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Unit title: Fashion: Historical

and Cultural Perspective

Assignment: Essay

Tutor: Sanda Miller

Level: 1

Name: Kerry-Louise Barnaby

Student Number: 8001634

Date: Wednesday 5th

May 2010

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„It was during the second half of the fourteenth century that clothes

for both men and women took on a new form and something

emerges which we can already call “Fashion” (Laver, 1969:62).

Discuss.‟

The Oxford Dictionary defines fashion as:

“1. Manner of doing something. 2. Style popular at a given time” (1997)

In this essay I will be taking a critical viewpoint and researching not only fashion historians

and theorists who agree with James Laver but also the ones who disagree. My research

shows that there seems to be a general consensus that, whether it was anytime between the

beginning of the fourteenth and the early sixteenth century, something resembling “fashion”

did indeed emerge. Francois Boucher uses the term: “The New Spirit” (2004: p.191) to

identify societies new attitude towards costume and the way people began to view life at this

time. I will be analysing the social and economic factors that impacted costume at the time

and therefore caused this change.

In addition to analysing the fourteenth century; I will look into differing opinions from an

historical and cultural perspective. If we take the literal definition of fashion as a: “2. Style

popular at a given time” (1997) then it would be inaccurate to not look at the semiological

theories of Ferdinand De Saussure, who says that:

„The existence of fashion, if not clothing, was conditional upon there being different classes

in society and upward movement between classes being both possible and desirable.‟

(Barnard 2002, p.98)

If this were the case it would be plausible to argue that fashion, as it is defined today, has

existed since the times of Ancient Greece and Rome. The Rulers‟ of the times would wear

clothing of richer quality to show that they were of the highest standing in society.

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Lastly, I will be looking into the argument that fashion as we know it did not emerge until the

nineteenth century and the arrival of Haute Couture in Paris.

This essay will analyse these three historical periods and critical viewpoints and make an

informed decision as to the accuracy of Laver‟s statement.

As stated above, there seems to be an agreement between historians that it was during the

Middle Ages that something resembling our idea of fashion began to emerge. Boucher says:

„It is nevertheless possible to regard the appearance of the short tunic as the first

manifestation of fashion. And indeed, from the fourteenth century onwards we find

appearance in costume of new elements that owe less to function than to caprice...New

influences were more frequent, less lasting, their effects more spectacular.‟ (2004: p.192)

The latter part of this quote clearly defining what we refer to today as a “trend”. While

Malcolm Barnard says:

“From its beginnings in the fifteenth century, intensified interest in fashion...” (2007: p.1)

Displaying the point that society‟s attitude towards clothing changed dramatically during the

Middle Ages, and it is this attitude that created fashion as we understand it today.

This development can be understood by looking at social changes that occurred during this

period. During the fourteenth century we see the emergence of Humanism in Italy: people

wanted to be seen as independent and individual and used clothing to do this, moreover the

beginning of clothing for representative purposes began. The feudal system ended and

capitalism began, making trade extremely prominent in society. Lastly:

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„Another factor, more subtle but not less important for that, was the development of the

concept of ideal beauty...Greater importance was attached to the perfection of the female

body, and indeed, to outward appearance in general.‟ (Boucher 2004: p.191)

People saw the streets as nothing more than stages for parading their clothes. The,

“Seduction Principal” also began and women yearned for male attention, which led to

extreme competition. Clothing was no longer just utility. (See Image 9, pg 17). Iris Brook

states:

„Variety and Exaggeration in dress seem to have been general tendencies at this time; she

who could outdo her neighbour in the size of head-dress and the width of skirts would deem

the effort well worth while.‟ (1956: p.38)

The fourteenth century‟s costume was hugely influenced by the architecture of the time, the

tall pointed roofs and cathedrals led to the emergence of, “poulaines”, or pointed shoes, (see

Image 8, pg 16) as well as tall, elaborate head-dresses, (see Images 10,11,12, pg 17-19)

which were only possible because the architecture of the time allowed for it. Religion and

the Church were very prominent in society during this period and people wanted to feel

closer to God. The high arches, pointed roofs and head-dresses were symbolic of this.

However, due to competitiveness, restrictions had to be placed on the length of points,

especially on, “poulaines” which, according to research, reached eighteen inches at their

peak. The social structure and behaviour changed dramatically and with it originated the idea

that one could make fun of someone else‟s clothing, something which would not have

happened when clothing had been utility:

„The Bishop of Paris promised indulgences to anyone who insulted women wearing these

styles‟ (Boucher 2004: p.200)

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This, referring to women who wore the horned head-dress as the church saw the horns as an

invocation to the devil. This shows that not only did people indulge in elaborate styles but

people began to be judged and ridiculed on their appearance.

Clothing can also be analysed from a semiological perspective. Saussure and Laver both

agree that clothing has always been used as a Signifier in society, however while Laver

observes clothing from an historical perspective, Saussure does so from a semiological one.

They both see clothing as a representative tool however their views on the origins of fashion

differ.

Saussure argues that as long as society has been able to make more than the minimum

required, and divide itself into classes, there has always been a type of fashion in existence,

which has been used for representative purposes.

Moreover, if fashion is as the dictionary defines, it has existed since the Palaeolithic era,

whether this invention was due to modesty or utility we cannot be sure. What we can be sure

of, is that at this time people needed to keep their bodies warm from the cold climate, they

would kill animals, eat the meat and drape the hides over their bodies; clothing was probably

necessity and nothing more. (See images 1, 2, 3, pg 11-13) However, it was still the style

appropriate to the time and therefore fashion can be argued in this context. The prehistoric

period saw the invention of the first eye needle made of mammoth ivory, bones of reindeer or

tusks of walrus‟. This meant that people could sew the skins together to make them more

functional.

„...the skin of a beast merely wrapped round the shoulders very hampering to his movements,

but it left part of the body exposed. He therefore desired to shape it in some way...Once cloth

manufacture, on however small a scale, had been established, the way was open for the

development of costume as we know it.‟ (Laver 2002: p.10-12)

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It was also during this time that “tanning” began, which was a way to dye the clothes by

using the bark from a tree. This was not utility but something to make the clothes look

different and so the luxury principal and desire to be individual was already in place. During

the Ancient civilisations of Greece, Rome and Egypt, society always had a hierarchy. (See

Images 4, 5, 6, pg 13-14) Clothes were seen as a mark of how high a level of importance

you were in society which explains why slaves were often naked. The first dyes (after

tanning) were discovered from a shellfish called the “Murex Brandaris”. The colour was

created out of a white liquid in the shellfish. The longer it was left under light, the more

drastic the change; meaning that only royalty could afford the deeper colours.

„By carefully timing the exposure, it was possible to obtain colours right up to a deep, almost

black purple, the tint most highly prized.‟ (Boucher 2004: p.54)

During this time, hygiene was hugely important and many would shave their heads and wear

wigs. The Pharaoh, Emperor and upper-classes would wear the most elaborate wigs and

accessories to assert authority as people of great importance. (See Image 7, pg 15) Warriors

dress also differed creating a uniformed attire to distinguish them from others.

An interesting historian to note at this point is Iris Brooke, who says:

„If the costume of a period is, as Mr. James Laver suggests, the mirror of the soul, there are

several interesting reflections in the costume of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The

contrast between the dress of the noble and that of the labourer is more striking than at any

later period in English history, and it indicates the distinction which the feudal system

demanded between the powerful baron and the powerless serf...men and women found ample

opportunity for self-expression in dress” (1956: p.7-8)

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Supporting the idea that Laver sees clothes as a signifier. Brooke agrees that clothing

distinctions were at their most, “striking”, at this time, but not that fashion emerged:

„It is impossible at this early date to talk of fashion, as we understand the word‟

(Brooke 1956: p.10)

Lastly, there are others who argue that fashion, as we understand it, started with the

appearance of Haute Couture and Charles Frederick Worth in the second half of the

nineteenth century, (see Images 13, 14, pg 19-20). Worth was an Englishman who moved to

Paris and was the first couturier recorded in history. Before the nineteenth century tailors had

always gone to the upper-class‟ homes to make their clothes, Worth however, demanded that

people go to him at his fashion house however wealthy, with the exception of the Empress

Eugenie. He was the first to show collections four times a year and introduced the concept of

using women to parade the clothes in front of his clients, inventing the idea of catwalk

models and seasonal attire.

„Worth was the first to stress the liveliness of his creations by employing young girls to wear

his models for customers. It has been said that these “doubles”, who were later to be called

“mannequins”, were chosen for their resemblance to his principal customers.‟

(Boucher 2004: p.385)

During the nineteenth century we also saw the invention of the sewing machine invented

initially by a French tailor called Thimonnier which was later perfected by Isaac M Singer in

1853. The sewing machine was to, „revolutionise the garment industry‟ (Boucher 2004: p.

358). The sewing machine meant that clothing could now be made more efficiently, and it

paved the way for mass producing and, “prêt-a-porter” clothing to be mass distributed,

making clothing easier for all classes to access.

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The economy had become largely capitalised which meant that ready-to-wear shops could be

opened in Paris. This idea began with the opening of the “Belle Jardinière” in October 1824

and soon after, the first department store was opened, with the help of the engineer Gustav

Eiffel, named “Bon Marche”. This would not have been possible without the help of the

banks and upper-classes who made a great deal of profit.

„Department stores were born of the idea, formulated by a number of traders, of gathering

several shops together in large, common premises...these shops attracted mainly women

customers, and by the choice and range of articles sold, they exercised an undeniable

influence on women‟s clothing” (Boucher 2004: p.370)

From the nineteenth century fashions started to centre round profit making. Trends were

dictated by the Designers but the stores would pick only the items they believed would make

a profit, these ideals still centre around fashion today.

In the nineteenth century people started to become obsessed with the idea of being

“fashionable”. Clothing was adapted from the influence of the upper classes, and styles

changed according to what people wanted to wear. Utility was not the priority – it was about

looking the best. Women especially, would pay fortunes for a great dress and it was during,

„this period when we first see women‟s coats in the sense we give them today.‟ (Boucher

2004: p.346). The nineteenth century brought fame to couturiers and tailors who were now

seen as people of influence and the dictators of fashion, instead of people who merely made

clothes.

The nineteenth century is also when fashion started to be influenced by literature, and artists

began to paint everyday styles rather than posed portraits. Popularity of fashion magazines

rose drastically and women almost began to depend on them. The first fashion magazine

emerged in 1672:

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„Called Mercure Galant, the magazine began to regularly offer comment on the latest

clothing styles and was read throughout Europe.‟

(Fashion Encyclopaedia 2010: Introduction)

Initial fashion publications were dependent on what women needed, such as tips on

housework, self-educating and needlework, however the social conditions of the time meant

that women were seen as trophies. Women mainly stayed inside and so fashion magazines

began to provide more cultural references. The, “Lady‟s Book” was released in June 1830

and as circulation spread the fashion magazine market grew. These magazines included

editorials, notices, needle patterns, fictional stories by the likes of Edgar Allen Poe and

fashion reports. In 1867 “Harper‟s Bazar” was founded which later changed its name to,

“Harper‟s Bazaar” which went on to be considered one of America‟s leading Fashion

editorials, (see Image 15, pg 20). Today we have a huge variety of weekly, monthly and

quarterly fashion magazines making them a huge part of female culture that can be traced

back to the nineteenth century.

It is also important to note that during the nineteenth century, when fashions were influenced

largely by literature there was a revival in fashions from the Middle Ages such as the

“poulaines”.

„It looked to the Middle Ages and the East, as these were reflected and heightened in history

and novels” (Boucher 2004: p.363)

Despite all the economic and social changes in the nineteenth century they still wanted to

look back to the Middle Ages for inspiration as society was intrigued by this historical period.

In my opinion, all three viewpoints can be argued and none are right or wrong.

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From a Marxist or sociological perspective we can see that fashion has always been used to

divide classes. It has been that way since the ancient civilisations; it is still like that now and

will probably always be that way.

While the nineteenth century was when many of the things that we class as “fashion” began

to emerge, for example, department stores, prêt-a-porter, the importance of fashion designers

and magazines. It is easy to see why many argue that it was not until this point that “fashion”

began.

My reason for agreeing that Laver‟s statement is extremely valid is not based on the costume

of the fourteenth century but society‟s change in attitude towards clothing. The fourteenth

century was when people began to compete against one another. Today, I believe the main

factor in defining fashion is the competition between people. We wear clothing to represent

our identities and the amount of importance placed on clothing is extreme. People want to

look the best and will do anything to achieve that. If fashion is more than just costume of an

era but also the attitude, it would seem, based on my research that the attitude we hold today

towards clothing and fashion did emerge in the fourteenth century. Without society‟s

attitude, fashion would not exist, it would still be called costume and it would be utility, not

luxury.

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http://lucasgalo.files.wordpress.com/2009/01/h-and-g-lg.jpg

Image 1: Palaeolithic Costume - the beginning of civilisation and clothing pure necessity and

modesty – see it only covers the “sexual organs” and footwear for walking on hard surfaces.

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http://photos.bravenet.com/272/478/925/3/4D681DB6CB.jpg

Image 2: Although a more recent interpretation of clothing during the Prehistoric era, it shows the

draping of animal fur and the more elaborate jewellery of the upper classes – society begins to

divide classes.

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http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/plateaus/peoples/images/hattie-sm.jpg

Image 3: This image shows traditional hide worn by the prehistoric people.

http://www.costumes.org/history/roman/1882ancientrome.jpg

Image 4: Costume of Ancient Roman civilisation, more commonly referred to as the Toga, as you

can see, the cloth is draped and mainly white, there is very little colour at this time.

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http://www.ermoumag.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/ermou-mag-42.jpg

Image 5: Ancient Greek costume, as can be seen, it is remarkably similar to that of Ancient Rome, it

is still draped but there is a little more colour and more distinguishing between class and profession.

http://www.costumes.org/history/egypt/egyptkretchmer.jpg

Image 6: Ancient Egyptian costume is very similar again, but the most significant difference is the

vast array of colour and headgear.

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http://images.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://karenswhimsy.com/public-domain-

images/ancient-egyptian-clothing/images/ancient-egyptian-clothing-

1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://karenswhimsy.com/ancient-egyptian-

clothing.shtm&usg=__znRlPVMkQcpBJxfT9rMl6zdM1tg=&h=815&w=500&sz=153&hl=en&start=1&it

bs=1&tbnid=iBSV6-

VDzww2sM:&tbnh=144&tbnw=88&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dancient%2Begyptian%2Bclothing%26hl%

3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26sa%3DX%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-

GB:official%26gbv%3D2%26tbs%3Disch:1

Image 7: Image of an Upper Class Ancient Egyptian woman. Note the draped toga with the

embroidery and elaborate jewellery and headgear. This image is in black and white but it would be

fairly accurate to suggest that the toga was a colour other than white, as the upper-classes often

wore brighter and richer colours!

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http://misswilbur.org/images/medieval/medievalclothing.jpg

Image 8: Costume of the middle ages, note the extreme length of the “poulaines” pointed shoes and

the costume, begins to be slightly more fitted.

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http://www.fancydressstore.ie/CUuploads/Shop/items/157/22415_medieval_lady.jpg

Image 9: Middle-ages costume. Notice the use of more expensive and richer fabrics such as velvet

and the deep colours, as well as the huge sleeves.

http://www.costumes.org/history/medieval/headress/countessarundell13th.GIF

Image 10: The Horned-Headdress from the middle ages.

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http://www.objectlessons.org/upload//images/A35293_m.jpg

Image 11: The Crespine Headdress of the middle ages.

http://images.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://fashionindie.com/wp-

content/uploads/2009/11/imagen-

12.png&imgrefurl=http://steampunkerie.blogspot.com/2009/11/designer-watch-patrick-

veillet.html&usg=__WUUNs8G6VGPHBf3x8JrkcYF-

7JM=&h=480&w=450&sz=137&hl=en&start=9&itbs=1&tbnid=yCwDUXS1MVePnM:&tbnh=129&tbn

w=121&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dmedieval%2Bhead-dresses%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-

a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-GB:official%26gbv%3D2%26tbs%3Disch:1

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http://www.scottish-wedding-dreams.com/images/ladies-patterns-headdress-McCalls-M4806-

390.jpg

Image 12: An assortment of medieval headdresses.

http://www.zimbio.com/100+Most+Influential+People+in+Fashion/articles/220/Fashion+Influential

+46+Charles+F+Worth

Image 13: Portrait of Charles Frederick Worth father of Haute Couture and examples of his

creations.

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http://www.europe.org.uk/files/1037_393px-winterhalter_elisabeth.jpg

Image 14: Another of Worth’s absolutely beautiful creations

http://www.harpersbazaar.com/cm/harpersbazaar/images/1867-first-cover-140-0107-de.jpg

Image 15: Cover of the first major fashion magazine, “Harpers Bazar” which later changed its name

to “Harpers Bazaar”.

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Bibliography:

Books:

Barnard, M., 2002. Fashion as Communication. 2nd

Ed. London: Routledge

Barnard, M., 2007. Fashion Theory A Reader. 1st Ed. Oxon: Routledge

Boucher, F., 2004. A History of Costume in the West. 4th

Ed. London: Thames &

Hudson Ltd

Brooke, I., 1956. English Costume of the Later Middle Ages The Fourteenth and

Fifteenth Centuries. London: Adam & Charles Black

Laver, J.,2002. Costume and Fashion a Concise History. 4th

Ed. London: Thames &

Hudson

1997. The Oxford Minireference Dictionary and Thesaurus. 3rd

Ed. Great Britain:

Oxford University Press

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0107-de.jpg

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1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://karenswhimsy.com/ancient-egyptian-

clothing.shtm&usg=__znRlPVMkQcpBJxfT9rMl6zdM1tg=&h=815&w=500&sz=153&hl=en&st

art=1&itbs=1&tbnid=iBSV6-

VDzww2sM:&tbnh=144&tbnw=88&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dancient%2Begyptian%2Bclothing

%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26sa%3DX%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-

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veillet.html&usg=__WUUNs8G6VGPHBf3x8JrkcYF-

7JM=&h=480&w=450&sz=137&hl=en&start=9&itbs=1&tbnid=yCwDUXS1MVePnM:&tbnh=1

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GB:official%26gbv%3D2%26tbs%3Disch:1

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17/04/2010. Luminous Lint for Collectors and Connoisseurs of Fine Photography.

http://www.luminous-lint.com/app/theme/340/

02/05/10. http://www.objectlessons.org/upload//images/A35293_m.jpg

02/05/10. http://photos.bravenet.com/272/478/925/3/4D681DB6CB.jpg

~ 23 ~

02/05/10. http://www.scottish-wedding-dreams.com/images/ladies-patterns-headdress-

McCalls-M4806-390.jpg

02/05/10. http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/plateaus/peoples/images/hattie-sm.jpg

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http://www.zimbio.com/100+Most+Influential+People+in+Fashion/articles/220/Fashion+Infl

uential+46+Charles+F+Worth