,andfarbelowthattemperature,oxygenandhydrogenareelasticgaseousbodies,whoseparticlestendto

rushawayfromoneanotherwithgreatforce.Water,atthesametemperature,isastrongthoughbrittlesolid,whoseparticlestendtocohereintodefinitegeometricalshapes,andsometimesbuildupfrostyimitationsofthemostcomplexformsofvegetablefoliage.

Neverthelesswecallthese,andmanyotherstrangephænomena,thepropertiesofthewater,andwedonothesitatetobelievethat,insomewayoranother,theyresultfromthepropertiesofthecomponentelementsofthewater.Wedonotassumethatasomethingcalled"aquosity"enteredintoandtookpossessionoftheoxideofhydrogenassoonasitwasformed,andthenguidedtheaqueousparticlestotheirplacesinthefacetsofthecrystal,oramongsttheleafletsofthehoar-frost.Onthecontrary,weliveinthehopeandinthefaiththat,

bytheadvanceofmolecularphysics,weshallbyandbybeabletoseeourwayasclearlyfromtheconstituentsofwatertothepropertiesofwater,aswearenowabletodeducetheoperationsofawatchfromtheformofitspartsandthemannerinwhichtheyareputtogether.

Isthecaseinanywaychangedwhencarbonicacid,water,andammoniadisappear,andintheirplace,undertheinfluenceofpre-existinglivingprotoplasm,anequivalentweightofthematteroflifemakesitsappearance?



theyarealarmedlestman'smoralnaturebedebasedbytheincreaseofhiswisdom.

Ifthe"NewPhilosophy"beworthyofthereprobationwithwhichitisvisited,Iconfesstheirfearsseemtome,tobewellfounded.While,onthecontrary,couldDavidHumebeconsulted,Ithinkhewouldsmileattheirperplexities,andchidethemfordoingevenastheheathen,andfallingdowninterrorbeforethehideousidolstheirownhandshaveraised.

For,afterall,whatdoweknowofthisterrible"matter,"exceptasanamefortheunknownandhypotheticalcauseofstatesofourownconsciousness?Andwhatdoweknowofthat"spirit"overwhosethreatenedextinctionbymatteragreatlamentationisarising,likethatwhichwasheardatthedeathofPan,exceptthatitisalsoanameforanunknownandhypotheticalcause,orcondition,ofstatesofconsciousness?Inotherwords,matterandspiritarebutnamesfortheimaginarysubstrataofgroupsofnaturalphænomena.

Andwhatisthedirenecessityand"iron"lawunderwhichmengroan?Truly,mostgratuitouslyinventedbugbears.Isupposeiftherebean"iron"law,itisthatofgravitation;andiftherebeaphysicalnecessity,itisthatastone,unsupported,mustfalltotheground.Butwhatisallwereallyknowandcanknowaboutthelatterphænomenon?

Simply,that,inallhumanexperience,stoneshavefallentothegroundundertheseconditions;thatwehavenotthesmallestreasonforbelievingthatanystonesocircumstancedwillnotfalltotheground;andthatwehave,onthecontrary,everyreasontobelievethatitwillsofall.Itisveryconvenienttoindicatethatalltheconditionsofbeliefhavebeenfulfilledinthiscase,bycallingthestatementthatunsupportedstoneswillfalltotheground,"alawofnature."Butwhen,ascommonlyhappens,wechange_will_into_must_,weintroduceanideaofnecessitywhichmostassuredlydoesnotlieintheobservedfacts,andhasnowarrantythatIcandiscoverelsewhere.Formypart,Iutterlyrepudiateandanathematizetheintruder.FactIknow;andLawIknow;butwhatisthisNecessity,saveanemptyshadowofmyownmind'sthrowing?

But,ifitiscertainthatwecanhavenoknowledgeofthenatureofeithermatterorspirit,andthatthenotionofnecessityissomethingillegitimatelythrustintotheperfectlylegitimateconceptionoflaw,thematerialisticpositionthatthereisnothingintheworldbutmatter,force,andnecessity,isasutterlydevoidofjustificationasthemostbaselessoftheologicaldogmas.Thefundamentaldoctrinesofmaterialism,likethoseofspiritualism,andmostother"isms,"lieoutside"thelimitsofphilosophicalinquiry,"andDavidHume'sgreatservicetohumanityishisirrefragabledemonstrationofwhattheselimitsare.Humecalledhimselfasceptic,andthereforeotherscannotbeblamediftheyapplythesametitletohim;butthatdoesnotalterthefactthatthename,withitsexistingimplications,doeshimgross

injustice.

Ifamanasksmewhatthepoliticsoftheinhabitantsofthemoonare,andIreplythatIdonotknow;thatneitherI,noranyoneelse,haveanymeansofknowing;andthat,underthesecircumstances,Ideclinetotroublemyselfaboutthesubjectatall,Idonotthinkhehasanyrighttocallmeasceptic.Onthecontrary,inreplyingthus,IconceivethatIamsimplyhonestandtruthful,andshowaproperregardfortheeconomyoftime.SoHume'sstrongandsubtleintellecttakesupagreatmanyproblemsaboutwhichwearenaturallycurious,andshowsus



thattheyareessentiallyquestionsoflunarpolitics,intheiressenceincapableofbeinganswered,andthereforenotworththeattentionofmenwhohaveworktodointheworld.Andhethusendsoneofhisessays:--

"IfwetakeinhandanyvolumeofDivinity,orschoolmetaphysics,forinstance,letusask,_Doesitcontainanyabstractreasoningconcerningquantityornumber_?No._Doesitcontainanyexperimentalreasoningconcerningmatteroffactandexistence_?No.Commititthentotheflames;foritcancontainnothingbutsophistryandillusion."[12]

Permitmetoenforcethismostwiseadvice.Whytroubleourselvesaboutmattersofwhich,howeverimportanttheymaybe,wedoknownothing,andcanknownothing?Weliveinaworldwhichisfullofmiseryandignorance,andtheplaindutyofeachandallofusistotrytomakethelittlecornerhecaninfluencesomewhatlessmiserableandsomewhatlessignorantthanitwasbeforeheenteredit.Todothiseffectuallyitisnecessarytobefullypossessedofonlytwobeliefs:thefirst,thattheorderofnatureisascertainablebyourfacultiestoanextentwhichispracticallyunlimited;thesecond,thatourvolitioncountsforsomethingasaconditionofthecourseofevents.

Eachofthesebeliefscanbeverifiedexperimentally,asoftenaswe

liketotry.Each,therefore,standsuponthestrongestfoundationuponwhichanybeliefcanrest,andformsoneofourhighesttruths.Ifwefindthattheascertainmentoftheorderofnatureisfacilitatedbyusingoneterminology,oronesetofsymbols,ratherthananother,itisourcleardutytousetheformer;andnoharmcanaccrue,solongaswebearinmind,thatwearedealingmerelywithtermsandsymbols.

Initselfitisoflittlemomentwhetherweexpressthephænomenaofmatterintermsofspirit;orthephænomenaofspirit,intermsofmatter:mattermayberegardedasaformofthought,thoughtmayberegardedasapropertyofmatter--eachstatementhasacertainrelativetruth.Butwithaviewtotheprogressofscience,thematerialisticterminologyisineverywaytobepreferred.Foritconnectsthought

withtheotherphænomenaoftheuniverse,andsuggestsinquiryintothenatureofthosephysicalconditions,orconcomitantsofthought,whicharemoreorlessaccessibletous,andaknowledgeofwhichmay,infuture,helpustoexercisethesamekindofcontrolovertheworldofthought,aswealreadypossessinrespectofthematerialworld;whereas,thealternative,orspiritualistic,terminologyisutterlybarren,andleadstonothingbutobscurityandconfusionofideas.

Thustherecanbelittledoubt,thatthefurtherscienceadvances,themoreextensivelyandconsistentlywillallthephænomenaofnatureberepresentedbymaterialisticformulæandsymbols.

Butthemanofscience,who,forgettingthelimitsofphilosophical

inquiry,slidesfromtheseformulæandsymbolsintowhatiscommonlyunderstoodbymaterialism,seemstometoplacehimselfonalevelwiththemathematician,whoshouldmistakethe_x_'sand_y_'s,withwhichheworkshisproblems,forrealentities--andwiththisfurtherdisadvantage,ascomparedwiththemathematician,thattheblundersofthelatterareofnopracticalconsequence,whiletheerrorsofsystematicmaterialismmayparalysetheenergiesanddestroythebeautyofalife.

FOOTNOTES:



[10]ThesubstanceofthispaperwascontainedinadiscoursewhichwasdeliveredinEdinburghontheeveningofSunday,the8thofNovember,1868--beingthefirstofaseriesofSundayeveningaddressesuponnon-theologicaltopics,institutedbytheRev.J.Cranbrook.Somephrases,whichcouldpossessonlyatransitoryandlocalinterest,havebeenomitted;insteadofthenewspaperreportoftheArchbishopofYork'saddress,hisGrace'ssubsequently-publishedpamphlet"OntheLimitsofPhilosophicalInquiry"isquoted;andIhave,hereandthere,endeavouredtoexpressmymeaningmorefullyandclearlythanIseemtohavedoneinspeaking--ifImayjudgebysundrycriticismsuponwhatIamsupposedtohavesaid,whichhaveappeared.Butinsubstance,and,sofarasmyrecollectionserves,inform,whatisherewrittencorrespondswithwhatwastheresaid.

[11]"TheLimitsofPhilosophicalInquiry,"pp.4and5.

[12]Hume'sEssay"OftheAcademicalorScepticalPhilosophy,"inthe"InquiryconcerningtheHumanUnderstanding."

VIII.

THESCIENTIFICASPECTSOFPOSITIVISM.

ItisnowsomesixteenorseventeenyearssinceIbecameacquaintedwiththe"PhilosophicPositive,"the"Discourssurl'EnsembleduPositivisme,"andthe"PolitiquePositive"ofAugusteComte.IwasledtostudytheseworkspartlybytheallusionstotheminMr.Mill's"Logic,"partlybytherecommendationofadistinguishedtheologian,andpartlybytheurgencyofavaluedfriend,thelateProfessorHenfrey,wholookeduponM.Comte'sbulkyvolumesasamineofwisdom,andlentthemtomethatImightdigandberich.Afterdueperusal,Ifoundmyselfinapositiontoechomyfriend'swords,thoughImayhavelaid

morestressonthe"mine"thanonthe"wisdom."ForIfoundtheveinsoforefewandfarbetween,andtherocksoapttoruntomud,thatoneincurredtheriskofbeingintellectuallysmotheredintheworking.Still,asIwasgladtoacknowledge,Ididcometoanuggethereandthere;thoughnot,sofarasmyexperiencewent,inthediscussionsonthephilosophyofthephysicalsciences,butinthechaptersonspeculativeandpracticalsociology.Inthesetherewasindeedmuchtoarousetheliveliestinterestinonewhoseboathadbrokenawayfromtheoldmoorings,andwhohadbeencontent"tolayoutananchorbythestern"untildaylightshouldbreakandthefogclear.Nothingcouldbemoreinterestingtoastudentofbiologythantoseethestudyofthebiologicalscienceslaiddown,asanessentialpartoftheprolegomenaofanewviewofsocialphenomena.Nothingcouldbemoresatisfactoryto

aworshipperoftheseveretruthfulnessofsciencethantheattempttodispensewithallbeliefs,savesuchascouldbravethelight,andseek,ratherthanfear,criticism;while,toaloverofcourageandoutspokenness,nothingcouldbemoretouchingthantheplacidannouncementonthetitle-pageofthe"Discourssurl'EnsembleduPositivisme,"thatitsauthorproposed

"Réorganiser,sansDieuniroi,Parlecultesystématiquedel'Humanité,"



hardrubbingstogetthatlabeloff;andIwatchMr.Spencer,asoneregardsagoodmanstrugglingwithadversity,stillengagedineludingitsadhesiveness,andreadytotearawayskinandall,ratherthanletitstick.Myownturnmightcomenext;and,therefore,whenaneminentprelatetheotherdaygavecurrencyandauthoritytothepopularconfusion,ItookanopportunityofincidentallyrevindicatingHume'spropertyintheso-called"NewPhilosophy,"and,atthesametime,ofrepudiatingComtismonmyownbehalf.[13]

ThefewlinesdevotedtoComtisminmypaperonthe"PhysicalBasisofLife"were,inintention,strictlylimitedtothesetwopurposes.ButtheyseemtohavegivenmoreumbragethanIintendedtheyshould,tothefollowersofM.Comteinthiscountry,forsomeofwhom,letmeobserveinpassing,Ientertainamostunfeignedrespect;andMr.Congreve'srecentarticlegivesexpressiontothedispleasurewhichIhaveexcitedamongthemembersoftheComtianbody.

Mr.Congreve,inaperorationwhichseemsespeciallyintendedtocatchtheattentionofhisreaders,indignantlychallengesmetoadmireM.Comte'slife,"todenythatithasamarkedcharacterofgrandeuraboutit;"andheusessomeverystronglanguagebecauseIshownosignofvenerationforhisidol.IconfessIdonotcaretooccupymyselfwiththedenigrationofamanwho,onthewhole,deservestobespokenofwithrespect.Therefore,Ishallenterintonostatementofthereasons

whichleadmeunhesitatinglytoacceptMr.Congreve'schallenge,andtorefusetorecogniseanythingwhichdeservesthenameofgrandeurofcharacterinM.Comte,unlessitbehisarrogance,whichisundoubtedlysublime.AllIhavetoobserveis,thatifMr.CongreveisjustifiedinsayingthatIspeakwithatingeofcontemptforhisspiritualfather,thereasonforsuchcolouringofmylanguageistobefoundinthefact,that,whenIwrote,Ihadbutjustarisenfromtheperusalofaworkwithwhichheisdoubtlesswellacquainted,M.Littré's"AugusteComteetlaPhilosophicPositive."

Thoughtherearetolerablyfixedstandardsofrightandwrong,andevenofgenerosityandmeanness,itmaybesaidthatthebeauty,orgrandeur,ofalifeismoreorlessamatteroftaste;andMr.Congreve'snotions

ofliteraryexcellencearesodifferentfromminethat,itmaybe,weshoulddivergeaswidelyinourjudgmentofmoralbeautyorugliness.Therefore,whileretainingmyownnotions,Idonotpresumetoquarrelwithhis.ButwhenMr.CongrevedevotesagreatdealoflaboriouslyguardedinsinuationtotheendeavourtoleadthepublictobelievethatIhavebeenguiltyofthedishonestyofhavingcriticisedComtewithouthavingreadhim,Imustbepermittedtoremindhimthathehasneglectedthewell-knownmaximofadiplomaticsage,"Ifyouwanttodamageaman,youshouldsaywhatisprobable,aswellaswhatistrue."

AndwhenMr.Congrevespeaksofmyhavinganadvantageoverhiminmyintroductionof"Christianity"intothephrasethat"M.Comte'sphilosophy,inpractice,mightbedescribedasCatholicism_minus_

Christianity;"intendingtherebytosuggestthatIhave,bysodoing,desiredtoprofitbyanappealtothe_odiumtheologicum_,--helayshimselfopentoaveryunpleasantretort.

WhatifIweretosuggestthatMr.CongrevehadnotreadComte'sworks;andthatthephrase"thecontextshowsthattheviewofthewriterranges--howeversuperficially--overthewholeworks.ThisisobviousfromthementionofCatholicism,"demonstratesthatMr.Congrevehasnoacquaintancewiththe"PhilosophiePositive"?Ithinkthesuggestionwouldbeveryunjustandunmannerly,andIshallnotmakeit.Butthe



factremains,thatthislittleepigramofmine,whichhassogreatlyprovokedMr.Congreve,isneithermorenorlessthanacondensedparaphraseofthefollowingpassage,whichistobefoundatpage344ofthefifthvolumeofthe"PhilosophiePositive:"[14]--

"Laseulesolutionpossibledecegrandproblèmehistorique,quin'ajamaispuêtrephilosophiquementposéjusqu'ici,consisteàconcevoir,ensensradicalementinversedesnotionshabituelles,_quecequidevaitnécessairementpérirainsi,danslecatholicisme,c'étaitladoctrine,etnonl'organisation_,quin'aétépassagèrementruinéequeparsuitedesoninévitableadhérenceélémentairealaphilosophiethéologique,destinéeàsuccombergraduellementsousl'irrésistibleémancipationdelaraisonhumaine;_tandisqu'unetelleconstitution,convenablementreconstruitesurdesbasesintellectuellesàlafoisplusétenduesetplusstables,devrafinalementprésideràl'indispensableréorganisationspirituelledessociétésmodernes,sauflesdifférencesessentiellesspontanémentcorrespondantesàl'extrêmediversitédesdoctrinesfondamentales_;àmoinsdesupposer,cequiseraitcertainementcontradictoireàl'ensembledesloisdenotrenature,quelesimmenseseffortsdetantdegrandshommes,secondésparlapersévérantesollicitudedesnationscivilisées,danslafondationséculairedecechef-d'oeuvrepolitiquedelasagessehumaine,doiventêtreenfinirrévocablementperduspourl'élitede

l'humanitésauflesrésultats,capitauxmaisprovisoires,quis'yrapportaientimmédiatement.Cetteexplicationgénérale,déjàévidemmentmotivéeparlasuitedesconsidérationspropresàcechapitre,seradeplusenplusconfirméepartoutlerestedenotreopérationhistorique,_dontelleconstitueraspontanémentlaprincipaleconclusionpolitique."_

Nothingcanbeclearer.Comte'sideal,asstatedbyhimself,isCatholicorganizationwithoutCatholicdoctrine,or,inotherwords,Catholicism _minus_Christianity.Surelyitisutterlyunjustifiabletoascribetomebasemotivesforstatingaman'sdoctrines,asnearlyasmaybe,inhisownwords!

MyreaderswouldhardlybeinterestedwereItofollowMr.Congreveanyfurther,orImightpointoutthatthefactofhisnothavingheardmelectureishardlyasafegroundforhisspeculationsastowhatIdonotteach.NordoIfeelcalledupontogiveanyopinionastoM.Comte'smeritsordemeritsasregardssociology.Mr.Mill(whosecompetencetospeakonthesemattersIsupposewillnotbequestioned,evenbyMr.Congreve)hasdealtwithM.Comte'sphilosophyfromthispointofview,withavigourandauthoritytowhichIcannotforamomentaspire;andwithaseverity,notunfrequentlyamountingtocontempt,whichIhavenotthewish,ifIhadthepower,tosurpass.I,asamerestudentinthesequestions,amcontenttoabidebyMr.Mill'sjudgmentuntilsomeoneshowscauseforitsreversal,andIdeclinetoenterintoadiscussionwhichIhavenotprovoked.

ThesoleobligationwhichliesuponmeistojustifysomuchasstillremainswithoutjustificationofwhatIhavewrittenrespectingPositivism--namely,theopinionexpressedinthefollowingparagraph:--

"InsofarasmystudyofwhatspeciallycharacterisesthePositivePhilosophyhasledme,Ifindthereinlittleornothingofanyscientificvalue,andagreatdealwhichisasthoroughlyantagonistictotheveryessenceofscienceasanythinginultramontaneCatholicism."



surlespreuvesrationellesfourniesparlaconnaissancedenotreorganisation,soitsurlesvérificationshistoriquesrésultantd'unexamenattentifdupassé.Cetteloiconsisteencequechacunedenosconceptionsprincipales,chaquebranchedenosconnaissances,passesuccessivementpartroisétatsthéoriquesdifférents;l'étatthéologique,oufictif;l'étatmétaphysique,ouabstrait;l'étatscientifique,oupositif.End'autrestermes,l'esprithumain,parsanature,emploiesuccessivementdanschacunedesesrecherchestroisméthodesdephilosopher,dont_lecaractèreestessentiellementdifférentetmêmeradicalementopposé_;d'abordlaméthodethéologique,ensuitelaméthodemétaphysique,etenfinlaméthodepositive.Delà,troissortesdephilosophie,oudesystèmesgénérauxdeconceptionssurl'ensembledesphénomènes_quis'excluentmutuellement_;lapremièreestlepointdedépartnécessairedel'intelligencehumaine;latroisième,sonétatfixeetdéfinitif;lasecondeestuniquementdestinéeàservirdetransition."[20]

Nothingcanbemoreprecisethanthesestatements,whichmaybeputintothefollowingpropositions:--

(a)Thehumanintellectissubjectedtothelawbyaninvariablenecessity,whichisdemonstrable,_àpriori_,fromthenatureandconstitutionoftheintellect;while,asamatterofhistoricalfact,

thehumanintellecthasbeensubjectedtothelaw.(b)Everybranchofhumanknowledgepassesthroughthethreestates,necessarilybeginningwiththefirststage.

(c)Thethreestatesmutuallyexcludeoneanother,beingessentiallydifferent,andevenradicallyopposed.

Twoquestionspresentthemselves.IsM.Comteconsistentwithhimselfinmakingtheseassertions?Andisheconsistentwithfact?Ireplytobothquestionsinthenegative;and,asregardsthefirst,Ibringforwardasmywitnessaremarkablepassagewhichistobefoundinthefourthvolumeofthe"PhilosophicPositive"(p.491),whenM.Comtehadhad

timetothinkout,alittlemorefully,thenotionscrudelystatedinthefirstvolume:--

"Aproprementparler,laphilosophiethéologique,mêmedansnotrepremièreenfance,individuelleousociale,n'ajamaispuêtrerigoureusementuniverselle,c'est-à-direque,pourlesordresquelconquesdephénomènes,_lesfaitslesplussimplesetlespluscommunsonttoujoursétéregardéscommeessentiellementassujettisàdesloisnaturelles,aulieud'êtreattribuésàl'arbitrairevolontédesagentssurnaturels_.L'illustreAdamSmitha,parexample,très-heureusementremarquédanssesessaisphilosophiques,qu'onnetrouvait,enaucuntempsnienaucunpays,undieupourlapesanteur._Ilenestainsi,engénéral,mêmeàl'égarddessujets

lespluscompliqués,enverstouslesphénomènesassezélémentairesetassezfamilierspourquelaparfaiteinvariabilitédeleursrelationseffectivesaittoujoursdûfrapperspontanémentl'observateurlemoinspréparé_.Dansl'ordremoraletsocial,qu'unevaineoppositionvoudraitaujourd'huisystématiquementinterdireàlaphilosophiepositive,ilyaeunécessairement,entouttemps,lapenséedesloisnaturelles,relativementauxplussimplesphénomènesdelaviejournalière,commel'exigeévidemmentlaconduitegénéraledenotreexistenceréelle,individuelleousociale,quin'auraitpujamaiscomporteraucuneprévoyance



quelconque,sitouslesphénomèneshumainsavaientétérigoureusementattribuésàdesagentssurnaturels,puisquedèslorslaprièreauraitlogiquementconstituélaseuleressourceimaginablepourinfluersurlecourshabitueldesactionshumaines._Ondoitmêmeremarquer,àcesujet,quec'est,aucontraire,l'ébauchespontanéedespremièresloisnaturellespropresauxactesindividuelsousociauxqui,fictivementtransportéeàtouslesphénomènesdumondeextérieur,ad'abordfourni,d'aprèsnosexplicationsprécédentes,levraiprincipefondamentaldelaphilosophiethéologique.Ainsi,legermeélémentairedelaphilosophiepositiveestcertainementtoutaussiprimitifaufondqueceluidelaphilosophiethéologiqueelle-même,quoiqu'iln'aitpusedévelopperquebeaucoupplustard._Unetellenotionimporteextrêmementàlaparfaiterationalitédenotrethéoriesociologique,puisquelaviehumainenepouvantjamaisoffriraucunevéritablecréationquelconque,maistoujoursunesimpleévolutiongraduelle,l'essorfinaldel'espritpositifdeviendraitscientifiquementincompréhensible,si,dèsl'origine,onn'enconcevait,àtouségards,lespremiersrudimentsnécessaires.Depuiscettesituationprimitive,àmesurequenosobservationssesontspontanémentétenduesetgénéralisées,cetessor,d'abordàpeineappréciable,aconstammentsuivi,sanscesserlongtempsd'êtresubalterne,uneprogressiontrès-lente,maiscontinue,laphilosophiethéologiquerestanttoujoursréservéepourles

phénomènes,demoinsenmoinsnombreux,dontlesloisnaturellesnepouvaientencoreêtreaucunementconnues."

Comparethepropositionsimplicitlylaiddownherewiththosecontainedintheearliervolume.(a)Asamatteroffact,thehumanintellecthas_not_beeninvariablysubjectedtothelawofthethreestates,andthereforethenecessityofthelaw_cannot_bedemonstrable_àpriori_.(b)Muchofourknowledgeofallkindshas_not_passedthroughthethreestates,andmoreparticularly,asM.Comteiscarefultopointout,notthroughthefirst,(c)Thepositivestatehasmoreorlessco-existedwiththetheological,fromthedawnofhumanintelligence.And,bywayofcompletingtheseriesofcontradictions,theassertionthatthethreestatesare"essentiallydifferentandevenradically

opposed,"ismetalittleloweronthesamepagebythedeclarationthat"themetaphysicalstateis,atbottom,nothingbutasimplegeneralmodificationofthefirst;"while,inthefortiethLeçon,asalsointheinterestingearlyessayentitled"ConsidérationsphilosophiquessurlesSciencesetlesSavants(1825),"thethreestatesarepracticallyreducedtotwo."Levéritableespritgénéraldetoutephilosophiethéologiqueoumétaphysiqueconsisteàprendrepourprincipe,dansl'explicationdesphénomènesdumondeextérieur,notresentimentimmédiatdesphénomèneshumains;tandisqueaucontraire,laphilosophiepositiveesttoujourscaractérisée,nonmoinsprofondément,parlasubordinationnécessaireetrationnelledelaconceptiondel'hommeàcelledumonde."[21]

IleaveM.Cointe'sdisciplestosettlewhichofthesecontradictorystatementsexpressestheirmaster'srealmeaning.AllIbegleavetoremarkis,thatmenofsciencearenotinthehabitofpayingmuchattentionto"laws"statedinthisfashion.

Thesecondstatementisundoubtedlyfarmorerationalandconsistentwithfactthanthefirst;butIcannotthinkitisajustoradequateaccountofthegrowthofintelligence,eitherintheindividualman,orinthehumanspecies.Anyonewhowillcarefullywatchthedevelopmentoftheintellectofachildwillperceivethat,fromthefirst,itsmind



ismirroringnatureintwodifferentways.Ontheonehand,itismerelydrinkinginsensationsandbuildingupassociations,whileitformsconceptionsofthingsandtheirrelationswhicharemorethoroughly"positive,"ordevoidofentanglementwithhypothesesofanykind,thantheywilleverbeinafter-life.Nochildhasrecoursetoimaginarypersonificationsinordertoaccountfortheordinarypropertiesofobjectswhicharenotalive,ordonotrepresentlivingthings.Itdoesnotimaginethatthetasteofsugarisbroughtaboutbyagodofsweetness,orthataspiritofjumpingcausesaballtobound.Suchphænomena,whichformthebasisofaverylargepartofitsideas,aretakenasmattersofcourse--asultimatefactswhichsuggestnodifficultyandneednoexplanation.Sofarasallthesecommon,thoughimportant,phænomenaareconcerned,thechild'smindisinwhatM.Comtewouldcallthe"positive"state.

But,sidebysidewiththismentalcondition,thererisesanother.Thechildbecomesawareofitselfasasourceofactionandasubjectofpassionandofthought.Theactswhichfollowuponitsowndesiresareamongthemostinterestingandprominentofsurroundingoccurrences;andtheseacts,again,plainlyariseeitheroutofaffectionscausedbysurroundingthings,orofotherchangesinitself.Amongthesesurroundingthings,themostinterestingandimportantaremotherandfather,brethrenandnurses.Thehypothesisthatthesewonderfulcreaturesareoflikenaturetoitselfisspeedilyforceduponthe

child'smind;andthisprimitivepieceofanthropomorphismturnsouttobeahighlysuccessfulspeculation,whichfindsitsjustificationateveryturn.Nowonder,then,thatitisextendedtoothersimilarlyinterestingobjectswhicharenottoounlikethese--tothedog,thecat,andthecanary,thedoll,thetoy,andthepicture-book--thattheseareendowedwithwillsandaffections,andwithcapacitiesforbeing"good"and"naughty."Butsurelyitwouldbeamereperversionoflanguagetocallthisa"theological"stateofmind,eitherinthepropersenseoftheword"theological,"orascontrastedwith"scientific"or"positive."Thechilddoesnotworshipeitherfatherormother,dogordoll.Onthecontrary,nothingismorecuriousthantheabsoluteirreverence,ifImaysosay,ofakindly-treatedyoungchild;itstendencytobelieveinitselfasthecentreoftheuniverse,andits

dispositiontoexercisedespotictyrannyoverthosewhocouldcrushitwithafinger.

Stilllessisthereanythingunscientific,oranti-scientific,inthisinfantileanthropomorphism.Thechildobservesthatmanyphænomenaaretheconsequencesofaffectionsofitself;itsoonhasexcellentreasonsforthebeliefthatmanyotherphænomenaareconsequencesoftheaffectionsofotherbeings,moreorlesslikeitself.Andhavingthusgoodevidenceforbelievingthatmanyofthemostinterestingoccurrencesaboutitareexplicableonthehypothesisthattheyaretheworkofintelligenceslikeitself--havingdiscovereda_veracausa_formanyphænomena--whyshouldthechildlimittheapplicationofsofruitfulanhypothesis?Thedoghasasortofintelligence,sohasthe

cat;whyshouldnotthedollandthepicture-bookalsohaveashare,proportionedtotheirlikenesstointelligentthings?

Theonlylimitwhichdoesariseisexactlythatwhich,asamatterofscience,shouldarise;thatistosay,theanthropomorphicinterpretationisappliedonlytothosephænomenawhich,intheirgeneralnature,ortheirapparentcapriciousness,resemblethosewhichthechildobservestobecausedbyitself,orbybeingslikeitself.Alltherestareregardedasthingswhichexplainthemselves,orareinexplicable.



Itisonlyatalaterstageofintellectualdevelopmentthattheintelligenceofmanawakestotheapparentconflictbetweentheanthropomorphic,andwhatImaycallthephysical,[22]aspectofnature,andeitherendeavourstoextendtheanthropomorphicviewoverthewholeofnature--whichisthetendencyoftheology;ortogivethesameexclusivepredominancetothephysicalview--whichisthetendencyofscience;oradoptsamiddlecourse,andtakingfromtheanthropomorphicviewitstendencytopersonify,andfromthephysicalviewitstendencytoexcludevolitionandaffection,endsinwhatM.Comtecallsthe"metaphysical"state--"metaphysical,"inM.Comte'swritings,beingageneraltermofabuseforanythinghedoesnotlike.

Whatistrueoftheindividualis,_mutatismutandis_,trueoftheintellectualdevelopmentofthespecies.Itisabsurdtosayofmeninastateofprimitivesavagery,thatalltheirconceptionsareinatheologicalstate.Nine-tenthsofthemareeminentlyrealistic,andas"positive"asignoranceandnarrownesscanmakethem.Itnomoreoccurstoasavagethanitdoestoachild,toaskthewhyofthedailyandordinaryoccurrenceswhichformthegreaterpartofhismentallife.Butinregardtothemorestriking,orout-of-the-way,events,whichforcehimtospeculate,heishighlyanthropomorphic;and,ascomparedwithachild,hisanthropomorphismiscomplicatedbytheintenseimpressionwhichthedeathofhisownkindmakesuponhim,asindeeditwellmay.

Thewarrior,fullofferociousenergy,perhapsthedespoticchiefofhistribe,issuddenlystruckdown.Achildmayinsultthemanamomentbeforesoawful;aflyrests,undisturbed,onthelipsfromwhichundisputedcommandissued.Andyetthebodilyaspectofthemanseemshardlymorealteredthanwhenheslept,and,sleeping,seemedtohimselftoleavehisbodyandwanderthroughdreamland.Whatthenifthatsomething,whichistheessenceoftheman,hasreallybeenmadetowanderbytheviolencedonetoit,andisunable,orhasforgotten,tocomebacktoitsshell?Willitnotretainsomewhatofthepowersitpossessedduringlife?Mayitnothelpusifitbepleased,or(asseemstobebyfarthemoregeneralimpression)hurtusifitbeangered?Willitnotbewelltodotowardsitthosethingswhichwouldhavesoothedthemanandputhimingoodhumourduringhislife?Itisimpossibleto

studytrustworthyaccountsofsavagethoughtwithoutseeing,thatsomesuchtrainofideasasthis,liesatthebottomoftheirspeculativebeliefs.

TherearesavageswithoutGod,inanypropersenseoftheword,butnonewithoutghosts.AndtheFetishism,Ancestor-worship,Hero-worship,andDemonologyofprimitivesavages,areall,Ibelieve,differentmannersofexpressionoftheirbeliefinghosts,andoftheanthropomorphicinterpretationofout-of-the-wayevents,whichisitsconcomitant.Witchcraftandsorceryarethepracticalexpressionsofthesebeliefs;andtheystandinthesamerelationtoreligiousworshipasthesimpleanthropomorphismofchildren,orsavages,doestotheology.

Intheprogressofthespeciesfromsavagerytoadvancedcivilization,anthropomorphismgrowsintotheology,whilephysicism(ifImaysocallit)developsintoscience;butthedevelopmentofthetwoiscontemporaneous,notsuccessive.Foreach,therelongexistsanassuredprovincewhichisnotinvadedbytheother;while,betweenthetwo,liesadebateableland,ruledbyasortofbastards,whoowetheircomplexiontophysicismandtheirsubstancetoanthropomorphism,andareM.Comte'sparticularaversions--metaphysicalentities.

But,astheageslengthen,thebordersofPhysicismincrease.The



Doesbiology,whether"abstract"or"concrete,"occupyitselfwithanyotherformoflifethanthosewhichexist,orhaveexisted?And,iftheabstractsciencesembraceallconceivablecasesoftheoperationofthelawswithwhichtheyareconcerned,wouldnotthey,necessarily,embracethesubjectsoftheconcretesciences,which,inasmuchastheyexist,mustneedsbeconceivable?Infact,nosuchdistinctionasthatwhichM.Comtedrawsistenable.Thefirststageofhisclassificationbreaksbyitsownweight.

ButgrantingM.Comtehissixabstractsciences,heproceedstoarrangethemaccordingtowhathecallstheirnaturalorderorhierarchy,theirplacesinthishierarchybeingdeterminedbythedegreeofgeneralityandsimplicityoftheconceptionswithwhichtheydeal.Mathematicsoccupiesthefirst,astronomythesecond,physicsthethird,chemistrythefourth,biologythefifth,andsociologythesixthandlastplaceintheseries.M.Comte'sargumentsinfavourofthisclassificationarefirst--

"Saconformitéessentielleaveclaco-ordination,enquelquesortespontanée,quisetrouveeneffetimplicitementadmiseparlessavantslivrésàl'étudedesdiversebranchesdelaphilosophienaturelle."

ButIabsolutelydenytheexistenceofthisconformity.Ifthereisone

thingclearabouttheprogressofmodernscience,itisthetendencytoreduceallscientificproblems,exceptthosewhicharepurelymathematical,toquestionsofmolecularphysics--thatisto,say,totheattractions,repulsions,motions,andco-ordinationoftheultimateparticlesofmatter.Socialphænomenaaretheresultoftheinteractionofthecomponentsofsociety,ormen,withoneanotherandthesurroundinguniverse.But,inthelanguageofphysicalscience,which,bythenatureofthecase,ismaterialistic,theactionsofmen,sofarastheyarerecognisablebyscience,aretheresultsofmolecularchangesinthematterofwhichtheyarecomposed;and,inthelongrun,thesemustcomeintothehandsofthephysicist._Afortiori_,thephænomenaofbiologyandofchemistryare,intheirultimateanalysis,questionsofmolecularphysics.Indeed,thefactisacknowledgedbyall

chemistsandbiologistswholookbeyondtheirimmediateoccupations.Anditistobeobserved,thatthephænomenaofbiologyareasdirectlyandimmediatelyconnectedwithmolecularphysicsasarethoseofchemistry.Molarphysics,chemistry,andbiologyarenotthreesuccessivestepsintheladderofknowledge,asM.Comtewouldhaveusbelieve,butthreebranchesspringingfromthecommonstemofmolecularphysics.

Astoastronomy,Iamatalosstounderstandhowanyonewhowillgiveamoment'sattentiontothenatureofthesciencecanfailtoseethatitconsistsoftwoparts:first,ofadescriptionofthephænomena,whichisasmuchentitledasdescriptivezoology,orbotany,is,tothenameofnaturalhistory;and,secondly,ofanexplanationofthephænomena,furnishedbythelawsofaforce--gravitation--thestudyof

whichisasmuchapartofphysics,asisthatofheat,orelectricity.Itwouldbejustasreasonabletomakethestudyoftheheatofthesunasciencepreliminarytotherestofthermotics,astoplacethestudyoftheattractionofthebodies,whichcomposetheuniverseingeneral,beforethatoftheparticularterrestrialbodies,whichalonewecanexperimentallyknow.Astronomy,infact,owesitsperfectiontothecircumstancethatitistheonlybranchofnaturalhistory,thephænomenaofwhicharelargelyexpressiblebymathematicalconceptions,andwhichcanbe,toagreatextent,explainedbytheapplicationofverysimplephysicallaws.



degrédeprécisiondesconnaissancesetdansleurco-ordinationplusoumoinsintime."[26]

IamquiteunabletounderstandthedistinctionwhichM.Comteendeavourstodrawinthispassageinspiteofhisamplificationsfurtheron.Everysciencemustconsistofpreciseknowledge,andthatknowledgemustbeco-ordinatedintogeneralproportions,oritisnotscience.WhenM.Comte,inexemplificationofthestatementIhavecited,saysthat"lesphénomènesorganiquesnecomportentqu'uneétudeàlafoismoinsexacteetmoinssystématiquequelesphénomènesdescorpsbruts,"Iamatalosstocomprehendwhathemeans.IfIaffirmthat"whenamotornerveisirritated,themuscleconnectedwithitbecomessimultaneouslyshorterandthicker,withoutchangingitsvolume,"itappearstomethatthestatementisaspreciseorexact(andnotmerelyastrue)asthatofthephysicistwhoshouldsay,that"whenapieceofironisheated,itbecomessimultaneouslylongerandthickerandincreasesinvolume;"norcanIdiscoveranydifference,inpointofprecision,betweenthestatementofthemorphologicallawthat"animalswhichsuckletheiryounghavetwooccipitalcondyles,"andtheenunciationofthephysicallawthat"watersubjectedtoelectrolysisisreplacedbyanequalweightofthegases,oxygenandhydrogen."Asforanatomicalorphysiologicalinvestigationbeingless"systematic"thanthatofthephysicistorchemist,theassertionissimplyunaccountable.Themethodsofphysicalscienceareeverywherethesame

inprinciple,andthephysiologicalinvestigatorwhowasnot"systematic"would,onthewhole,breakdownrathersoonerthantheinquirerintosimplersubjects.

ThusM.Comte'sclassificationofthesciences,underallitsaspects,appearstometobeacompletefailure.Itisimpossible,inanarticlewhichisalreadytoolong,toinquirehowitmaybereplacedbyabetter;anditisthelessnecessarytodoso,asasecondeditionofMr.Spencer'sremarkableessayonthissubjecthasjustbeenpublished.Afterwadingthroughpagesofthelong-windedconfusionandsecond-handinformationofthe"PhilosophicPositive,"attheriskofa_crisecérébrale_--itisasgoodasashower-bathtoturntothe"ClassificationoftheSciences,"andrefreshoneselfwithMr.Spencer's

profoundthought,preciseknowledge,andclearlanguage.

II.ThesecondpropositiontowhichIhavecommittedmyself,inthepapertowhichIhavebeenobligedtorefersooften,is,thatthe"PositivePhilosophy"contains"agreatdealwhichisasthoroughlyantagonistictotheveryessenceofscienceasisanythinginultramontaneCatholicism."

WhatIrefertointhesewords,is,ontheonehand,thedogmatismandnarrownesswhichsooftenmarkM.Comte'sdiscussionofdoctrineswhichhedoesnotlike,andreducehisexpressionsofopiniontomerepassionatepuerilities;as,forexample,whenheisarguingagainsttheassumptionofanether,orwhenheistalking(Icannotcallitarguing)

againstpsychology,orpoliticaleconomy.Ontheotherhand,Ialludetothespiritofmeddlingsystematizationandregulationwhichanimateseventhe"PhilosophicPositive,"andbreaksout,inthelattervolumesofthatwork,intonouncertainforeshadowingoftheanti-scientificmonstrositiesofComte'slaterwritings.

Thosewhotrytodrawalineofdemarcationbetweenthespiritofthe"PhilosophicPositive,"andthatofthe"Politique"anditssuccessors,(ifImayexpressanopinionfromfragmentaryknowledgeoftheselast,)musthaveoverlooked,orforgotten,whatComtehimselflabourstoshow,



andindeedsucceedsinproving,inthe"AppendiceGénéral"ofthe"PolitiquePositive.""Dèsmondébut,"hewrites,"jetentaidefonderlenouveaupouvoirspirituelquej'institueaujourd'hui.""Mapolitique,loind'êtreaucunementopposéeàmaphilosophie,enconstituetellementlasuitenaturellequecelle-cifutdirectementinstituéepourservirdebaseàcelle-là,commeleprouvecetappendice."[27]

Thisisquitetrue.Intheremarkableessayentitled"ConsidérationssurlePouvoirspirituel,"publishedinMarch1826,Comteadvocatestheestablishmentofa"modernspiritualpower,"which,heanticipates,mayexerciseanevengreaterinfluenceovertemporalaffairs,thandidtheCatholicclergy,attheheightoftheirvigourandindependence,inthetwelfthcentury.Thisspiritualpoweris,infact,togovernopinion,andtohavethesupremecontrolovereducation,ineachnationoftheWest;andthespiritualpowersoftheseveralEuropeanpeoplesaretobeassociatedtogetherandplacedunderacommondirectionor"souverainetéspirituelle."

Asystemof"Catholicism_minus_Christianity"wasthereforecompletelyorganizedinComte'smind,fouryearsbeforethefirstvolumeofthe"PhilosophiePositive"waswritten;and,naturally,thepapalspiritshowsitselfinthatwork,notonlyinthewaysIhavealreadymentioned,but,notably,intheattackonlibertyofconsciencewhichbreaksoutinthefourthvolume:--

"Iln'yapointdelibertédeconscienceenastronomie,enphysique,enchimie,enphysiologiemême,encesensquechacuntrouveraitabsurdedenepascroiredeconfianceauxprincipesétablisdanslessciencesparleshommescompétents."

"NothinginultramontaneCatholicism"can,inmyjudgment,bemorecompletelysacerdotal,moreentirelyanti-scientific,thanthisdictum.Allthegreatstepsintheadvancementofsciencehavebeenmadebyjustthosemenwhohavenothesitatedtodoubtthe"principlesestablishedinthesciencesbycompetentpersons;"andthegreatteachingofscience--thegreatuseofitasaninstrumentofmentaldiscipline--isitsconstantinculcationofthemaxim,thatthesolegroundonwhichany

statementhasarighttobebelievedistheimpossibilityofrefutingit.

Thus,withouttravellingbeyondthelimitsofthe"PhilosophiePositive,"wefinditsauthorcontemplatingtheestablishmentofasystemofsociety,inwhichanorganizedspiritualpowershallover-rideanddirectthetemporalpower,ascompletelyastheInnocentsandGregorystriedtogovernEuropeinthemiddleages;andrepudiatingtheexerciseoflibertyofconscienceagainstthe"_hommescompétents_",ofwhom,bytheassumption,thenewpriesthoodwouldbecomposed.WasMr.Congreveasforgetfulofthis,asheseemstohavebeenofsomeotherpartsofthe"PhilosophiePositive,"whenhewrote,that"inanylimited,carefuluseoftheterm,nocandidmancouldsaythatthe

PositivePhilosophycontainedagreatdealasthoroughlyantagonisticto[theveryessenceof[28]]scienceasCatholicism"?

M.Comte,itwillhavebeenobserved,desirestoretainthewholeofCatholicorganization;andthelogicalpracticalresultofthispartofhisdoctrinewouldbetheestablishmentofsomethingcorrespondingwiththateminentlyCatholic,butadmittedlyanti-scientific,institution--theHolyOffice.

IhopeIhavesaidenoughtoshowthatIwrotethefewlinesIdevoted



[19]HearthelateDr.Whewell,whocallsComte"ashallowpretender,"sofarasallthemodernsciences,exceptastronomy,areconcerned;andtellsusthat"hispretensionstodiscoveriesare,asSirJohnHerschelhasshown,absurdlyfallacious."--"ComteandPositivism,"_Macmillan'sMagazine_,March1866.

[20]"PhilosophiePositive,"i.pp.8,9.

[21]"PhilosophiePositive,"iii.p.188.

[22]Theword"positive"isineverywayobjectionable.InonesenseitsuggeststhatmentalqualitywhichwasundoubtedlylargelydevelopedinM.Comte,butcanbestbedispensedwithinaphilosopher;inanother,itisunfortunateinitsapplicationtoasystemwhichstartswithenormousnegations;initsthird,andspeciallyphilosophicalsense,asimplyingasystemofthoughtwhichassumesnothingbeyondthecontentofobservedfacts,itimpliesthatwhichneverdidexist,andneverwill.

[23]"PhilosophiePositive,"i.p.56.


[25]Ibid.,i.p.77.


[27]Loc.cit.,PréfaceSpéciale,pp.i.ii.

[28]Mr.Congreveleavesouttheseimportantwords,whichshowthatIrefertothespirit,andnottothedetailsofscience.

IX.

ONAPIECEOFCHALK.

ALECTURETOWORKINGMEN.

IfawellweretobesunkatourfeetinthemidstofthecityofNorwich,thediggerswouldverysoonfindthemselvesatworkinthatwhitesubstancealmosttoosofttobecalledrock,withwhichweareallfamiliaras"chalk."

Notonlyhere,butoverthewholecountyofNorfolk,thewell-sinkermightcarryhisshaftdownmanyhundredfeetwithoutcomingtotheendofthechalk;and,onthesea-coast,wherethewaveshaveparedawaythe

faceofthelandwhichbreaststhem,thescarpedfacesofthehighcliffsareoftenwhollyformedofthesamematerial.Northward,thechalkmaybefollowedasfarasYorkshire;onthesouthcoastitappearsabruptlyinthepicturesquewesternbaysofDorset,andbreaksintotheNeedlesoftheIsleofWight;whileontheshoresofKentitsuppliesthatlonglineofwhitecliffstowhichEnglandoweshernameofAlbion.

Werethethinsoilwhichcoversitallwashedaway,acurvedbandofwhitechalk,herebroader,andtherenarrower,mightbefolloweddiagonallyacrossEnglandfromLulworthinDorset,toFlamboroughHead



millionsofthegranules.

Theexaminationofatransparentslicegivesagoodnotionofthemannerinwhichthecomponentsofthechalkarearranged,andoftheirrelativeproportions.But,byrubbingupsomechalkwithabrushinwaterandthenpouringoffthemilkyfluid,soastoobtainsedimentsofdifferentdegreesoffineness,thegranulesandtheminuteroundedbodiesmaybeprettywellseparatedfromoneanother,andsubmittedtomicroscopicexamination,eitherasopaqueorastransparentobjects.Bycombiningtheviewsobtainedinthesevariousmethods,eachoftheroundedbodiesmaybeprovedtobeabeautifully-constructedcalcareousfabric,madeupofanumberofchambers,communicatingfreelywithoneanother.Thechamberedbodiesareofvariousforms.Oneofthecommonestissomethinglikeabadly-grownraspberry,beingformedofanumberofnearlyglobularchambersofdifferentsizescongregatedtogether.Itiscalled _Globigerina_,andsomespecimensofchalkconsistoflittleelsethan _Globigerinæ_andgranules.

Letusfixourattentionuponthe_Globigerina_.Itisthespoorofthegamewearetracking.Ifwecanlearnwhatitisandwhataretheconditionsofitsexistence,weshallseeourwaytotheoriginandpasthistoryofthechalk.

Asuggestionwhichmaynaturallyenoughpresentitselfis,thatthese

curiousbodiesaretheresultofsomeprocessofaggregationwhichhastakenplaceinthecarbonateoflime;that,justasinwinter,therimeonourwindowssimulatesthemostdelicateandelegantlyarborescentfoliage--provingthatthemeremineralwatermay,undercertainconditions,assumetheoutwardformoforganicbodies--sothismineralsubstance,carbonateoflime,hiddenawayinthebowelsoftheearth,hastakentheshapeofthesechamberedbodies.Iamnotraisingamerelyfancifulandunrealobjection.Verylearnedmen,informerdays,haveevenentertainedthenotionthatalltheformedthingsfoundinrocksareofthisnature;andifnosuchconceptionisatpresentheldtobeadmissible,itisbecauselongandvariedexperiencehasnowshownthatmineralmatterneverdoesassumetheformandstructurewefindinfossils.Ifanyoneweretotrytopersuadeyouthatanoyster-shell

(whichisalsochieflycomposedofcarbonateoflime)hadcrystallizedoutofsea-water,Isupposeyouwouldlaughattheabsurdity.Yourlaughterwouldbejustifiedbythefactthatallexperiencetendstoshowthatoyster-shellsareformedbytheagencyofoysters,andinnootherway.Andiftherewerenobetterreasons,weshouldbejustified,onlikegrounds,inbelievingthat_Globigerina_isnottheproductofanythingbutvitalactivity.

Happily,however,betterevidenceinproofoftheorganicnatureofthe _Globigerinæ_thanthatofanalogyisforthcoming.Itsohappensthatcalcareousskeletons,exactlysimilartothe_Globigerinæ_ofthechalk,arebeingformed,atthepresentmoment,byminutelivingcreatures,whichflourishinmultitudes,literallymorenumerousthanthesandsof

thesea-shore,overalargeextentofthatpartoftheearth'ssurfacewhichiscoveredbytheocean.

Thehistoryofthediscoveryoftheseliving_Globigerinæ_,andofthepartwhichtheyplayinrock-building,issingularenough.Itisadiscoverywhich,likeothersofnolessscientificimportance,hasarisen,incidentally,outofworkdevotedtoverydifferentandexceedinglypracticalinterests.

Whenmenfirsttooktothesea,theyspeedilylearnedtolookoutfor



skidon,sogentlearetheascentsanddescentsuponthatlongroute.FromValentiatheroadwouldliedownhillforabout200milestothepointatwhichthebottomisnowcoveredby1,700fathomsofsea-water.Thenwouldcomethecentralplain,morethanathousandmileswide,theinequalitiesofthesurfaceofwhichwouldbehardlyperceptible,thoughthedepthofwateruponitnowvariesfrom10,000to15,000feet;andthereareplacesinwhichMontBlancmightbesunkwithoutshowingitspeakabovewater.Beyondthis,theascentontheAmericansidecommences,andgraduallyleads,forabout300miles,totheNewfoundlandshore.

Almostthewholeofthebottomofthiscentralplain(whichextendsformanyhundredmilesinanorthandsouthdirection)iscoveredbyafinemud,which,whenbroughttothesurface,driesintoagreyish-whitefriablesubstance.Youcanwritewiththisonablackboard,ifyouaresoinclined;and,totheeye,itisquitelikeverysoft,greyishchalk.Examinedchemically,itprovestobecomposedalmostwhollyofcarbonateoflime;andifyoumakeasectionofit,inthesamewayasthatofthepieceofchalkwasmade,andviewitwiththemicroscope,itpresentsinnumerable_Globigerinæ_,embeddedinagranularmatrix.

Thusthisdeep-seamudissubstantiallychalk.Isaysubstantially,becausethereareagoodmanyminordifferences:butasthesehavenobearingonthequestionimmediatelybeforeus,--whichisthenatureof

the_Globigerinæ_ofthechalk,--itisunnecessarytospeakofthem. _Globigerinæ_ofeverysize,fromthesmallesttothelargest,areassociatedtogetherintheAtlanticmud,andthechambersofmanyarefilledbyasoftanimalmatter.Thissoftsubstanceis,infact,theremainsofthecreaturetowhichthe_Globigerina_shell,orratherskeleton,owesitsexistence--andwhichisananimalofthesimplestimaginabledescription.Itis,infact,amereparticleoflivingjelly,withoutdefinedpartsofanykind--withoutamouth,nerves,muscles,ordistinctorgans,andonlymanifestingitsvitalitytoordinaryobservationbythrustingoutandretractingfromallpartsofitssurface,longfilamentousprocesses,whichserveforarmsandlegs.Yetthisamorphousparticle,devoidofeverythingwhich,inthehigher

animals,wecallorgans,iscapableoffeeding,growing,andmultiplying;ofseparatingfromtheoceanthesmallproportionofcarbonateoflimewhichisdissolvedinsea-water;andofbuildingupthatsubstanceintoaskeletonforitself,accordingtoapatternwhichcanbeimitatedbynootherknownagency.

Thenotionthatanimalscanliveandflourishinthesea,atthevastdepthsfromwhichapparentlyliving_Globigerinæ_havebeenbroughtup,doesnotagreeverywellwithourusualconceptionsrespectingtheconditionsofanimallife;anditisnotsoabsolutelyimpossibleasitmightatfirstsightappeartobe,thatthe_Globigerinæ_oftheAtlanticsea-bottomdonotliveanddiewheretheyarefound.

AsIhavementioned,thesoundingsfromthegreatAtlanticplainarealmostentirelymadeupof_Globigerinæ_,withthegranuleswhichhavebeenmentioned,andsomefewothercalcareousshells;butasmallpercentageofthechalkymud--perhapsatmostsomefivepercent.ofit--isofadifferentnature,andconsistsofshellsandskeletonscomposedofsilex,orpureflint.Thesesiliciousbodiesbelongpartlytothelowlyvegetableorganismswhicharecalled_Diatomaceæ_,andpartlytotheminute,andextremelysimple,animals,termed _Radiolaria_.Itisquitecertainthatthesecreaturesdonotliveatthebottomoftheocean,butatitssurface--wheretheymaybeobtained



coccospheresarefoundasthechiefconstituentsofboth,andtestifytothegeneralsimilarityoftheconditionsunderwhichbothhavebeenformed.[31]

Theevidencefurnishedbythehewing,facing,andsuperpositionofthestonesofthePyramids,thatthesestructureswerebuiltbymen,hasnogreaterweightthantheevidencethatthechalkwasbuiltby _Globigerinæ_;andthebeliefthatthoseancientpyramid-builderswereterrestrialandair-breathingcreatureslikeourselves,isnotbetterbasedthantheconvictionthatthechalk-makerslivedinthesea.

ButasourbeliefinthebuildingofthePyramidsbymenisnotonlygroundedontheinternalevidenceaffordedbythesestructures,butgathersstrengthfrommultitudinouscollateralproofs,andisclinchedbythetotalabsenceofanyreasonforacontrarybelief;sotheevidencedrawnfromthe_Globigerinæ_thatthechalkisanancientsea-bottom,isfortifiedbyinnumerableindependentlinesofevidence;andourbeliefinthetruthoftheconclusiontowhichallpositivetestimonytends,receivesthelikenegativejustificationfromthefactthatnootherhypothesishasashadowoffoundation.

Itmaybeworthwhilebrieflytoconsiderafewofthesecollateralproofsthatthechalkwasdepositedatthebottomofthesea.

Thegreatmassofthechalkiscomposed,aswehaveseen,oftheskeletonsof_Globigerinæ_,andothersimpleorganisms,imbeddedingranularmatter.Hereandthere,however,thishardenedmudoftheancientsearevealstheremainsofhigheranimalswhichhavelivedanddied,andlefttheirhardpartsinthemud,justastheoystersdieandleavetheirshellsbehindthem,inthemudofthepresentseas.

Thereare,atthepresentday,certaingroupsofanimalswhichareneverfoundinfreshwaters,beingunabletoliveanywherebutinthesea.Sucharethecorals;thosecorallineswhicharecalled_Polyzoa_;thosecreatureswhichfabricatethelamp-shells,andarecalled_Brachiopoda_;thepearly_Nautilus_,andallanimalsalliedtoit;andalltheformsofsea-urchinsandstar-fishes.

Notonlyareallthesecreaturesconfinedtosaltwateratthepresentday;but,sofarasourrecordsofthepastgo,theconditionsoftheirexistencehavebeenthesame:hence,theiroccurrenceinanydepositisasstrongevidenceascanbeobtained,thatthatdepositwasformedinthesea.Nowtheremainsofanimalsofallthekindswhichhavebeenenumerated,occurinthechalk,ingreaterorlessabundance;whilenotoneofthoseformsofshell-fishwhicharecharacteristicoffreshwaterhasyetbeenobservedinit.

Whenweconsiderthattheremainsofmorethanthreethousanddistinctspeciesofaquaticanimalshavebeendiscoveredamongthefossilsofthechalk,thatthegreatmajorityofthemareofsuchformsasarenowmet

withonlyinthesea,andthatthereisnoreasontobelievethatanyoneoftheminhabitedfreshwater--thecollateralevidencethatthechalkrepresentsanancientsea-bottomacquiresasgreatforceastheproofderivedfromthenatureofthechalkitself.IthinkyouwillnowallowthatIdidnotoverstatemycasewhenIassertedthatwehaveasstronggroundsforbelievingthatallthevastareaofdryland,atpresentoccupiedbythechalk,wasonceatthebottomofthesea,aswehaveforanymatterofhistorywhatever;whilethereisnojustificationforanyotherbelief.



menthegreatestagethatcanpossiblybeclaimedforthem,theyarenotolderthanthedrift,orboulderclay,which,incomparisonwiththechalk,isbutaveryjuveniledeposit.Youneedgonofurtherthanyourownsea-boardforevidenceofthisfact.AtoneofthemostcharmingspotsonthecoastofNorfolk,Cromer,youwillseetheboulderclayformingavastmass,whichliesuponthechalk,andmustconsequentlyhavecomeintoexistenceafterit.Hugebouldersofchalkare,infact,includedintheclay,andhaveevidentlybeenbroughttothepositiontheynowoccupy,bythesameagencyasthatwhichhasplantedblocksofsyenitefromNorwaysidebysidewiththem.

Thechalk,then,iscertainlyolderthantheboulderclay.Ifyouaskhowmuch,Iwillagaintakeyounofurtherthanthesamespotuponyourowncoastsforevidence.Ihavespokenoftheboulderclayanddriftasrestinguponthechalk.Thatisnotstrictlytrue.Interposedbetweenthechalkandthedriftisacomparativelyinsignificantlayer,containingvegetablematter.Butthatlayertellsawonderfulhistory.Itisfullofstumpsoftreesstandingastheygrew.Fir-treesaretherewiththeircones,andhazel-busheswiththeirnuts;therestandthestoolsofoakandyewtrees,beechesandalders.Hencethisstratumisappropriatelycalledthe"forest-bed."

Itisobviousthatthechalkmusthavebeenupheavedandconvertedintodryland,beforethetimbertreescouldgrowuponit.Asthebollsof

someofthesetreesarefromtwotothreefeetindiameter,itisnolessclearthatthedrylandthusformedremainedinthesameconditionforlongages.Andnotonlydotheremainsofstatelyoaksandwell-grownfirstestifytothedurationofthisconditionofthings,butadditionalevidencetothesameeffectisaffordedbytheabundantremainsofelephants,rhinoceroses,hippopotamuses,andothergreatwildbeasts,whichithasyieldedtothezealoussearchofsuchmenastheRev.Mr.Gunn.

Whenyoulookatsuchacollectionashehasformed,andbethinkyouthattheseelephantinebonesdidveritablycarrytheirownersabout,andthesegreatgrinderscrunch,inthedarkwoodsofwhichtheforest-bedisnowtheonlytrace,itisimpossiblenottofeelthatthey

areasgoodevidenceofthelapseoftimeastheannualringsofthetree-stumps.

ThusthereisawritinguponthewallofcliffsatCromer,andwhosorunsmayreadit.Ittellsus,withanauthoritywhichcannotbeimpeached,thattheancientsea-bedofthechalkseawasraisedup,andremaineddryland,untilitwascoveredwithforest,stockedwiththegreatgamewhosespoilshaverejoicedyourgeologists.Howlongitremainedinthatconditioncannotbesaid;but"thewhirligigoftimebroughtitsrevenges"inthosedaysasinthese.Thatdryland,withthebonesandteethofgenerationsoflong-livedelephants,hiddenawayamongthegnarledrootsanddryleavesofitsancienttrees,sankgraduallytothebottomoftheicysea,whichcovereditwithhuge

massesofdriftandboulderclay.Sea-beasts,suchasthewalrus,nowrestrictedtotheextremenorth,paddledaboutwherebirdshadtwitteredamongthetopmosttwigsofthefir-trees.Howlongthisstateofthingsenduredweknownot,butatlengthitcametoanend.TheupheavedglacialmudhardenedintothesoilofmodernNorfolk.Forestsgrewoncemore,thewolfandthebeaverreplacedthereindeerandtheelephant;andatlengthwhatwecallthehistoryofEnglanddawned.

Thusyouhave,withinthelimitsofyourowncounty,proofthatthechalkcanjustlyclaimaverymuchgreaterantiquitythaneventhe



belongedtothemoderntype,anddiffersimplyintheirproportions,andinsuchstructuralparticularsasarediscernibleonlytotrainedeyes.

Howistheexistenceofthislongsuccessionofdifferentspeciesofcrocodilestobeaccountedfor?

Onlytwosuppositionsseemtobeopentous--Eithereachspeciesofcrocodilehasbeenspeciallycreated,orithasarisenoutofsomepre-existingformbytheoperationofnaturalcauses.

Chooseyourhypothesis;Ihavechosenmine.Icanfindnowarrantyforbelievinginthedistinctcreationofascoreofsuccessivespeciesofcrocodilesinthecourseofcountlessagesoftime.Sciencegivesnocountenancetosuchawildfancy;norcaneventheperverseingenuityofacommentatorpretendtodiscoverthissense,inthesimplewordsinwhichthewriterofGenesisrecordstheproceedingsofthefifthandsixthdaysoftheCreation.

Ontheotherhand,Iseenogoodreasonfordoubtingthenecessaryalternative,thatallthesevariedspecieshavebeenevolvedfrompre-existingcrocodilianforms,bytheoperationofcausesascompletelyapartofthecommonorderofnature,asthosewhichhaveeffectedthechangesoftheinorganicworld.

Fewwillventuretoaffirmthatthereasoningwhichappliestocrocodileslosesitsforceamongotheranimals,oramongplants.Ifoneseriesofspecieshascomeintoexistencebytheoperationofnaturalcauses,itseemsfollytodenythatallmayhaveariseninthesameway.

Asmallbeginninghasledustoagreatending.IfIweretoputthebitofchalkwithwhichwestartedintothehotbutobscureflameofburninghydrogen,itwouldpresentlyshinelikethesun.Itseemstomethatthisphysicalmetamorphosisisnofalseimageofwhathasbeentheresultofoursubjectingittoajetoffervent,thoughnowisebrilliant,thoughtto-night.Ithasbecomeluminous,anditsclearrays,penetratingtheabyssoftheremotepast,havebroughtwithinourken

somestagesoftheevolutionoftheearth.Andintheshifting"withouthaste,butwithoutrest"ofthelandandsea,asintheendlessvariationoftheformsassumedbylivingbeings,wehaveobservednothingbutthenaturalproductoftheforcesoriginallypossessedbythesubstanceoftheuniverse.

FOOTNOTES:

[29]SeeAppendixtoCaptainDayman's"DeepSeaSoundingsintheNorthAtlanticOcean,betweenIrelandandNewfoundland,madeinH.M.S. _Cyclops_.PublishedbyorderoftheLordsCommissionersoftheAdmiralty,1858."TheyhavesinceformedthesubjectofanelaborateMemoirbyMessrs.ParkerandJones,publishedinthe_Philosophical

Transactions_for1865.

[30]DuringthecruiseofH.M.S._Bull-dog_,commandedbySirLeopoldM'Clintock,in1860,livingstar-fishwerebroughtup,clingingtothelowestpartofthesounding-line,fromadepthof1,260fathoms,midwaybetweenCapeFarewell,inGreenland,andtheRockallbanks.Dr.Wallichascertainedthatthesea-bottomatthispointconsistedoftheordinary _Globigerina_ooze,andthatthestomachsofthestar-fisheswerefullof_Globigerinæ_.Thisdiscoveryremovesallobjectionstotheexistenceofliving_Globigerinæ_atgreatdepths,whicharebaseduponthe



supposeddifficultyofmaintaininganimallifeundersuchconditions;anditthrowstheburdenofproofuponthosewhoobjecttothesuppositionthatthe_Globigerinæ_liveanddiewheretheyarefound.

[31]Ihaverecentlytracedoutthedevelopmentofthe"coccoliths"fromadiameterof1/7000thofaninchuptotheirlargestsize(whichisabout1/1600th),andnolongerdoubtthattheyareproducedbyindependentorganisms,which,likethe_Globigerinæ_,liveanddieatthebottomofthesea.

[32]"ElementsofGeology,"bySirCharlesLyell,Bart.F.R.S.,p.23.

X.

GEOLOGICALCONTEMPORANEITYANDPERSISTENTTYPESOFLIFE.

Merchantsoccasionallygothroughawholesome,thoughtroublesomeandnotalwayssatisfactory,processwhichtheyterm"takingstock."Afteralltheexcitementofspeculation,thepleasureofgain,andthepainofloss,thetradermakesuphismindtofacefactsandtolearntheexact

quantityandqualityofhissolidandreliablepossessions.Themanofsciencedoeswellsometimestoimitatethisprocedure;and,forgettingforthetimetheimportanceofhisownsmallwinnings,tore-examinethecommonstockintrade,sothathemaymakesurehowfarthestockofbullioninthecellar--onthefaithofwhoseexistencesomuchpaperhasbeencirculating--isreallythesolidgoldoftruth.

TheAnniversaryMeetingoftheGeologicalSocietyseemstobeanoccasionwellsuitedforanundertakingofthiskind--foraninquiry,infact,intothenatureandvalueofthepresentresultsofpalæontologicalinvestigation;andthemoreso,asallthosewhohavepaidcloseattentiontothelatemultitudinousdiscussionsinwhich

palæontologyisimplicated,musthavefelttheurgentnecessityofsomesuchscrutiny.

Firstinorder,asthemostdefiniteandunquestionableofalltheresultsofpalæontology,mustbementionedtheimmenseextensionandimpulsegiventobotany,zoology,andcomparativeanatomy,bytheinvestigationoffossilremains.Indeed,themassofbiologicalfactshasbeensogreatlyincreased,andtherangeofbiologicalspeculationhasbeensovastlywidened,bytheresearchesofthegeologistandpalæontologist,thatitistobefearedtherearenaturalistsinexistencewholookupongeologyasBrindleyregardedrivers."Rivers,"saidthegreatengineer,"weremadetofeedcanals;"andgeology,some

seemtothink,wassolelycreatedtoadvancecomparativeanatomy.

Weresuchathoughtjustifiable,itcouldhardlyexpecttobereceivedwithfavourbythisassembly.Butitisnotjustifiable.Yourfavouritesciencehasherowngreataimsindependentofallothers;andif,notwithstandinghersteadydevotiontoherownprogress,shecanscattersuchrichalmsamonghersisters,itshouldberememberedthathercharityisofthesortthatdoesnotimpoverish,but"blessethhimthatgivesandhimthattakes."



Regardthematteraswewill,however,thefactsremain.Nearly40,000speciesofanimalsandplantshavebeenaddedtotheSystemaNaturæbypalæontologicalresearch.Thisisalivingpopulationequivalenttothatofanewcontinentinmerenumber;equivalenttothatofanewhemisphere,ifwetakeintoaccountthesmallpopulationofinsectsasyetfoundfossil,andthelargeproportionandpeculiarorganizationofmanyoftheVertebrata.

But,beyondthis,itisperhapsnottoomuchtosaythat,exceptforthenecessityofinterpretingpalæontologicalfacts,thelawsofdistributionwouldhavereceivedlesscarefulstudy;whilefewcomparativeanatomists(andthosenotofthefirstorder)wouldhavebeeninducedbymereloveofdetail,assuch,tostudytheminutiæofosteology,wereitnotthatinsuchminutiælietheonlykeystothemostinterestingriddlesofferedbytheextinctanimalworld.

Theseassuredlyaregreatandsolidgains.Surelyitismatterfornosmallcongratulationthatinhalfacentury(forpalæontology,thoughitdawnedearlier,cameintofulldayonlywithCuvier)asubordinatebranchofbiologyshouldhavedoubledthevalueandtheinterestofthewholegroupofsciencestowhichitbelongs.

Butthisisnotall.Alliedwithgeology,palæontologyhasestablishedtwolawsofinestimableimportance:thefirst,thatoneandthesame

areaoftheearth'ssurfacehasbeensuccessivelyoccupiedbyverydifferentkindsoflivingbeings;thesecond,thattheorderofsuccessionestablishedinonelocalityholdsgood,approximately,inall.

Thefirstoftheselawsisuniversalandirreversible;thesecondisaninductionfromavastnumberofobservations,thoughitmaypossibly,andevenprobably,havetoadmitofexceptions.Asaconsequenceofthesecondlaw,itfollowsthatapeculiarrelationfrequentlysubsistsbetweenseriesofstrata,containingorganicremains,indifferentlocalities.Theseriesresembleoneanother,notonlyinvirtueofageneralresemblanceoftheorganicremainsinthetwo,butalsoinvirtueofaresemblanceintheorderandcharacteroftheserial

successionineach.Thereisaresemblanceofarrangement;sothattheseparatetermsofeachseries,aswellasthewholeseries,exhibitacorrespondence.

Successionimpliestime;thelowermembersofaseriesofsedimentaryrocksarecertainlyolderthantheupper;andwhenthenotionofagewasonceintroducedastheequivalentofsuccession,itwasnowonderthatcorrespondenceinsuccessioncametobelookeduponascorrespondenceinage,or"contemporaneity."And,indeed,solongasrelativeageonlyisspokenof,correspondenceinsuccession_is_correspondenceinage;itis_relative_contemporaneity.

Butitwouldhavebeenverymuchbetterforgeologyifsolooseandambiguousawordas"contemporaneous"hadbeenexcludedfromherterminology,andif,initsstead,sometermexpressingsimilarityofserialrelation,andexcludingthenotionoftimealtogether,hadbeenemployedtodenotecorrespondenceinpositionintwoormoreseriesofstrata.

Inanatomy,wheresuchcorrespondenceofpositionhasconstantlytobespokenof,itisdenotedbytheword"homology"anditsderivatives;andforGeology(whichafterallisonlytheanatomyandphysiologyofthe



earth)itmightbewelltoinventsomesingleword,suchas"homotaxis"(similarityoforder),inordertoexpressanessentiallysimilaridea.This,however,hasnotbeendone,andmostprobablytheinquirywillatoncebemade--Towhatendburdensciencewithanewandstrangeterminplaceofoneold,familiar,andpartofourcommonlanguage?

Thereplytothisquestionwillbecomeobviousastheinquiryintotheresultsofpalæontologyispushedfurther.

Thosewhosebusinessitistoacquaintthemselvesspeciallywiththeworksofpalæontologists,infact,willbefullyawarethatveryfew,ifany,wouldrestsatisfiedwithsuchastatementoftheconclusionsoftheirbranchofbiologyasthatwhichhasjustbeengiven.

Ourstandardrepertoriesofpalæontologyprofesstoteachusfarhigherthings--todisclosetheentiresuccessionoflivingformsuponthesurfaceoftheglobe;totellusofawhollydifferentdistributionofclimaticconditionsinancienttimes;torevealthecharacterofthefirstofalllivingexistences;andtotraceoutthelawofprogressfromthemtous.

Itmaynotbeunprofitabletobestowontheseprofessionsasomewhatmorecriticalexaminationthantheyhavehithertoreceived,inordertoascertainhowfartheyrestonanirrefragablebasis;orwhether,after

all,itmightnotbewellforpalæontologiststolearnalittlemorecarefullythatscientific"arsartium,"theartofsaying"Idon'tknow."Andtothisendletusdefinesomewhatmoreexactlytheextentofthesepretensionsofpalæontology.

EveryoneisawarethatProfessorBronn's"Untersuchungen"andProfessorPictet's"TraitédePaléontologie"areworksofstandardauthority,familiarlyconsultedbyeveryworkingpalæontologist.Itisdesirabletospeakoftheseexcellentbooks,andoftheirdistinguishedauthors,withtheutmostrespect,andinatoneasfaraspossibleremovedfromcarpingcriticism;indeed,iftheyarespeciallycitedinthisplace,itismerelyinjustificationoftheassertionthatthefollowingpropositions,whichmaybefoundimplicitly,orexplicitly,intheworks

inquestion,areregardedbythemassofpalæontologistsandgeologists,notonlyontheContinentbutinthiscountry,asexpressingsomeofthebest-establishedresultsofpalæontology.Thus:--

Animalsandplantsbegantheirexistencetogether,notlongafterthecommencementofthedepositionofthesedimentaryrocks;andthensucceededoneanother,insuchamanner,thattotallydistinctfaunasandfloræoccupiedthewholesurfaceoftheearth,oneaftertheother,andduringdistinctepochsoftime.

Ageologicalformationisthesumofallthestratadepositedoverthewholesurfaceoftheearthduringoneoftheseepochs:ageologicalfaunaorfloraisthesumofallthespeciesofanimalsorplantswhich

occupiedthewholesurfaceoftheglobe,duringoneoftheseepochs.

Thepopulationoftheearth'ssurfacewasatfirstverysimilarinallparts,andonlyfromthemiddleoftheTertiaryepochonwards,begantoshowadistinctdistributioninzones.

Theconstitutionoftheoriginalpopulation,aswellasthenumericalproportionsofitsmembers,indicatesawarmerand,onthewhole,somewhattropicalclimate,whichremainedtolerablyequablethroughouttheyear.Thesubsequentdistributionoflivingbeingsinzonesisthe



resultofagradualloweringofthegeneraltemperature,whichfirstbegantobefeltatthepoles.

Itisnotnowproposedtoinquirewhetherthesedoctrinesaretrueorfalse;buttodirectyourattentiontoamuchsimplerthoughveryessentialpreliminaryquestion--Whatistheirlogicalbasis?whatarethefundamentalassumptionsuponwhichtheyalllogicallydepend?andwhatistheevidenceonwhichthosefundamentalpropositionsdemandourassent?

Theseassumptionsaretwo:thefirst,thatthecommencementofthegeologicalrecordiscoevalwiththecommencementoflifeontheglobe;thesecond,thatgeologicalcontemporaneityisthesamethingaschronologicalsynchrony.Withoutthefirstoftheseassumptionstherewouldofcoursebenogroundforanystatementrespectingthecommencementoflife;withoutthesecond,alltheotherstatementscited,everyoneofwhichimpliesaknowledgeofthestateofdifferentpartsoftheearthatoneandthesametime,willbenolessdevoidofdemonstration.

Thefirstassumptionobviouslyrestsentirelyonnegativeevidence.Thisis,ofcourse,theonlyevidencethatevercanbeavailabletoprovethecommencementofanyseriesofphænomena;but,atthesametime,itmust

berecollectedthatthevalueofnegativeevidencedependsentirelyontheamountofpositivecorroborationitreceives.IfA.B.wishestoprovean_alibi_,itisofnouseforhimtogetathousandwitnessessimplytoswearthattheydidnotseehiminsuchandsuchaplace,unlessthewitnessesarepreparedtoprovethattheymusthaveseenhimhadhebeenthere.ButtheevidencethatanimallifecommencedwiththeLingula-flags,_e.g._,wouldseemtobeexactlyofthisunsatisfactoryuncorroboratedsort.TheCambrianwitnessessimplyswearthey"haven'tseenanybodytheirway;"uponwhichthecounselfortheothersideimmediatelyputsintenortwelvethousandfeetofDevoniansandstonestomakeoaththeyneversawafishoramollusk,thoughalltheworldknowstherewereplentyintheirtime.

Butthenitisurgedthat,thoughtheDevonianrocksinonepartoftheworldexhibitnofossils,inanothertheydo,whilethelowerCambrianrocksnowhereexhibitfossils,andhencenolivingbeingcouldhaveexistedintheirepoch.

Tothistherearetworeplies:thefirst,thattheobservationalbasisoftheassertionthatthelowestrocksarenowherefossiliferousisanamazinglysmallone,seeinghowverysmallanarea,incomparisontothatofthewholeworld,hasyetbeenfullysearched;thesecond,thattheargumentisgoodfornothingunlesstheunfossiliferousrocksinquestionwerenotonly_contemporaneous_inthegeologicalsense,but _synchronous_inthechronologicalsense.Tousethe_alibi_ illustrationagain.Ifamanwishestoprovehewasinneitheroftwo

places,AandB,onagivenday,hiswitnessesforeachplacemustbepreparedtoanswerforthewholeday.IftheycanonlyprovethathewasnotatAinthemorning,andnotatBintheafternoon,theevidenceofhisabsencefrombothis_nil_,becausehemighthavebeenatBinthemorningandatAintheafternoon.

Thuseverythingdependsuponthevalidityofthesecondassumption.Andwemustproceedtoinquirewhatistherealmeaningoftheword"contemporaneous"asemployedbygeologists.Tothisendaconcreteexamplemaybetaken.



TheLiasofEnglandandtheLiasofGermany,theCretaceousrocksofBritainandtheCretaceousrocksofSouthernIndia,aretermedbygeologists"contemporaneous"formations;butwheneveranythoughtfulgeologistisaskedwhetherhemeanstosaythattheyweredepositedsynchronously,hesays,"No,--onlywithinthesamegreatepoch."Andif,inpursuingtheinquiry,heisaskedwhatmaybetheapproximatevalueintimeofa"greatepoch"--whetheritmeansahundredyears,orathousand,oramillion,ortenmillionyears--hisreplyis,"Icannottell."

Ifthefurtherquestionbeput,whetherphysicalgeologyisinpossessionofanymethodbywhichtheactualsynchrony(orthereverse)ofanytwodistantdepositscanbeascertained,nosuchmethodcanbeheardof;itbeingadmittedbyallthebestauthoritiesthatneithersimilarityofmineralcomposition,norofphysicalcharacter,norevendirectcontinuityofstratum,are_absolute_proofsofthesynchronismofevenapproximatedsedimentarystrata:while,fordistantdeposits,thereseemstobenokindofphysicalevidenceattainableofanaturecompetenttodecidewhethersuchdepositswereformedsimultaneously,orwhethertheypossessanygivendifferenceofantiquity.Toreturntoanexamplealreadygiven.Allcompetentauthoritieswillprobablyassenttothepropositionthatphysicalgeologydoesnotenableusinanywaytoreplytothisquestion--WeretheBritishCretaceousrocksdepositedat

thesametimeasthoseofIndia,oraretheyamillionofyearsyoungeroramillionofyearsolder?

Ispalæontologyabletosucceedwherephysicalgeologyfails?Standardwritersonpalæontology,ashasbeenseen,assumethatshecan.Theytakeitforgranted,thatdepositscontainingsimilarorganicremainsaresynchronous--atanyrateinabroadsense;andyet,thosewhowillstudytheeleventhandtwelfthchaptersofSirHenryDelaBeche'sremarkable"ResearchesinTheoreticalGeology,"publishednownearlythirtyyearsago,andwillcarryouttheargumentstheremostluminouslystated,totheirlogicalconsequences,mayveryeasilyconvincethemselvesthatevenabsoluteidentityoforganiccontentsisnoproofofthesynchronyofdeposits,whileabsolutediversityisnoproofof

differenceofdate.SirHenryDelaBechegoesevenfurther,andadducesconclusiveevidencetoshowthatthedifferentpartsofoneandthesamestratum,havingasimilarcompositionthroughout,containingthesameorganicremains,andhavingsimilarbedsaboveandbelowit,mayyetdiffertoanyconceivableextentinage.

EdwardForbeswasinthehabitofassertingthatthesimilarityoftheorganiccontentsofdistantformationswas_primâfacie_evidence,notoftheirsimilarity,butoftheirdifferenceofage;andholdingashedidthedoctrineofsinglespecificcentres,theconclusionwasaslegitimateasanyother;forthetwodistrictsmusthavebeenoccupiedbymigrationfromoneofthetwo,orfromanintermediatespot,andthechancesagainstexactcoincidenceofmigrationandofimbeddingare

infinite.

Inpointoffact,however,whetherthehypothesisofsingleorofmultiplespecificcentresbeadopted,similarityoforganiccontentscannotpossiblyaffordanyproofofthesynchronyofthedepositswhichcontainthem;onthecontrary,itisdemonstrablycompatiblewiththelapseofthemostprodigiousintervalsoftime,andwithinterpositionofvastchangesintheorganicandinorganicworlds,betweentheepochsinwhichsuchdepositswereformed.



OnwhatamountofsimilarityoftheirfaunæisthedoctrineofthecontemporaneityoftheEuropeanandoftheNorthAmericanSiluriansbased?InthelasteditionofSirCharlesLyell's"ElementaryGeology"itisstated,ontheauthorityofaformerPresidentofthisSociety,thelateDanielSharpe,thatbetween30and40percent.ofthespeciesofSilurianMolluscaarecommontobothsidesoftheAtlantic.Bywayofdueallowanceforfurtherdiscovery,letusdoublethelessernumberandsupposethat60percent.ofthespeciesarecommontotheNorthAmericanandtheBritishSilurians.Sixtypercent.ofspeciesincommonis,then,proofofcontemporaneity.

Nowsupposethat,amillionortwoofyearshence,whenBritainhasmadeanotherdipbeneaththeseaandhascomeupagain,somegeologistappliesthisdoctrine,incomparingthestratalaidbarebytheupheavalofthebottom,say,ofSt.George'sChannelwithwhatmaythenremainoftheSuffolkCrag.Reasoninginthesameway,hewillatoncedecidetheSuffolkCragandtheSt.George'sChannelbedstobecontemporaneous;althoughwehappentoknowthatavastperiod(eveninthegeologicalsense)oftime,andphysicalchangesofalmostunprecedentedextent,separatethetwo.

Butifitbeademonstrablefactthatstratacontainingmorethan60or70percent.ofspeciesofMolluscaincommon,andcomparativelyclosetogether,mayyetbeseparatedbyanamountofgeologicaltime

sufficienttoallowofsomeofthegreatestphysicalchangestheworldhasseen,whatbecomesofthatsortofcontemporaneitythesoleevidenceofwhichisasimilarityoffacies,ortheidentityofhalfadozenspecies,orofagoodmanygenera?

Andyetthereisnobetterevidenceforthecontemporaneityassumedbyallwhoadoptthehypothesesofuniversalfaunæandfloræ,ofauniversallyuniformclimate,andofasensiblecoolingoftheglobeduringgeologicaltime.

Thereseems,then,noescapefromtheadmissionthatneitherphysicalgeology,norpalæontology,possessesanymethodbywhichtheabsolutesynchronismoftwostratacanbedemonstrated.Allthatgeologycan

proveislocalorderofsuccession.Itismathematicallycertainthat,inanygivenverticallinearsectionofanundisturbedseriesofsedimentarydeposits,thebedwhichlieslowestistheoldest.Inanyotherverticallinearsectionofthesameseries,ofcourse,correspondingbedswilloccurinasimilarorder;but,howevergreatmaybetheprobability,nomancansaywithabsolutecertaintythatthebedsinthetwosectionsweresynchronouslydeposited.Forareasofmoderateextent,itisdoubtlesstruethatnopracticalevilislikelytoresultfromassumingthecorrespondingbedstobesynchronousorstrictlycontemporaneous;andtherearemultitudesofaccessorycircumstanceswhichmayfullyjustifytheassumptionofsuchsynchrony.Butthemomentthegeologisthastodealwithlargeareas,orwithcompletelyseparateddeposits,themischiefofconfoundingthat"homotaxis"or"similarityof

arrangement,"which_can_bedemonstrated,with"synchrony"or"identityofdate,"forwhichthereisnotashadowofproof,undertheonecommontermof"contemporaneity"becomesincalculable,andprovestheconstantsourceofgratuitousspeculations.

Foranythingthatgeologyorpalæontologyareabletoshowtothecontrary,aDevonianfaunaandfloraintheBritishIslandsmayhavebeencontemporaneouswithSilurianlifeinNorthAmerica,andwithaCarboniferousfaunaandflorainAfrica.GeographicalprovincesandzonesmayhavebeenasdistinctlymarkedinthePalæozoicepochasat



present,andthoseseeminglysuddenappearancesofnewgeneraandspecies,whichweascribetonewcreation,maybesimpleresultsofmigration.

Itmaybeso;itmaybeotherwise.Inthepresentconditionofourknowledgeandofourmethods,oneverdict--"notproven,andnotproveable"--mustberecordedagainstallthegrandhypothesesofthepalæontologistrespectingthegeneralsuccessionoflifeontheglobe.Theorderandnatureofterrestriallife,asawhole,areopenquestions.Geologyatpresentprovidesuswithmostvaluabletopographicalrecords,butshehasnotthemeansofworkingthemupintoauniversalhistory.Issuchauniversalhistory,then,toberegardedasunattainable?Areallthegrandestandmostinterestingproblemswhichofferthemselvestothegeologicalstudentessentiallyinsoluble?IsheinthepositionofascientificTantalus--doomedalwaystothirstforaknowledgewhichhecannotobtain?Thereverseistobehoped;nay,itmaynotbeimpossibletoindicatethesourcewhencehelpwillcome.

Incommencingtheseremarks,mentionwasmadeofthegreatobligationsunderwhichthenaturalistliestothegeologistandpalæontologist.Assuredlythetimewillcomewhentheseobligationswillberepaidtenfold,andwhenthemazeoftheworld'spasthistory,throughwhichthepuregeologistandthepurepalæontologistfindnoguidance,willbesecurelythreadedbythecluefurnishedbythenaturalist.

Allwhoarecompetenttoexpressanopiniononthesubjectare,atpresent,agreedthatthemanifoldvarietiesofanimalandvegetableformhavenoteithercomeintoexistencebychance,norresultfromcapriciousexertionsofcreativepower;butthattheyhavetakenplaceinadefiniteorder,thestatementofwhichorderiswhatmenofsciencetermanaturallaw.Whethersuchalawistoberegardedasanexpressionofthemodeofoperationofnaturalforces,orwhetheritissimplyastatementofthemannerinwhichasupernaturalpowerhasthoughtfittoact,isasecondaryquestion,solongastheexistenceofthelawandthepossibilityofitsdiscoverybythehumanintellectaregranted.Buthemustbeahalf-heartedphilosopherwho,believinginthatpossibility,andhavingwatchedthegiganticstridesofthe

biologicalsciencesduringthelasttwentyyears,doubtsthatsciencewillsoonerorlatermakethisfurtherstep,soastobecomepossessedofthelawofevolutionoforganicforms--oftheunvaryingorderofthatgreatchainofcausesandeffectsofwhichallorganicforms,ancientandmodern,arethelinks.Andthen,ifever,weshallbeabletobegintodiscuss,withprofit,thequestionsrespectingthecommencementoflife,andthenatureofthesuccessivepopulationsoftheglobe,whichsomanyseemtothinkarealreadyanswered.

Theprecedingargumentsmakenoparticularclaimtonovelty;indeedtheyhavebeenfloatingmoreorlessdistinctlybeforethemindsofgeologistsforthelastthirtyyears;andif,atthepresenttime,it

hasseemeddesirabletogivethemmoredefiniteandsystematicexpression,itisbecausepalæontologyiseverydayassumingagreaterimportance,andnowrequirestorestonabasisthefirmnessofwhichisthoroughlywellassured.Amongitsfundamentalconceptions,theremustbenoconfusionbetweenwhatiscertainandwhatismoreorlessprobable.[33]But,pendingtheconstructionofasurerfoundationthanpalæontologynowpossesses,itmaybeinstructive,assumingforthenoncethegeneralcorrectnessoftheordinaryhypothesisofgeologicalcontemporaneity,toconsiderwhetherthedeductionswhichareordinarilydrawnfromthewholebodyofpalæontologicalfactsarejustifiable.



Theevidenceonwhichsuchconclusionsarebasedisoftwokinds,negativeandpositive.Thevalueofnegativeevidence,inconnexionwiththisinquiry,hasbeensofullyandclearlydiscussedinanaddressfromthechairofthisSociety,[34]whichnoneofushaveforgotten,thatnothingneedatpresentbesaidaboutit;themore,astheconsiderationswhichhavebeenlaidbeforeyouhavecertainlynottendedtoincreaseyourestimationofsuchevidence.Itwillbepreferabletoturntothepositivefactsofpalæontology,andtoinquirewhattheytellus.

Weareallaccustomedtospeakofthenumberandtheextentofthechangesinthelivingpopulationoftheglobeduringgeologicaltimeassomethingenormous;andindeedtheyareso,ifweregardonlythenegativedifferenceswhichseparatetheolderrocksfromthemoremodern,andifwelookuponspecificandgenericchangesasgreatchanges,whichfromonepointofviewtheytrulyare.Butleavingthenegativedifferencesoutofconsideration,andlookingonlyatthepositivedatafurnishedbythefossilworldfromabroaderpointofview--fromthatofthecomparativeanatomistwhohasmadethestudyofthegreatermodificationsofanimalformhischiefbusiness--asurpriseofanotherkinddawnsuponthemind;andunder_this_aspectthesmallnessofthetotalchangebecomesasastonishingaswasitsgreatnessundertheother.

Therearetwohundredknownordersofplants;ofthesenotoneiscertainlyknowntoexistexclusivelyinthefossilstate.Thewholelapseofgeologicaltimehasasyetyieldednotasinglenewordinaltypeofvegetablestructure.[35]

Thepositivechangeinpassingfromtherecenttotheancientanimalworldisgreater,butstillsingularlysmall.Nofossilanimalissodistinctfromthosenowlivingastorequiretobearrangedeveninaseparateclassfromthosewhich,containexistingforms.Itisonlywhenwecometotheorders,whichmayberoughlyestimatedataboutahundredandthirty,thatwemeetwithfossilanimalssodistinctfromthosenowlivingastorequireordersforthemselves;andthesedonot

amount,onthemostliberalestimate,tomorethanabout10percent,ofthewhole.

ThereisnocertainlyknownextinctorderofProtozoa;thereisbutoneamongtheCoelenterata--thatoftherugosecorals;thereisnoneamongtheMollusca;therearethree,theCystidea,Blastoidea,andEdrioasterida,amongtheEchinoderms;andtwo,theTrilobitaandEurypterida,amongtheCrustacea;makingaltogetherfiveforthegreatsub-kingdomofAnnulosa.AmongVertebratesthereisnoordinallydistinctfossilfish:thereisonlyoneextinctorderofAmphibia--theLabyrinthodonts;butthereareatleastfourdistinctordersofReptilia,viz.theIchthyosauria,Plesiosauria,Pterosauria,Dinosauria,andperhapsanotherortwo.ThereisnoknownextinctorderofBirds,

andnocertainlyknownextinctorderofMammals,theordinaldistinctnessofthe"Toxodontia"beingdoubtful.

Theobjectionthatbroadstatementsofthiskind,afterall,restlargelyonnegativeevidenceisobvious,butithaslessforcethanmayatfirstbesupposed;for,asmightbeexpectedfromthecircumstancesofthecase,wepossessmoreabundantpositiveevidenceregardingFishesandmarineMollusksthanrespectinganyotherformsofanimallife;andyettheseofferus,throughthewholerangeofgeologicaltime,nospeciesordinarilydistinctfromthosenowliving;whilethefarless



identicalintheessentialcharactersoftheirorganizationwiththosenowliving,anddifferingfromthelatteronlyinsuchmattersastheformofthearticularfacetsofthevertebralcentra,intheextenttowhichthenasalpassagesareseparatedfromthecavityofthemouthbybone,andintheproportionsofthelimbs.

AndevenasregardstheMammalia,thescantyremainsofTriassicandOoliticspeciesaffordnofoundationforthesuppositionthattheorganizationoftheoldestformsdifferednearlysomuchfromsomeofthosewhichnowliveasthesedifferfromoneanother.

Itisneedlesstomultiplytheseinstances;enoughhasbeensaidtojustifythestatementthat,inviewoftheimmensediversityofknownanimalandvegetableforms,andtheenormouslapseoftimeindicatedbytheaccumulationoffossiliferousstrata,theonlycircumstancetobewonderedatis,notthatthechangesoflife,asexhibitedbypositiveevidence,havebeensogreat,butthattheyhavebeensosmall.

Betheygreatorsmall,however,itisdesirabletoattempttoestimatethem.Letus,therefore,takeeachgreatdivisionoftheanimalworldinsuccession,and,wheneveranorderorafamilycanbeshowntohavehadaprolongedexistence,letusendeavourtoascertainhowfarthelatermembersofthegroupdifferfromtheearlierones.Iftheselater

members,inallorinmanycases,exhibitacertainamountofmodification,thefactissofar,evidenceinfavourofagenerallawofchange;and,inaroughway,therapidityofthatchangewillbemeasuredbythedemonstrableamountofmodification.Ontheotherhand,itmustberecollectedthattheabsenceofanymodification,whileitmayleavethedoctrineoftheexistenceofalawofchangewithoutpositivesupport,cannotpossiblydisproveallformsofthatdoctrine,thoughitmayaffordasufficientrefutationofmanyofthem.

ThePROTOZOA.--TheProtozoaarerepresentedthroughoutthewholerangeofgeologicalseries,fromtheLowerSilurianformationtothepresentday.ThemostancientformsrecentlymadeknownbyEhrenbergareexceedinglylikethosewhichnowexist:noonehaseverpretended

thatthedifferencebetweenanyancientandanymodernForaminiferaisofmorethangenericvalue;noraretheoldestForaminiferaeithersimpler,moreembryonic,orlessdifferentiated,thantheexistingforms.

TheCoeLENTERATA.--TheTabulateCoralshaveexistedfromtheSilurianepochtothepresentday,butIamnotawarethattheancient _Heliolites_possessesasinglemarkofamoreembryonicorlessdifferentiatedcharacter,orlesshighorganization,thantheexisting _Heliopora_.AsfortheAporoseCorals,inwhatrespectistheSilurian _Paloeocydus_lesshighlyorganizedormoreembryonicthanthemodern _Fungia_,ortheLiassicAporosathantheexistingmembersofthesamefamilies?

The_Mollusca_.--Inwhatsenseistheliving_Waldheimia_lessembryonic,ormorespecialized,thanthepalæozoic_Spirifer_;ortheexisting_Rhynchonellæ_,_Craniæ_,_Discinæ_,_Lingulæ_,thantheSilurianspeciesofthesamegenera?Inwhatsensecan_Loligo_or _Spirula_besaidtobemorespecialized,orlessembryonic,than _Belemnites_;orthemodernspeciesofLamellibranchandGasteropodgenera,thantheSilurianspeciesofthesamegenera?

TheANNULOSA.--TheCarboniferousInsectaandArachnidaare



neitherlessspecialized,normoreembryonic,thanthosethatnowlive,noraretheLiassicCirripediaandMacrura;whileseveraloftheBrachyura,whichappearintheChalk,belongtoexistinggenera;andnoneexhibiteitheranintermediate,oranembryonic,character.

TheVERTEBRATA.--AmongfishesIhavereferredtotheCoelacanthini(comprisingthegenera_Coelacanthus_,_Holophagus_, _Undina_,and_Macropoma_)asaffordinganexampleofapersistenttype;anditismostremarkabletonotethesmallnessofthedifferencesbetweenanyofthesefishes(affectingatmosttheproportionsofthebodyandfins,andthecharacterandsculptureofthescales),notwithstandingtheirenormousrangeintime.Inalltheessentialsofitsverypeculiarstructure,the_Macropoma_oftheChalkisidenticalwiththe_Coelacanthus_oftheCoal.Lookatthegenus_Lepidotus_,again,persistingwithoutamodificationofimportancefromtheLiassictotheEoceneformations,inclusive.

OramongtheTeleostei--inwhatrespectisthe_Beryx_oftheChalkmoreembryonic,orlessdifferentiated,than_Beryxlineatus_ofKingGeorge'sSound?

OrtoturntothehigherVertebrata--inwhatsensearetheLiassicCheloniainferiortothosewhichnowexist?HowaretheCretaceousIchthyosauria,Plesiosauria,orPterosaurialessembryonic,ormore

differentiated,speciesthanthoseoftheLias?Orlastly,inwhatcircumstanceisthe_Phascolotherium_moreembryonic,orofamoregeneralizedtype,thanthemodernOpossum;ora _Lophiodon_,ora_Palæotherium_,thanamodern_Tapirus_or_Hyrax_?

Theseexamplesmightbealmostindefinitelymultiplied,butsurelytheyaresufficienttoprovethattheonlysafeandunquestionabletestimonywecanprocure--positiveevidence--failstodemonstrateanysortofprogressivemodificationtowardsalessembryonic,orlessgeneralized,typeinagreatmanygroupsofanimalsoflong-continuedgeologicalexistence.Inthesegroupsthereisabundantevidenceofvariation--noneofwhatisordinarilyunderstoodasprogression;and,iftheknown

geologicalrecordistoberegardedasevenanyconsiderablefragmentofthewhole,itisinconceivablethatanytheoryofanecessarilyprogressivedevelopmentcanstand,forthenumerousordersandfamiliescitedaffordnotraceofsuchaprocess.

Butitisamostremarkablefact,that,whilethegroupswhichhavebeenmentioned,andmanybesides,exhibitnosignofprogressivemodification,thereareothers,coexistingwiththem,underthesameconditions,inwhichmoreorlessdistinctindicationsofsuchaprocessseemtobetraceable.AmongsuchindicationsImayremindyouofthepredominanceofHolostomeGasteropodaintheolderrocksascomparedwiththatofSiphonostomeGasteropodainthelater.Acaselessopentotheobjectionofnegativeevidence,however,isthataffordedbythe

TetrabranchiateCephalopoda,theformsoftheshellsandoftheseptalsuturesexhibitingacertainincreaseofcomplexityinthenewergenera.Here,however,oneismetatoncewiththeoccurrenceof_Orthoceras_ and_Baculites_atthetwoendsoftheseries,andofthefactthatoneofthesimplestgenera,_Nautilus_,isthatwhichnowexists.

TheCrinoidea,intheabundanceofstalkedformsintheancientformationsascomparedwiththeirpresentrarity,seemtopresentuswithafaircaseofmodificationfromamoreembryonictowardsalessembryoniccondition.Butthen,oncarefulconsiderationofthefacts,



theobjectionarisesthatthestalk,calyx,andarmsofthepalæozoicCrinoidareexceedinglydifferentfromthecorrespondingorgansofalarval_Comatula_;anditmightwithperfectjusticebearguedthat _Actinocrinus_and_Eucalyptocrinus_,forexample,departtothefullaswidely,inonedirection,fromthestalkedembryoof_Comatula_,as _Comatula_itselfdoesintheother.

TheEchinidea,again,arefrequentlyquotedasexhibitingagradualpassagefromamoregeneralizedtoamorespecializedtype,seeingthattheelongated,oroval,SpatangoidsappearafterthespheroidalEchinoids.Buthereitmightbeargued,ontheotherhand,thatthespheroidalEchinoids,inreality,departfurtherfromthegeneralplanandfromtheembryonicformthantheelongatedSpatangoidsdo;andthatthepeculiardentalapparatusandthepedicellariæoftheformeraremarksofatleastasgreatdifferentiationasthepetaloidambulacraandsemitæofthelatter.

Oncemore,theprevalenceofMacrurousbeforeBrachyurousPodophthalmiais,apparently,afairpieceofevidenceinfavourofprogressivemodificationinthesameorderofCrustacea;andyetthecasewillnotstandmuchsifting,seeingthattheMacrurousPodophthalmiadepartasfarinonedirectionfromthecommontypeofPodophthalmia,orfromanyembryonicconditionoftheBrachyura,astheBrachyuradointheother;andthatthemiddletermsbetweenMacruraandBrachyura--the

Anomura--arelittlebetterrepresentedintheolderMesozoicrocksthantheBrachyuraare.

NoneofthecasesofprogressivemodificationwhicharecitedfromamongtheInvertebrataappeartometohaveafoundationlessopentocriticismthanthese;andifthisbeso,nocarefulreasonerwould,Ithink,beinclinedtolayverygreatstressuponthem.AmongtheVertebrata,however,thereareafewexampleswhichappeartobefarlessopentoobjection.

Itis,infact,trueofseveralgroupsofVertebratawhichhavelivedthroughaconsiderablerangeoftime,thattheendoskeleton(moreparticularlythespinalcolumn)oftheoldergenerapresentsaless

ossified,and,sofar,lessdifferentiated,conditionthanthatoftheyoungergenera.ThustheDevonianGanoids,thoughalmostallmembersofthesamesub-orderas_Polypterus,_andpresentingnumerousimportantresemblancestotheexistinggenus,whichpossessesbiconcavevertebræ,are,forthemostpart,whollydevoidofossifiedvertebralcentra.TheMesozoicLepidosteidæ,again,have,atmost,biconcavevertebræ,whiletheexisting_Lepidosteus_hasSalamandroid,opisthocoelous,vertebræ.So,noneofthePalæozoicSharkshaveshownthemselvestobepossessedofossifiedvertebræ,whilethemajorityofmodernSharkspossesssuchvertebræ.Again,themoreancientCrocodiliaandLacertiliahavevertebræwiththearticularfacetsoftheircentraflattenedorbiconcave,whilethemodernmembersofthesamegrouphavethemprocoelous.Butthemostremarkableexamplesofprogressive

modificationofthevertebralcolumn,incorrespondencewithgeologicalage,arethoseaffordedbythePycnodontsamongfish,andtheLabyrinthodontsamongAmphibia.

ThelateableichthyologistHeckelpointedoutthefact,that,whilethePycnodontsneverpossesstruevertebralcentra,theydifferinthedegreeofexpansionandextensionoftheendsofthebonyarchesofthevertebræuponthesheathofthenotochord;theCarboniferousformsexhibitinghardlyanysuchexpansion,whiletheMesozoicgenerapresentagreaterandgreaterdevelopment,until,intheTertiaryforms,the



expandedendsbecomesuturallyunitedsoastoformasortoffalsevertebra.HermannvonMeyer,again,towhoseluminousresearchesweareindebtedforourpresentlargeknowledgeoftheorganizationoftheolderLabyrinthodonts,hasprovedthattheCarboniferous_Archegosaurus_ hadveryimperfectlydevelopedvertebralcentra,whiletheTriassic _Mastodonsaurus_hadthesamepartscompletelyossified.[38]

Theregularityandevennessofthedentitionofthe_Anoplotherium_,ascontrastedwiththatofexistingArtiodactyles,andtheassumednearerapproachofthedentitionofcertainancientCarnivorestothetypicalarrangement,havealsobeencitedasexemplificationsofalawofprogressivedevelopment,butIknowofnoothercasesbasedonpositiveevidencewhichareworthyofparticularnotice.

Whatthendoesanimpartialsurveyofthepositivelyascertainedtruthsofpalæontologytestifyinrelationtothecommondoctrinesofprogressivemodification,whichsupposethatmodificationtohavetakenplacebyanecessaryprogressfrommoretolessembryonicforms,orfrommoretolessgeneralizedtypes,withinthelimitsoftheperiodrepresentedbythefossiliferousrocks?

Itnegativesthosedoctrines;foriteithershowsusnoevidenceofanysuchmodification,ordemonstratesittohavebeenveryslight;andastothenatureofthatmodification,ityieldsnoevidencewhatsoever

thattheearliermembersofanylong-continuedgroupweremoregeneralizedinstructurethanthelaterones.Toacertainextent,indeed,itmaybesaidthatimperfectossificationofthevertebralcolumnisanembryoniccharacter;but,ontheotherhand,itwouldbeextremelyincorrecttosupposethatthevertebralcolumnsoftheolderVertebrataareinanysenseembryonicintheirwholestructure.

Obviously,iftheearliestfossiliferousrocksnowknownarecoevalwiththecommencementoflife,andiftheircontentsgiveusanyjustconceptionofthenatureandtheextentoftheearliestfaunaandflora,theinsignificantamountofmodificationwhichcanbedemonstratedtohavetakenplaceinanyonegroupofanimals,orplants,isquiteincompatiblewiththehypothesisthatalllivingformsaretheresults

ofanecessaryprocessofprogressivedevelopment,entirelycomprisedwithinthetimerepresentedbythefossiliferousrocks.

Contrariwise,anyadmissiblehypothesisofprogressivemodificationmustbecompatiblewithpersistencewithoutprogression,throughindefiniteperiods.Andshouldsuchanhypothesiseventuallybeprovedtobetrue,intheonlywayinwhichitcanbedemonstrated,viz.byobservationandexperimentupontheexistingformsoflife,theconclusionwillinevitablypresentitself,thatthePalæozoic,Mesozoic,andCainozoicfaunæandfloræ,takentogether,bearsomewhatthesameproportiontothewholeseriesoflivingbeingswhichhaveoccupiedthisglobe,astheexistingfaunaandfloradotothem.

Sucharetheresultsofpalæontologyastheyappear,andhaveforsomeyearsappeared,tothemindofaninquirerwhoregardsthatstudysimplyasoneoftheapplicationsofthegreatbiologicalsciences,andwhodesirestoseeitplaceduponthesamesoundbasisasotherbranchesofphysicalinquiry.Iftheargumentswhichhavebeenbroughtforwardarevalid,probablynoone,inviewofthepresentstateofopinion,willbeinclinedtothinkthetimewastedwhichhasbeenspentupontheirelaboration.

FOOTNOTES:



[33]"Leplusgrandservicequ'onpuisserendreàlascienceestd'yfaireplacenetteavantd'yrienconstruire."--CUVIER.

[34]AnniversaryAddressfor1851,Quart.Journ.Geol.Soc.vol.vii.

[35]SeeHooker's"IntroductoryEssaytotheFloraofTasmania,"p.xxiii.

[36]SeetheabstractofaLecture"OnthePersistentTypesofAnimalLife"inthe"NoticesoftheMeetingsoftheRoyalInstitutionofGreatBritain,"June3,1859,vol.iii.p.151.

[37]"MemoirsoftheGeologicalSurveyoftheUnitedKingdom.--Decadex.PreliminaryEssayupontheSystematicArrangementoftheFishesoftheDevonianEpoch."

[38]AsthisAddressispassingthroughthepress(March7,1862),evidenceliesbeforemeoftheexistenceofanewLabyrinthodont(_Pholidogaster_),fromtheEdinburghcoal-field,withwell-ossifiedvertebralcentra.

XI.

GEOLOGICALREFORM.

"Agreatreformingeologicalspeculationseemsnowtohavebecomenecessary."

"Itisquitecertainthatagreatmistakehasbeenmade,--thatBritishpopulargeologyatthepresenttimeisindirectoppositiontotheprinciplesofNaturalPhilosophy."[39]

Inreviewingthecourseofgeologicalthoughtduringthepastyear,forthepurposeofdiscoveringthosematterstowhichImightmostfitlydirectyourattentionintheAddresswhichitnowbecomesmydutytodeliverfromthePresidentialChair,thetwosomewhatalarmingsentenceswhichIhavejustread,andwhichoccurinanableandinterestingessaybyaneminentnaturalphilosopher,roseintosuchprominencebeforemymindthattheyeclipsedeverythingelse.

ItsurelyisamatterofparamountimportancefortheBritishgeologists(someofthemverypopulargeologiststoo)hereinsolemnannualsessionassembled,toinquirewhethertheseverejudgmentthuspasseduponthem,bysohighanauthorityasSirWilliamThomsonisonetowhichtheymustpleadguilty_sansphrase_,orwhethertheyarepreparedtosay

"notguilty,"andappealforareversalofthesentencetothathighercourtofeducatedscientificopiniontowhichweareallamenable.

Asyourattorney-generalforthetimebeing,IthoughtIcouldnotdobetterthangetupthecasewithaviewofadvisingyou.ItistruethatthechargesbroughtforwardbytheothersideinvolvetheconsiderationofmattersquiteforeigntothepursuitswithwhichIamordinarilyoccupied;but,inthatrespect,Iamonlyinthepositionwhichis,ninetimesoutoften,occupiedbycounsel,whoneverthelesscontrivetogaintheircauses,mainlybyforceofmother-witandcommonsense,aidedby



sometraininginotherintellectualexercises.

Nervedbysuchprecedents,Iproceedtoputmypleadingbeforeyou.

AndthefirstquestionwithwhichIproposetodealis,WhatisittowhichSirW.Thomsonreferswhenhespeaksof"geologicalspeculation"and"Britishpopulargeology"?

Ifindthree,moreorlesscontradictory,systemsofgeologicalthought,eachofwhichmightfairlyenoughclaimtheseappellations,standingsidebysideinBritain.IshallcalloneofthemCATASTROPHISM,anotherUNIFORMITARIANISM,thethirdEVOLUTIONISM;andIshalltrybrieflytosketchthecharactersofeach,thatyoumaysaywhethertheclassificationis,orisnot,exhaustive.

ByCATASTROPHISM,Imeananyformofgeologicalspeculationwhich,inordertoaccountforthephænomenaofgeology,supposestheoperationofforcesdifferentintheirnature,orimmeasurablydifferentinpower,fromthosewhichweatpresentseeinactionintheuniverse.

TheMosaiccosmogonyis,inthissense,catastrophic,becauseitassumestheoperationofextra-naturalpower.Thedoctrineofviolentupheavals,_débâcles_,andcataclysmsingeneral,iscatastrophic,sofarasitassumesthatthesewerebroughtaboutbycauseswhichhavenow

noparallel.Therewasatimewhencatastrophismmight,pre-eminently,haveclaimedthetitleof"Britishpopulargeology;"andassuredlyithasyetmanyadherents,andreckonsamongitssupporterssomeofthemosthonouredmembersofthisSociety.

ByUNIFORMITARIANISM,Imeanespecially,theteachingofHuttonandofLyell.

Thatgreat,thoughincompletework,"TheTheoryoftheEarth,"seemstometobeoneofthemostremarkablecontributionstogeologywhichisrecordedintheannalsofthescience.Sofarasthenot-livingworldisconcerned,uniformitarianismliesthere,notonlyingerm,butinblossomandfruit.

IfoneaskshowitisthatHuttonwasledtoentertainviewssofarinadvanceofthoseprevalentinhistime,insomerespects;while,inothers,theyseemalmostcuriouslylimited,theanswerappearstometobeplain.

Huttonwasinadvanceofthegeologicalspeculationofhistime,because,inthefirstplace,hehadamassedavaststoreofknowledgeofthefactsofgeology,gatheredbypersonalobservationintravelsofconsiderableextent;andbecause,inthesecondplace,hewasthoroughlytrainedinthephysicalandchemicalscienceofhisday,andthuspossessed,asmuchasanyoneinhistimecouldpossessit,theknowledgewhichisrequisiteforthejustinterpretationofgeological

phænomena,andthehabitofthoughtwhichfitsamanforscientificinquiry.

Itistothisthoroughscientifictraining,thatIascribeHutton'ssteadyandpersistentrefusaltolooktoothercausesthanthosenowinoperation,fortheexplanationofgeologicalphænomena.

Thushewrites:--"Idonotpretend,ashe[M.deLuc]doesinhistheory,todescribethebeginningofthings.ItakethingssuchasIfindthematpresent;andfromtheseIreasonwithregardtothatwhich



musthavebeen."[40]

Andagain:--"Atheoryoftheearth,whichhasforobjecttruth,canhavenoretrospecttothatwhichhadprecededthepresentorderoftheworld;forthisorderaloneiswhatwehavetoreasonupon;andtoreasonwithoutdataisnothingbutdelusion.Atheory,therefore,whichislimitedtotheactualconstitutionofthisearthcannotbeallowedtoproceedonestepbeyondthepresentorderofthings."[41]

Andsoclearishe,thatnocausesbesidesuchasarenowinoperationareneededtoaccountforthecharacteranddispositionofthecomponentsofthecrustoftheearth,thathesays,broadlyandboldly:--"...Thereisnopartoftheearthwhichhasnothadthesameorigin,sofarasthisconsistsinthatearthbeingcollectedatthebottomofthesea,andafterwardsproduced,asland,alongwithmassesofmeltedsubstances,bytheoperationofmineralcauses."[42]

ButotherinfluenceswereatworkuponHuttonbesidethoseofamindlogicalbyNature,andscientificbysoundtraining;andthepeculiarturnwhichhisspeculationstookseemstometobeunintelligible,unlessthesebetakenintoaccount.TheargumentsoftheFrenchastronomersandmathematicians,which,attheendofthelastcentury,wereheldtodemonstratetheexistenceofacompensatingarrangementamongthecelestialbodies,wherebyallperturbationseventuallyreduced

themselvestooscillationsoneachsideofameanposition,andthestabilityofthesolarsystemwassecured,hadevidentlytakenstrongholdofHutton'smind.

Inthoseoddlyconstructedperiodswhichseemtohaveprejudicedmanypersonsagainstreadinghisworks,butwhicharefullofthatpeculiar,ifunattractive,eloquencewhichflowsfrommasteryofthesubject,Huttonsays:--

"Wehavenowgottotheendofourreasoning;wehavenodatafurthertoconcludeimmediatelyfromthatwhichactuallyis.Butwehavegotenough;wehavethesatisfactiontofind,thatinNaturethereiswisdom,system,andconsistency.Forhaving,inthenaturalhistoryof

thisearth,seenasuccessionofworlds,wemayfromthisconcludethatthereisasysteminNature;inlikemanneras,fromseeingrevolutionsoftheplanets,itisconcluded,thatthereisasystembywhichtheyareintendedtocontinuethoserevolutions.ButifthesuccessionofworldsisestablishedinthesystemofNature,itisinvaintolookforanythinghigherintheoriginoftheearth.Theresult,therefore,ofthisphysicalinquiryis,thatwefindnovestigeofabeginning,--noprospectofanend."[43]

YetanotherinfluenceworkedstronglyuponHutton.Likemostphilosophersofhisage,hecoquettedwiththosefinalcauseswhichhavebeennamedbarrenvirgins,butwhichmightbemorefitlytermedthe _hetairæ_ofphilosophy,soconstantlyhavetheyledmenastray.The

finalcauseoftheexistenceoftheworldis,forHutton,theproductionoflifeandintelligence.

"Wehavenowconsideredtheglobeofthisearthasamachine,constructeduponchemicalaswellasmechanicalprinciples,bywhichitsdifferentpartsarealladapted,inform,inquality,andinquantity,toacertainend;anendattainedwithcertaintyorsuccess;andanendfromwhichwemayperceivewisdom,incontemplatingthemeansemployed.

"Butisthisworldtobeconsideredthusmerelyasamachine,tolastno



pursuitifIsaythatItraceacloseanalogybetweenthesetwohistories.

IfIstudyalivingbeing,underwhatheadsdoestheknowledgeIobtainfall?Icanlearnitsstructure,orwhatwecallitsANATOMY;anditsDEVELOPMENT,ortheseriesofchangeswhichitpassesthroughtoacquireitscompletestructure.ThenIfindthatthelivingbeinghascertainpowersresultingfromitsownactivities,andtheinteractionofthesewiththeactivitiesofotherthings--theknowledgeofwhichisPHYSIOLOGY.Beyondthisthelivingbeinghasapositioninspaceandtime,whichisitsDISTRIBUTION.Alltheseformthebodyofascertainablefactswhichconstitutethe_statusquo_ofthelivingcreature.Butthesefactshavetheircauses;andtheascertainmentofthesecausesisthedoctrineofÆTIOLOGY.

Ifweconsiderwhatisknowableabouttheearth,weshallfindthatsuchearth-knowledge--ifImaysotranslatethewordgeology--fallsintothesamecategories.

Whatistermedstratigraphicalgeologyisneithermorenorlessthantheanatomyoftheearth;andthehistoryofthesuccessionoftheformationsisthehistoryofasuccessionofsuchanatomies,orcorrespondswithdevelopment,asdistinctfromgeneration.

Theinternalheatoftheearth,theelevationanddepressionofitscrust,itsbelchingsforthofvapours,ashes,andlava,areitsactivities,inasstrictasense,asarewarmthandthemovementsandproductsofrespirationtheactivitiesofananimal.Thephænomenaoftheseasons,ofthetradewinds,oftheGulf-stream,areasmuchtheresultsofthereactionbetweentheseinneractivitiesandoutwardforces,asarethebuddingoftheleavesinspringandtheirfallinginautumntheeffectsoftheinteractionbetweentheorganizationofaplantandthesolarlightandheat.And,asthestudyoftheactivitiesofthelivingbeingiscalleditsphysiology,soarethesephænomenathesubject-matterofananalogoustelluricphysiology,towhichwesometimesgivethenameofmeteorology,sometimesthatofphysicalgeography,sometimesthatofgeology.Again,theearthhasaplacein

spaceandintime,andrelationstootherbodiesinboththeserespects,whichconstituteitsdistribution.Thissubjectisusuallylefttotheastronomer;butaknowledgeofitsbroadoutlinesseemstometobeanessentialconstituentofthestockofgeologicalideas.

Allthatcanbeascertainedconcerningthestructure,successionofconditions,actions,andpositioninspaceoftheearth,isthematteroffactofitsnaturalhistory.But,asinbiology,thereremainsthematterofreasoningfromthesefactstotheircauses,whichisjustasmuchscienceastheother,andindeedmore;andthisconstitutesgeologicalætiology.

Havingregardtothisgeneralschemeofgeologicalknowledgeand

thought,itisobviousthatgeologicalspeculationmaybe,sotospeak,anatomicalanddevelopmentalspeculation,sofarasitrelatestopointsofstratigraphicalarrangementwhichareoutofreachofdirectobservation;or,itmaybephysiologicalspeculation,sofarasitrelatestoundeterminedproblemsrelativetotheactivitiesoftheearth;or,itmaybedistributionalspeculation,ifitdealswithmodificationsoftheearth'splaceinspace;or,finally,itwillbeætiologicalspeculation,ifitattemptstodeducethehistoryoftheworld,asawhole,fromtheknownpropertiesofthematteroftheearth,intheconditionsinwhichtheearthhasbeenplaced.



ForthepurposesofthepresentdiscourseImaytakethislasttobewhatismeantby"geologicalspeculation."

Nowuniformitarianism,aswehaveseen,tendstoignoregeologicalspeculationinthissensealtogether.

Theonepointthecatastrophistsandtheuniformitariansagreedupon,whenthisSocietywasfounded,wastoignoreit.Andyouwillfind,ifyoulookbackintoourrecords,thatourreveredfathersingeologyplumedthemselvesagooddealuponthepracticalsenseandwisdomofthisproceeding.Asatemporarymeasure,Idonotpresumetochallengeitswisdom;butinallorganizedbodiestemporarychangesareapttoproducepermanenteffects;andastimehasslippedby,alteringalltheconditionswhichmayhavemadesuchmortificationofthescientificfleshdesirable,Ithinktheeffectofthestreamofcoldwaterwhichhassteadilyflowedovergeologicalspeculationwithinthesewalls,hasbeenofdoubtfulbeneficence.

ThesortofgeologicalspeculationtowhichIamnowreferring(geologicalætiology,inshort)wascreated,asascience,bythatfamousphilosopherImmanuelKant,when,in1755,hewrotehis"GeneralNaturalHistoryandTheoryoftheCelestialBodies;oranAttempttoaccountfortheConstitutionandthemechanicalOriginoftheUniverse

uponNewtonianprinciples."[49]Inthisveryremarkable,butseeminglylittle-knowntreatise,[50]Kantexpoundsacompletecosmogony,intheshapeofatheoryofthecauseswhichhaveledtothedevelopmentoftheuniversefromdiffusedatomsofmatterendowedwithsimpleattractiveandrepulsiveforces.

"Givemematter,"saysKant,"andIwillbuildtheworld;"andheproceedstodeducefromthesimpledatafromwhichhestarts,adoctrineinallessentialrespectssimilartothewell-known"NebularHypothesis"ofLaplace.[51]Heaccountsfortherelationofthemassesandthedensitiesoftheplanetstotheirdistancesfromthesun,fortheeccentricitiesoftheirorbits,fortheirrotations,fortheir

satellites,forthegeneralagreementinthedirectionofrotationamongthecelestialbodies,forSaturn'sring,andforthezodiacallight.Hefinds,ineachsystemofworlds,indicationsthattheattractiveforceofthecentralmasswilleventuallydestroyitsorganization,byconcentratinguponitselfthematterofthewholesystem;but,astheresultofthisconcentration,hearguesforthedevelopmentofanamountofheatwhichwilldissipatethemassoncemoreintoamolecularchaossuchasthatinwhichitbegan.

Kantpicturestohimselftheuniverseasonceaninfiniteexpansionofformlessanddiffusedmatter.Atonepointofthishesupposesasinglecentreofattractionsetup;and,bystrictdeductionsfromadmitteddynamicalprinciples,showshowthismustresultinthedevelopmentofa

prodigiouscentralbody,surroundedbysystemsofsolarandplanetaryworldsinallstagesofdevelopment.Invividlanguagehedepictsthegreatworld-mælstrom,wideningthemarginsofitsprodigiouseddyintheslowprogressofmillionsofages,graduallyreclaimingmoreandmoreofthemolecularwaste,andconvertingchaosintocosmos.Butwhatisgainedatthemarginislostinthecentre;theattractionsofthecentralsystemsbringtheirconstituentstogether,whichthen,bytheheatevolved,areconvertedoncemoreintomolecularchaos.Thustheworldsthatare,liebetweentheruinsoftheworldsthathavebeenandthechaoticmaterialsoftheworldsthatshallbe;and,inspiteofall



anyquantityofhypotheticalpaper.Ithaskeptbeforeoureyesthepoweroftheinfinitelylittle,timebeinggranted,andhascompelledustoexhaustknowncauses,beforeflyingtotheunknown.

TomymindthereappearstobenosortofnecessarytheoreticalantagonismbetweenCatastrophismandUniformitarianism.Onthecontrary,itisveryconceivablethatcatastrophesmaybepartandparcelofuniformity.Letmeillustratemycasebyanalogy.Theworkingofaclockisamodelofuniformaction;goodtime-keepingmeansuniformityofaction.Butthestrikingoftheclockisessentiallyacatastrophe;thehammermightbemadetoblowupabarrelofgunpowder,orturnonadelugeofwater;and,byproperarrangement,theclock,insteadofmarkingthehours,mightstrikeatallsortsofirregularperiods,nevertwicealike,intheintervals,force,ornumberofitsblows.Nevertheless,alltheseirregular,andapparentlylawless,catastropheswouldbetheresultofanabsolutelyuniformitarianaction;andwemighthavetwoschoolsofclock-theorists,onestudyingthehammerandtheotherthependulum.

StilllessisthereanynecessaryantagonismbetweeneitherofthesedoctrinesandthatofEvolution,whichembracesallthatissoundinbothCatastrophismandUniformitarianism,whileitrejectsthearbitraryassumptionsoftheoneandthe,asarbitrary,limitationsoftheother.NoristhevalueofthedoctrineofEvolutiontothephilosophicthinker

diminishedbythefactthatitappliesthesamemethodtothelivingandthenot-livingworld;andembraces,inonestupendousanalogy,thegrowthofasolarsystemfrommolecularchaos,theshapingoftheearthfromthenebulouscubhoodofitsyouth,throughinnumerablechangesandimmeasurableages,toitspresentform;andthedevelopmentofalivingbeingfromtheshapelessmassofprotoplasmwetermagerm.

IdonotknowwhetherEvolutionismcanclaimthatamountofcurrencywhichwouldentitleittobecalledBritishpopulargeology;but,moreorlessvaguely,itisassuredlypresentinthemindsofmostgeologists.

Suchbeingthethreephasesofgeologicalspeculation,wearenowinapositiontoinquirewhichoftheseitisthatSirWilliamThomsoncallsuponustoreforminthepassageswhichIhavecited.

ItisobviouslyUniformitarianismwhichthedistinguishedphysicisttakestobetherepresentativeofgeologicalspeculationingeneral.Andthusafirstissueisraised,inasmuchasmanypersons(andthosenottheleastthoughtfulamongtheyoungergeologists)donotacceptstrictUniformitarianismasthefinalformofgeologicalspeculation.Weshouldsay,ifHuttonandPlayfairdeclarethecourseoftheworldtohavebeenalwaysthesame,pointoutthefallacybyallmeans;but,insodoing,donotimaginethatyouareprovingmoderngeologytobeinoppositiontonaturalphilosophy.Idonotsupposethat,atthepresentday,any

geologistwouldbefoundtomaintainabsoluteUniformitarianism,todenythattherapidityoftherotationoftheearth_may_bediminishing,thatthesun_may_bewaxingdim,orthattheearthitself_may_becooling.Mostofus,Isuspect,areGallios,"whocarefornoneofthesethings,"beingofopinionthat,trueorfictitious,theyhavemadenopracticaldifferencetotheearth,duringtheperiodofwhich,arecordispreservedinstratifieddeposits.

Theaccusationthatwehavebeenrunningcountertothe_principles_ofnaturalphilosophy,therefore,isdevoidoffoundation.Theonly



questionwhichcanariseiswhetherwehave,orhavenot,beentacitlymakingassumptionswhichareinoppositiontocertainconclusionswhichmaybedrawnfromthoseprinciples.Andthisquestionsubdividesitselfintotwo:--thefirst,arewereallycontraveningsuchconclusions?thesecond,ifweare,arethoseconclusionssofirmlybasedthatwemaynotcontravenethem?Ireplyinthenegativetoboththesequestions,andIwillgiveyoumyreasonsforsodoing.SirWilliamThomsonbelievesthatheisabletoprove,byphysicalreasonings,"thattheexistingstateofthingsontheearth,lifeontheearth--allgeologicalhistoryshowingcontinuityoflife--mustbelimitedwithinsomesuchperiodoftimeasonehundredmillionyears"(loc.cit.p.25).

Thefirstinquirywhicharisesplainlyis,hasiteverbeendeniedthatthisperiod_may_beenoughforthepurposesofgeology?

Thediscussionofthisquestionisgreatlyembarrassedbythevaguenesswithwhichtheassumedlimitis,Iwillnotsaydefined,butindicated,--"somesuchperiodofpasttimeasonehundredmillionyears."Nowdoesthismeanthatitmayhavebeentwo,orthree,orfourhundredmillionyears?Becausethisreallymakesallthedifference.[53]

Ipresumethat100,000feetmaybetakenasafullallowanceforthetotalthicknessofstratifiedrockscontainingtracesoflife;100,000dividedby100,000,000=0.001.Consequently,thedepositof100,000

feetofstratifiedrockin100,000,000yearsmeansthatthedeposithastakenplaceattherateof1/1000ofafoot,or,say,1/83ofaninch,perannum.

Well,Idonotknowthatanyoneispreparedtomaintainthat,evenmakingallneedfulallowances,thestratifiedrocksmaynothavebeenformed,ontheaverage,attherateof1/83ofaninchperannum.Isupposethatifsuchcouldbeshowntobethelimitofworld-growth,wecouldputupwiththeallowancewithoutfeelingthatourspeculationshadundergoneanyrevolution.Andperhaps,afterall,thequalifyingphrase"somesuchperiod"maynotnecessitatetheassumptionofmorethan1/166,or1/249,or1/332ofaninchofdepositperyear,which,ofcourse,wouldgiveusstillmoreeaseandcomfort.

But,itmaybesaid,thatitisbiology,andnotgeology,whichasksforsomuchtime--thatthesuccessionoflifedemandsvastintervals;butthisappearstometobereasoninginacircle.Biologytakeshertimefromgeology.Theonlyreasonwehaveforbelievingintheslowrateofthechangeinlivingformsisthefactthattheypersistthroughaseriesofdepositswhich,geologyinformsus,havetakenalongwhiletomake.Ifthegeologicalclockiswrong,allthenaturalistwillhavetodoistomodifyhisnotionsoftherapidityofchangeaccordingly.AndIventuretopointoutthat,whenwearetoldthatthelimitationoftheperiodduringwhichlivingbeingshaveinhabitedthisplanettoone,two,orthreehundredmillionyearsrequiresacompleterevolutioningeologicalspeculation,the_onusprobandi_restsonthemakerofthe

assertion,whobringsforwardnotashadowofevidenceinitssupport.

Thus,ifweacceptthelimitationoftimeplacedbeforeusbySirW.Thomson,itisnotobvious,onthefaceofthematter,thatweshallhavetoalter,orreform,ourwaysinanyappreciabledegree;andwemaythereforeproceedwithmuchcalmness,andindeedmuchindifference,astotheresult,toinquirewhetherthatlimitationisjustifiedbytheargumentsemployedinitssupport.

Theseargumentsarethreeinnumber:--



I.Thefirstisbasedupontheundoubtedfactthatthetidestendtoretardtherateoftheearth'srotationuponitsaxis.Thatthismustbesoisobvious,ifoneconsiders,roughly,thatthetidesresultfromthepullwhichthesunandthemoonexertuponthesea,causingittoactasasortofbreakupontherotatingsolidearth.

Kant,whowasbynomeansamere"abstractphilosopher,"butagoodmathematicianandwellversedinthephysicalscienceofhistime,notonlyprovedthisinanessayofexquisiteclearnessandintelligibility,nowmorethanacenturyold,[54]butdeducedfromitsomeofitsmoreimportantconsequences,suchastheconstantturningofonefaceofthemoontowardstheearth.

Butthereisalongstepfromthedemonstrationofatendencytotheestimationofthepracticalvalueofthattendency,whichisallwithwhichweareatpresentconcerned.Thefactsbearingonthispointappeartostandasfollow:--

Itisamatterofobservationthatthemoon'smeanmotionis(andhasforthelast3,000yearsbeen)undergoinganacceleration,relativelytotherotationoftheearth.Ofcoursethismayresultfromoneoftwocauses:themoonmayreallyhavebeenmovingmoreswiftlyinitsorbit;ortheearthmayhavebeenrotatingmoreslowlyonitsaxis.

Laplacebelievedhehadaccountedforthisphænomenonbythefactthattheeccentricityoftheearth'sorbithasbeendiminishingthroughoutthese3,000years.Thiswouldproduceadiminutionofthemeanattractionofthesunonthemoon;or,inotherwords,anincreaseintheattractionoftheearthonthemoon:and,consequently,anincreaseintherapidityoftheorbitalmotionofthelatterbody.Laplace,therefore,laidtheresponsibilityoftheaccelerationuponthemoon;andifhisviewswerecorrect,thetidalretardationmusteitherbeinsignificantinamount,orbecounteractedbysomeotheragency.

Ourgreatastronomer,Adams,however,appearstohavefoundaflawinLaplace'scalculation,andtohaveshownthatonlyhalftheobserved

retardationcouldbeaccountedforinthewayhehadsuggested.Thereremains,therefore,theotherhalftobeaccountedfor;andhere,intheabsenceofallpositiveknowledge,threesetsofhypotheseshavebeensuggested.

(a)M.Delaunaysuggeststhattheearthisatfault,inconsequenceofthetidalretardation.Messrs.Adams,Thomson,andTaitworkoutthissuggestion,and,"onacertainassumptionastotheproportionofretardationsduetothesunandthemoon,"findtheearthmaylosetwenty-twosecondsoftimeinacenturyfromthiscause.[55]

(b)ButM.Dufoursuggeststhattheretardationoftheearth(whichishypotheticallyassumedtoexist)maybedueinpart,orwholly,to

theincreaseofthemomentofinertiaoftheearthbymeteorsfallinguponitssurface.ThissuggestionalsomeetswiththeentireapprovalofSirW.Thomson,whoshowsthatmeteor-dust,accumulatingattherateofonefootin4,000years,wouldaccountfortheremainderofretardation.[56]

(c)Thirdly,SirW.Thomsonbringsforwardanhypothesisofhisownwithrespecttothecauseofthehypotheticalretardationoftheearth'srotation:--



"Letussupposeicetomeltfromthepolarregions(20°roundeachpole,wemaysay)totheextentofsomethingmorethanafootthick,enoughtogive1.1footofwateroverthoseareas,or0.006ofafootofwaterifspreadoverthewholeglobe,whichwould,inreality,raisethesea-levelbyonlysomesuchundiscoverabledifferenceasthree-fourthsofaninchoraninch.This,orthereverse,whichwebelievemighthappenanyyear,andcouldcertainlynotbedetectedwithoutfarmoreaccurateobservationsandcalculationsforthemeansea-levelthananyhithertomade,wouldslackenorquickentheearth'srateasatimekeeperbyone-tenthofasecondperyear."[57]

IdonotpresumetothrowtheslightestdoubtupontheaccuracyofanyofthecalculationsmadebysuchdistinguishedmathematiciansasthosewhohavemadethesuggestionsIhavecited.Onthecontrary,itisnecessarytomyargumenttoassumethattheyareallcorrect.ButIdesiretopointoutthatthisseemstobeoneofthemanycasesinwhichtheadmittedaccuracyofmathematicalprocessesisallowedtothrowawhollyinadmissibleappearanceofauthorityovertheresultsobtainedbythem.Mathematicsmaybecomparedtoamillofexquisiteworkmanship,whichgrindsyoustuffofanydegreeoffineness;but,nevertheless,whatyougetoutdependsonwhatyouputin;andasthegrandestmillintheworldwillnotextractwheat-flourfrompeascods,sopagesofformulæwillnotgetadefiniteresultoutofloosedata.

Inthepresentinstanceitappearstobeadmitted:--1.Thatitisnotabsolutelycertain,afterall,whetherthemoon'smeanmotionisundergoingacceleration,ortheearth'srotationretardation.[58]Andyetthisisthekeyofthewholeposition.

2.Iftherapidityoftheearth'srotationisdiminishing,itisnotcertainhowmuchofthatretardationisduetotidalfriction,--howmuchtometeors,--howmuchtopossibleexcessofmeltingoveraccumulationofpolarice,duringtheperiodcoveredbyobservation,whichamounts,attheoutside,tonotmorethan2,600years.

3.Theeffectofadifferentdistributionoflandandwaterinmodifying

theretardationcausedbytidalfriction,andofreducingit,undersomecircumstances,toaminimum,doesnotappeartobetakenintoaccount.

4.DuringtheMioceneepochthepolaricewascertainlymanyfeetthinnerthanithasbeenduring,orsince,theGlacialepoch.SirW.Thomsontellsusthattheaccumulationofsomethingmorethanafootoficearoundthepoles(whichimpliesthewithdrawalof,say,aninchofwaterfromthegeneralsurfaceofthesea)willcausetheearthtorotatequickerbyone-tenthofasecondperannum.Itwouldappear,therefore,thattheearthmayhavebeenrotating,throughoutthewholeperiodwhichhaselapsedfromthecommencementoftheGlacialepochdowntothepresenttime,one,ormore,secondsperannumquickerthanitrotatedduringtheMioceneepoch.

But,accordingtoSirW.Thomson'scalculation,tidalretardationwillonlyaccountforaretardationof22"inacentury,or22/100(say1/5)ofasecondperannum.

Thus,assumingthattheaccumulationofpolaricesincetheMioceneepochhasonlybeensufficienttoproducetentimestheeffectofacoatoficeonefootthick,weshallhaveanacceleratingcausewhichcoversallthelossfromtidalaction,andleavesabalanceof4/5asecondperannuminthewayofacceleration.



suchasfiftymillionyears,onehundredmillionyears,ortwoorthreehundredmillionyearsago.Beyondthatwecannotgo."[60]

Itwillbeobservedthatthe"limit"isonceagainofthevaguest,rangingfrom50,000,000yearsto300,000,000.Andthereplyis,oncemore,that,foranythingthatcanbeprovedtothecontrary,oneortwohundredmillionyearsmightservethepurpose,evenofathorough-goingHuttonianuniformitarian,verywell.

Butif,ontheotherhand,the100,000,000or200,000,000yearsappeartobeinsufficientforgeologicalpurposes,wemustcloselycriticisethemethodbywhichthelimitisreached.Theargumentissimpleenough. _Assuming_theearthtobenothingbutacoolingmass,thequantityofheatlostperyear,_supposing_therateofcoolingtohavebeenuniform,multipliedbyanygivennumberofyears,willbegiventheminimumtemperaturethatnumberofyearsago.

Butistheearthnothingbutacoolingmass,"likeahot-waterjarsuchasisusedincarriages,"or"aglobeofsandstone?"andhasitscoolingbeenuniform?AnaffirmativeanswertoboththesequestionsseemstobenecessarytothevalidityofthecalculationsonwhichSirW.Thomsonlayssomuchstress.

Neverthelessitsurelymaybeurgedthatsuchaffirmativeanswersare

purelyhypothetical,andthatothersuppositionshaveanequalrighttoconsideration.

Forexample,isitnotpossiblethat,attheprodigioustemperaturewhichwouldseemtoexistat100milesbelowthesurface,allthemetallicbasesmaybehaveasmercurydoesataredheat,whenitrefusestocombinewithoxygen;while,nearerthesurface,andthereforeatalowertemperature,theymayenterintocombination(asmercurydoeswithoxygenafewdegreesbelowitsboiling-point)andsogiverisetoaheattotallydistinctfromthatwhichtheypossessascoolingbodies?Andhasitnotalsobeenprovedbyrecentresearchesthatthequalityoftheatmospheremayimmenselyaffectitspermeabilitytoheat;and,consequently,profoundlymodifytherateofcoolingtheglobeasa

whole?

Idonotthinkitcanbedeniedthatsuchconditionsmayexist,andmaysogreatlyaffectthesupply,andtheloss,ofterrestrialheatastodestroythevalueofanycalculationswhichleavethemoutofsight.

Myfunctionsasyouradvocateareatanend.IspeakwithmorethanthesincerityofamereadvocatewhenIexpressthebeliefthatthecaseagainstushasentirelybrokendown.Thecryforreformwhichhasbeenraisedwithout,issuperfluous,inasmuchaswehavelongbeenreformingfromwithin,withallneedfulspeed.Andthecriticalexaminationofthegroundsuponwhichtheverygravechargeofoppositiontotheprinciples

ofNaturalPhilosophyhasbeenbroughtagainstus,rathershowsthatwehaveexercisedawisediscriminationindeclining,forthepresent,tomeddlewithourfoundations.

FOOTNOTES:

[39]OnGeologicalTime.BySirW.Thomson,LL.D.TransactionsoftheGeologicalSocietyofGlasgow,vol.iii.

[40]TheTheoryoftheEarth,vol.i.p.173,note.



[41]Ibid.p.281.

[42]Ibid.p.371.

[43]TheTheoryoftheEarth,vol.i.p.200.

[44]TheTheoryoftheEarth,vol.i.pp.16,17.

[45]TheTheoryoftheEarth,vol.i.p.223.

[46]PrinciplesofGeology,vol.ii.p.211.

[47]PrinciplesofGeology,vol.ii.p.613.

[48]"Mandarfessichalsonichtbefremdenlassen,wennichmichunterstehezusagen,dasseherdieBildungallerHimmelskörper,dieUrsacheihrerBewegungen,kurzderUrsprungderganzengegenwärtigenVerfassungdesWeltbaueswerdenkönneneingesehenwerden,ehedieErzeugungeineseinzigenKrautesodereinerRaupeausmechanischenGründen,deutlichundvollständigkundwerdenwird."--KANT'S_SämmtlicheWerke_,Bd.I.p.220.

[49]Grant("HistoryofPhysicalAstronomy,"p.574)makesbutthe

briefestreferencetoKant.[50]"AllgemeineNaturgeschichteundTheoriedesHimmels;oderVersuchvonderVerfassungunddemmechanischenUrsprungedesganzenWeltgebäudesnachNewton'schenGrundsatzenabgehandelt."--KANT'S _SämmtlicheWerke_,Bd.i.p.207.

[51]SystèmeduMonde,tomeii.chap.6

[52]Kant's"SämmtlicheWerke,"Bd.viii.p.145.

[53]SirWilliamThomsonimplies(loc.cit.p.16),thattheprecisetimeisofnoconsequence:"theprincipleisthesame;"but,asthe

principleisadmitted,thewholediscussionturnsonitspracticalresults.

[54]"UntersuchungderFrageobdieErdeinihrerUmdrehungumdieAchse,wodurchsiedieAbwechselungdesTagesundderNachthervorbringt,einigeVeränderungseitdenerstenZeitenihresUrsprungeserlittenhabe,&c."--KANT'S_SämmtlicheWerke_,Bd.i.p.178.

[55]SirW.Thomson,loc.cit.,p.14.

[56]Loc.cit.,p.27

[57]Ibid.

[58]ItwillbeunderstoodthatIdonotwishtodenythattheearth'srotation_maybe_undergoingretardation.

[59]Loc.cit.,p.20.

[60]Loc.cit.,p.24.



XII.

THEORIGINOFSPECIES.

Mr.Darwin'slong-standingandwell-earnedscientificeminenceprobablyrendershimindifferenttothatsocialnotorietywhichpassesbythenameofsuccess;butifthecalmspiritofthephilosopherhavenotyetwhollysupersededtheambitionandthevanityofthecarnalmanwithinhim,hemustbewellsatisfiedwiththeresultsofhisventureinpublishingthe"OriginofSpecies."Overflowingthenarrowboundsofpurelyscientificcircles,the"speciesquestion"divideswithItalyandtheVolunteerstheattentionofgeneralsociety.EverybodyhasreadMr.Darwin'sbook,or,atleast,hasgivenanopinionuponitsmeritsordemerits;pietists,whetherlayorecclesiastic,decryitwiththemildrailingwhichsoundssocharitable;bigotsdenounceitwithignorantinvective;oldladies,ofbothsexes,consideritadecidedlydangerousbook,andevensavans,whohavenobettermudtothrow,quoteantiquatedwriterstoshowthatitsauthorisnobetterthananapehimself;whileeveryphilosophicalthinkerhailsitasaveritableWhitworthguninthearmoryofliberalism;andallcompetentnaturalistsandphysiologists,whatevertheiropinionsastotheultimatefateofthedoctrinesputforth,acknowledgethattheworkinwhichtheyareembodiedisasolid

contributiontoknowledgeandinauguratesanewepochinnaturalhistory.

Norhasthediscussionofthesubjectbeenrestrainedwithinthelimitsofconversation.Whenthepubliciseagerandinterested,reviewersmustministertoitswants;andthegenuine_littérateur_istoomuchinthehabitofacquiringhisknowledgefromthebookhejudges--astheAbyssinianissaidtoprovidehimselfwithsteaksfromtheoxwhichcarrieshim--tobewithheldfromcriticismofaprofoundscientificworkbythemerewantoftherequisitepreliminaryscientificacquirement;while,ontheotherhand,themenofsciencewhowishwelltothenewviews,nolessthanthosewhodisputetheirvalidity,havenaturallysoughtopportunitiesofexpressingtheiropinions.Henceitisnot

surprisingthatalmostallthecriticaljournalshavenoticedMr.Darwin'sworkatgreaterorlesslength;andsomanydisquisitions,ofeverydegreeofexcellence,fromthepoorproductofignorance,toooftenstimulatedbyprejudice,tothefairandthoughtfulessayofthecandidstudentofNature,haveappeared,thatitseemsanalmosthopelesstasktoattempttosayanythingnewuponthequestion.

Butitmaybedoubtediftheknowledgeandacumenofprejudgedscientificopponents,orthesubtletyoforthodoxspecialpleaders,haveyetexertedtheirfullforceinmystifyingtherealissuesofthegreatcontroversywhichhasbeensetafoot,andwhoseendishardlylikelytobeseenbythisgeneration;sothat,atthiseleventhhour,andevenfailinganythingnew,itmaybeusefultostateafreshthatwhichis

true,andtoputthefundamentalpositionsadvocatedbyMr.Darwininsuchaformthattheymaybegraspedbythosewhosespecialstudieslieinotherdirections.Andtheadoptionofthiscoursemaybethemoreadvisable,becausenotwithstandingitsgreatdeserts,andindeedpartlyonaccountofthem,the"OriginofSpecies"isbynomeansaneasybooktoread--ifbyreadingisimpliedthefullcomprehensionofanauthor'smeaning.

WedonotspeakjestinglyinsayingthatitisMr.Darwin'smisfortunetoknowmoreaboutthequestionhehastakenupthananymanliving.



Personallyandpracticallyexercisedinzoology,inminuteanatomy,ingeology;astudentofgeographicaldistribution,notonmapsandinmuseumsonly,butbylongvoyagesandlaboriouscollection;havinglargelyadvancedeachofthesebranchesofscience,andhavingspentmanyyearsingatheringandsiftingmaterialsforhispresentwork,thestoreofaccuratelyregisteredfactsuponwhichtheauthorofthe"OriginofSpecies"isabletodrawatwillisprodigious.

Butthisverysuperabundanceofmattermusthavebeenembarrassingtoawriterwho,forthepresent,canonlyputforwardanabstractofhisviews;andthenceitarises,perhaps,thatnotwithstandingtheclearnessofthestyle,thosewhoattemptfairlytodigestthebookfindmuchofitasortofintellectualpemmican--amassoffactscrushedandpoundedintoshape,ratherthanheldtogetherbytheordinarymediumofanobviouslogicalbond:dueattentionwill,withoutdoubt,discoverthisbond,butitisoftenhardtofind.

Again,fromsheerwantofroom,muchhastobetakenforgrantedwhichmightreadilyenoughbeproved;andhence,whiletheadept,whocansupplythemissinglinksintheevidencefromhisownknowledge,discoversfreshproofofthesingularthoroughnesswithwhichalldifficultieshavebeenconsideredandallunjustifiablesuppositionsavoided,ateveryreperusalofMr.Darwin'spregnantparagraphs,thenoviceinbiologyisapttocomplainofthefrequencyofwhathefancies

isgratuitousassumption.Thuswhileitmaybedoubtedif,forsomeyears,anyoneislikelytobecompetenttopronouncejudgmentonalltheissuesraisedbyMr.Darwin,thereisassuredlyabundantroomforhim,who,assumingthehumbler,thoughperhapsasuseful,officeofaninterpreterbetweenthe"OriginofSpecies"andthepublic,contentshimselfwithendeavouringtopointoutthenatureoftheproblemswhichitdiscusses;todistinguishbetweentheascertainedfactsandthetheoreticalviewswhichitcontains;andfinally,toshowtheextenttowhichtheexplanationitofferssatisfiestherequirementsofscientificlogic.Atanyrate,itisthisofficewhichweproposetoundertakeinthefollowingpages.

Itmaybesafelyassumedthatourreadershaveageneralconceptionofthenatureoftheobjectstowhichtheword"species"isapplied;butithas,perhaps,occurredtofew,evenofthosewhoarenaturalists_exprofesso_,toreflect,that,ascommonlyemployed,thetermhasadoublesenseanddenotestwoverydifferentordersofrelations.Whenwecallagroupofanimals,orofplants,aspecies,wemayimplytherebyeither,thatalltheseanimalsorplantshavesomecommonpeculiarityofformorstructure;or,wemaymeanthattheypossesssomecommonfunctionalcharacter.ThatpartofbiologicalsciencewhichdealswithformandstructureiscalledMorphology--thatwhichconcernsitselfwithfunction,Physiology--sothatwemayconvenientlyspeakofthesetwosenses,oraspects,of"species"--theoneasmorphological,theotherasphysiological.Regardedfromtheformerpointofview,aspeciesis

nothingmorethanakindofanimalorplant,whichisdistinctlydefinablefromallothers,bycertainconstant,andnotmerelysexual,morphologicalpeculiarities.Thushorsesformaspecies,becausethegroupofanimalstowhichthatnameisappliedisdistinguishedfromallothersintheworldbythefollowingconstantlyassociatedcharacters.Theyhave1.Avertebralcolumn;2.Mammæ;3.Aplacentalembryo;4.Fourlegs;5.Asinglewell-developedtoeineachfootprovidedwithahoof;6.Abushytail;and7.Callositiesontheinnersidesofboththeforeandthehindlegs.Theasses,again,formadistinctspecies,because,withthesamecharacters,asfarasthefifthintheabove



list,allasseshavetuftedtails,andhavecallositiesonlyontheinnersideoftheforelegs.Ifanimalswerediscoveredhavingthegeneralcharactersofthehorse,butsometimeswithcallositiesonlyontheforelegs,andmoreorlesstuftedtails;oranimalshavingthegeneralcharactersoftheass,butwithmoreorlessbushytails,andsometimeswithcallositiesonbothpairsoflegs,besidesbeingintermediateinotherrespects--thetwospecieswouldhavetobemergedintoone.Theycouldnolongerberegardedasmorphologicallydistinctspecies,fortheywouldnotbedistinctlydefinableonefromtheother.

Howeverbareandsimplethisdefinitionofspeciesmayappeartobe,weconfidentlyappealtoallpracticalnaturalists,whetherzoologists,botanists,orpalæontologists,tosayif,inthevastmajorityofcases,theyknow,ormeantoaffirm,anythingmoreofthegroupofanimalsorplantstheysodenominatethanwhathasjustbeenstated.Eventhemostdecidedadvocatesofthereceiveddoctrinesrespectingspeciesadmitthis.

"Iapprehend,"saysProfessorOwen,[61]"thatfewnaturalistsnow-a-days,indescribingandproposinganameforwhattheycall'anew_species_,'usethattermtosignifywhatwasmeantbyittwentyorthirtyyearsago;thatis,anoriginallydistinctcreation,maintainingitsprimitivedistinctionbyobstructivegenerativepeculiarities.Theproposerofthenewspeciesnow

intendstostatenomorethanheactuallyknows;as,forexample,thatthedifferencesonwhichhefoundsthespecificcharacterareconstantinindividualsofbothsexes,sofarasobservationhasreached;andthattheyarenotduetodomesticationortoartificiallysuperinducedexternalcircumstances,ortoanyoutwardinfluencewithinhiscognizance;thatthespeciesiswild,orissuchasitappearsbyNature."

Ifweconsider,infact,thatbyfarthelargestproportionofrecordedexistingspeciesareknownonlybythestudyoftheirskins,orbones,orotherlifelessexuvia;thatweareacquaintedwithnone,ornexttonone,oftheirphysiologicalpeculiarities,beyondthosewhichcanbededucedfromtheirstructure,orareopentocursoryobservation;and

thatwecannothopetolearnmoreofanyofthoseextinctformsoflifewhichnowconstitutenoinconsiderableproportionoftheknownFloraandFaunaoftheworld:itisobviousthatthedefinitionsofthesespeciescanbeonlyofapurelystructuralormorphologicalcharacter.Itisprobablethatnaturalistswouldhaveavoidedmuchconfusionofideasiftheyhadmorefrequentlybornethesenecessarylimitationsofourknowledgeinmind.Butwhileitmaysafelybeadmittedthatweareacquaintedwithonlythemorphologicalcharactersofthevastmajorityofspecies--thefunctional,orphysiological,peculiaritiesofafewhavebeencarefullyinvestigated,andtheresultofthatstudyformsalargeandmostinterestingportionofthephysiologyofreproduction.

ThestudentofNaturewondersthemoreandisastonishedtheless,the

moreconversanthebecomeswithheroperations;butofalltheperennialmiraclessheofferstohisinspection,perhapsthemostworthyofadmirationisthedevelopmentofaplantorofananimalfromitsembryo.Examinetherecentlylaideggofsomecommonanimal,suchasasalamanderoranewt.Itisaminutespheroidinwhichthebestmicroscopewillrevealnothingbutastructurelesssac,enclosingaglairyfluid,holdinggranulesinsuspension.Butstrangepossibilitiesliedormantinthatsemi-fluidglobule.Letamoderatesupplyofwarmthreachitswaterycradle,andtheplasticmatterundergoeschangessorapidandyetsosteadyandpurposelikeintheirsuccession,thatone



canonlycomparethemtothoseoperatedbyaskilledmodelleruponaformlesslumpofclay.Aswithaninvisibletrowel,themassisdividedandsubdividedintosmallerandsmallerportions,untilitisreducedtoanaggregationofgranulesnottoolargetobuildwithalthefinestfabricsofthenascentorganism.And,then,itisasifadelicatefingertracedoutthelinetobeoccupiedbythespinalcolumn,andmouldedthecontourofthebody;pinchinguptheheadatoneend,thetailattheother,andfashioningflankandlimbintoduesalamandrineproportions,insoartisticaway,that,afterwatchingtheprocesshourbyhour,oneisalmostinvoluntarilypossessedbythenotion,thatsomemoresubtleaidtovisionthananachromatic,wouldshowthehiddenartist,withhisplanbeforehim,strivingwithskilfulmanipulationtoperfecthiswork.

Aslifeadvances,andtheyoungamphibianrangesthewaters,theterrorofhisinsectcontemporaries,notonlyarethenutritiousparticlessuppliedbyitsprey,bytheadditionofwhichtoitsframegrowthtakesplace,laiddown,eachinitsproperspot,andinsuchdueproportiontotherest,astoreproducetheform,thecolourandthesize,characteristicoftheparentalstock;buteventhewonderfulpowersofreproducinglostpartspossessedbytheseanimalsarecontrolledbythesamegoverningtendency.Cutoffthelegs,thetail,thejaws,separatelyoralltogether,and,asSpallanzanishowedlongago,thesepartsnotonlygrowagain,buttheredintegratedlimbisformedonthe

sametypeasthosewhichwerelost.Thenewjaw,orleg,isanewt's,andneverbyanyaccidentmorelikethatofafrog.Whatistrueofthenewtistrueofeveryanimalandofeveryplant;theacorntendstobuilditselfupagainintoawoodlandgiantsuchasthatfromwhosetwigitfell;thesporeofthehumblestlichenreproducesthegreenorbrownincrustationwhichgaveitbirth;andattheotherendofthescaleoflife,thechildthatresembledneitherthepaternalnorthematernalsideofthehousewouldberegardedasakindofmonster.

Sothattheoneendtowhich,inalllivingbeings,theformativeimpulseistending--theoneschemewhichtheArchæusoftheoldspeculatorsstrivestocarryout,seemstobetomouldtheoffspringintothelikenessoftheparent.Itisthefirstgreatlawof

reproduction,thattheoffspringtendstoresembleitsparentorparents,morecloselythananythingelse.

Sciencewillsomedayshowushowthislawisanecessaryconsequenceofthemoregenerallawswhichgovernmatter;butforthepresent,morecanhardlybesaidthanthatitappearstobeinharmonywiththem.Weknowthatthephænomenaofvitalityarenotsomethingapartfromotherphysicalphænomena,butonewiththem;andmatterandforcearethetwonamesoftheoneartistwhofashionsthelivingaswellasthelifeless.Hencelivingbodiesshouldobeythesamegreatlawsasothermatter--nor,throughoutNature,istherealawofwiderapplicationthanthis,thatabodyimpelledbytwoforcestakesthedirectionoftheirresultant.Butlivingbodiesmayberegardedasnothingbutextremely

complexbundlesofforcesheldinamassofmatter,asthecomplexforcesofamagnetareheldinthesteelbyitscoerciveforce;and,sincethedifferencesofsexarecomparativelyslight,or,inotherwords,thesumoftheforcesineachhasaverysimilartendency,theirresultant,theoffspring,mayreasonablybeexpectedtodeviatebutlittlefromacourseparalleltoeither,ortoboth.

Representthereasonofthelawtoourselvesbywhatphysicalmetaphororanalogywewill,however,thegreatmatteristoapprehenditsexistenceandtheimportanceoftheconsequencesdeduciblefromit.For



thingswhichareliketothesameareliketooneanother,andif,inagreatseriesofgenerations,everyoffspringislikeitsparent,itfollowsthatalltheoffspringandalltheparentsmustbelikeoneanother;andthat,givenanoriginalparentalstock,withtheopportunityofundisturbedmultiplication,thelawinquestionnecessitatestheproduction,incourseoftime,ofanindefinitelylargegroup,thewholeofwhosemembersareatonceverysimilarandarebloodrelations,havingdescendedfromthesameparent,orpairofparents.Theproofthatallthemembersofanygivengroupofanimals,orplants,hadthusdescended,wouldbeordinarilyconsideredsufficienttoentitlethemtotherankofphysiologicalspecies,formostphysiologistsconsiderspeciestobedefinableas"theoffspringofasingleprimitivestock."

Butthoughitisquitetruethatallthosegroupswecallspecies_may_,accordingtotheknownlawsofreproduction,havedescendedfromasinglestock,andthoughitisverylikelytheyreallyhavedoneso,yetthisconclusionrestsondeductionandcanhardlyhopetoestablishitselfuponabasisofobservation.Andtheprimitivenessofthesupposedsinglestock,which,afterall,istheessentialpartofthematter,isnotonlyahypothesis,butonewhichhasnotashadowoffoundation,ifby"primitive"bemeant"independentofanyotherlivingbeing."Ascientificdefinition,ofwhichanunwarrantablehypothesisformsanessentialpart,carriesitscondemnationwithinitself;but

evensupposingsuchadefinitionwere,inform,tenable,thephysiologistwhoshouldattempttoapplyitinNaturewouldsoonfindhimselfinvolvedingreat,ifnotinextricabledifficulties.Aswehavesaid,itisindubitablethatoffspring_tend_toresembletheparentalorganism,butitisequallytruethatthesimilarityattainedneveramountstoidentity,eitherinformorinstructure.Thereisalwaysacertainamountofdeviation,notonlyfromtheprecisecharactersofasingleparent,butwhen,asinmostanimalsandmanyplants,thesexesarelodgedindistinctindividuals,fromanexactmeanbetweenthetwoparents.Andindeed,ongeneralprinciples,thisslightdeviationseemsasintelligibleasthegeneralsimilarity,ifwereflecthowcomplextheco-operating"bundlesofforces"are,andhowimprobableitisthat,inanycase,theirtrueresultantshallcoincidewithanymeanbetweenthe

moreobviouscharactersofthetwoparents.Whateverbeitscause,however,theco-existenceofthistendencytominorvariationwiththetendencytogeneralsimilarity,isofvastimportanceinitsbearingonthequestionoftheoriginofspecies.

Asageneralrule,theextenttowhichanoffspringdiffersfromitsparentisslightenough;but,occasionally,theamountofdifferenceismuchmorestronglymarked,andthenthedivergentoffspringreceivesthenameofaVariety.Multitudes,ofwhatthereiseveryreasontobelievearesuchvarieties,areknown,buttheoriginofveryfewhasbeenaccuratelyrecorded,andofthesewewillselecttwoasmoreespeciallyillustrativeofthemainfeaturesofvariation.Thefirstofthemisthatofthe"Ancon,"or"Otter"sheep,ofwhichacarefulaccountis

givenbyColonelDavidHumphreys,F.R.S.,inalettertoSirJosephBanks,publishedinthePhilosophicalTransactionsfor1813.ItappearsthatoneSethWright,theproprietorofafarmonthebanksoftheCharlesRiver,inMassachusetts,possessedaflockoffifteenewesandaramoftheordinarykind.Intheyear1791,oneoftheewespresentedherownerwithamalelamb,differing,fornoassignablereason,fromitsparentsbyaproportionallylongbodyandshortbandylegs,whenceitwasunabletoemulateitsrelativesinthosesportiveleapsovertheneighbours'fences,inwhichtheywereinthehabitofindulging,muchtothegoodfarmer'svexation.



ThesecondcaseisthatdetailedbyanolessunexceptionableauthoritythanRéaumurinhis"ArtdefaireéclorelesPoulets."AMaltesecouple,namedKelleia,whosehandsandfeetwereconstructedupontheordinaryhumanmodel,hadborntothemason,Gratio,whopossessedsixperfectlymoveablefingersoneachhandandsixtoes,notquitesowellformed,oneachfoot.Nocausecouldbeassignedfortheappearanceofthisunusualvarietyofthehumanspecies.

Twocircumstancesarewellworthyofremarkinboththesecases.Ineach,thevarietyappearstohaveariseninfullforce,and,asitwere, _persaltum_;awideanddefinitedifferenceappearing,atonce,betweentheAnconramandtheordinarysheep;betweenthesix-fingeredandsix-toedGratioKelleiaandordinarymen.Inneithercaseisitpossibletopointoutanyobviousreasonfortheappearanceofthevariety.Doubtlessthereweredeterminingcausesfortheseasforallotherphænomena;buttheydonotappear,andwecanbetolerablycertainthatwhatareordinarilyunderstoodaschangesinphysicalconditions,asinclimate,infood,orthelike,didnottakeplaceandhadnothingtodowiththematter.Itwasnocaseofwhatiscommonlycalledadaptationtocircumstances;but,touseaconvenientlyerroneousphrase,thevariationsarosespontaneously.Thefruitlesssearchafterfinalcausesleadstheirpursuersalongway;buteventhosehardyteleologists,whoarereadytobreakthroughallthelawsofphysicsinchaseoftheir

favouritewill-o'-the-wisp,maybepuzzledtodiscoverwhatpurposecouldbeattainedbythestuntedlegsofSethWright'sramorthehexadactylemembersofGratioKelleia.

Varietiesthenariseweknownotwhy;anditismorethanprobablethatthemajorityofvarietieshaveariseninthis"spontaneous"manner,thoughweare,ofcourse,farfromdenyingthattheymaybetraced,insomecases,todistinctexternalinfluences;whichareassuredlycompetenttoalterthecharacterofthetegumentarycovering,tochangecolour,toincreaseordiminishthesizeofmuscles,tomodifyconstitution,and,amongplants,togiverisetothemetamorphosisofstamensintopetals,andsoforth.Buthowevertheymayhavearisen,whatespeciallyinterestsusatpresentis,toremarkthat,oncein

existence,varietiesobeythefundamentallawofreproductionthatliketendstoproducelike,andtheiroffspringexemplifyitbytendingtoexhibitthesamedeviationfromtheparentalstockasthemselves.Indeed,thereseemstobe,inmanyinstances,apre-potentinfluenceaboutanewly-arisenvarietywhichgivesitwhatonemaycallanunfairadvantageoverthenormaldescendantsfromthesamestock.ThisisstrikinglyexemplifiedbythecaseofGratioKelleia,whomarriedawomanwiththeordinarypentadactyleextremities,andhadbyherfourchildren,Salvator,George,André,andMarie.OfthesechildrenSalvator,theeldestboy,hadsixfingersandsixtoes,likehisfather;thesecondandthird,alsoboys,hadfivefingersandfivetoes,liketheirmother,thoughthehandsandfeetofGeorgewereslightlydeformed;thelast,agirl,hadfivefingersandfivetoes,butthe

thumbswereslightlydeformed.Thevarietythusreproduceditselfpurelyintheeldest,whilethenormaltypereproduceditselfpurelyinthethird,andalmostpurelyinthesecondandlast:sothatitwouldseem,atfirst,asifthenormaltypeweremorepowerfulthanthevariety.Butallthesechildrengrewupandintermarriedwithnormalwivesandhusband,andthen,notewhattookplace:Salvatorhadfourchildren,threeofwhomexhibitedthehexadactylemembersoftheirgrandfatherandfather,whiletheyoungesthadthepentadactylelimbsofthemotherandgrandmother;sothathere,notwithstandingadoublepentadactyledilutionoftheblood,thehexadactylevarietyhadthebestofit.The



samepre-potencyofthevarietywasstillmoremarkedlyexemplifiedintheprogenyoftwooftheotherchildren,MarieandGeorge.Marie(whosethumbsonlyweredeformed)gavebirthtoaboywithsixtoes,andthreeothernormallyformedchildren;butGeorge,whowasnotquitesopureapentadactyle,begot,first,twogirls,eachofwhomhadsixfingersandtoes;thenagirlwithsixfingersoneachhandandsixtoesontherightfoot,butonlyfivetoesontheleft;andlastly,aboywithonlyfivefingersandtoes.Intheseinstances,therefore,thevariety,asitwere,leapedoveronegenerationtoreproduceitselfinfullforceinthenext.Finally,thepurelypentadactyleAndréwasthefatherofmanychildren,notoneofwhomdepartedfromthenormalparentaltype.

Ifavariationwhichapproachesthenatureofamonstrositycanstrivethusforciblytoreproduceitself,itisnotwonderfulthatlessaberrantmodificationsshouldtendtobepreservedevenmorestrongly;andthehistoryoftheAnconsheepis,inthisrespect,particularlyinstructive.Withthe"'cuteness"characteristicoftheirnation,theneighboursoftheMassachusettsfarmerimagineditwouldbeanexcellentthingifallhissheepwereimbuedwiththestay-at-hometendenciesenforcedbyNatureuponthenewly-arrivedram;andtheyadvisedWrighttokilltheoldpatriarchofhisfold,andinstalltheAnconraminhisplace.Theresultjustifiedtheirsagaciousanticipations,andcoincidedverynearlywithwhatoccurredtotheprogenyofGratioKelleia.TheyounglambswerealmostalwayseitherpureAncons,orpureordinary

sheep.[62]ButwhensufficientAnconsheepwereobtainedtointerbreedwithoneanother,itwasfoundthattheoffspringwasalwayspureAncon.ColonelHumphreys,infact,statesthathewasacquaintedwithonly"onequestionablecaseofacontrarynature."Here,then,isaremarkableandwell-establishedinstance,notonlyofaverydistinctracebeingestablished_persaltum_,butofthatracebreeding"true"atonce,andshowingnomixedforms,evenwhencrossedwithanotherbreed.

BytakingcaretoselectAnconsofbothsexes,forbreedingfrom,itthusbecameeasytoestablishanextremelywell-markedrace;sopeculiarthat,evenwhenherdedwithothersheep,itwasnotedthattheAnconskepttogether.Andthereiseveryreasontobelievethattheexistenceofthisbreedmighthavebeenindefinitelyprotracted;butthe

introductionoftheMerinosheep,whichwerenotonlyverysuperiortotheAnconsinwoolandmeat,butquiteasquietandorderly,ledtothecompleteneglectofthenewbreed,sothat,in1813,ColonelHumphreysfounditdifficulttoobtainthespecimen,whoseskeletonwaspresentedtoSirJosephBanks.Webelievethat,formanyyears,noremnantofithasexistedintheUnitedStates.

GratioKelleiawasnottheprogenitorofaraceofsix-fingeredmen,asSethWright'srambecameanationofAnconsheep,thoughthetendencyofthevarietytoperpetuateitselfappearstohavebeenfullyasstrong,intheonecaseasintheother.Andthereasonofthedifferenceisnotfartoseek.SethWrighttookcarenottoweakentheAnconbloodbymatchinghisAnconeweswithanybutmalesofthesamevariety,while

GratioKelleia'ssonsweretoofarremovedfromthepatriarchaltimestointermarrywiththeirsisters;andhisgrandchildrenseemnottohavebeenattractedbytheirsix-fingeredcousins.Inotherwords,intheoneexamplearacewasproduced,because,forseveralgenerations,carewastakento_select_bothparentsofthebreedingstock,fromanimalsexhibitingatendencytovaryinthesamedirection;while,intheother,noracewasevolved,becausenosuchselectionwasexercised.Araceisapropagatedvariety;andas,bythelawsofreproduction,offspringtendtoassumetheparentalform,theywillbemorelikelytopropagateavariationexhibitedbybothparentsthanthatpossessedby



onlyone.

Thereisnoorganofthebodyofananimalwhichmaynot,anddoesnot,occasionally,varymoreorlessfromthenormaltype;andthereisnovariationwhichmaynotbetransmitted,andwhich,ifselectivelytransmitted,maynotbecomethefoundationofarace.Thisgreattruth,sometimesforgottenbyphilosophers,haslongbeenfamiliartopracticalagriculturistsandbreeders:anduponitrestallthemethodsofimprovingthebreedsofdomesticanimals,which,forthelastcentury,havebeenfollowedwithsomuchsuccessinEngland.Colour,form,size,textureofhairorwool,proportionsofvariousparts,strengthorweaknessofconstitution,tendencytofattenortoremainlean,togivemuchorlittlemilk,speed,strength,temper,intelligence,specialinstincts;thereisnotoneofthesecharacterswhosetransmissionisnotanevery-dayoccurrencewithintheexperienceofcattle-breeders,stock-farmers,horse-dealers,anddogandpoultryfanciers.Nay,itisonlytheotherdaythataneminentphysiologist,Dr.Brown-Séquard,communicatedtotheRoyalSocietyhisdiscoverythatepilepsy,artificiallyproducedinguinea-pigs,byameanswhichhehasdiscovered,istransmittedtotheiroffspring.

Butarace,onceproduced,isnomoreafixedandimmutableentitythanthestockwhenceitsprang;variationsariseamongitsmembers,andasthesevariationsaretransmittedlikeanyothers,newracesmaybe

developedoutofthepre-existingones_adinfinitum_,or,atleast,withinanylimitatpresentdetermined.Givensufficienttimeandsufficientlycarefulselection,andthemultitudeofraceswhichmayarisefromacommonstockisasastonishingasaretheextremestructuraldifferenceswhichtheymaypresent.Aremarkableexampleofthisistobefoundintherock-pigeon,whichMr.Darwinhas,inouropinion,satisfactorilydemonstratedtobetheprogenitorofallourdomesticpigeons,ofwhichtherearecertainlymorethanahundredwell-markedraces.Themostnoteworthyoftheseracesare,thefourgreatstocksknowntothe"fancy"astumblers,pouters,carriers,andfantails;birdswhichnotonlydiffermostsingularlyinsize,colour,andhabits,butintheformofthebeakandoftheskull:intheproportionsofthebeaktotheskull;inthenumberoftail-feathers;in

theabsoluteandrelativesizeofthefeet;inthepresenceorabsenceoftheuropygialgland;inthenumberofvertebræintheback;inshort,inpreciselythosecharactersinwhichthegeneraandspeciesofbirdsdifferfromoneanother.

Anditismostremarkableandinstructivetoobserve,thatnoneoftheseracescanbeshowntohavebeenoriginatedbytheactionofchangesinwhatarecommonlycalledexternalcircumstances,uponthewildrock-pigeon.Onthecontrary,fromtimeimmemorial,pigeonfanciershavehadessentiallysimilarmethodsoftreatingtheirpets,whichhavebeenhoused,fed,protectedandcaredforinmuchthesamewayinallpigeonries.Infact,thereisnocasebetteradaptedthanthatofthepigeons,torefutethedoctrinewhichoneseesputforthonhigh

authority,that"noothercharactersthanthosefoundedonthedevelopmentofbonefortheattachmentofmuscles"arecapableofvariation.Inprecisecontradictionofthishastyassertion,Mr.Darwin'sresearchesprovethattheskeletonofthewingsindomesticpigeonshashardlyvariedatallfromthatofthewildtype;while,ontheotherhand,itisinexactlythoserespects,suchastherelativelengthofthebeakandskull,thenumberofthevertebræ,andthenumberofthetail-feathers,inwhichmuscularexertioncanhavenoimportantinfluence,thattheutmostamountofvariationhastakenplace.



Wehavesaidthatthefollowingoutofthepropertiesexhibitedbyphysiologicalspecieswouldleadusintodifficulties,andatthispointtheybegintobeobvious;for,if,asaresultofspontaneousvariationandofselectivebreeding,theprogenyofacommonstockmaybecomeseparatedintogroupsdistinguishedfromoneanotherbyconstant,notsexual,morphologicalcharacters,itisclearthatthephysiologicaldefinitionofspeciesislikelytoclashwiththemorphologicaldefinition.Noonewouldhesitatetodescribethepouterandthetumblerasdistinctspecies,iftheywerefoundfossil,oriftheirskinsandskeletonswereimported,asthoseofexoticwildbirdscommonlyare--and,withoutdoubt,ifconsideredalone,theyaregoodanddistinctmorphologicalspecies.Ontheotherhand,theyarenotphysiologicalspecies,fortheyaredescendedfromacommonstock,therock-pigeon.

Underthesecircumstances,asitisadmittedonallsidesthatracesoccurinNature,howarewetoknowwhetheranyapparentlydistinctanimalsarereallyofdifferentphysiologicalspecies,ornot,seeingthattheamountofmorphologicaldifferenceisnosafeguide?Isthereanytestofaphysiologicalspecies?Theusualanswerofphysiologistsisintheaffirmative.Itissaidthatsuchatestistobefoundinthephænomenaofhybridization--intheresultsofcrossingraces,ascomparedwiththeresultsofcrossingspecies.

Sofarastheevidencegoesatpresent,individuals,ofwhatarecertainlyknowntobemereracesproducedbyselection,howeverdistincttheymayappeartobe,notonlybreedfreelytogether,buttheoffspringofsuchcrossedracesareonlyperfectlyfertilewithoneanother.Thus,thespanielandthegreyhound,thedray-horseandtheArab,thepouterandthetumbler,breedtogetherwithperfectfreedom,andtheirmongrels,ifmatchedwithothermongrelsofthesamekind,areequallyfertile.

Ontheotherhand,therecanbenodoubtthattheindividualsofmanynaturalspeciesareeitherabsolutelyinfertile,ifcrossedwithindividualsofotherspecies,or,iftheygiverisetohybridoffspring,thehybridssoproducedareinfertilewhenpairedtogether.Thehorse

andtheass,forinstance,ifsocrossed,giverisetothemule,andthereisnocertainevidenceofoffspringeverhavingbeenproducedbyamaleandfemalemule.Theunionsoftherock-pigeonandthering-pigeonappeartobeequallybarrenofresult.Here,then,saysthephysiologist,wehaveameansofdistinguishinganytwotruespeciesfromanytwovarieties.Ifamaleandafemale,selectedfromeachgroup,produceoffspring,andthatoffspringisfertilewithothersproducedinthesameway,thegroupsareracesandnotspecies.If,ontheotherhand,noresultensues,oriftheoffspringareinfertilewithothersproducedinthesameway,theyaretruephysiologicalspecies.Thetestwouldbeanadmirableone,if,inthefirstplace,itwerealwayspracticabletoapplyit,andif,inthesecond,italwaysyieldedresultssusceptibleofadefiniteinterpretation.Unfortunately,

inthegreatmajorityofcases,thistouchstoneforspeciesiswhollyinapplicable.

Theconstitutionofmanywildanimalsissoalteredbyconfinementthattheywillnotbreedevenwiththeirownfemales,sothatthenegativeresultsobtainedfromcrossesareofnovalue;andtheantipathyofwildanimalsofdifferentspeciesforoneanother,orevenofwildandtamemembersofthesamespecies,isordinarilysogreat,thatitishopelesstolookforsuchunionsinNature.Thehermaphrodismofmostplants,thedifficultyinthewayofensuringtheabsenceoftheirown,orthe



properworkingofotherpollen,areobstaclesofnolessmagnitudeinapplyingthetesttothem.Andinboth,animalsandplantsissuperaddedthefurtherdifficulty,thatexperimentsmustbecontinuedoveralongtimeforthepurposeofascertainingthefertilityofthemongrelorhybridprogeny,aswellasofthefirstcrossesfromwhichtheyspring.

Notonlydothesegreatpracticaldifficultieslieinthewayofapplyingthehybridizationtest,butevenwhenthisoraclecanbequestioned,itsrepliesaresometimesasdoubtfulasthoseofDelphi.Forexample,casesarecitedbyMr.Darwin,ofplantswhicharemorefertilewiththepollenofanotherspeciesthanwiththeirown;andthereareothers,suchascertain_fuci_,whosemaleelementwillfertilizetheovuleofaplantofdistinctspecies,whilethemalesofthelatterspeciesareineffectivewiththefemalesofthefirst.Sothat,inthelast-namedinstance,aphysiologist,whoshouldcrossthetwospeciesinoneway,woulddecidethattheyweretruespecies;whileanother,whoshouldcrosstheminthereverseway,would,withequaljustice,accordingtotherule,pronouncethemtobemereraces.Severalplants,whichthereisgreatreasontobelievearemerevarieties,arealmoststerilewhencrossed;whilebothanimalsandplants,whichhavealwaysbeenregardedbynaturalistsasofdistinctspecies,turnout,whenthetestisapplied,tobeperfectlyfertile.Again,thesterilityorfertilityofcrossesseemstobearnorelationtothestructuralresemblancesordifferencesofthemembersofanytwogroups.

Mr.Darwinhasdiscussedthisquestionwithsingularabilityandcircumspection,andhisconclusionsaresummedupasfollow,atpage276ofhiswork:--

"Firstcrossesbetweenformssufficientlydistincttoberankedasspecies,andtheirhybrids,areverygenerally,butnotuniversally,sterile.Thesterilityisofalldegrees,andisoftensoslightthatthetwomostcarefulexperimentalistswhohaveeverlivedhavecometodiametricallyoppositeconclusionsinrankingformsbythistest.Thesterilityisinnatelyvariableinindividualsofthesamespecies,andiseminentlysusceptibleoffavourableandunfavourableconditions.Thedegreeofsterility

doesnotstrictlyfollowsystematicaffinity,butisgovernedbyseveralcuriousandcomplexlaws.Itisgenerallydifferent,andsometimeswidelydifferent,inreciprocalcrossesbetweenthesametwospecies.Itisnotalwaysequalindegreeinafirstcross,andinthehybridproducedfromthiscross.

"Inthesamemannerasingraftingtrees,thecapacityofonespeciesorvarietytotakeonanotherisincidentalongenerallyunknowndifferencesintheirvegetativesystems;soincrossing,thegreaterorlessfacilityofonespeciestounitewithanotherisincidentalonunknowndifferencesintheirreproductivesystems.Thereisnomorereasontothinkthatspecieshavebeenspeciallyendowedwithvariousdegreesofsterilitytopreventthemcrossing

andbreedinginNature,thantothinkthattreeshavebeenspeciallyendowedwithvariousandsomewhatanalogousdegreesofdifficultyinbeinggraftedtogether,inordertopreventthembecominginarchedinourforests.

"Thesterilityoffirstcrossesbetweenpurespecies,whichhavetheirreproductivesystemsperfect,seemstodependonseveralcircumstances;insomecaseslargelyontheearlydeathoftheembryo.Thesterilityofhybridswhichhavetheirreproductivesystemsimperfect,andwhichhavehadthissystemandtheirwhole



organizationdisturbedbybeingcompoundedoftwodistinctspecies,seemscloselyalliedtothatsterilitywhichsofrequentlyaffectspurespecieswhentheirnaturalconditionsoflifehavebeendisturbed.Thisviewissupportedbyaparallelismofanotherkind;namely,thatthecrossingofforms,onlyslightlydifferent,isfavourabletothevigourandfertilityoftheoffspring;andthatslightchangesintheconditionsoflifeareapparentlyfavourabletothevigourandfertilityofallorganicbeings.Itisnotsurprisingthatthedegreeofdifficultyinunitingtwospecies,andthedegreeofsterilityoftheirhybridoffspring,shouldgenerallycorrespond,thoughduetodistinctcauses;forbothdependontheamountofdifferenceofsomekindbetweenthespecieswhicharecrossed.Norisitsurprisingthatthefacilityofeffectingafirstcross,thefertilityofhybridsproducedfromit,andthecapacityofbeinggraftedtogether--thoughthislattercapacityevidentlydependsonwidelydifferentcircumstances--shouldallruntoacertainextentparallelwiththesystematicaffinityoftheformswhicharesubjectedtoexperiment;forsystematicaffinityattemptstoexpressallkindsofresemblancebetweenallspecies.

"Firstcrossesbetweenformsknowntobevarieties,orsufficientlyaliketobeconsideredasvarieties,andtheirmongreloffspring,areverygenerally,butnotquiteuniversally,fertile.Noristhis

nearlygeneralandperfectfertilitysurprising,whenwerememberhowliablewearetoargueinacirclewithrespecttovarietiesinastateofNature;andwhenwerememberthatthegreaternumberofvarietieshavebeenproducedunderdomesticationbytheselectionofmereexternaldifferences,andnotofdifferencesinthereproductivesystem.Inallotherrespects,excludingfertility,thereisaclosegeneralresemblancebetweenhybridsandmongrels."--Pp.276-8.

Wefullyagreewiththegeneraltenorofthisweightypassage;butforcibleasarethesearguments,andlittleasthevalueoffertilityorinfertilityasatestofspeciesmaybe,itmustnotbeforgottenthatthereallyimportantfact,sofarastheinquiryintotheoriginof

speciesgoes,is,thattherearesuchthingsinNatureasgroupsofanimalsandofplants,whosemembersareincapableoffertileunionwiththoseofothergroups;andthattherearesuchthingsashybrids,whichareabsolutelysterilewhencrossedwithotherhybrids.Forifsuchphænomenaasthesewereexhibitedbyonlytwoofthoseassemblagesoflivingobjects,towhichthenameofspecies(whetheritbeusedinitsphysiologicalorinitsmorphologicalsense)isgiven,itwouldhavetobeaccountedforbyanytheoryoftheoriginofspecies,andeverytheorywhichcouldnotaccountforitwouldbe,sofar,imperfect.

Uptothispointwehavebeendealingwithmattersoffact,andthestatementswhichwehavelaidbeforethereaderwould,tothebestofourknowledge,beadmittedtocontainafairexpositionofwhatisat

presentknownrespectingtheessentialpropertiesofspecies,byallwhohavestudiedthequestion.Andwhatevermaybehistheoreticalviews,nonaturalistwillprobablybedisposedtodemurtothefollowingsummaryofthatexposition:--

Livingbeings,whetheranimalsorplants,aredivisibleintomultitudesofdistinctlydefinablekinds,whicharemorphologicalspecies.Theyarealsodivisibleintogroupsofindividuals,whichbreedfreelytogether,tendingtoreproducetheirlike,andarephysiologicalspecies.Normallyresemblingtheirparents,theoffspringofmembersofthesespeciesare



stillliabletovary,andthevariationmaybeperpetuatedbyselection,asarace,whichrace,inmanycases,presentsallthecharacteristicsofamorphologicalspecies.Butitisnotasyetprovedthataraceeverexhibits,whencrossedwithanotherraceofthesamespecies,thosephænomenaofhybridizationwhichareexhibitedbymanyspecieswhencrossedwithotherspecies.Ontheotherhand,notonlyisitnotprovedthatallspeciesgiverisetohybridsinfertile_interse_,butthereismuchreasontobelievethat,incrossing,speciesexhibiteverygradationfromperfectsterilitytoperfectfertility.

Sucharethemostessentialcharacteristicsofspecies.Evenweremannotoneofthem--amemberofthesamesystemandsubjecttothesamelaws--thequestionoftheirorigin,theircausalconnexion,thatis,withtheotherphænomenaoftheuniverse,musthaveattractedhisattention,assoonashisintelligencehadraiseditselfabovethelevelofhisdailywants.

Indeedhistoryrelatesthatsuchwasthecase,andhasembalmedforusthespeculationsupontheoriginoflivingbeings,whichwereamongtheearliestproductsofthedawningintellectualactivityofman.Inthoseearlydayspositiveknowledgewasnottobehad,butthecravingafteritneeded,atallhazards,tobesatisfied,andaccordingtothecountry,ortheturnofthoughtofthespeculator,thesuggestionthat

alllivingthingsarosefromthemudoftheNile,fromaprimevalegg,orfromsomemoreanthropomorphicagency,affordedasufficientresting-placeforhiscuriosity.ThemythsofPaganismareasdeadasOsirisorZeus,andthemanwhoshouldrevivethem,inoppositiontotheknowledgeofourtime,wouldbejustlylaughedtoscorn;butthecoevalimaginationscurrentamongtherudeinhabitantsofPalestine,recordedbywriterswhoseverynameandageareadmittedbyeveryscholartobeunknown,haveunfortunatelynotyetsharedtheirfate,but,evenatthisday,areregardedbynine-tenthsofthecivilizedworldastheauthoritativestandardoffactandthecriterionofthejusticeofscientificconclusions,inallthatrelatestotheoriginofthings,and,amongthem,ofspecies.Inthisnineteenthcentury,asatthedawnofmodernphysicalscience,thecosmogonyofthesemi-barbarousHebrew

istheincubusofthephilosopherandtheopprobriumoftheorthodox.Whoshallnumberthepatientandearnestseekersaftertruth,fromthedaysofGalileountilnow,whoseliveshavebeenembitteredandtheirgoodnameblastedbythemistakenzealofBibliolaters?Whoshallcountthehostofweakermenwhosesenseoftruthhasbeendestroyedintheefforttoharmonizeimpossibilities--whoselifehasbeenwastedintheattempttoforcethegenerousnewwineofScienceintotheoldbottlesofJudaism,compelledbytheoutcryofthesamestrongparty?

Itistruethatifphilosophershavesuffered,theircausehasbeenamplyavenged.ExtinguishedtheologianslieaboutthecradleofeveryscienceasthestrangledsnakesbesidethatofHercules;andhistoryrecordsthatwheneverscienceandorthodoxyhavebeenfairlyopposed,

thelatterhasbeenforcedtoretirefromthelists,bleedingandcrushed,ifnotannihilated;scotched,ifnotslain.ButorthodoxyistheBourbonoftheworldofthought.Itlearnsnot,neithercanitforget;andthough,atpresent,bewilderedandafraidtomove,itisaswillingasevertoinsistthatthefirstchapterofGenesiscontainsthebeginningandtheendofsoundscience;andtovisit,withsuchpettythunderboltsasitshalf-paralysedhandscanhurl,thosewhorefusetodegradeNaturetothelevelofprimitiveJudaism.

Philosophers,ontheotherhand,havenosuchaggressivetendencies.



Witheyesfixedonthenoblegoaltowhich"perasperaetardua"theytend,theymay,nowandthen,bestirredtomomentarywrathbytheunnecessaryobstacleswithwhichtheignorant,orthemalicious,encumber,iftheycannotbar,thedifficultpath;butwhyshouldtheirsoulsbedeeplyvexed?ThemajestyofFactisontheirside,andtheelementalforcesofNatureareworkingforthem.Notastarcomestothemeridianatitscalculatedtimebuttestifiestothejusticeoftheirmethods--theirbeliefsare"onewiththefallingrainandwiththegrowingcorn."Bydoubttheyareestablished,andopeninquiryistheirbosomfriend.Suchmenhavenofearoftraditionshowevervenerable,andnorespectforthemwhentheybecomemischievousandobstructive;buttheyhavebetterthanmereantiquarianbusinessinhand,andifdogmas,whichoughttobefossilbutarenot,arenotforcedupontheirnotice,theyaretoohappytotreatthemasnon-existent.

Thehypothesesrespectingtheoriginofspecieswhichprofesstostanduponascientificbasis,and,assuch,alonedemandseriousattention,areoftwokinds.Theone,the"specialcreation"hypothesis,presumeseveryspeciestohaveoriginatedfromoneormorestocks,thesenotbeingtheresultofthemodificationofanyotherformoflivingmatter--orarisingbynaturalagencies--butbeingproduced,assuch,byasupernaturalcreativeact.

Theother,theso-called"transmutation"hypothesis,considersthatallexistingspeciesaretheresultofthemodificationofpre-existingspecies,andthoseoftheirpredecessors,byagenciessimilartothosewhichatthepresentdayproducevarietiesandraces,andthereforeinanaltogethernaturalway;anditisaprobable,thoughnotanecessaryconsequenceofthishypothesis,thatalllivingbeingshavearisenfromasinglestock.Withrespecttotheoriginofthisprimitivestock,orstocks,thedoctrineoftheoriginofspeciesisobviouslynotnecessarilyconcerned.Thetransmutationhypothesis,forexample,isperfectlyconsistenteitherwiththeconceptionofaspecialcreationoftheprimitivegerm,orwiththesuppositionofitshavingarisen,asamodificationofinorganicmatter,bynaturalcauses.

ThedoctrineofspecialcreationowesitsexistenceverylargelytothesupposednecessityofmakingscienceaccordwiththeHebrewcosmogony;butitiscurioustoobservethat,asthedoctrineisatpresentmaintainedbymenofscience,itisashopelesslyinconsistentwiththeHebrewviewasanyotherhypothesis.

Iftherebeanyresultwhichhascomemoreclearlyoutofgeologicalinvestigationthananother,itis,thatthevastseriesofextinctanimalsandplantsisnotdivisible,asitwasoncesupposedtobe,intodistinctgroups,separatedbysharplymarkedboundaries.Therearenogreatgulfsbetweenepochsandformations--nosuccessiveperiodsmarkedbytheappearanceofplants,ofwateranimals,andoflandanimals,_enmasse_.Everyyearaddstothelistoflinksbetweenwhattheolder

geologistssupposedtobewidelyseparatedepochs:witnessthecragslinkingthedriftwiththeoldertertiaries;theMaestrichtbedslinkingthetertiarieswiththechalk;theSt.Cassianbedsexhibitinganabundantfaunaofmixedmesozoicandpalæozoictypes,inrocksofanepochoncesupposedtobeeminentlypoorinlife;witness,lastly,theincessantdisputesastowhetheragivenstratumshallbereckoneddevonianorcarboniferous,silurianordevonian,cambrianorsilurian.

ThistruthisfurtherillustratedinamostinterestingmannerbytheimpartialandhighlycompetenttestimonyofM.Pictet,fromwhose



calculationsofwhatpercentageofthegeneraofanimals,existinginanyformation,livedduringtheprecedingformation,itresultsthatinnocaseistheproportionlessthan_one-third_,or33percent.Itisthetriassicformation,orthecommencementofthemesozoicepoch,whichhasreceivedthissmallestinheritancefromprecedingages.Theotherformationsnotuncommonlyexhibit60,80,oreven94percent.ofgeneraincommonwiththosewhoseremainsareimbeddedintheirpredecessor.Notonlyisthistrue,butthesubdivisionsofeachformationexhibitnewspeciescharacteristicof,andfoundonlyin,them;and,inmanycases,asintheliasforexample,theseparatebedsofthesesubdivisionsaredistinguishedbywell-markedandpeculiarformsoflife.Asection,ahundredfeetthick,willexhibit,atdifferentheights,adozenspeciesofammonite,noneofwhichpassesbeyonditsparticularzoneoflimestone,orclay,intothezonebelowitorintothataboveit;sothatthosewhoadoptthedoctrineofspecialcreationmustbepreparedtoadmitthatatintervalsoftime,correspondingwiththethicknessofthesebeds,theCreatorthoughtfittointerferewiththenaturalcourseofeventsforthepurposeofmakinganewammonite.Itisnoteasytotransplantoneselfintotheframeofmindofthosewhocanacceptsuchaconclusionasthis,onanyevidenceshortofabsolutedemonstration;anditisdifficulttoseewhatistobegainedbysodoing,since,aswehavesaid,itisobviousthatsuchaviewoftheoriginoflivingbeingsisutterlyopposedtotheHebrewcosmogony.Deservingnoaidfromthepowerfularmofbibliolatry,then,doesthe

receivedformofthehypothesisofspecialcreationderiveanysupportfromscienceorsoundlogic?Assuredlynotmuch.Theargumentsbroughtforwardinitsfavouralltakeoneform:Ifspecieswerenotsupernaturallycreated,wecannotunderstandthefacts_x_,or_y_,or _z_;wecannotunderstandthestructureofanimalsorplants,unlesswesupposetheywerecontrivedforspecialends;wecannotunderstandthestructureoftheeye,exceptbysupposingittohavebeenmadetoseewith;wecannotunderstandinstincts,unlesswesupposeanimalstohavebeenmiraculouslyendowedwiththem.

Asaquestionofdialectics,itmustbeadmittedthatthissortofreasoningisnotveryformidabletothosewhoarenottobefrightenedbyconsequences.Itisan_argumentumadignorantiam_--takethis

explanationorbeignorant.ButsupposeweprefertoadmitourignoranceratherthanadoptahypothesisatvariancewithalltheteachingsofNature?Or,supposeforamomentweadmittheexplanation,andthenseriouslyaskourselveshowmuchthewiserarewe;whatdoestheexplanationexplain?Isitanymorethanagrandiloquentwayofannouncingthefact,thatwereallyknownothingaboutthematter?AphenomenonisexplainedwhenitisshowntobeacaseofsomegenerallawofNature;butthesupernaturalinterpositionoftheCreatorcan,bythenatureofthecase,exemplifynolaw,andifspecieshavereallyariseninthisway,itisabsurdtoattempttodiscusstheirorigin.

Or,lastly,letusaskourselveswhetheranyamountofevidencewhichthenatureofourfacultiespermitsustoattain,canjustifyusin

assertingthatanyphænomenonisoutofthereachofnaturalcausation.Tothisenditisobviouslynecessarythatweshouldknowalltheconsequencestowhichallpossiblecombinations,continuedthroughunlimitedtime,cangiverise.Ifweknewthese,andfoundnonecompetenttooriginatespecies,weshouldhavegoodgroundfordenyingtheiroriginbynaturalcausation.Tillweknowthem,anyhypothesisisbetterthanonewhichinvolvesusinsuchmiserablepresumption.

Butthehypothesisofspecialcreationisnotonlyamerespeciousmaskforourignorance;itsexistenceinBiologymarkstheyouthand



imperfectionofthescience.Forwhatisthehistoryofeverysciencebutthehistoryoftheeliminationofthenotionofcreative,orotherinterferences,withthenaturalorderofthephænomenawhicharethesubject-matterofthatscience?WhenAstronomywasyoung"themorningstarssangtogetherforjoy,"andtheplanetswereguidedintheircoursesbycelestialhands.Now,theharmonyofthestarshasresolveditselfintogravitationaccordingtotheinversesquaresofthedistances,andtheorbitsoftheplanetsarededuciblefromthelawsoftheforceswhichallowaschoolboy'sstonetobreakawindow.ThelightningwastheangeloftheLord;butithaspleasedProvidence,inthesemoderntimes,thatscienceshouldmakeitthehumblemessengerofman,andweknowthateveryflashthatshimmersaboutthehorizononasummer'seveningisdeterminedbyascertainableconditions,andthatitsdirectionandbrightnessmight,ifourknowledgeoftheseweregreatenough,havebeencalculated.

Thesolvencyofgreatmercantilecompaniesrestsonthevalidityofthelawswhichhavebeenascertainedtogoverntheseemingirregularityofthathumanlifewhichthemoralistbewailsasthemostuncertainofthings;plague,pestilence,andfamineareadmitted,byallbutfools,tobethenaturalresultofcausesforthemostpartfullywithinhumancontrol,andnottheunavoidabletorturesinflictedbywrathfulOmnipotenceuponhishelplesshandiwork.

Harmoniousordergoverningeternallycontinuousprogress--thewebandwoofofmatterandforceinterweavingbyslowdegrees,withoutabrokenthread,thatveilwhichliesbetweenusandtheInfinite--thatuniversewhichaloneweknoworcanknow;suchisthepicturewhichsciencedrawsoftheworld,andinproportionasanypartofthatpictureisinunisonwiththerest,somaywefeelsurethatitisrightlypainted.ShallBiologyaloneremainoutofharmonywithhersistersciences?

Suchargumentsagainstthehypothesisofthedirectcreationofspeciesastheseareplainlyenoughdeduciblefromgeneralconsiderations;butthereare,inaddition,phænomenaexhibitedbyspeciesthemselves,andyetnotsomuchapartoftheirveryessenceastohaverequiredearliermention,whichareinthehighestdegreeperplexing,ifweadoptthe

popularlyacceptedhypothesis.Sucharethefactsofdistributioninspaceandintime;thesingularphænomenabroughttolightbythestudyofdevelopment;thestructuralrelationsofspeciesuponwhichoursystemsofclassificationarefounded;thegreatdoctrinesofphilosophicalanatomy,suchasthatofhomology,orofthecommunityofstructuralplanexhibitedbylargegroupsofspeciesdifferingverywidelyintheirhabitsandfunctions.

ThespeciesofanimalswhichinhabittheseaonoppositesidesoftheisthmusofPanamaarewhollydistinct;[63]theanimalsandplantswhichinhabitislandsarecommonlydistinctfromthoseoftheneighbouringmainlands,andyethaveasimilarityofaspect.ThemammalsofthelatesttertiaryepochintheOldandNewWorldsbelongtothesame

genera,orfamilygroups,asthosewhichnowinhabitthesamegreatgeographicalarea.Thecrocodilianreptileswhichexistedintheearliestsecondaryepochweresimilaringeneralstructuretothosenowliving,butexhibitslightdifferencesintheirvertebræ,nasalpassages,andoneortwootherpoints.Theguinea-pighasteethwhichareshedbeforeitisborn,andhencecanneversubservethemasticatorypurposeforwhichtheyseemcontrived,and,inlikemanner,thefemaledugonghastuskswhichnevercutthegum.Allthemembersofthesamegreatgrouprunthroughsimilarconditionsintheirdevelopment,andalltheirparts,intheadultstate,arearrangedaccordingtothesame



plan.Manismorelikeagorillathanagorillaislikealemur.Suchareafew,takenatrandom,amongthemultitudesofsimilarfactswhichmodernresearchhasestablished;butwhenthestudentseeksforanexplanationofthemfromthesupportersofthereceivedhypothesisoftheoriginofspecies,thereplyhereceivesis,insubstance,ofOrientalsimplicityandbrevity--"Mashallah!itsopleasesGod!"TherearedifferentspeciesonoppositesidesoftheisthmusofPanama,becausetheywerecreateddifferentonthetwosides.Thepliocenemammalsareliketheexistingones,becausesuchwastheplanofcreation;andwefindrudimentalorgansandsimilarityofplan,becauseithaspleasedtheCreatortosetbeforehimselfa"divineexemplarorarchetype,"andtocopyitinhisworks;andsomewhatill,thosewhoholdthisviewimply,insomeofthem.Thatsuchverbalhocus-pocusshouldbereceivedassciencewillonedayberegardedasevidenceofthelowstateofintelligenceinthenineteenthcentury,justasweamuseourselveswiththephraseologyaboutNature'sabhorrenceofavacuum,wherewithTorricelli'scompatriotsweresatisfiedtoexplaintheriseofwaterinapump.Andbeitrecollectedthatthissortofsatisfactionworksnotonlynegativebutpositiveill,bydiscouraginginquiry,andsodeprivingmanoftheusufructofoneofthemostfertilefieldsofhisgreatpatrimony,Nature.

Theobjectionstothedoctrineoftheoriginofspeciesbyspecialcreationwhichhavebeendetailed,musthaveoccurred,withmoreorless

force,tothemindofeveryonewhohasseriouslyandindependentlyconsideredthesubject.Itisthereforenowonderthat,fromtimetotime,thishypothesisshouldhavebeenmetbycounterhypotheses,allaswell,andsomebetter,foundedthanitself;anditiscurioustoremarkthattheinventorsoftheopposingviewsseemtohavebeenledintothemasmuchbytheirknowledgeofgeology,asbytheiracquaintancewithbiology.Infact,whenthemindhasonceadmittedtheconceptionofthegradualproductionofthepresentphysicalstateofourglobe,bynaturalcausesoperatingthroughlongagesoftime,itwillbelittledisposedtoallowthatlivingbeingshavemadetheirappearanceinanotherway,andthespeculationsofDeMailletandhissuccessorsarethenaturalcomplementofScilla'sdemonstrationofthetruenatureoffossils.

AcontemporaryofNewtonandofLeibnitz,sharingthereforeintheintellectualactivityoftheremarkableagewhichwitnessedthebirthofmodernphysicalscience,BenoîtdeMailletspentalonglifeasaconsularagentoftheFrenchGovernmentinvariousMediterraneanports.Forsixteenyears,infact,heheldtheofficeofConsul-GeneralinEgypt,andthewonderfulphænomenaofferedbythevalleyoftheNileappeartohavestronglyimpressedhismind,tohavedirectedhisattentiontoallfactsofasimilarorderwhichcamewithinhisobservation,andtohaveledhimtospeculateontheoriginofthepresentconditionofourglobeandofitsinhabitants.But,withallhisardourforscience,DeMailletseemstohavehesitatedtopublishviewswhich,notwithstandingtheingeniousattemptstoreconcilethemwiththe

Hebrewhypothesiscontainedintheprefaceto"Telliamed,"werehardlylikelytobereceivedwithfavourbyhiscontemporaries.

ButashorttimehadelapsedsincemorethanoneofthegreatanatomistsandphysicistsoftheItalianschoolhadpaiddearlyfortheirendeavourstodissipatesomeoftheprevalenterrors;andtheirillustriouspupil,Harvey,thefounderofmodernphysiology,hadnotfaredsowell,inacountrylessoppressedbythebenumbinginfluencesoftheology,astotemptanymantofollowhisexample.Probablynotuninfluencedbytheseconsiderations,hisCatholicmajesty's



Consul-GeneralforEgyptkepthistheoriestohimselfthroughoutalonglife,for"Telliamed,"theonlyscientificworkwhichisknowntohaveproceededfromhispen,wasnotprintedtill1735,whenitsauthorhadreachedtheripeageofseventy-nine;andthoughDeMailletlivedthreeyearslonger,hisbookwasnotgiventotheworldbefore1748.Eventhenitwasanonymoustothosewhowerenotinthesecretoftheanagramaticcharacterofitstitle;andtheprefaceanddedicationaresowordedas,incaseofnecessity,togivetheprinterafairchanceoffallingbackontheexcusethattheworkwasintendedforamere_jeud'esprit_.

ThespeculationsofthesupposititiousIndiansage,thoughquiteassoundasthoseofmanya"MosaicGeology,"whichsellsexceedinglywell,havenogreatvalueifweconsiderthembythelightofmodernscience.Thewatersaresupposedtohaveoriginallycoveredthewholeglobe;tohavedepositedtherockymasseswhichcomposeitsmountainsbyprocessescomparabletothosewhicharenowformingmud,sand,andshingle;andthentohavegraduallyloweredtheirlevel,leavingthespoilsoftheiranimalandvegetableinhabitantsembeddedinthestrata.Asthedrylandappeared,certainoftheaquaticanimalsaresupposedtohavetakentoit,andtohavebecomegraduallyadaptedtoterrestrialandaërialmodesofexistence.Butifweregardthegeneraltenorandstyleofthereasoninginrelationtothestateofknowledgeoftheday,twocircumstancesappearverywellworthyofremark.Thefirst,thatDeMaillethadanotionofthemodifiabilityoflivingforms(though

withoutanypreciseinformationonthesubject),andhowsuchmodifiabilitymightaccountfortheoriginofspecies;thesecond,thatheveryclearlyapprehendedthegreatmoderngeologicaldoctrine,sostronglyinsisteduponbyHutton,andsoablyandcomprehensivelyexpoundedbyLyell,thatwemustlooktoexistingcausesfortheexplanationofpastgeologicalevents.Indeed,thefollowingpassageofthepreface,inwhichDeMailletissupposedtospeakoftheIndianphilosopherTelliamed,his_alterego_,mighthavebeenwrittenbythemostphilosophicaluniformitarianofthepresentday:--

"Cequ'ilyad'étonnant,estquepourarriveràcesconnoissancesilsembleavoirpervertil'ordrenaturel,pui-qu'aulieudes'attacherd'abordàrechercherl'originedenotreglobeila

commencépartravailleràs'instruiredelanature.Maisàl'entendre,cerenversementdel'ordreaétépourluil'effetd'ungéniefavorablequil'aconduitpasàpasetcommeparlamainauxdécouverteslesplussublimes.C'estendécomposantlasubstancedeceglobeparuneanatomieexactedetoutessespartiesqu'ilapremièrementapprisdequellesmatièresiletaitcomposéetquelsarrangemenscesmêmesmatièresobservaiententreelles.Ceslumièresjointesàl'espritdecomparaisontoujoursnécessaireàquiconqueentreprenddepercerlesvoilesdontlanatureaimeàsecacher,ontservideguideànotrephilosophepourparveniràdesconnoissancesplusintéressantes.Parlamatièreetl'arrangementdecescompositionsilprétendavoirreconnuquelleestlavéritableoriginedeceglobequenoushabitons,commentetparqui

ilaétéformé."--Pp.xix.xx.

ButDeMailletwasbeforehisage,andascouldhardlyfailtohappentoonewhospeculatedonazoologicalandbotanicalquestionbeforeLinnæus,andonaphysiologicalproblembeforeHaller,hefellintogreaterrorshereandthere;andhence,perhaps,thegeneralneglectofhiswork.Robinet'sspeculationsareratherbehind,thaninadvanceof,thoseofDeMaillet;andthoughLinnæusmayhaveplayedwiththehypothesisoftransmutation,itobtainednoserioussupportuntilLamarckadoptedit,andadvocateditwithgreatabilityinhis



"PhilosophieZoologique."

Impelledtowardsthehypothesisofthetransmutationofspecies,partlybyhisgeneralcosmologicalandgeologicalviews;partlybytheconceptionofagraduated,thoughirregularlybranching,scaleofbeing,whichhadarisenoutofhisprofoundstudyofplantsandofthelowerformsofanimallife,Lamarck,whosegenerallineofthoughtoftencloselyresemblesthatofDeMaillet,madeagreatadvanceuponthecrudeandmerelyspeculativemannerinwhichthatwriterdealswiththequestionoftheoriginoflivingbeings,byendeavouringtofindphysicalcausescompetenttoeffectthatchangeofonespeciesintoanother,whichDeMaillethadonlysupposedtooccur.AndLamarckconceivedthathehadfoundinNaturesuchcauses,amplysufficientforthepurposeinview.Itisaphysiologicalfact,hesays,thatorgansareincreasedinsizebyaction,atrophiedbyinaction;itisanotherphysiologicalfactthatmodificationsproducedaretransmissibletooffspring.Changetheactionsofananimal,therefore,andyouwillchangeitsstructure,byincreasingthedevelopmentofthepartsnewlybroughtintouseandbythediminutionofthoselessused;butbyalteringthecircumstanceswhichsurroundityouwillalteritsactions,andhence,inthelongrun,changeofcircumstancemustproducechangeoforganization.Allthespeciesofanimals,therefore,are,inLamarck'sview,theresultoftheindirectactionofchangesofcircumstanceuponthoseprimitivegermswhichheconsideredtohave

originallyarisen,byspontaneousgeneration,withinthewatersoftheglobe.Itiscurious,however,thatLamarckshouldinsistsostrongly[64]ashehasdone,thatcircumstancesneverinanydegreedirectlymodifytheformortheorganizationofanimals,butonlyoperatebychangingtheirwantsandconsequentlytheiractions;forhetherebybringsuponhimselftheobviousquestion,how,then,doplants,whichcannotbesaidtohavewantsoractions,becomemodified?Tothishereplies,thattheyaremodifiedbythechangesintheirnutritiveprocesses,whichareeffectedbychangingcircumstances;anditdoesnotseemtohaveoccurredtohimthatsuchchangesmightbeaswellsupposedtotakeplaceamonganimals.

WhenwehavesaidthatLamarckfeltthatmerespeculationwasnotthe

waytoarriveattheoriginofspecies,butthatitwasnecessary,inordertotheestablishmentofanysoundtheoryonthesubject,todiscoverbyobservationorotherwise,some_veracausa_,competenttogiverisetothem;thatheaffirmedthetrueorderofclassificationtocoincidewiththeorderoftheirdevelopmentonefromanother;thatheinsistedonthenecessityofallowingsufficienttime,verystrongly;andthatallthevarietiesofinstinctandreasonweretracedbackbyhimtothesamecauseasthatwhichhasgivenrisetospecies,wehaveenumeratedhischiefcontributionstotheadvanceofthequestion.Ontheotherhand,fromhisignoranceofanypowerinNaturecompetenttomodifythestructureofanimals,exceptthedevelopmentofparts,oratrophyofthem,inconsequenceofachangeofneeds,Lamarckwasledtoattachinfinitelygreaterweightthanitdeservestothisagency,and

theabsurditiesintowhichhewasledhavemetwithdeservedcondemnation.Ofthestruggleforexistence,onwhich,as,weshallsee,Mr.Darwinlayssuchgreatstress,hehadnoconception;indeed,hedoubtswhethertherereallyaresuchthingsasextinctspecies,unlesstheybesuchlargeanimalsasmayhavemettheirdeathatthehandsofman;andsolittledoeshedreamoftherebeinganyotherdestructivecausesatwork,that,indiscussingthepossibleexistenceoffossilshells,heasks,"Pourquoid'ailleursseroient-ilsperduesdèsquel'hommen'apuopérerleurdestruction?"(Phil.Zool.,vol.i.p.77.)OftheinfluenceofselectionLamarckhasaslittlenotion,andhemakes



nouseofthewonderfulphænomenawhichareexhibitedbydomesticatedanimals,andillustrateitspowers.ThevastinfluenceofCuvierwasemployedagainsttheLamarckianviews,and,astheuntenabilityofsomeofhisconclusionswaseasilyshown,hisdoctrinessankundertheopprobiumofscientific,aswellasoftheological,heterodoxy.Norhavetheeffortsmadeoflateyearstorevivethemtendedtore-establishtheircreditinthemindsofsoundthinkersacquaintedwiththefactsofthecase;indeeditmaybedoubtedwhetherLamarckhasnotsufferedmorefromhisfriendsthanfromhisfoes.

Twoyearsago,infact,thoughweventuretoquestionifeventhestrongestsupportersofthespecialcreationhypothesishadnot,nowandthen,anuneasyconsciousnessthatallwasnotright,theirpositionseemedmoreimpregnablethanever,ifnotbyitsowninherentstrength,atanyratebytheobviousfailureofalltheattemptswhichhadbeenmadetocarryit.Ontheotherhand,howevermuchthefew,whothoughtdeeplyonthequestionofspecies,mightberepelledbythegenerallyreceiveddogmas,theysawnowayofescapingfromthem,savebytheadoptionofsuppositions,solittlejustifiedbyexperimentorbyobservation,astobeatleastequallydistasteful.

Thechoicelaybetweentwoabsurditiesandamiddleconditionofuneasyscepticism;whichlast,howeverunpleasantandunsatisfactory,wasobviouslytheonlyjustifiablestateofmindunderthecircumstances.

Suchbeingthegeneralfermentinthemindsofnaturalists,itisnowonderthattheymusteredstrongintheroomsoftheLinnæanSociety,onthe1stofJulyoftheyear1858,toheartwopapersbyauthorslivingonoppositesidesoftheglobe,workingouttheirresultsindependently,andyetprofessingtohavediscoveredoneandthesamesolutionofalltheproblemsconnectedwithspecies.Theoneoftheseauthorswasanablenaturalist,Mr.Wallace,whohadbeenemployedforsomeyearsinstudyingtheproductionsoftheislandsoftheIndianArchipelago,andwhohadforwardedamemoirembodyinghisviewstoMr.Darwin,forcommunicationtotheLinnæanSociety.Onperusingtheessay,Mr.Darwinwasnotalittlesurprisedtofindthatitembodiedsomeoftheleadingideasofagreatworkwhichhehadbeenpreparingfortwentyyears,and

partsofwhich,containingadevelopmentoftheverysameviews,hadbeenperusedbyhisprivatefriendsfifteenorsixteenyearsbefore.Perplexedinwhatmannertodofulljusticebothtohisfriendandtohimself,Mr.DarwinplacedthematterinthehandsofDr.HookerandSirCharlesLyell,bywhoseadvicehecommunicatedabriefabstractofhisownviewstotheLinnæanSociety,atthesametimethatMr.Wallace'spaperwasread.Ofthatabstract,theworkonthe"OriginofSpecies"isanenlargement;butacompletestatementofMr.Darwin'sdoctrineislookedforinthelargeandwell-illustratedworkwhichheissaidtobepreparingforpublication.

TheDarwinianhypothesishasthemeritofbeingeminentlysimpleand

comprehensibleinprinciple,anditsessentialpositionsmaybestatedinaveryfewwords:allspecieshavebeenproducedbythedevelopmentofvarietiesfromcommonstocksbytheconversionofthesefirstintopermanentracesandthenintonewspecies,bytheprocessof_naturalselection_,whichprocessisessentiallyidenticalwiththatartificialselectionbywhichmanhasoriginatedtheracesofdomesticanimals--the _struggleforexistence_takingtheplaceofman,andexerting,inthecaseofnaturalselection,thatselectiveactionwhichheperformsinartificialselection.



TheevidencebroughtforwardbyMr.Darwininsupportofhishypothesisisofthreekinds.First,heendeavourstoprovethatspeciesmaybeoriginatedbyselection;secondly,heattemptstoshowthatnaturalcausesarecompetenttoexertselection;andthirdly,hetriestoprovethatthemostremarkableandapparentlyanomalousphænomenaexhibitedbythedistribution,development,andmutualrelationsofspecies,canbeshowntobededuciblefromthegeneraldoctrineoftheirorigin,whichhepropounds,combinedwiththeknownfactsofgeologicalchange;andthat,evenifallthesephænomenaarenotatpresentexplicablebyit,nonearenecessarilyinconsistentwithit.

TherecannotbeadoubtthatthemethodofinquirywhichMr.Darwinhasadoptedisnotonlyrigorouslyinaccordancewiththecanonsofscientificlogic,butthatitistheonlyadequatemethod.Criticsexclusivelytrainedinclassicsorinmathematics,whohaveneverdeterminedascientificfactintheirlivesbyinductionfromexperimentorobservation,pratelearnedlyaboutMr.Darwin'smethod,whichisnotinductiveenough,notBaconianenough,forsooth,forthem.Butevenifpracticalacquaintancewiththeprocessofscientificinvestigationisdeniedthem,theymaylearn,bytheperusalofMr.Mill'sadmirablechapter"OntheDeductiveMethod,"thattherearemultitudesofscientificinquiries,inwhichthemethodofpureinductionhelpstheinvestigatorbutaverylittleway.

"Themodeofinvestigation,"saysMr.Mill,"which,fromtheprovedinapplicabilityofdirectmethodsofobservationandexperiment,remainstousasthemainsourceoftheknowledgewepossess,orcanacquire,respectingtheconditionsandlawsofrecurrenceofthemorecomplexphænomena,iscalled,initsmostgeneralexpression,thedeductivemethod,andconsistsofthreeoperations:thefirst,oneofdirectinduction;thesecond,ofratiocination;andthethird,ofverification."

Now,theconditionswhichhavedeterminedtheexistenceofspeciesarenotonlyexceedinglycomplex,but,sofarasthegreatmajorityofthemareconcerned,arenecessarilybeyondourcognizance.ButwhatMr.Darwinhasattemptedtodoisinexactaccordancewiththerulelaid

downbyMr.Mill;hehasendeavouredtodeterminecertaingreatfactsinductively,byobservationandexperiment;hehasthenreasonedfromthedatathusfurnished;andlastly,hehastestedthevalidityofhisratiocinationbycomparinghisdeductionswiththeobservedfactsofNature.Inductively,Mr.Darwinendeavourstoprovethatspeciesariseinagivenway.Deductively,hedesirestoshowthat,iftheyariseinthatway,thefactsofdistribution,development,classification,&c.,maybeaccountedfor,_i.e._maybededucedfromtheirmodeoforigin,combinedwithadmittedchangesinphysicalgeographyandclimate,duringanindefiniteperiod.Andthisexplanation,orcoincidenceofobservedwithdeducedfacts,is,sofarasitextends,averificationoftheDarwinianview.

ThereisnofaulttobefoundwithMr.Darwin'smethod,then;butitisanotherquestionwhetherhehasfulfilledalltheconditionsimposedbythatmethod.Isitsatisfactorilyproved,infact,thatspeciesmaybeoriginatedbyselection?thatthereissuchathingasnaturalselection?thatnoneofthephænomenaexhibitedbyspeciesareinconsistentwiththeoriginofspeciesinthisway?Ifthesequestionscanbeansweredintheaffirmative,Mr.Darwin'sviewstepsoutoftheranksofhypothesesintothoseofprovedtheories;but,solongastheevidenceatpresentadducedfallsshortofenforcingthataffirmation,solong,toourminds,mustthenewdoctrinebecontenttoremainamong



theformer--anextremelyvaluable,andinthehighestdegreeprobable,doctrine,indeedtheonlyextanthypothesiswhichisworthanythinginascientificpointofview;butstillahypothesis,andnotyetthetheoryofspecies.

Aftermuchconsideration,andwithassuredlynobiasagainstMr.Darwin'sviews,itisourclearconvictionthat,astheevidencestands,itisnotabsolutelyproventhatagroupofanimals,havingallthecharactersexhibitedbyspeciesinNature,haseverbeenoriginatedbyselection,whetherartificialornatural.Groupshavingthemorphologicalcharacterofspecies,distinctandpermanentracesinfact,havebeensoproducedoverandoveragain;butthereisnopositiveevidence,atpresent,thatanygroupofanimalshas,byvariationandselectivebreeding,givenrisetoanothergroupwhichwasevenintheleastdegreeinfertilewiththefirst.Mr.Darwinisperfectlyawareofthisweakpoint,andbringsforwardamultitudeofingeniousandimportantargumentstodiminishtheforceoftheobjection.Weadmitthevalueoftheseargumentstotheirfullestextent;nay,wewillgosofarastoexpressourbeliefthatexperiments,conductedbyaskilfulphysiologist,wouldveryprobablyobtainthedesiredproductionofmutuallymoreorlessinfertilebreedsfromacommonstock,inacomparativelyfewyears;butstill,asthecasestandsatpresent,this"littleriftwithinthelute"isnottobedisguisednoroverlooked.

IntheremainderofMr.Darwin'sargumentourownprivateingenuityhasnothithertoenabledustopickholesofanygreatimportance;andjudgingbywhatwehearandread,otheradventurersinthesamefielddonotseemtohavebeenmuchmorefortunate.Ithasbeenurged,forinstance,thatinhischaptersonthestruggleforexistenceandonnaturalselection,Mr.Darwindoesnotsomuchprovethatnaturalselectiondoesoccur,asthatitmustoccur;but,infact,noothersortofdemonstrationisattainable.AracedoesnotattractourattentioninNatureuntilithas,inallprobability,existedforaconsiderabletime,andthenitistoolatetoinquireintotheconditionsofitsorigin.Again,itissaidthatthereisnorealanalogybetweentheselectionwhichtakesplaceunderdomestication,byhumaninfluence,and

anyoperationwhichcanbeeffectedbyNature,formaninterferesintelligently.Reducedtoitselements,thisargumentimpliesthataneffectproducedwithtroublebyanintelligentagentmust,_àfortiori_,bemoretroublesome,ifnotimpossible,toanunintelligentagent.EvenputtingasidethequestionwhetherNature,actingasshedoesaccordingtodefiniteandinvariablelaws,canberightlycalledanunintelligentagent,suchapositionasthisiswhollyuntenable.Mixsaltandsand,anditshallpuzzlethewisestofmen,withhismerenaturalappliances,toseparateallthegrainsofsandfromallthegrainsofsalt;butashowerofrainwilleffectthesameobjectintenminutes.Andso,whilemanmayfindittaxallhisintelligencetoseparateanyvarietywhicharises,andtobreedselectivelyfromit,thedestructiveagenciesincessantlyatworkinNature,iftheyfindonevarietytobemore

solubleincircumstancesthantheother,willinevitably,inthelongrun,eliminateit.

AfrequentandajustobjectiontotheLamarckianhypothesisofthetransmutationofspeciesisbasedupontheabsenceoftransitionalformsbetweenmanyspecies.ButagainsttheDarwinianhypothesisthisargumenthasnoforce.Indeed,oneofthemostvaluableandsuggestivepartsofMr.Darwin'sworkisthatinwhichheproves,thatthefrequentabsenceoftransitionsisanecessaryconsequenceofhisdoctrine,andthatthestockwhencetwoormorespecieshavesprung,needinnorespectbe



intermediatebetweenthesespecies.Ifanytwospecieshavearisenfromacommonstockinthesamewayasthecarrierandthepouter,say,havearisenfromtherock-pigeon,thenthecommonstockofthesetwospeciesneedbenomoreintermediatebetweenthetwothantherock-pigeonisbetweenthecarrierandpouter.Clearlyappreciatetheforceofthisanalogy,andalltheargumentsagainsttheoriginofspeciesbyselection,basedontheabsenceoftransitionalforms,falltotheground.AndMr.Darwin'spositionmight,wethink,havebeenevenstrongerthanitisifhehadnotembarrassedhimselfwiththeaphorism,"_Naturanonfacitsaltum_,"whichturnsupsoofteninhispages.Webelieve,aswehavesaidabove,thatNaturedoesmakejumpsnowandthen,andarecognitionofthefactisofnosmallimportanceindisposingofmanyminorobjectionstothedoctrineoftransmutation.

Butwemustpause.ThediscussionofMr.Darwin'sargumentsindetailwouldleadusfarbeyondthelimitswithinwhichweproposed,atstarting,toconfinethisarticle.Ourobjecthasbeenattainedifwehavegivenanintelligible,howeverbrief,accountoftheestablishedfactsconnectedwithspecies,andoftherelationoftheexplanationofthosefactsofferedbyMr.Darwintothetheoreticalviewsheldbyhispredecessorsandhiscontemporaries,and,aboveall,totherequirementsofscientificlogic.Wehaveventuredtopointoutthatitdoesnot,asyet,satisfyallthoserequirements;butwedonothesitatetoassertthatitisassuperiortoanyprecedingorcontemporaryhypothesis,in

theextentofobservationalandexperimentalbasisonwhichitrests,initsrigorouslyscientificmethod,andinitspowerofexplainingbiologicalphænomena,aswasthehypothesisofCopernicustothespeculationsofPtolemy.Buttheplanetaryorbitsturnedouttobenotquitecircularafterall,and,grandaswastheserviceCopernicusrenderedtoscience,KeplerandNewtonhadtocomeafterhim.WhatiftheorbitofDarwinismshouldbealittletoocircular?Whatifspeciesshouldofferresidualphænomena,hereandthere,notexplicablebynaturalselection?Twentyyearshencenaturalistsmaybeinapositiontosaywhetherthisis,orisnot,thecase;butineithereventtheywillowetheauthorof"TheOriginofSpecies"animmensedebtofgratitude.Weshouldleaveaverywrongimpressiononthereader'smindifwepermittedhimtosupposethatthevalueofthatworkdepends

whollyontheultimatejustificationofthetheoreticalviewswhichitcontains.Onthecontrary,iftheyweredisprovedto-morrow,thebookwouldstillbethebestofitskind--themostcompendiousstatementofwell-siftedfactsbearingonthedoctrineofspeciesthathaseverappeared.ThechaptersonVariation,ontheStruggleforExistence,onInstinct,onHybridism,ontheImperfectionoftheGeologicalRecord,onGeographicalDistribution,havenotonlynoequals,but,sofarasourknowledgegoes,nocompetitors,withintherangeofbiologicalliterature.Andviewedasawhole,wedonotbelievethat,sincethepublicationofVonBaer'sResearchesonDevelopment,thirtyyearsago,anyworkhasappearedcalculatedtoexertsolargeaninfluence,notonlyonthefutureofBiology,butinextendingthedominationofScienceoverregionsofthoughtintowhichshehas,asyet,hardly

penetrated.

FOOTNOTES:

[61]OntheOsteologyoftheChimpanzeesandOrangs:TransactionsoftheZoologicalSociety,1858.

[62]ColonelHumphreys'statementsareexceedinglyexplicitonthispoint:--"WhenanAnconeweisimpregnatedbyacommonram,theincreaseresembleswhollyeithertheeweortheram.Theincreaseofthecommon



eweimpregnatedbyanAnconramfollowsentirelytheoneortheother,withoutblendinganyofthedistinguishingandessentialpeculiaritiesofboth.FrequentinstanceshavehappenedwherecommoneweshavehadtwinsbyAnconrams,whenoneexhibitedthecompletemarksandfeaturesoftheewe,theotheroftheram.Thecontrasthasbeenrenderedsingularlystriking,whenoneshort-leggedandonelong-leggedlamb,producedatabirth,havebeenseensuckingthedamatthesametime."--_PhilosophicalTransactions_,1813,Pt.I.,pp.89,90.

[63]Recentinvestigationstendtoshowthatthisstatementisnotstrictlyaccurate.--1870.

[64]SeePhil.Zoologique,vol.i.p.222,etseq.

XIII.

CRITICISMSON"THEORIGINOFSPECIES."

1.UEBERDIEDARWIN'SCHESCHÖPFUNGSTHEORIE;EINVORTAG,VONA.KÖLLIKER.Leipzig,1864.

2.EXAMINATIONDULIVREDEM.DARWINSURL'ORIGINEDESESPÈCES.PARP.FLOURENS.Paris,1864.

Inthecourseofthepresentyear[1864]severalforeigncommentariesuponMr.Darwin'sgreatworkhavemadetheirappearance.Thosewhohaveperusedthatremarkablechapterofthe"AntiquityofMan,"inwhichSirCharlesLyelldrawsaparallelbetweenthedevelopmentofspeciesandthatoflanguages,willbegladtohearthatoneofthemosteminentphilologersofGermany,ProfessorSchleicher,has,independently,publishedamostinstructiveandphilosophicalpamphlet(anexcellentnoticeofwhichistobefoundinthe_Reader_,forFebruary27thofthisyear)supportingsimilarviewswithalltheweightofhisspecial

knowledgeandestablishedauthorityasalinguist.ProfessorHaeckel,towhomSchleicheraddresseshimself,previouslytookoccasion,inhissplendidmonographonthe_Radiolaria_,[65]toexpresshishighappreciationof,andgeneralconcordancewith,Mr.Darwin'sviews.

Butthemostelaboratecriticismsofthe"OriginofSpecies"whichhaveappearedaretwoworksofverywidelydifferentmerit,theonebyProfessorKölliker,thewell-knownanatomistandhistologistofWürzburg;theotherbyM.Flourens,PerpetualSecretaryoftheFrenchAcademyofSciences.

ProfessorKölliker'scriticalessay"UpontheDarwinianTheory"is,likeallthatproceedsfromthepenofthatthoughtfulandaccomplished

writer,worthyofthemostcarefulconsideration.ItcomprisesabriefbutclearsketchofDarwin'sviews,followedbyanenumerationoftheleadingdifficultiesinthewayoftheiracceptance;difficultieswhichwouldappeartobeinsurmountabletoProfessorKölliker,inasmuchasheproposestoreplaceMr.Darwin'sTheorybyonewhichhetermsthe"TheoryofHeterogeneousGeneration."Weshallproceedtoconsiderfirstthedestructive,andsecondly,theconstructiveportionoftheessay.

WeregrettofindourselvescompelledtodissentverywidelyfrommanyofProfessorKölliker'sremarks;andfromnonemorethoroughlythanfrom



thoseinwhichheseekstodefinewhatwemaytermthephilosophicalpositionofDarwinism.

"Darwin,"saysProfessorKölliker,"is,inthefullestsenseoftheWord,aTeleologist.Hesaysquitedistinctly(FirstEdition,pp.199,200)thateveryparticularinthestructureofananimalhasbeencreatedforitsbenefit,andheregardsthewholeseriesofanimalformsonlyfromthispointofview."

Andagain:

"7.TheteleologicalgeneralconceptionadoptedbyDarwinisamistakenone.

"Varietiesariseirrespectivelyofthenotionofpurpose,orofutility,accordingtogenerallawsofNature,andmaybeeitheruseful,orhurtful,orindifferent.

"Theassumptionthatanorganismexistsonlyonaccountofsomedefiniteendinview,andrepresentssomethingmorethantheincorporationofageneralidea,orlaw,impliesaone-sidedconceptionoftheuniverse.Assuredly,everyorganhas,andeveryorganismfulfils,itsend,butitspurposeisnottheconditionofitsexistence.Everyorganismisalsosufficientlyperfectforthe

purposeitserves,andinthat,atleast,itisuselesstoseekforacauseofitsimprovement."

Itissingularhowdifferentlyoneandthesamebookwillimpressdifferentminds.Thatwhichstruckthepresentwritermostforciblyonhisfirstperusalofthe"OriginofSpecies"wastheconvictionthatTeleology,ascommonlyunderstood,hadreceiveditsdeathblowatMr.Darwin'shands.Fortheteleologicalargumentrunsthus:anorganororganism(A)ispreciselyfittedtoperformafunctionorpurpose(B);thereforeitwasspeciallyconstructedtoperformthatfunction.InPaley'sfamousillustration,theadaptationofallthepartsofthewatchtothefunction,orpurpose,ofshowingthetime,isheldtobeevidencethatthewatchwasspeciallycontrivedtothatend;onthe

ground,thattheonlycauseweknowof,competenttoproducesuchaneffectasawatchwhichshallkeeptime,isacontrivingintelligenceadaptingthemeansdirectlytothatend.

Suppose,however,thatanyonehadbeenabletoshowthatthewatchhadnotbeenmadedirectlybyanyperson,butthatitwastheresultofthemodificationofanotherwatchwhichkepttimebutpoorly;andthatthisagainhadproceededfromastructurewhichcouldhardlybecalledawatchatall--seeingthatithadnofiguresonthedialandthehandswererudimentary;andthatgoingbackandbackintimewecameatlasttoarevolvingbarrelastheearliesttraceablerudimentofthewholefabric.Andimaginethatithadbeenpossibletoshowthatallthesechangeshadresulted,first,fromatendencyofthestructuretovary

indefinitely;andsecondly,fromsomethinginthesurroundingworldwhichhelpedallvariationsinthedirectionofanaccuratetime-keeper,andcheckedallthoseinotherdirections;thenitisobviousthattheforceofPaley'sargumentwouldbegone.Foritwouldbedemonstratedthatanapparatusthoroughlywelladaptedtoaparticularpurposemightbetheresultofamethodoftrialanderrorworkedbyunintelligentagents,aswellasofthedirectapplicationofthemeansappropriatetothatend,byanintelligentagent.

Nowitappearstousthatwhatwehavehere,forillustration'ssake,



supposedtobedonewiththewatch,isexactlywhattheestablishmentofDarwin'sTheorywilldofortheorganicworld.Forthenotionthateveryorganismhasbeencreatedasitisandlaunchedstraightatapurpose,Mr.Darwinsubstitutestheconceptionofsomethingwhichmayfairlybetermedamethodoftrialanderror.Organismsvaryincessantly;ofthesevariationsthefewmeetwithsurroundingconditionswhichsuitthemandthrive;themanyareunsuitedandbecomeextinguished.

AccordingtoTeleology,eachorganismislikeariflebulletfiredstraightatamark;accordingtoDarwin,organismsarelikegrapeshotofwhichonehitssomethingandtherestfallwide.

Fortheteleologistanorganismexistsbecauseitwasmadefortheconditionsinwhichitisfound;fortheDarwiniananorganismexistsbecause,outofmanyofitskind,itistheonlyonewhichhasbeenabletopersistintheconditionsinwhichitisfound.

Teleologyimpliesthattheorgansofeveryorganismareperfectandcannotbeimproved;theDarwiniantheorysimplyaffirmsthattheyworkwellenoughtoenabletheorganismtoholditsownagainstsuchcompetitorsasithasmetwith,butadmitsthepossibilityofindefiniteimprovement.Butanexamplemaybringintoclearerlighttheprofoundoppositionbetweentheordinaryteleological,andtheDarwinian,conception.

Catscatchmice,smallbirdsandthelike,verywell.Teleologytellsusthattheydosobecausetheywereexpresslyconstructedforsodoing--thattheyareperfectmousingapparatuses,soperfectandsodelicatelyadjustedthatnooneoftheirorganscouldbealtered,withoutthechangeinvolvingthealterationofalltherest.Darwinismaffirms,onthecontrary,thattherewasnoexpressconstructionconcernedinthematter;butthatamongthemultitudinousvariationsoftheFelinestock,manyofwhichdiedoutfromwantofpowertoresistopposinginfluences,some,thecats,werebetterfittedtocatchmicethanothers,whencetheythroveandpersisted,inproportiontotheadvantageovertheirfellowsthusofferedtothem.

Farfromimaginingthatcatsexist_inorder_tocatchmicewell,Darwinismsupposesthatcatsexist_because_theycatchmicewell--mousingbeingnottheend,butthecondition,oftheirexistence.Andifthecat-typehaslongpersistedasweknowit,theinterpretationofthefactuponDarwinianprincipleswouldbe,notthatthecatshaveremainedinvariable,butthatsuchvarietiesashaveincessantlyoccurredhavebeen,onthewhole,lessfittedtogetonintheworldthantheexistingstock.

Ifweapprehendthespiritofthe"OriginofSpecies"rightly,then,nothingcanbemoreentirelyandabsolutelyopposedtoTeleology,asitiscommonlyunderstood,thantheDarwinianTheory.Sofarfrombeinga"Teleologistinthefullestsenseoftheword,"weshoulddenythathe

isaTeleologistintheordinarysenseatall;andweshouldsaythat,apartfromhismeritsasanaturalist,hehasrenderedamostremarkableservicetophilosophicalthoughtbyenablingthestudentofNaturetorecognise,totheirfullestextent,thoseadaptationstopurposewhicharesostrikingintheorganicworld,andwhichTeleologyhasdonegoodserviceinkeepingbeforeourminds,withoutbeingfalsetothefundamentalprinciplesofascientificconceptionoftheuniverse.TheapparentlydivergingteachingsoftheTeleologistandoftheMorphologistarereconciledbytheDarwinianhypothesis.



Butleavingourownimpressionsofthe"OriginofSpecies,"andturningtothosepassagesspeciallycitedbyProfessorKölliker,wecannotadmitthattheybeartheinterpretationheputsuponthem.Darwin,ifwereadhimrightly,does_not_affirmthateverydetailinthestructureofananimalhasbeencreatedforitsbenefit.Hiswordsare(p.199):--

"Theforegoingremarksleadmetosayafewwordsontheprotestlatelymadebysomenaturalistsagainsttheutilitariandoctrinethateverydetailofstructurehasbeenproducedforthegoodofitspossessor.Theybelievethatverymanystructureshavebeencreatedforbeautyintheeyesofman,orformerevariety.Thisdoctrine,iftrue,wouldbeabsolutelyfataltomytheory--yetIfullyadmitthatmanystructuresareofnodirectusetotheirpossessor."

Andaftersundryillustrationsandqualifications,heconcludes(p.200):--

"Henceeverydetailofstructureineverylivingcreature(makingsomelittleallowanceforthedirectactionofphysicalconditions)maybeviewedeitherashavingbeenofspecialusetosomeancestralform,orasbeingnowofspecialusetothedescendantsofthisform--eitherdirectly,orindirectly,throughthecomplexlawsofgrowth."

Butitisonethingtosay,Darwinically,thateverydetailobservedinananimal'sstructureisofusetoit,orhasbeenofusetoitsancestors;andquiteanothertoaffirm,teleologically,thateverydetailofananimal'sstructurehasbeencreatedforitsbenefit.Ontheformerhypothesis,forexample,theteethofthefoetal_Balæna_haveameaning;onthelatter,none.Sofarasweareaware,thereisnotaphraseinthe"OriginofSpecies,"inconsistentwithProfessorKölliker'sposition,that"varietiesariseirrespectivelyofthenotionofpurpose,orofutility,accordingtogenerallawsofNature,andmaybeeitheruseful,orhurtful,orindifferent."

Onthecontrary,Mr.Darwinwrites(SummaryofChap.V.):--

"Ourignoranceofthelawsofvariationisprofound.Notinonecaseoutofahundredcanwepretendtoassignanyreasonwhythisorthatpartvariesmoreorlessfromthesamepartintheparents....Theexternalconditionsoflife,asclimateandfood,&c.seemtohaveinducedsomeslightmodifications.Habit,inproducingconstitutionaldifferences,anduse,instrengthening,anddisuse,inweakeninganddiminishingorgans,seemtohavebeenmorepotentintheireffects."

Andfinally,asiftopreventallpossiblemisconception,Mr.DarwinconcludeshisChapteronVariationwiththesepregnantwords:--

"Whateverthecausemaybeofeachslightdifferenceintheoffspringfromtheirparents--andacauseforeachmustexist--itisthesteadyaccumulation,throughnaturalselectionofsuchdifferences,whenbeneficialtotheindividual,thatgivesrisetoallthemoreimportantmodificationsofstructure,bywhichtheinnumerablebeingsonthefaceoftheearthareenabledtostrugglewitheachother,andthebestadaptedtosurvive."

Wehavedweltatlengthuponthissubject,becauseofitsgreatgeneralimportance,andbecausewebelievethatProfessorKölliker'scriticisms



onthisheadarebaseduponamisapprehensionofMr.Darwin'sviews--substantiallytheyappeartoustocoincidewithhisown.TheotherobjectionswhichProfessorKöllikerenumeratesanddiscussesarethefollowing:[66]--

"1.Notransitionalformsbetweenexistingspeciesareknown;andknownvarieties,whetherselectedorspontaneous,nevergosofarastoestablishnewspecies."

TothisProfessorKöllikerappearstoattachsomeweight.Hemakesthesuggestionthattheshort-facedtumblerpigeonmaybeapathologicalproduct.

"2.Notransitionalformsofanimalsaremetwithamongtheorganicremainsofearlierepochs."

Uponthis,ProfessorKöllikerremarksthattheabsenceoftransitionalformsinthefossilworld,thoughnotnecessarilyfataltoDarwin'sviews,weakenshiscase.

"3.Thestruggleforexistencedoesnottakeplace."

Tothisobjection,urgedbyPelzeln,Kölliker,veryjustly,attachesnoweight.

"4.Atendencyoforganismstogiverisetousefulvarieties,andanaturalselection,donotexist.

"Thevarietieswhicharefoundariseinconsequenceofmanifoldexternalinfluences,anditisnotobviouswhytheyall,orpartially,shouldbeparticularlyuseful.Eachanimalsufficesforitsownends,isperfectofitskind,andneedsnofurtherdevelopment.Should,however,avarietybeusefulandevenmaintainitself,thereisnoobviousreasonwhyitshouldchangeanyfurther.ThewholeconceptionoftheimperfectionoforganismsandthenecessityoftheirbecomingperfectedisplainlytheweakestsideofDarwin'sTheory,anda_pisaller_(Nothbehelf)because

Darwincouldthinkofnootherprinciplebywhichtoexplainthemetamorphoseswhich,asIalsobelieve,haveoccurred."

HereagainwemustventuretodissentcompletelyfromProfessorKölliker'sconceptionofMr.Darwin'shypothesis.Itappearstoustobeoneofthemanypeculiarmeritsofthathypothesisthatitinvolvesnobeliefinanecessaryandcontinualprogressoforganisms.

Again,Mr.Darwin,ifwereadhimaright,assumesnospecialtendencyoforganismstogiverisetousefulvarieties,andknowsnothingofneedsofdevelopment,ornecessityofperfection.Whathesaysis,insubstance:Allorganismsvary.Itisinthehighestdegreeimprobable

thatanygivenvarietyshouldhaveexactlythesamerelationstosurroundingconditionsastheparentstock.Inthatcaseitiseitherbetterfitted(whenthevariationmaybecalleduseful),orworsefitted,tocopewiththem.Ifbetter,itwilltendtosupplanttheparentstock;ifworse,itwilltendtobeextinguishedbytheparentstock.

If(asishardlyconceivable)thenewvarietyissoperfectlyadaptedtotheconditionsthatnoimprovementuponitispossible,--itwillpersist,because,thoughitdoesnotceasetovary,thevarietieswill



beinferiortoitself.

If,asismoreprobable,thenewvarietyisbynomeansperfectlyadaptedtoitsconditions,butonlyfairlywelladaptedtothem,itwillpersist,solongasnoneofthevarietieswhichitthrowsoffarebetteradaptedthanitself.

Ontheotherhand,assoonasitvariesinausefulway,_i.e._whenthevariationissuchastoadaptitmoreperfectlytoitsconditions,thefreshvarietywilltendtosupplanttheformer.

SofarfromagradualprogresstowardsperfectionforminganynecessarypartoftheDarwiniancreed,itappearstousthatitisperfectlyconsistentwithindefinitepersistenceinonestate,orwithagradualretrogression.Suppose,forexample,areturnoftheglacialepochandaspreadofpolarclimatalconditionsoverthewholeglobe.Theoperationofnaturalselectionunderthesecircumstanceswouldtend,onthewhole,totheweedingoutofthehigherorganismsandthecherishingofthelowerformsoflife.CryptogamicvegetationwouldhavetheadvantageoverPhanerogamic;_Hydrozoa_overCorals;_Crustacea_over_Insecta_,and_Amphipoda_and_Isopoda_overthehigher_Crustacea_;CetaceansandSealsoverthe_Primates_;thecivilizationoftheEsquimauxoverthatoftheEuropean.

"5.Pelzelnhasalsoobjectedthatifthelaterorganismshaveproceededfromtheearlier,thewholedevelopmentalseries,fromthesimplesttothehighest,couldnotnowexist;insuchacasethesimplerorganismsmusthavedisappeared."

TothisProfessorKöllikerreplies,withperfectjustice,thattheconclusiondrawnbyPelzelndoesnotreallyfollowfromDarwin'spremises,andthat,ifwetakethefactsofPalæontologyastheystand,theyrathersupportthanopposeDarwin'stheory.

"6.GreatweightmustbeattachedtotheobjectionbroughtforwardbyHuxley,otherwiseawarmsupporterofDarwin'shypothesis,thatweknowofnovarietieswhicharesterilewithoneanother,asis

theruleamongsharplydistinguishedanimalforms.

"IfDarwinisright,itmustbedemonstratedthatformsmaybeproducedbyselection,which,likethepresentsharplydistinguishedanimalforms,areinfertilewhencoupledwithoneanother,andthishasnotbeendone."

Theweightofthisobjectionisobvious;butourignoranceoftheconditionsoffertilityandsterility,thewantofcarefullyconductedexperimentsextendingoverlongseriesofyears,andthestrangeanomaliespresentedbytheresultsofthecross-fertilizationofmanyplants,shouldall,asMr.Darwinhasurged,betakenintoaccountinconsideringit.

Theseventhobjectionisthatwehavealreadydiscussed(_suprà_,p.329).

Theeighthandlaststandsasfollows:--

"8.ThedevelopmentaltheoryofDarwinisnotneededtoenableustounderstandtheregularharmoniousprogressofthecompleteseriesoforganicformsfromthesimplertothemoreperfect.



"TheexistenceofgenerallawsofNatureexplainsthisharmony,evenifweassumethatallbeingshavearisenseparatelyandindependentofoneanother.Darwinforgetsthatinorganicnature,inwhichtherecanbenothoughtofageneticconnexionofforms,exhibitsthesameregularplan,thesameharmony,astheorganicworld;andthat,tociteonlyoneexample,thereisasmuchanaturalsystemofmineralsasofplantsandanimals."

WedonotfeelquitesurethatweseizeProfessorKölliker'smeaninghere,butheappearstosuggestthattheobservationofthegeneralorderandharmonywhichpervadeinorganicnature,wouldleadustoanticipateasimilarorderandharmonyintheorganicworld.Andthisisnodoubttrue,butitbynomeansfollowsthattheparticularorderandharmonyobservedamongthemshouldbethatwhichwesee.Surelythestripesofdunhorses,andtheteethofthefoetal_Balæna_,arenotexplainedbythe"existenceofgenerallawsofNature."Mr.Darwinendeavourstoexplaintheexactorderoforganicnaturewhichexists;notthemerefactthatthereissomeorder.

Andwithregardtotheexistenceofanaturalsystemofminerals;theobviousreplyisthattheremaybeanaturalclassificationofanyobjects--ofstonesonasea-beach,orofworksofart;anaturalclassificationbeingsimplyanassemblageofobjectsingroups,soastoexpresstheirmostimportantandfundamentalresemblancesand

differences.NodoubtMr.Darwinbelievesthatthoseresemblancesanddifferencesuponwhichournaturalsystemsorclassificationsofanimalsandplantsarebased,areresemblancesanddifferenceswhichhavebeenproducedgenetically,butwecandiscovernoreasonforsupposingthathedeniestheexistenceofnaturalclassificationsofotherkinds.

And,afterall,isitquitesocertainthatageneticrelationmaynotunderlietheclassificationofminerals?Theinorganicworldhasnotalwaysbeenwhatweseeit.Ithascertainlyhaditsmetamorphoses,and,veryprobably,along"Entwickelungsgeschichte"outofanebularblastema.Whoknowshowfarthatamountoflikenessamongsetsofminerals,invirtueofwhichtheyarenowgroupedintofamiliesandorders,maynotbetheexpressionofthecommonconditionstowhichthat

particularpatchofnebulousfog,whichmayhavebeenconstitutedbytheiratoms,andofwhichtheymaybe,inthestrictestsense,thedescendants,wassubjected?

Itwillbeobviousfromwhathaspreceded,thatwedonotagreewithProfessorKöllikerinthinkingtheobjectionswhichhebringsforwardsoweightyastobefataltoDarwin'sview.Butevenifthecasewereotherwise,weshouldbeunabletoacceptthe"TheoryofHeterogeneousGeneration"whichisofferedasasubstitute.Thattheoryisthusstated:--

"Thefundamentalconceptionofthishypothesisis,that,undertheinfluenceofagenerallawofdevelopment,thegermsoforganisms

produceothersdifferentfromthemselves.Thismighthappen(1)bythefecundatedovapassing,inthecourseoftheirdevelopment,underparticularcircumstances,intohigherforms;(2)bytheprimitiveandlaterorganismsproducingotherorganismswithoutfecundation,outofgermsoreggs(Parthenogenesis)."

Infavourofthishypothesis,ProfessorKöllikeradducesthewell-knownfactsofAgamogenesis,or"alternategeneration;"theextremedissimilarityofthemalesandfemalesofmanyanimals;andofthemales,females,andneutersofthoseinsectswhichliveincolonies:and



hedefinesitsrelationstotheDarwiniantheoryasfollows:--

"ItisobviousthatmyhypothesisisapparentlyverysimilartoDarwin's,inasmuchasIalsoconsiderthatthevariousformsofanimalshaveproceededdirectlyfromoneanother.Myhypothesisofthecreationoforganismsbyheterogeneousgeneration,however,isdistinguishedveryessentiallyfromDarwin'sbytheentireabsenceoftheprincipleofusefulvariationsandtheirnaturalselection;andmyfundamentalconceptionisthis,thatagreatplanofdevelopmentliesatthefoundationoftheoriginofthewholeorganicworld,impellingthesimplerformstomoreandmorecomplexdevelopments.Howthislawoperates,whatinfluencesdeterminethedevelopmentoftheeggsandgerms,andimpelthemtoassumeconstantlynewforms,Inaturallycannotpretendtosay;butIcanatleastadducethegreatanalogyofthealternationofgenerations.Ifa_Bipinnaria_,a_Brachialaria_,a_Pluteus_,iscompetenttoproducetheEchinoderm,whichissowidelydifferentfromit;ifahydroidpolypecanproducethehigherMedusa;ifthevermiformTrematode'nurse'candevelopwithinitselftheveryunlike_Cercaria_,itwillnotappearimpossiblethattheegg,orciliatedembryo,ofasponge,foronce,underspecialconditions,mightbecomeahydroidpolype,ortheembryoofaMedusa,anEchinoderm."

Itisobvious,fromtheseextracts,thatProfessorKölliker'shypothesisisbaseduponthesupposedexistenceofacloseanalogybetweenthephænomenaofAgamogenesisandtheproductionofnewspeciesfrompre-existingones.Butistheanalogyarealone?Wethinkthatitisnot,and,bythehypothesis,cannotbe.

ForwhatarethephænomenaofAgamogenesis,statedgenerally?Animpregnatedeggdevelopsintoanasexualform,A;thisgivesrise,asexually,toasecondformorforms,B,moreorlessdifferentfromA.Bmaymultiplyasexuallyagain;inthesimplercases,however,itdoesnot,but,acquiringsexualcharacters,producesimpregnatedeggsfromwhenceAoncemorearises.

NocaseofAgamogenesisisknowninwhich,_whenAdifferswidelyfromB_,itisitselfcapableofsexualpropagation.NocasewhateverisknowninwhichtheprogenyofB,bysexualgeneration,isotherthanareproductionofA.

ButifthisbeatruestatementofthenatureoftheprocessofAgamogenesis,howcanitenableustocomprehendtheproductionofnewspeciesfromalreadyexistingones?LetussupposeHyænastohaveprecededDogs,andtohaveproducedthelatterinthisway.ThentheHyænawillrepresentA,andtheDog,B.ThefirstdifficultythatpresentsitselfisthattheHyænamustbeasexual,ortheprocesswillbewhollywithoutanalogyintheworldofAgamogenesis.Butpassingoverthisdifficulty,andsupposingamaleandfemaleDogtobeproducedat

thesametimefromtheHyænastock,theprogenyofthepair,iftheanalogyofthesimplerkindsofAgamogenesis[67]istobefollowed,shouldbealitter,notofpuppies,butofyoungHyænas.FortheAgamogeneticseriesisalways,aswehaveseen,A:B:A:B,&c.;whereas,fortheproductionofanewspecies,theseriesmustbeA:B:B:B,&c.Theproductionofnewspecies,orgenera,istheextremepermanentdivergencefromtheprimitivestock.AllknownAgamogeneticprocesses,ontheotherhand,endinacompletereturntotheprimitivestock.HowthenistheproductionofnewspeciestoberenderedintelligiblebytheanalogyofAgamogenesis?



TheotheralternativeputbyProfessorKölliker--thepassageoffecundatedovainthecourseoftheirdevelopmentintohigherforms--would,ifitoccurred,bemerelyanextremecaseofvariationintheDarwiniansense,greaterindegreethan,butperfectlysimilarinkindto,thatwhichoccurredwhenthewell-knownAnconRamwasdevelopedfromanordinaryEwe'sovum.IndeedwehavealwaysthoughtthatMr.Darwinhasunnecessarilyhamperedhimselfbyadheringsostrictlytohisfavourite"Naturanonfacitsaltum."Wegreatlysuspectthatshedoesmakeconsiderablejumpsinthewayofvariationnowandthen,andthatthesesaltationsgiverisetosomeofthegapswhichappeartoexistintheseriesofknownforms.

StronglyandfreelyaswehaveventuredtodisagreewithProfessorKölliker,wehavealwaysdonesowithregret,andwetrustwithoutviolatingthatrespectwhichisdue,notonlytohisscientificeminenceandtothecarefulstudywhichhehasdevotedtothesubject,buttotheperfectfairnessofhisargumentation,andthegenerousappreciationoftheworthofMr.Darwin'slabourswhichhealwaysdisplays.ItwouldbesatisfactorytobeabletosayasmuchforM.Flourens.

ButthePerpetualSecretaryoftheFrenchAcademyofSciencesdealswithMr.DarwinasthefirstNapoleonwouldhavetreatedan"idéologue;"and

whiledisplayingapainfulweaknessoflogicandshallownessofinformation,assumesatoneofauthority,whichalwaystouchesupontheludicrous,andsometimespassesthelimitsofgoodbreeding.

Forexample(p.56):--

"M.Darwincontinue:'Aucunedistinctionabsoluen'aétéetnepeutêtreétablieentrelesespècesetlesvariétés.'Jevousaidéjàditquevousvoustrompiez;unedistinctionabsolueséparelesvariétésd'aveclesespèces."

"_Jevousaidéjàdit_;moi,M.leSecrétaireperpétueldel'AcadémiedesSciences:etvous

'Quin'êtesrien,PasmêmeAcadémicien;'

whatdoyoumeanbyassertingthecontrary?"BeingdevoidoftheblessingsofanAcademyinEngland,weareunaccustomedtoseeourablestmentreatedinthisfashionevenbya"PerpetualSecretary."

Oragain,consideringthatifthereisanyonequalityofMr.Darwin'sworktowhichfriendsandfoeshavealikebornewitness,itishiscandourandfairnessinadmittinganddiscussingobjections,whatistobethoughtofM.Flourens'assertion,that

"M.Darwinnecitequelesauteursquipartagentsesopinions."(P.40.)

Oncemore(p.65):

"Enfinl'ouvragedeM.Darwinaparu.Onnepeutqu'êtrefrappédutalentdel'auteur.Maisqued'idéesobscures,qued'idéesfausses!Queljargonmétaphysiquejetémalàproposdansl'histoirenaturelle,quitombedanslegalimatiasdèsqu'ellesortdesidéesclaires,desidéesjustes!Quellangageprétentieuxetvide!



Quellespersonificationspuérilesetsurannées!Olucidité!Osoliditédel'espritFrançais,quedevenez-vous?"

"Obscureideas,""metaphysicaljargon,""pretentiousandemptylanguage,""puerileandsuperannuatedpersonifications."Mr.DarwinhasmanyandhotopponentsonthissideoftheChannelandinGermany,butwedonotrecollecttohavefoundpreciselythesesinsinthelongcatalogueofthosehithertolaidtohischarge.Itisworthwhile,therefore,toexamineintothesediscoverieseffectedsolelybytheaidofthe"lucidityandsolidity"ofthemindofM.Flourens.

AccordingtoM.Flourens,Mr.Darwin'sgreaterroristhathehaspersonifiedNature(p.10),andfurtherthathehas

"imaginedanaturalselection:heimaginesafterwardsthatthispowerofselecting(_pouvoird'élire_)whichhegivestoNatureissimilartothepowerofman.Thesetwosuppositionsadmitted,nothingstopshim:heplayswithNatureashelikes,andmakesherdoallhepleases."(P.6.)

AndthisisthewayM.Flourensextinguishesnaturalselection:

"Voyonsdoncencoreunefois,cequ'ilpeutyavoirdefondédanscequ'onnomme_électionnaturelle_.

"_L'électionnaturelle_n'estsousunautrenomquelanature.Pourunêtreorganísé,lanaturen'estquel'organisation,niplusnimoins.

"Ilfaudradoncaussipersonnifier_l'organisation_,etdireque_l'organisation_choisit_l'organisation_._L'electionnaturelle_ estcette_formesubstantielle_dontonjonaitautrefoisavectantdefacilité.Aristotedisaitque'Sil'artdebâtirétaitdanslebois,cetartagiraitcommelanature.'Alaplacede_l'artdebâtir_M.Darwinmet_l'electionnaturelle_,etc'esttoutun:l'unn'estpaspluschimériquequel'autre."(P.31.)

AndthisisreallyallthatM.FlourenscanmakeofNaturalSelection.Wehavegiventheoriginal,infearlestatranslationshouldberegardedasatravesty;butwiththeoriginalbeforethereader,wemaytrytoanalysethepassage."Foranorganizedbeing,Natureisonlyorganization,neithermorenorless."

Organizedbeingsthenhaveabsolutelynorelationtoinorganicnature:aplantdoesnotdependonsoilorsunshine,climate,depthintheocean,heightaboveit;thequantityofsalinemattersinwaterhavenoinfluenceuponanimallife;thesubstitutionofcarbonicacidforoxygeninouratmospherewouldhurtnobody!ThattheseareabsurditiesnooneshouldknowbetterthanM.Flourens;buttheyarelogicaldeductionsfromtheassertionjustquoted,andfromthefurtherstatementthat

naturalselectionmeansonlythat"organizationchoosesandselectsorganization."

Forifitbeonceadmitted(whatnosanemandenies)thatthechancesoflifeofanygivenorganismareincreasedbycertainconditions(A)anddiminishedbytheiropposites(B),thenitismathematicallycertainthatanychangeofconditionsinthedirectionof(A)willexerciseaselectiveinfluenceinfavourofthatorganism,tendingtoitsincreaseandmultiplication,whileanychangeinthedirectionof(B)willexerciseaselectiveinfluenceagainstthatorganism,tendingtoits



decreaseandextinction.

Or,ontheotherhand,conditionsremainingthesame,letagivenorganismvary(andnoonedoubtsthattheydovary)intwodirections:intooneform(a)betterfittedtocopewiththeseconditionsthantheoriginalstock,andasecond(b)lesswelladaptedtothem.Thenitisnolesscertainthattheconditionsinquestionmustexerciseaselectiveinfluenceinfavourof(a)andagainst(b),sothat(a)willtendtopredominance,and(b)toextirpation.

ThatM.Flourensshouldbeunabletoperceivethelogicalnecessityofthesesimplearguments,whichlieatthefoundationofallMr.Darwin'sreasoning;thatheshouldconfoundanirrefragabledeductionfromtheobservedrelationsoforganismstotheconditionswhichliearoundthem,withametaphysical"formesubstantielle,"orachimericalpersonificationofthepowersofNature,wouldbeincredible,wereitnotthatotherpassagesofhisworkleavenoroomfordoubtuponthesubject.

"Onimagineune_électionnaturelle_que,pourplusdeménagement,onmeditêtre_inconsciente_,sanss'apercevoirquelecontre-senslittéralestprécisémentlà:_électioninconsciente_."(P.52.)

"J'aidéjàditcequ'ilfautpenserde_l'électionnaturelle_.Ou

_l'électionnaturelle_n'estrien,ouc'estlanature:maislanaturedouée_d'élection_,maislanaturepersonnifiée:dernièreerreurduderniersiècle:Lexix^enefaitplusdepersonnifications."(P.53.)

M.Flourenscannotimagineanunconsciousselection--itisforhimacontradictioninterms.DidM.Flourensevervisitoneoftheprettiestwatering-placesof"labelleFrance,"theBaied'Arcachon?Ifso,hewillprobablyhavepassedthroughthedistrictoftheLandes,andwillhavehadanopportunityofobservingtheformationof"dunes"onagrandscale.Whatarethese"dunes?"ThewindsandwavesoftheBayofBiscayhavenotmuchconsciousness,andyettheyhavewithgreatcare"selected,"fromamonganinfinityofmassesofsilexofallshapesand

sizes,whichhavebeensubmittedtotheiraction,allthegrainsofsandbelowacertainsize,andhaveheapedthembythemselvesoveragreatarea.Thissandhasbeen"unconsciouslyselected"fromamidstthegravelinwhichitfirstlaywithasmuchprecisionasifmanhad"consciouslyselected"itbytheaidofasieve.PhysicalGeologyisfullofsuchselections--ofthepickingoutofthesoftfromthehard,ofthesolublefromtheinsoluble,ofthefusiblefromtheinfusible,bynaturalagenciestowhichwearecertainlynotinthehabitofascribingconsciousness.

Butthatwhichwindandseaaretoasandybeach,thesumofinfluences,whichwetermthe"conditionsofexistence,"istolivingorganisms.Theweakaresiftedoutfromthestrong.Afrostynight"selects"thehardy

plantsinaplantationfromamongthetenderonesaseffectuallyasifitwerethewind,andthey,thesandandpebbles,ofourillustration;or,ontheotherhand,asiftheintelligenceofagardenerhadbeenoperativeincuttingtheweakerorganismsdown.Thethistle,whichhasspreadoverthePampas,tothedestructionofnativeplants,hasbeenmoreeffectually"selected"bytheunconsciousoperationofnaturalconditionsthanifathousandagriculturistshadspenttheirtimeinsowingit.

ItisoneofMr.Darwin'smanygreatservicestoBiologicalsciencethat



hehasdemonstratedthesignificanceofthesefacts.Hehasshownthat--givenvariationandgivenchangeofconditions--theinevitableresultistheexerciseofsuchaninfluenceuponorganismsthatoneishelpedandanotherisimpeded;onetendstopredominate,anothertodisappear;andthusthelivingworldbearswithinitself,andissurroundedby,impulsestowardsincessantchange.

Butthetruthsjuststatedareascertainasanyotherphysicallaws,quiteindependentlyofthetruth,orfalsehood,ofthehypothesiswhichMr.Darwinhasbaseduponthem;andthatM.Flourens,missingthesubstanceandgraspingatashadow,shouldbeblindtotheadmirableexpositionofthem,whichMr.Darwinhasgiven,andseenothingtherebuta"dernièreerreurduderniersiècle"--apersonificationofNature--leadsusindeedtocrywithhim:"Olucidité!Osoliditédel'espritFrançais,quedevenez-vous?"

M.Flourenshas,infact,utterlyfailedtocomprehendthefirstprinciplesofthedoctrinewhichheassailssorudely.Hisobjectionstodetailsareoftheoldsort,sobatteredandhackneyedonthissideoftheChannel,thatnotevenaQuarterlyReviewercouldbeinducedtopickthemupforthepurposeofpeltingMr.Darwinoveragain.WehaveCuvierandthemummies;M.RoulinandthedomesticatedanimalsofAmerica;thedifficultiespresentedbyhybridismandbyPalæontology;Darwinisma _rifacciamento_ofDeMailletandLamarck;Darwinismasystemwithouta

commencement,anditsauthorboundtobelieveinM.Pouchet,&c.&c.Howoneknowsitallbyheart,andwithwhatreliefonereadsatp.65--

"JelaisseM.Darwin!"

ButwecannotleaveM.Flourenswithoutcallingourreaders'attentiontohiswonderfultenthchapter,"DelaPréexistencedesGermesetdel'Epigénèse,"whichopensthus:--

"Spontaneousgenerationisonlyachimæra.Thispointestablished,twohypothesesremain:thatof_pre-existence_andthatof_epigenesis_.Theoneofthesehypotheseshasaslittlefoundationastheother."(P.163.)

"Thedoctrineof_epigenesis_isderivedfromHarvey:followingbyocularinspectionthedevelopmentofthenewbeingintheWindsordoes,hesaweachpartappearsuccessively,andtakingthemomentof_appearance_forthemomentof_formation_heimagined_epigenesis_."(P.165.)

Onthecontrary,saysM.Flourens(p.167),

"Thenewbeingisformedatastroke(_toutd'uncoup_),asawhole,instantaneously;itisnotformedpartbypart,andatdifferenttimes.Itisformedatonce;itisformedatthesingle_individual_momentatwhichtheconjunctionofthemaleandfemale

elementstakesplace."

ItwillbeobservedthatM.Flourensuseslanguagewhichcannotbemistaken.Forhim,thelaboursofVonBaer,ofRathke,ofCoste,andtheircontemporariesandsuccessorsinGermany,France,andEngland,arenon-existent;and,asDarwin"_imagina_"naturalselection,soHarvey"_imagina_"thatdoctrinewhichgiveshimanevengreaterclaimtothevenerationofposteritythanhisbetterknowndiscoveryofthecirculationoftheblood.



Languagesuchasthatwehavequotedis,infact,sopreposterous,soutterlyincompatiblewithanythingbutabsoluteignoranceofsomeofthebestestablishedfacts,thatweshouldhavepasseditoverinsilencehaditnotappearedtoaffordsomecluetoM.Flourens'unhesitating,_àpriori_,repudiationofallformsofthedoctrineoftheprogressivemodificationoflivingbeings.Hewhosemindremainsuninfluencedbyanacquaintancewiththephænomenaofdevelopment,mustindeedlackoneofthechiefmotivestowardstheendeavourtotraceageneticrelationbetweenthedifferentexistingformsoflife.ThosewhoareignorantofGeology,findnodifficultyinbelievingthattheworldwasmadeasitis;andtheshepherd,untutoredinhistory,seesnoreasontoregardthegreenmoundswhichindicatethesiteofaRomancamp,asaughtbutpartandparceloftheprimævalhill-side.SoM.Flourens,whobelievesthatembryosareformed"toutd'uncoup,"naturallyfindsnodifficultyinconceivingthatspeciescameintoexistenceinthesameway.

FOOTNOTES:

[65]"DieRadiolarien:eineMonographie,"p.231.

[66]SpacewillnotallowustogiveProfessorKölliker'sargumentsindetail;ourreaderswillfindafullandaccurateversionoftheminthe _Reader_forAugust13thand20th,1864.

[67]If,onthecontrary,wefollowtheanalogyofthemorecomplexformsofAgamogenesis,suchasthatexhibitedbysome_Trematoda_andbythe_Aphides_,theHyænamustproduce,asexually,abroodofasexualDogs,fromwhichothersexlessDogsmustproceed.Attheendofacertainnumberoftermsoftheseries,theDogswouldacquiresexesandgenerateyoung;buttheseyoungwouldbe,notDogs,butHyænas.Infact,wehave_demonstrated_,inAgamogeneticphænomena,thatinevitablerecurrencetotheoriginaltype,whichis_asserted_tobetrueofvariationsingeneral,byMr.Darwin'sopponents;andwhich,iftheassertioncouldbechangedintoademonstration,would,infact,befataltohishypothesis.

XIV.

ONDESCARTES'"DISCOURSETOUCHINGTHEMETHODOFUSINGONE'SREASONRIGHTLYANDOFSEEKINGSCIENTIFICTRUTH."

Ithasbeenwellsaidthat"allthethoughtsofmen,fromthebeginningoftheworlduntilnow,arelinkedtogetherintoonegreatchain;"buttheconceptionoftheintellectualfiliationofmankindwhichisexpressedinthesewordsmay,perhaps,bemorefitlyshadowedforthbyadifferentmetaphor.Thethoughtsofmenseemrathertobecomparableto

theleaves,flowers,andfruitupontheinnumerablebranchesofafewgreatstems,fedbycommingledandhiddenroots.Thesestemsbearthenamesofthehalf-a-dozenmen,endowedwithintellectsofheroicforceandclearness,towhomweareled,atwhateverpointoftheworldofthoughttheattempttotraceitshistorycommences;justascertainlyasthefollowingupthesmalltwigsofatreetothebranchletswhichbearthem,andtracingthebranchletstotheirsupportingbranches,bringsus,soonerorlater,tothebole.

Itseemstomethatthethinkerwho,morethananyother,standsinthe



relationofsuchastemtowardsthephilosophyandthescienceofthemodernworldisRenéDescartes.Imean,thatifyoulayholdofanycharacteristicproductofmodernwaysofthinking,eitherintheregionofphilosophy,orinthatofscience,youfindthespiritofthatthought,ifnotitsform,tohavebeenpresentinthemindofthegreatFrenchman.

Therearesomemenwhoarecountedgreatbecausetheyrepresenttheactualityoftheirownage,andmirroritasitis.SuchanonewasVoltaire,ofwhomitwasepigrammaticallysaid,"heexpressedeverybody'sthoughtsbetterthananybody."[68]Butthereareothermenwhoattaingreatnessbecausetheyembodythepotentialityoftheirownday,andmagicallyreflectthefuture.Theyexpressthethoughtswhichwillbeeverybody'stwoorthreecenturiesafterthem.SuchanonewasDescartes.

Born,in1596,nearlythreehundredyearsago,ofanoblefamilyinTouraine,RenéDescartesgrewupintoasicklyanddiminutivechild,whosekeenwitsoongainedhimthattitleof"thePhilosopher,"which,inthemouthsofhisnoblekinsmen,wasmorethan,halfareproach.Thebestschoolmastersoftheday,theJesuits,educatedhimaswellasaFrenchboyoftheseventeenthcenturycouldbeeducated.Andtheymusthavedonetheirworkhonestlyandwell,for,beforehisschoolboydayswereover,hehaddiscoveredthatthemostofwhathehadlearned,

exceptinmathematics,wasdevoidofsolidandrealvalue."Therefore,"sayshe,inthat"Discourse"[69]whichIhavetakenformytext,"assoonasIwasoldenoughtobesetfreefromthegovernmentofmyteachers,Ientirelyforsookthestudyofletters;anddeterminingtoseeknootherknowledgethanthatwhichIcoulddiscoverwithinmyself,orinthegreatbookoftheworld,Ispenttheremainderofmyyouthintravelling;inseeingcourtsandarmies;inthesocietyofpeopleofdifferenthumoursandconditions;ingatheringvariedexperience;intestingmyselfbythechancesoffortune;andinalwaystryingtoprofitbymyreflectionsonwhathappened....AndIalwayshadanintensedesiretolearnhowtodistinguishtruthfromfalsehood,inordertobe

clearaboutmyactions,andtowalksurefootedlyinthislife."

But"learnwhatistrue,inordertodowhatisright,"isthesummingupofthewholedutyofman,forallwhoareunabletosatisfytheirmentalhungerwiththeeastwindofauthority;andtothoseofusmodernswhoareinthisposition,itisoneofDescartes'greatclaimstoourreverenceasaspiritualancestor,that,atthree-and-twenty,hesawclearlythatthiswashisduty,andacteduptohisconviction.Attwo-and-thirty,infact,findingallotheroccupationsincompatiblewiththesearchaftertheknowledgewhichleadstoaction,andbeingpossessedofamodestcompetence,hewithdrewintoHolland;wherehespentnineyearsinlearningandthinking,insuchretirementthatonlyoneortwotrustedfriendsknewofhiswhereabouts.

In1637thefirstfruitsoftheselongmeditationsweregiventotheworldinthefamous"DiscoursetouchingtheMethodofusingReasonrightlyandofseekingscientificTruth,"which,atonceanautobiographyandaphilosophy,clothesthedeepestthoughtinlanguageofexquisiteharmony,simplicity,andclearness.

Thecentralpropositionsofthewhole"Discourse"arethese.Thereisapaththatleadstotruthsosurely,thatifanyonewhowillfollowitmustneedsreachthegoal,whetherhiscapacitybegreatorsmall.And



thereisoneguidingrulebywhichamanmayalwaysfindthispath,andkeephimselffromstrayingwhenhehasfoundit.Thisgoldenruleis--giveunqualifiedassenttonopropositionsbutthosethetruthofwhichissoclearanddistinctthattheycannotbedoubted.

TheenunciationofthisgreatfirstcommandmentofscienceconsecratedDoubt.ItremovedDoubtfromtheseatofpenanceamongthegrievoussinstowhichithadlongbeencondemned,andenthroneditinthathighplaceamongtheprimaryduties,whichisassignedtoitbythescientificconscienceoftheselatterdays.Descarteswasthefirstamongthemodernstoobeythiscommandmentdeliberately;and,asamatterofreligiousduty,tostripoffallhisbeliefsandreducehimselftoastateofintellectualnakedness,untilsuchtimeashecouldsatisfyhimselfwhichwerefittobeworn.Hethoughtabareskinhealthierthanthemostrespectableandwell-cutclothingofwhatmight,possibly,bemereshoddy.

WhenIsaythatDescartesconsecrateddoubt,youmustrememberthatitwasthatsortofdoubtwhichGoethehascalled"theactivescepticism,whosewholeaimistoconqueritself;"[70]andnotthatothersortwhichisbornofflippancyandignorance,andwhoseaimisonlytoperpetuateitself,asanexcuseforidlenessandindifference.ButitisimpossibletodefinewhatismeantbyscientificdoubtbetterthaninDescartes'ownwords.Afterdescribingthegradualprogressofhisnegative

criticism,hetellsus:--"Forallthat,Ididnotimitatethesceptics,whodoubtonlyfordoubting'ssake,andpretendtobealwaysundecided;onthecontrary,mywholeintentionwastoarriveatcertainty,andtodigawaythedriftandthesanduntilIreachedtherockortheclaybeneath."

Andfurther,sincenomanofcommonsense,whenhepullsdownhishouseforthepurposeofrebuildingit,failstoprovidehimselfwithsomeshelterwhiletheworkisinprogress;so,beforedemolishingthespacious,ifnotcommodious,mansionofhisoldbeliefs,Descartesthoughtitwisetoequiphimselfwithwhathecalls"_unemoralepar

provision_,"bywhichheresolvedtogovernhispracticallifeuntilsuchtimeasheshouldbebetterinstructed.Thelawsofthis"provisionalself-government"areembodiedinfourmaxims,ofwhichonebindsourphilosophertosubmithimselftothelawsandreligioninwhichhewasbroughtup;another,toact,onallthoseoccasionswhichcallforaction,promptlyandaccordingtothebestofhisjudgment,andtoabide,withoutrepining,bytheresult:athirdruleistoseekhappinessinlimitinghisdesires,ratherthaninattemptingtosatisfythem;whilethelastistomakethesearchaftertruththebusinessofhislife.

Thuspreparedtogoonlivingwhilehedoubted,Descartesproceededtofacehisdoubtslikeaman.Onethingwascleartohim,hewouldnotlie

tohimself--would,undernopenalties,say,"Iamsure"ofthatofwhichhewasnotsure;butwouldgoondigginganddelvinguntilhecametothesolidadamant;or,atworst,madesuretherewasnoadamant.Astherecordofhisprogresstellsus,hewasobligedtoconfessthatlifeisfullofdelusions;thatauthoritymayerr;thattestimonymaybefalseormistaken;thatreasonlandsusinendlessfallacies;thatmemoryisoftenaslittletrustworthyashope;thattheevidenceoftheverysensesmaybemisunderstood;thatdreamsarerealaslongastheylast,andthatwhatwecallrealitymaybealongandrestlessdream.Nay,itisconceivablethatsomepowerfulandmaliciousbeingmayfindhis



pleasureindeludingus,andinmakingusbelievethethingwhichisnot,everymomentofourlives.What,then,iscertain?Whateven,ifsuchabeingexists,isbeyondthereachofhispowersofdelusion?Why,thefactthatthethought,thepresentconsciousness,exists.Ourthoughtsmaybedelusive,buttheycannotbefictitious.Asthoughts,theyarerealandexistent,andthecleverestdeceivercannotmakethemotherwise.

Thus,thoughtisexistence.Morethanthat,sofarasweareconcerned,existenceisthought,allourconceptionsofexistencebeingsomekindorotherofthought.Donotforamomentsupposethatthesearemereparadoxesorsubtleties.Alittlereflectionuponthecommonestfactsprovesthemtobeirrefragabletruths.Forexample,Itakeupamarble,andIfindittobeared,round,hard,singlebody.Wecalltheredness,theroundness,thehardness,andthesingleness,"qualities"ofthemarble;anditsounds,atfirst,theheightofabsurditytosaythatallthesequalitiesaremodesofourownconsciousness,whichcannotevenbeconceivedtoexistinthemarble.Butconsidertheredness,tobeginwith.Howdoesthesensationofrednessarise?Thewavesofacertainveryattenuatedmatter,theparticlesofwhicharevibratingwithvastrapidity,butwithverydifferentvelocities,strikeuponthemarble,andthosewhichvibratewithoneparticularvelocityarethrownofffromitssurfaceinalldirections.Theopticalapparatusoftheeyegatherssomeofthesetogether,andgivesthemsuchacoursethatthey

impingeuponthesurfaceoftheretina,whichisasingularlydelicateapparatus,connectedwiththeterminationofthefibresoftheopticnerve.Theimpulsesoftheattenuatedmatter,orether,affectthisapparatusandthefibresoftheopticnerveinacertainway;andthechangeinthefibresoftheopticnerveproducesyetotherchangesinthebrain;andthese,insomefashionunknowntous,giverisetothefeeling,orconsciousness,ofredness.Ifthemarblecouldremainunchanged,andeithertherateofvibrationoftheether,orthenatureoftheretina,couldbealtered,themarblewouldseemnotred,butsomeothercolour.Therearemanypeoplewhoarewhatarecalledcolourblind,beingunabletodistinguishonecolourfromanother.Suchanonemightdeclareourmarbletobegreen;andhewouldbequiteasrightinsayingthatitisgreen,asweareindeclaringittobered.Butthen,asthe

marblecannot,initself,bebothgreenandred,atthesametime,thisshowsthatthequality"redness"mustbeinourconsciousnessandnotinthemarble.

Inlikemanner,itiseasytoseethattheroundnessandthehardnessareformsofourconsciousness,belongingtothegroupswhichwecallsensationsofsightandtouch.Ifthesurfaceofthecorneawerecylindrical,weshouldhaveaverydifferentnotionofaroundbodyfromthatwhichwepossessnow;andifthestrengthofthefabric,andtheforceofthemuscles,ofthebodywereincreasedahundredfold,ourmarblewouldseemtobeassoftasapelletofbreadcrumbs.

Notonlyisitobviousthatallthesequalitiesareinus,but,ifyou

willmaketheattempt,youwillfinditquiteimpossibletoconceiveof"blueness,""roundness,"and"hardness"asexistingwithoutreferencetosomesuchconsciousnessasourown.Itmayseemstrangetosaythateventhe"singleness"ofthemarbleisrelativetous;butextremelysimpleexperimentswillshowthatsuchisveritablythecase,andthatourtwomosttrustworthysensesmaybemadetocontradictoneanotheronthisverypoint.Holdthemarblebetweenthefingerandthumb,andlookatitintheordinaryway.Sightandtouchagreethatitissingle.Nowsquint,andsighttellsyouthattherearetwomarbles,whiletouchassertsthatthereisonlyone.Next,returntheeyestotheirnatural



position,and,havingcrossedtheforefingerandthemiddlefinger,putthemarblebetweentheirtips.Thentouchwilldeclarethattherearetwomarbles,whilesightsaysthatthereisonlyone;andtouchclaimsourbelief,whenweattendtoit,justasimperativelyassightdoes.

Butitmaybesaid,themarbletakesupacertainspacewhichcouldnotbeoccupied,atthesametime,byanythingelse.Inotherwords,themarblehastheprimaryqualityofmatter,extension.Surelythisqualitymustbeinthething,andnotinourminds?Butthereplymuststillbe;whatevermay,ormaynot,existinthething,allthatwecanknowofthesequalitiesisastateofconsciousness.Whatwecallextensionisaconsciousnessofarelationbetweentwo,ormore,affectionsofthesenseofsight,oroftouch.Anditiswhollyinconceivablethatwhatwecallextensionshouldexistindependentlyofsuchconsciousnessasourown.Whether,notwithstandingthisinconceivability,itdoessoexist,ornot,isapointonwhichIoffernoopinion.

Thus,whateverourmarblemaybeinitself,allthatwecanknowofitisundertheshapeofabundleofourownconsciousnesses.

Norisourknowledgeofanythingweknoworfeelmore,orless,thanaknowledgeofstatesofconsciousness.Andourwholelifeismadeupofsuchstates.Someofthesestateswerefertoacausewecall"self;"otherstoacauseorcauseswhichmaybecomprehendedunderthetitleof

"not-self."Butneitheroftheexistenceof"self,"norofthatof"not-self,"havewe,orcanwebyanypossibilityhave,anysuchunquestionableandimmediatecertaintyaswehaveofthestatesofconsciousnesswhichweconsidertobetheireffects.Theyarenotimmediatelyobservedfacts,butresultsoftheapplicationofthelawofcausationtothosefacts.Strictlyspeaking,theexistenceofa"self"andofa"not-self"arehypothesesbywhichweaccountforthefactsofconsciousness.Theystanduponthesamefootingasthebeliefinthegeneraltrustworthinessofmemory,andinthegeneralconstancyoftheorderofnature--ashypotheticalassumptionswhichcannotbeproved,orknownwiththathighestdegreeofcertaintywhichisgivenbyimmediateconsciousness;butwhich,nevertheless,areofthehighestpracticalvalue,inasmuchastheconclusionslogicallydrawnfromthemarealways

verifiedbyexperience.

This,inmyjudgment,istheultimateissueofDescartes'argument;butitisproperformetopointoutthatwehaveleftDescarteshimselfsomewaybehindus.Hestoppedatthefamousformula,"Ithink,thereforeIam."Butalittleconsiderationwillshowthisformulatobefullofsnaresandverbalentanglements.Inthefirstplace,the"therefore"hasnobusinessthere.The"Iam"isassumedinthe"Ithink,"whichissimplyanotherwayofsaying"Iamthinking."And,inthesecondplace,"Ithink"isnotonesimpleproposition,butthreedistinctassertionsrolledintoone.Thefirstoftheseis,"somethingcalledIexists;"thesecondis,"somethingcalledthoughtexists;"andthethirdis,"thethoughtistheresultoftheactionoftheI."

Now,itwillbeobvioustoyou,thattheonlyoneofthesethreepropositionswhichcanstandtheCartesiantestofcertaintyisthesecond.Itcannotbedoubted,fortheverydoubtisanexistentthought.Butthefirstandthird,whethertrueornot,maybedoubted,andhavebeendoubted.Fortheassertormaybeasked,Howdoyouknowthatthoughtisnotself-existent;orthatagiventhoughtisnottheeffectofitsantecedentthought,orofsomeexternalpower?Andadiversityofotherquestions,muchmoreeasilyputthananswered.Descartes,determinedashewastostripoffallthegarmentswhichtheintellect



weavesforitself,forgotthisgossamershirtofthe"self;"tothegreatdetriment,andindeedruin,ofhistoiletwhenhebegantoclothehimselfagain.

ButitisbesidemypurposetodwellupontheminorpeculiaritiesoftheCartesianphilosophy.AllIwishtoputclearlybeforeyourmindsthusfar,isthatDescartes,havingcommencedbydeclaringdoubttobeaduty,foundcertaintyinconsciousnessalone;andthatthenecessaryoutcomeofhisviewsiswhatmayproperlybetermedIdealism;namely,thedoctrinethat,whatevertheuniversemaybe,allwecanknowofitisthepicturepresentedtousbyconsciousness.Thispicturemaybeatruelikeness--thoughhowthiscanbeisinconceivable;oritmayhavenomoreresemblancetoitscausethanoneofBach'sfugueshastothepersonwhoisplayingit;orthanapieceofpoetryhastothemouthandlipsofareciter.Itisenoughforallthepracticalpurposesofhumanexistenceifwefindthatourtrustintherepresentationsofconsciousnessisverifiedbyresults;andthat,bytheirhelp,weareenabled"towalksurefootedlyinthislife."

Thusthemethod,orpathwhichleadstotruth,indicatedbyDescartes,takesusstraighttotheCriticalIdealismofhisgreatsuccessorKant.ItisthatIdealismwhichdeclarestheultimatefactofallknowledgetobeaconsciousness,or,inotherwords,amentalphenomenon;andthereforeaffirmsthehighestofallcertainties,andindeedtheonly

absolutecertainty,tobetheexistenceofmind.ButitisalsothatIdealismwhichrefusestomakeanyassertions,eitherpositiveornegative,astowhatliesbeyondconsciousness.ItaccusesthesubtleBerkeleyofsteppingbeyondthelimitsofknowledgewhenhedeclaredthatasubstanceofmatterdoesnotexist;andofillogicality,fornotseeingthattheargumentswhichhesupposeddemolishedtheexistenceofmatterwereequallydestructivetotheexistenceofsoul.Anditrefusestolistentothejargonofmorerecentdaysaboutthe"Absolute,"andalltheotherhypostatizedadjectives,theinitiallettersofthenamesofwhicharegenerallyprintedincapitalletters;justasyougiveaGrenadierabearskincap,tomakehimlookmoreformidablethanheisbynature.

Irepeat,thepathindicatedandfollowedbyDescarteswhichwehavehithertobeentreading,leadsthroughdoubttothatcriticalIdealismwhichliesattheheartofmodernmetaphysicalthought.Butthe"Discourse"showsusanother,andapparentlyverydifferent,path,whichleads,quiteasdefinitely,tothatcorrelationofallthephænomenaoftheuniversewithmatterandmotion,whichliesattheheartofmodernphysicalthought,andwhichmostpeoplecallMaterialism.

Theearlypartoftheseventeenthcentury,whenDescartesreachedmanhood,isoneofthegreatepochsoftheintellectuallifeofmankind.Atthattime,physicalsciencesuddenlystrodeintothearenaofpublicandfamiliarthought,andopenlychallenged,notonlyPhilosophyandtheChurch,butthatcommonignorancewhichpassesbythenameofCommon

Sense.Theassertionofthemotionoftheearthwasadefiancetoallthree,andPhysicalSciencethrewdownherglovebythehandofGalileo.

Itisnotpleasanttothinkoftheimmediateresultofthecombat;toseethechampionofscience,old,worn,andonhiskneesbeforetheCardinalInquisitor,signinghisnametowhatheknewtobealie.And,nodoubt,theCardinalsrubbedtheirhandsastheythoughthowwelltheyhadsilencedanddiscreditedtheiradversary.Buttwohundredyearshavepassed,andhoweverfeebleorfaultyhersoldiers,PhysicalSciencesitscrownedandenthronedasoneofthelegitimaterulersoftheworldof



thought.Charitychildrenwouldbeashamednottoknowthattheearthmoves;whiletheSchoolmenareforgotten;andtheCardinals--well,theCardinalsareattheoecumenicalCouncil,stillattheiroldbusinessoftryingtostopthemovementoftheworld.

Asaship,whichhavinglainbecalmedwitheverystitchofcanvasset,boundsawaybeforethebreezewhichspringsupastern,sothemindofDescartes,poisedinequilibriumofdoubt,notonlyyieldedtothefullforceoftheimpulsetowardsphysicalscienceandphysicalwaysofthought,givenbyhisgreatcontemporaries,GalileoandHarvey,butshotbeyondthem;andanticipated,byboldspeculation,theconclusions,whichcouldonlybeplaceduponasecurefoundationbythelaboursofgenerationsofworkers.

DescartessawthatthediscoveriesofGalileomeantthattheremotestpartsoftheuniverseweregovernedbymechanicallaws;whilethoseofHarveymeantthatthesamelawspresidedovertheoperationsofthatportionoftheworldwhichisnearesttous,namely,ourownbodilyframe.Andcrossingtheintervalbetweenthecentreanditsvastcircumferencebyoneofthegreatstridesofgenius,Descartessoughttoresolveallthephænomenaoftheuniverseintomatterandmotion,orforcesoperatingaccordingtolaw.[71]Thisgrandconception,whichissketchedinthe"Discours,"andmorefullydevelopedinthe"Principes"andinthe"Traitédel'Homme,"heworkedoutwithextraordinarypower

andknowledge;andwiththeeffectofarriving,inthelast-namedessay,atthatpurelymechanicalviewofvitalphænomenatowardswhichmodernphysiologyisstriving.

LetustrytounderstandhowDescartesgotintothispath,andwhyitledhimwhereitdid.Themechanismofthecirculationofthebloodhadevidentlytakenagreatholdofhismind,ashedescribesitseveraltimes,atmuchlength.Aftergivingafullaccountofitinthe"Discourse,"anderroneouslydescribingthemotionoftheblood,nottothecontractionofthewallsoftheheart,buttotheheatwhichhesupposestobegeneratedthere,headds:--

"Thismotion,whichIhavejustexplained,isasmuchthenecessary

resultofthestructureofthepartswhichonecanseeintheheart,andoftheheatwhichonemayfeeltherewithone'sfingers,andofthenatureoftheblood,whichmaybeexperimentallyascertained;asisthatofaclockoftheforce,thesituation,andthefigure,ofitsweightandofitswheels."

Butifthisapparentlyvitaloperationwereexplicableasasimplemechanism,mightnotothervitaloperationsbereducibletothesamecategory?Descartesreplieswithouthesitationintheaffirmative.

"Theanimalspirits,"sayshe,"resembleaverysubtlefluid,oraverypureandvividflame,andarecontinuallygeneratedintheheart,andascendtothebrainastoasortofreservoir.Hence

theypassintothenervesandaredistributedtothemuscles,causingcontraction,orrelaxation,accordingtotheirquantity."

Thus,accordingtoDescartes,theanimalbodyisanautomaton,whichiscompetenttoperformalltheanimalfunctionsinexactlythesamewayasaclockoranyotherpieceofmechanism.Asheputsthecasehimself:--

"Inproportionasthesespirits[theanimalspirits]enterthecavitiesofthebrain,theypassthenceintotheporesofitssubstance,andfromtheseporesintothenerves;where,according



astheyenter,orevenonlytendtoenter,moreorless,intoonethanintoanother,theyhavethepowerofalteringthefigureofthemusclesintowhichthenervesareinserted,andbythismeansofcausingallthelimbstomove.Thus,asyoumayhaveseeninthegrottoesandthefountainsinroyalgardens,theforcewithwhichthewaterissuesfromitsreservoirissufficienttomovevariousmachines,andeventomakethemplayinstruments,orpronouncewordsaccordingtothedifferentdispositionofthepipeswhichleadthewater.

"And,intruth,thenervesofthemachinewhichIamdescribingmayverywellbecomparedtothepipesofthesewaterworks;itsmusclesanditstendonstotheothervariousenginesandspringswhichseemtomovethem;itsanimalspiritstothewaterwhichimpelsthem,ofwhichtheheartisthefountain;whilethecavitiesofthebrainarethecentraloffice.Moreover,respirationandothersuchactionsasarenaturalandusualinthebody,andwhichdependonthecourseofthespirits,arelikethemovementsofaclock,orofamill,whichmaybekeptupbytheordinaryflowofthewater.

"Theexternalobjectswhich,bytheirmerepresence,actupontheorgansofthesenses;andwhich,bythismeans,determinethecorporalmachinetomoveinmanydifferentways,accordingasthepartsofthebrainarearranged,arelikethestrangerswho,

enteringintosomeofthegrottoesofthesewaterworks,unconsciouslycausethemovementswhichtakeplaceintheirpresence.Fortheycannotenterwithouttreadinguponcertainplankssoarrangedthat,forexample,iftheyapproachabathingDiana,theycausehertohideamongthereeds;andiftheyattempttofollowher,theyseeapproachingaNeptune,whothreatensthemwithhistrident;oriftheytrysomeotherway,theycausesomemonsterwhovomitswaterintotheirfaces,todartout;orlikecontrivances,accordingtothefancyoftheengineerswhohavemadethem.Andlastly,whenthe_rationalsoul_islodgedinthismachine,itwillhaveitsprincipalseatinthebrain,andwilltaketheplaceoftheengineer,whooughttobeinthatpartoftheworkswithwhichallthepipesareconnected,whenhewishesto

increase,ortoslacken,orinsomewaytoalter,theirmovements."[72]

Andagainstillmorestrongly:--

"AllthefunctionswhichIhaveattributedtothismachine(thebody),asthedigestionoffood,thepulsationoftheheartandofthearteries;thenutritionandthegrowthofthelimbs;respiration,wakefulness,andsleep;thereceptionoflight,sounds,odours,flavours,heat,andsuchlikequalities,intheorgansoftheexternalsenses;theimpressionoftheideasoftheseintheorganofcommonsenseandintheimagination;theretention,ortheimpression,oftheseideasonthememory;theinternal

movementsoftheappetitesandthepassions;andlastly,theexternalmovementsofallthelimbs,whichfollowsoaptly,aswelltheactionoftheobjectswhicharepresentedtothesenses,astheimpressionswhichmeetinthememory,thattheyimitateasnearlyaspossiblethoseofarealman:[73]Idesire,Isay,thatyoushouldconsiderthatthesefunctionsinthemachinenaturallyproceedfromthemerearrangementofitsorgans,neithermorenorlessthandothemovementsofaclock,orotherautomaton,fromthatofitsweightsanditswheels;sothat,sofarastheseareconcerned,itisnotnecessarytoconceiveanyothervegetativeor



sensitivesoul,noranyotherprincipleofmotion,oroflife,thanthebloodandthespiritsagitatedbythefirewhichburnscontinuallyintheheart,andwhichisnowiseessentiallydifferentfromallthefireswhichexistininanimatebodies."[74]

Thespiritofthesepassagesisexactlythatofthemostadvancedphysiologyofthepresentday;allthatisnecessarytomakethemcoincidewithourpresentphysiologyinform,istorepresentthedetailsoftheworkingoftheanimalmachineryinmodernlanguage,andbytheaidofmodernconceptions.

Mostundoubtedly,thedigestionoffoodinthehumanbodyisapurelychemicalprocess;andthepassageofthenutritivepartsofthatfoodintotheblood,aphysicaloperation.Beyondallquestion,thecirculationofthebloodissimplyamatterofmechanism,andresultsfromthestructureandarrangementofthepartsoftheheartandvessels,fromthecontractilityofthoseorgans,andfromtheregulationofthatcontractilitybyanautomaticallyactingnervousapparatus.Theprogressofphysiologyhasfurthershown,thatthecontractilityofthemusclesandtheirritabilityofthenervesarepurelytheresultsofthemolecularmechanismofthoseorgans;andthattheregularmovementsoftherespiratory,alimentary,andotherinternalorgansaregovernedandguided,asmechanically,bytheirappropriatenervouscentres.Theevenrhythmofthebreathingofeveryoneofus

dependsuponthestructuralintegrityofaparticularregionofthemedullaoblongata,asmuchasthetickingofaclockdependsupontheintegrityoftheescapement.Youmaytakeawaythehandsofaclockandbreakupitsstrikingmachinery,butitwillstilltick;andamanmaybeunabletofeel,speak,ormove,andyethewillbreathe.

Again,inentireaccordancewithDescartes'affirmation,itiscertainthatthemodesofmotionwhichconstitutethephysicalbasisoflight,sound,andheat,aretransmutedintoaffectionsofnervousmatterbythesensoryorgans.Theseaffectionsare,sotospeak,akindofphysicalideas,whichareretainedinthecentralorgans,constitutingwhatmightbecalledphysicalmemory,andmaybecombinedinamannerwhichanswerstoassociationandimagination,ormaygiverisetomuscular

contractions,inthose"reflexactions"whicharethemechanicalrepresentativesofvolitions.

Considerwhathappenswhenablowisaimedattheeye.[75]Instantly,andwithoutourknowledgeorwill,andevenagainstthewill,theeyelidsclose.Whatisitthathappens?Apictureoftherapidlyadvancingfistismadeupontheretinaatthebackoftheeye.Theretinachangesthispictureintoanaffectionofanumberofthefibresoftheopticnerve;thefibresoftheopticnerveaffectcertainpartsofthebrain;thebrain,inconsequence,affectsthoseparticularfibresoftheseventhnervewhichgototheorbicularmuscleoftheeyelids;thechangeinthesenerve-fibrescausesthemuscularfibrestochangetheirdimensions,soastobecomeshorterandbroader;andtheresultis

theclosingoftheslitbetweenthetwolids,roundwhichthesefibresaredisposed.Hereisapuremechanism,givingrisetoapurposiveaction,andstrictlycomparabletothatbywhichDescartessupposeshiswaterworkDianatobemoved.Butwemaygofurther,andinquirewhetherourvolition,inwhatwetermvoluntaryaction,everplaysanyotherpartthanthatofDescartes'engineer,sittinginhisoffice,andturningthistaportheother,ashewishestosetoneoranothermachineinmotion,butexercisingnodirectinfluenceuponthemovementsofthewhole.



Ourvoluntaryactsconsistoftwoparts:firstly,wedesiretoperformacertainaction;and,secondly,wesomehowseta-goingamachinerywhichdoeswhatwedesire.Butsolittledowedirectlyinfluencethatmachinery,thatnine-tenthsofusdonotevenknowitsexistence.

Supposeonewillstoraiseone'sarmandwhirlitround.Nothingiseasier.Butthemajorityofusdonotknowthatnervesandmusclesareconcernedinthisprocess;andthebestanatomistamonguswouldbeamazinglyperplexed,ifhewerecalledupontodirectthesuccession,andtherelativestrength,ofthemultitudinousnerve-changes,whicharetheactualcausesofthisverysimpleoperation.

Soagaininspeaking.Howmanyofusknowthatthevoiceisproducedinthelarynx,andmodifiedbythemouth?Howmanyamongtheseinstructedpersonsunderstandhowthevoiceisproducedandmodified?Andwhatlivingman,ifhehadunlimitedcontroloverallthenervessupplyingthemouthandlarynxofanotherperson,couldmakehimpronounceasentence?Yet,ifonehasanythingtosay,whatiseasierthantosayit?Wedesiretheutteranceofcertainwords:wetouchthespringoftheword-machine,andtheyarespoken.JustasDescartes'engineer,whenhewantedaparticularhydraulicmachinetoplay,hadonlytoturnatap,andwhathewishedwasdone.Itisbecausethebodyisamachinethateducationispossible.Educationistheformationofhabits,asuperinducingofanartificialorganizationuponthenatural

organizationofthebody;sothatacts,whichatfirstrequiredaconsciouseffort,eventuallybecameunconsciousandmechanical.Iftheactwhichprimarilyrequiresadistinctconsciousnessandvolitionofitsdetails,alwaysneededthesameeffort,educationwouldbeanimpossibility.

AccordingtoDescartes,then,allthefunctionswhicharecommontomanandanimalsareperformedbythebodyasameremechanism,andhelooksuponconsciousnessasthepeculiardistinctionofthe"_chosepensante_,"ofthe"rationalsoul,"whichinman(andinmanonly,inDescartes'opinion)issuperaddedtothebody.Thisrationalsoulheconceivedtobelodgedinthepinealgland,asinasortofcentraloffice;and,here,bytheintermediationoftheanimalspirits,it

becameawareofwhatwasgoingoninthebody,orinfluencedtheoperationsofthebody.Modernphysiologistsdonotascribesoexaltedafunctiontothelittlepinealgland,but,inavaguesortofway,theyadoptDescartes'principle,andsupposethatthesoulislodgedinthecorticalpartofthebrain--atleastthisiscommonlyregardedastheseatandinstrumentofconsciousness.

Descarteshasclearlystatedwhatheconceivedtobethedifferencebetweenspiritandmatter.Matterissubstancewhichhasextension,butdoesnotthink;spiritissubstancewhichthinks,buthasnoextension.Itisveryhardtoformadefinitenotionofwhatthisphraseologymeans,whenitistakeninconnexionwiththelocationofthesoulinthepinealgland;andIcanonlyrepresentittomyselfassignifying

thatthesoulisamathematicalpoint,havingplacebutnotextension,withinthelimitsofthepinealgland.Notonlyhasitplace,butitmustexertforce;for,accordingtothehypothesis,itiscompetent,whenitwills,tochangethecourseoftheanimalspirits,whichconsistofmatterinmotion.Thusthesoulbecomesacentreofforce.But,atthesametime,thedistinctionbetweenspiritandmattervanishes;inasmuchasmatter,accordingtoatenablehypothesis,maybenothingbutamultitudeofcentresofforce.Thecaseisworseifweadoptthemodernvaguenotionthatconsciousnessisseatedinthegreymatterofthecerebrum,generally;for,asthegreymatterhasextension,that



whichislodgedinitmustalsohaveextension.Andthusweareled,inanotherway,tolosespiritinmatter.

Intruth,Descartes'physiology,likethemodernphysiologyofwhichitanticipatesthespirit,leadsstraighttoMaterialism,sofarasthattitleisrightlyapplicabletothedoctrinethatwehavenoknowledgeofanythinkingsubstance,apartfromextendedsubstance;andthatthoughtisasmuchafunctionofmatterasmotionis.Thuswearriveatthesingularresultthat,ofthetwopathsopeneduptousinthe"DiscourseuponMethod,"theoneleads,bywayofBerkeleyandHume,toKantandIdealism;whiletheotherleads,bywayofDeLaMettrieandPriestley,tomodernphysiologyandMaterialism.[76]Ourstemdividesintotwomainbranches,whichgrowinoppositeways,andbearflowerswhichlookasdifferentastheycanwellbe.Buteachbranchissoundandhealthy,andhasasmuchlifeandvigourastheother.

Ifabotanistfoundthisstateofthingsinanewplant,Iimaginethathemightbeinclinedtothinkthathistreewasmonoecious--thattheflowerswereofdifferentsexes,andthat,sofarfromsettingupabarrierbetweenthetwobranchesofthetree,theonlyhopeoffertilitylayinbringingthemtogether.Imaybetakingtoomuchofanaturalist'sviewofthecase,butImustconfessthatthisisexactlymynotionofwhatistobedonewithmetaphysicsandphysics.Theirdifferencesarecomplementary,notantagonistic;andthoughtwillnever

becompletelyfruitfuluntiltheoneuniteswiththeother.LetmetrytoexplainwhatImean.Ihold,withtheMaterialist,thatthehumanbody,likealllivingbodies,isamachine,alltheoperationsofwhichwill,soonerorlater,beexplainedonphysicalprinciples.Ibelievethatweshall,soonerorlater,arriveatamechanicalequivalentofconsciousness,justaswehavearrivedatamechanicalequivalentofheat.Ifapoundweightfallingthroughadistanceofafootgivesrisetoadefiniteamountofheat,whichmayproperlybesaidtobeitsequivalent;thesamepoundweightfallingthroughafootonaman'shandgivesrisetoadefiniteamountoffeeling,whichmightwithequalproprietybesaidtobeitsequivalentinconsciousness.[77]Andaswealreadyknowthatthereisacertainparitybetweentheintensityofapainandthestrengthofone'sdesiretogetridofthatpain;and

secondly,thatthereisacertaincorrespondencebetweentheintensityoftheheat,ormechanicalviolence,whichgivesrisetothepain,andthepainitself;thepossibilityoftheestablishmentofacorrelationbetweenmechanicalforceandvolitionbecomesapparent.Andthesameconclusionissuggestedbythefactthat,withincertainlimits,theintensityofthemechanicalforceweexertisproportionedtotheintensityofourdesiretoexertit.

ThusIampreparedtogowiththeMaterialistswhereverthetruepursuitofthepathofDescartesmayleadthem;andIamglad,onalloccasions,todeclaremybeliefthattheirfearlessdevelopmentofthematerialisticaspectofthesemattershashadanimmense,andamostbeneficial,influenceuponphysiologyandpsychology.Naymore,when

theygofartherthanIthinktheyareentitledtodo--whentheyintroduceCalvinismintoscienceanddeclarethatmanisnothingbutamachine,Idonotseeanyparticularharmintheirdoctrines,solongastheyadmitthatwhichisamatterofexperimentalfact--namely,thatitisamachinecapableofadjustingitselfwithincertainlimits.

IprotestthatifsomegreatPowerwouldagreetomakemealwaysthinkwhatistrueanddowhatisright,onconditionofbeingturnedintoasortofclockandwoundupeverymorningbeforeIgotoutofbed,Ishouldinstantlyclosewiththeoffer.TheonlyfreedomIcareaboutis



thefreedomtodoright;thefreedomtodowrongIamreadytopartwithonthecheapesttermstoanyonewhowilltakeitofme.ButwhentheMaterialistsstraybeyondthebordersoftheirpathandbegintotalkabouttherebeingnothingelseintheuniversebutMatterandForceandNecessaryLaws,andalltherestof_their_"grenadiers,"Ideclinetofollowthem.Igobacktothepointfromwhichwestarted,andtotheotherpathofDescartes.Iremindyouthatwehavealreadyseenclearlyanddistinctly,andinamannerwhichadmitsofnodoubt,thatallourknowledgeisaknowledgeofstatesofconsciousness."Matter"and"Force"are,sofaraswecanknow,merenamesforcertainformsofconsciousness."Necessary"meansthatofwhichwecannotconceivethecontrary."Law"meansarulewhichwehavealwaysfoundtoholdgood,andwhichweexpectalwayswillholdgood.Thusitisanindisputabletruththatwhatwecallthematerialworldisonlyknowntousundertheformsoftheidealworld;and,asDescartestellsus,ourknowledgeofthesoulismoreintimateandcertainthanourknowledgeofthebody.IfIsaythatimpenetrabilityisapropertyofmatter,allthatIcanreallymeanisthattheconsciousnessIcallextension,andtheconsciousnessIcallresistance,constantlyaccompanyoneanother.Whyandhowtheyarethusrelatedisamystery.AndifIsaythatthoughtisapropertyofmatter,allthatIcanmeanisthat,actuallyorpossibly,theconsciousnessofextensionandthatofresistanceaccompanyallothersortsofconsciousness.But,asintheformercase,whytheyarethusassociatedisaninsolublemystery.

FromallthisitfollowsthatwhatImaytermlegitimatematerialism,thatis,theextensionoftheconceptionsandofthemethodsofphysicalsciencetothehighestaswellasthelowestphenomenaofvitality,isneithermorenorlessthanasortofshorthandIdealism;andDescartes'twopathsmeetatthesummitofthemountain,thoughtheysetoutonoppositesidesofit.

Thereconciliationofphysicsandmetaphysicsliesintheacknowledgmentoffaultsuponbothsides;intheconfessionbyphysicsthatallthephænomenaofnatureare,intheirultimateanalysis,knowntousonlyasfactsofconsciousness;intheadmissionbymetaphysics,thatthefactsofconsciousnessare,practically,interpretableonlybythemethodsand

theformulæofphysics:and,finally,intheobservancebybothmetaphysicalandphysicalthinkersofDescartes'maxim--assenttonopropositionthematterofwhichisnotsoclearanddistinctthatitcannotbedoubted.

Whenyoudidmethehonourtoaskmetodeliverthisaddress,IconfessIwasperplexedwhattopictoselect.Foryouareemphaticallyanddistinctlya_Christian_body;whilescienceandphilosophy,withintherangeofwhichlieallthetopicsonwhichIcouldventuretospeak,areneitherChristian,norUnchristian,butareExtrachristian,andhaveaworldoftheirown,which,touselanguagewhichwillbeveryfamiliartoyourearsjustnow,isnotonly"unsectarian,"butisaltogether

"secular."TheargumentswhichIhaveputbeforeyouto-night,forexample,arenotinconsistent,sofarasIknow,withanyformoftheology.

Aftermuchconsideration,IthoughtthatImightbemostusefultoyou,ifIattemptedtogiveyousomevisionofthisExtrachristianworld,asitappearstoapersonwholivesagooddealinit;andifItriedtoshowyoubywhatmethodsthedwellersthereintrytodistinguishtruthfromfalsehood,inregardtosomeofthedeepestandmostdifficultproblemsthatbesethumanity,"inordertobeclearabouttheiractions,



andtowalksurefootedlyinthislife,"asDescartessays.

Itstruckmethatiftheexecutionofmyprojectcameanywhereneartheconceptionofit,youwouldbecomeawarethatthephilosophersandthemenofsciencearenotexactlywhattheyaresometimesrepresentedtoyoutobe;andthattheirmethodsandpathsdonotleadsoperpendicularlydownwardsasyouareoccasionallytoldtheydo.AndImustadmit,also,thataparticularandpersonalmotiveweighedwithme,--namely,thedesiretoshowthatacertaindiscourse,whichbroughtagreatstormaboutmyheadsometimeago,containednothingbuttheultimatedevelopmentoftheviewsofthefatherofmodernphilosophy.IdonotknowifIhavebeenquitewiseinallowingthislastmotivetoweighwithme.Theysaythatthemostdangerousthingonecandoinathunderstormistoshelteroneselfunderagreattree,andthehistoryofDescartes'lifeshowshownarrowlyheescapedbeingrivenbythelightnings,whichweremoredestructiveinhistimethaninours.

DescarteslivedanddiedagoodCatholic,andpridedhimselfuponhavingdemonstratedtheexistenceofGodandofthesoulofman.Asarewardforhisexertions,hisoldfriendstheJesuitsputhisworksuponthe"Index,"andcalledhimanAtheist;whiletheProtestantdivinesofHollanddeclaredhimtobebothaJesuitandanAtheist.Hisbooksnarrowlyescapedbeingburnedbythehangman;thefateofVaniniwasdangledbeforehiseyes;andthemisfortunesofGalileosoalarmedhim,

thathewell-nighrenouncedthepursuitsbywhichtheworldhassogreatlybenefited,andwasdrivenintosubterfugesandevasionswhichwerenotworthyofhim.

"Verycowardly,"youmaysay;andsoitwas.Butyoumustmakeallowanceforthefactthat,intheseventeenthcentury,notonlydidheresymeanpossibleburning,orimprisonment,buttheverysuspicionofitdestroyedaman'speace,andrenderedthecalmpursuitoftruthdifficultorimpossible.IfancythatDescarteswasamantocaremoreaboutbeingworriedanddisturbed,thanaboutbeingburnedoutright;and,likemanyothermen,sacrificedforthesakeofpeaceandquietness,whathewouldhavestubbornlymaintainedagainstdownrightviolence.

Howeverthismaybe,letthosewhoaresuretheywouldhavedonebetterthrowstonesathim.Ihavenofeelingsbutthoseofgratitudeandreverenceforthemanwhodidwhathedid,whenhedid;andasortofshamethatanyoneshouldrepineagainsttakingafairshareofsuchtreatmentastheworldthoughtgoodenoughforhim.

Finally,itoccurstomethat,suchbeingmyfeelingaboutthematter,itmaybeusefultoallofusifIaskyou,"Whatisyours?DoyouthinkthattheChristianityoftheseventeenthcenturylooksnoblerandmoreattractiveforsuchtreatmentofsuchaman?"Youwillhardlyreplythatitdoes.Butifitdoesnot,mayitnotbewellifallofyoudowhatlieswithinyourpowertopreventtheChristianityofthenineteenth

centuryfromrepeatingthescandal?

Thereareoneortwolivingmen,who,acoupleofcenturieshence,willberememberedasDescartesisnow,becausetheyhaveproducedgreatthoughtswhichwillliveandgrowaslongasmankindlasts.

Ifthetwenty-firstcenturystudiestheirhistory,itwillfindthattheChristianityofthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturyrecognisedthemonlyasobjectsofvilification.Itisforyouandsuchasyou,Christianyoungmen,tosaywhetherthisshallbeastrueofthe



Christianityofthefutureasitisofthatofthepresent.Iappealtoyoutosay"No,"inyourowninterest,andinthatoftheChristianityyouprofess.

IntheinterestofScience,noappealisneedful;asDantesingsofFortune--

"Quest'ècolei,ch'ètantopostaincrocePurdacolor,cheledovriandarlodeDandolebiasmoatortoemalavoce.Maellas'èbeata,eciònonode:Conl'altreprimecreaturelietaVolvesuaspera,ebeatasigode:"[78]

so,whateverevilvoicesmayrage,Science,secureamongthepowersthatareeternal,willdoherworkandbeblessed.

FOOTNOTES:

[68]Iforgetwhoitwassaidofhim:"Ilaplusquepersonnel'espritquetoutlemondea."

[69]"DiscoursdelaMéthodepourbienconduiresaRaisonetchercherlaVéritédanslesSciences."

[70]"EinethätigeSkepsisistdie,welcheunablässigbemühtistsichselbstzuüberwinden,unddurchgeregelteErfahrungzueinerArtvonbedingtrerZuverlässigkeitzugelangen."--_MaximenundReflexionen_,7Abtheilung.

[71]"Aumilieudetoutesseserreurs,ilnefautpasméconnaîtreunegrandeidée,quiconsisteàavoirtentépourlapremièrefoisderamenertouslesphénomènesnaturelsàn'êtrequ'unsimpledévelloppementdesloisdelamécanique,"istheweightyjudgmentofBiot,citedbyBouillier(_HistoiredelaPhilosophieCartésienne_,t.i.p.196).

[72]"Traitédel'Homme"(Cousin'sEdition),p.347.

[73]Descartespretendsthathedoesnotapplyhisviewstothehumanbody,butonlytoanimaginarymachinewhich,ifitcouldbeconstructed,woulddoallthatthehumanbodydoes;throwingasoptoCerberusunworthily;anduselessly,becauseCerberuswasbynomeansstupidenoughtoswallowit.

[74]"Traitédel'Homme,"p.427.

[75]Compare"TraitédesPassions,"Art.XIII.andXVI.

[76]Bouillier,intowhoseexcellent"HistoryoftheCartesianPhilosophy"Ihadnotlookedwhenthispassagewaswritten,says,very

justly,thatDescartes"ameritéletitredepéredelaphysique,aussibienqueceluidepéredelamétaphysiquemoderne"(t.i.p.197).SeealsoKunoFischer's"GeschichtederneuenPhilosophie,"Bd.i.;andtheveryremarkableworkofLange,"GeschichtedesMaterialismus."--AgoodtranslationofthelatterwouldbeagreatservicetophilosophyinEngland.

[77]Forallthequalificationswhichneedtobemadehere,Ireferthereadertothethoroughdiscussionofthenatureoftherelationbetweennerve-actionandconsciousnessinMr.HerbertSpencer's"Principlesof



Psychology,"p.115_etseq._

[78]"Andthisisshewho'sputoncrosssomuch,Evenbythemwhooughttogiveherpraise,Givingherwronglyillreputeandblame.Butsheisblessed,andshehearsnotthis:She,withtheotherprimalcreatures,gladRevolveshersphere,andblessedjoysherself."

_Inferno_,vii.90-95(W.M.Rossetti'sTranslation).

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Lay Sermons, Addresses and Reviews - Thomas Henry Huxley

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