LATIN GRAMMAR REVIEW

DECLENSION:

Stem Vowel Gender

SINGULAR:

Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative Ablative Vocative

PLURAL: Nom./Voc. Genitive Dative Accusative Ablative

First

A F

-a -ae -ae -am -a -a

-ae -arum

-is -as -is

NOUNS Second Third

0 consonant i-stem M N M&F N M&F N

-us -um -s/-- -- -s/-- ---i -is -is -o -i -i

-um -em nom. -em nom. -o -e -e -i

-e -um nom.nom. nom.nom.

-i -a -es -a -es -ia -or um -um -ium

-is -ibus -ibus -os -a -es -a -is/-es -ia

-is -ibus -ibus

Fourth Fifth

u E M&F N F

-us -ii -es -us -ei

-ui -ii -ei

-um -ii -em -ii -e

-us -ii -es

-us -ua -es -uum -erum -ibus -ebus

-us -ua -es -ibus -ebus

NOTE: -us. -a. -um adjectives use 1st/2nd-declension noun endings; comparative adjs. use 3rd­decl. consonant noun endings; all other adjs .. including pres. participles. use 3rd-decl. i-stem noun endings: -i in abl. sg .. -ium in gen. pl.. -is (later -es) in masc./fem. acc. pl.. and-ia in neut. nom./voc./acc. pl. The 5th-decl. nouns !ides. res. and spes have a short e in gen./ dat. sg. (-ei).

SING.: ·Norn.

Gen. Dat. Acc. Abl.

PLUR.: Norn. Gen. Dat. Acc. Abl.

rst pers.

2ndpers.

3rdpers.

rst pers. ego (I)

mei mihi me me

nos (we) nostrum/-i

no bis nos

no bis

SING.: gen.

mei (of myself)

tui (of yourself)

sui(of him/her /itself)

PERSONAL PRONOUNS 2ndpers. 3rd pers. masc. 3rd pers. fem. 3rd pers. neut. ru (you) is (he) ea (she)

tui eius eius ti bi ei ei te eum earn te eo ea

VOS (you) ei /ii (they) eae (they) vestrum/-i eorum ea rum

vobis eis/iis eis VOS eos eas

vobis eis/iis eis

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS PLUR.:

dat. acc. abl. gen. dat. mihi me me nostri (of nob is

ourselves) ti bi te te vestri (of vobis

yourselves) sibi se se sui(of sibi

themselves)

id (it) eius ei id eo

ea (they) eorum eis/iis

ea eis/iis

acc. abl. nos nob is

VOS vobis

se se

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PERSONAL PRONOUNS & POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES SUMMARY OF USES

PERS. PRONOUNS USES POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES ego (I) 1st-person personal

pronoun nos (we) & reflexive pronoun

til (you [one person]) 2nd-person personal pronoun

vos (you [more than one & reflexive pronoun person])

is. ea, id (he, she, it) 3rd-person personal pronoun only

ei, eae, ea (they) --. sui, sibi. se. se 3rd-person reflexive (him/her I itself. pronoun only

themselves)

RELATIVE PRONOUNS (who, whom. which, that)

SING.: Norn. Gen. Dat. Acc. Ahl.

PLUR.: Norn. Gen.

Dat. Acc. Abl.

masculine qui

cuius cui

quern quo

qui quorum

quibus quos

qui bus

feminine neuter quae quod cuius cuius cui cui

quam quod qua quo

quae quae qua rum quorum

quibus qui bus quas quae

qui bus quibus

meus, -a, um (my. my own)

noster. -tra. -trum (our. our own) tuus. -a. -um (your, your own [one

person's]) vester. -tra. -trum (your. your own

[more than one person's])

no adjectives: genitive of pronoun used instead: eius (of him/her/it):

eorum.earum,eorum(of them) suus. -a, -um (his own. her own, its own,

their own)

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS (who? whom? what? which?) masc./ fem. neuter

quis quid cuius cuius cui cui

quern quid quo quo

qui, quae quae quorum. quorum qua rum quibus quibus

quos. quas quae qui bus quibus

NOTE: The relative pronouns are identical in form with the interrogative adjectives.

SING.: Norn. Gen. Dat. Acc. Abl.

PLUR.: Norn. Gen. Dat. Acc. Ahl.

masculine hie (this)

huius huic hunc hoc

hi (these) ho rum

his hos his

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS feminine neuter masc.

haec hoc ille (that) huius huius illius huic huic illi hanc hoc ilium hac hoc ilio

hae haec illi (those) ha rum ho rum illorum

his his illis has haec illos his his illis

fem. neut. ilia illud

illius illius illi illi

iliam illud ilia ilio

illae ilia ilia rum illorum

illis illis illas ilia iliis iliis

NOTE: iste and ipse are declined just like ille. but ipse uses -um, not -ud. in neut. sg. nom./ acc.

DIRECTIONAL ADVERBS hinc hie hue from this place, from here, hence at this place, here to this place, to here, hither illinc or istinc illic or istic illiic or isti1c/isto from that place, from there, at that place, there to that place, to there. thither thence inde ibi eo from there, thence there to there. thither unde? ubi? quo? from what place? from where? at what place? where? to what place? to where? whence? whither? aliunde alibi or aliubi alio from another place in another place. elsewhere to another place NOTE: alias= at another time

INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS DIRECT QUESTION INDIRECT QUESTION

nonne begins single direct question expecting begins single indirect question expecting the answer YES the answer YES; means "whether"

num begins single direct question expecting begins single indirect question that may the answer NO expect the answer NO; means "whether"

-ne r. attached to rst word of single direct r. attached to rst word of single indirect question expecting YES or NO answer question expecting YES or NO answer;

means "whether" 2. attached to rst word of alternative 2. attached to rst word of alternative direct question; means "either"; is indirect question; means "whether"; correlated with an ("or") or annon is correlated with an ("or") or necne ("or not") ("or not")

utrum begins alternative direct question; begins alternative indirect question; means "either"; is correlated with means "whether"; is correlated with an an ("or") or annon ("or not") ("or") or necne("or not")

VERBS - PRINCIPAL PARTS CONJUGATION: Pres. Act. Indic.

Pres. Act. Infin.

Perf. Act. Indic.

Perfect Passive Participle

Present

Perfect Active

Perfect Passive

First

laudo

laud.are

laudavi

laudatus. -a, -um

laud.a-

laudav-

laudat-

Second Third moneo ago

monere agere

monui egi

monitus, -a, actus. -a, -um -um

VERB STEMS mone- age-

monu- eg-

monit- act-

Third-io Fourth

capio audio

capere audire

cepi audivi

captus, -a. auditus, -a, -um -um

cape- audi-

cep- audiv-

capt- audit-

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Present

PARTICIPLES ACTIVE VOICE

present stem +-ns (genitive. -ntis)

PASSIVE VOICE

NONE

Perfect NONE perfect passive stem +-us. -a. -um (= 4th principal part)

Future perfect passive stem +-urus, present stem +-ndus, -nda. -ndum -ura, -urum

EXAMPLES: agens. agentis (doing) NONE Present

Perfect NONE actus. -a. -um (having been done, done)

Future acturus. -a. -um (about to do. agendus, -a. -um (needing to be done. to be going to do) done)

FORMATION OF TENSES - ACTIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT TENSE Formula: Present Stem + -6 -mus

rst = -6. -as, -at, -amus. -a tis, ant -s -tis 2nd= -eo. -es. -et. -emus. -etis. -ent -t -nt

I call. do call, am calling. etc. 3rd= -6. -is, -it, -imus. -itis. -unt 3rd -i6 = -i6, -is. -it. -imus, -itis. -iunt

4th= -i6, -is, -it, -imus. -itis, -iunt

IMPERFECT TENSE Formula: Present Stem+ -barn -bamus rst = -abam. etc. -bas -batis

2nd. 3rd = -ebam, etc. -bat -bant I was calling. used to call. etc. 3rd-i6 & 4th= -iebam. etc.

FUTURE TENSE First & Second Conjugations Formula: Present Stem + -b6 -bimus

1st= -abo. etc. -bis -bi tis I shall call, shall be calling. etc. 2nd= -eb6, etc. -bit -bunt

Third & Fourth Conjugations Formula: Present Stem + -am -emus

3rd= -am. -es. etc. -es -etis 3rd -i6 & 4th= -iam, -ies, etc. -et -ent

PERFECT TENSE Formula: Perfect Active Stem+ -i -imus -is ti -is tis

I called, have called, etc. -it -erunt PLUPERFECT TENSE Formula: Perfect Active Stem + -er am era.mus

-eras -era tis I had called, etc. -erat -erant FUTURE PERFECT TENSE Formula: Perfect Active Stem+ -er6 -erimus

-eris -eritis I shall have called, etc. -erit -erint NOTE: The perfect tense may also be called the present perfect tense. especially when it indicates a present state of completion ("I have _'d") rather than a past action ("I_'d").

FORMATION OF TENSES - PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT TENSE Formula: start with the present

active forms; replace the active I am called, am being called. endings with passive endings: -r -mur etc. -ris (-re) -mini

Exceptions: in rst-person sg .. -tur -ntur add -r to the ending -o: 2nd-pers. sg.of 3rd conjugation =

-eris, not -iris

IMPERFECT TENSE Formula: Present Stem + -bar -bamur rst =-a.bar. etc.; 2nd. 3rd= -ebar, -baris (-re) -bamini

I was being called, etc. etc.; 3rd -io & 4th = -iebar. etc. -batur -bantur

FUTURE TENSE First & Second Conjugations Formula: Present Stem + -bor -bimur

I shall be called, etc. rst = -abor. etc.; 2nd= -ebor. etc. -beris (-re) -bimini -bitur -buntur

Third & Fourth Conjugations Formula: Present Stem + -ar -emur

3rd= -ar. -eris. etc. -eris (-re) -emini 3rd-i6 & 4th= -iar, -ieris, etc. -etur -entur

PERFECT TENSE Formula: Perf. Pass. Participle + sum sum us es es tis

I was called. have been called, est sunt etc. PLUPERFECT TENSE Formula: Perf. Pass. Participle+ eram era.mus

eras era tis I had been called, etc. erat erant FUTURE PERFECT TENSE Formula: Perf. Pass. Participle + er6 erimus

eris eritis I shall have been called, etc. erit erunt

FORMATION OF TENSES - PRESENT ACTIVE IMPERATIVE (Regular verbs have only ACTIVE imperatives.)

CONJUGATION: Present Stem Pr. act. imper. 2nd sg. Pr. act. imper. 2nd pl.

First lauda-lauda laudate

Second mone-mone monete

Third Third-i6 Fourth age- cape- audi-age cape audi agite capite audite

FORMATION OF TENSES - PRESENT PASSIVE IMPERATIVE (Deponent verbs have only PASSIVE imperatives.)

CONJUGATION: Present Stem Pr. pass. imp. 2nd sg. Pr. pass. imp. 2nd pl.

First horta-hortare hortamini

Second fate-fatere fatemini

Third Third-io Fourth seque- pate- experi-sequere patere experire sequimini patimini experimini

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VERBS EXCEPTIONAL IN THE IMPERATIVE MOOD: dic6. -ere, dixi. dictum (say. tell) duco, -ere, duxi. ductum (lead) facio, -ere, feci, factum (do. make) fero, ferre. tuli. latum (bear. carry)

Pr. Act. Imperative d 2n -person sg.

die due fac fer

Pr. Act. Imperative d 1 2n -person P .

dicite ducite fa cite ferte

For a NEGATIVE COMMAND (prohibition). use noli(te) ["don't wish"]+ an infinitive, or ne +perfect subjunctive. EXAMPLES: voca me= "call me"; noli me vocare (ne me vocaveris) = "don't call me." Never combine non with an imperative.

RULE: SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD - PRESENT TENSE

Start with the present stem; replace the stem vowel with E (first conjugation), EA (second conjugation). A (third conjugation). IA (third-i6 conjugation). or IA (fourth conjugation). To remember those vowels, think of this sentence:

Wg HEAR A LIAR. FRIAR! I 2 3 3-io 4

Add the personal endings: ACTIVE: -m -mus

ACTIVE: lauda-

laudem laudes laudet laudemus laudetis laudent

PASSIVE: lauda-

lauder lauderis (-re) laudetur laudemur laudemini laudentur

mone-

moneam moneas moneat moneamus moneatis moneant

mone-

monear monearis (-re) moneatur moneamur moneamini moneantur

Present Subjunctive of sum sim sis sit

simus sitis sint

or PASSIVE:

age-

agam a gas agat agamus agatis agant

age-

agar agaris (-re) agatur agamur agamini agantur

-s -tis -t -nt

-r -mur -ris -mini -tur -ntur

cape- audi-

capiam audiam capias audias capiat audiat capiamus audiamus capiatis audiatis capiant audiant

cape- audi-

capiar audiar capiaris (-re) audiaris (-re) capiatur audiatur capiamur audiamur capiamini audiamini capiantur audiantur

Present Subjunctive of ossum possim poss is

ossit

possimus possitis

ossint

RULE:

laud.av-

laudaverim laudaveris laudaverit laudaverimus laudaveritis laudaverint

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD - PERFECT TENSE

ACTIVE VOICE: Start with the perfect active stem; add the infix -eri- and then the active personal endings.

mo nu- eg- cep- audiv-

monuerim egerim ceperim audiverim monueris egeris ceperis audiveris monuerit egerit ceperit audiverit monuerimus egerimus ceperimus audiverimus monueritis egeritis ceperitis audiveritis monuerint egerint ceperint audiverint

Perfect Subjunctive of sum Perfect Subjunctive of possum fuerim fuerimus potuerim

potueris potuerit

potuerimus potueritis potuerint

fueris fuerit

RULE:

RULE:

ACTIVE: lauda-

laudarem laudares laudaret laudaremus laudaretis laudarent

PASSIVE: lauda-

laudarer laudareris laudaretur laudaremur laudaremini laudarentur

fueritis fuerint

PASSIVE VOICE: Combine the perfect passive participle with the present subjunctive of sum.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD - IMPERFECT TENSE

Start with the present stem: add the infix-re- and then the active or passive personal endings. [Looks like present active infinitive +endings.]

mone- age- cape- audi-

monerem agerem caperem audirem moneres ageres caperes audires moneret ageret caperet audiret moneremus ageremus caperemus audiremus moneretis ageretis caperetis audiretis monerent agerent caperent audirent

mone- age- cape- audi-

monerer agerer caperer audirer monereris agereris capereris audireris moneretur ageretur caperetur audiretur moneremur ageremur caperemur audiremur moneremini ageremini caperemini audiremini monerentur agerentur caperentur audirentur

Imperfect Subjunctive of sum Imperfect Subjunctive of possum essem esses esset

essemus essetis essent

possem posses poss et

possemus possetis possent

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SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD - PLUPERFECT TENSE

RULE: ACTIVE VOICE: Start with the perfect active stem; add the infix-isse-and then the active personal endings. [Looks like perf. act. infin. +endings.]

laudav- monu- eg-

laudavissem monuissem egissem laudavisses monuisses egisses laudavisset monuisset egisset laudavissemus monuissemus egissemus laudavissetis monuissetis egissetis laudavissent monuissent egissent

Pluperfect Subjunctive of sum fuissem fuissemus fuisses fuissetis fuisset fuissent

cep- audiv-

cepissem audivissem cepisses audivisses cepisset audivisset cepissemus audivissemus cepissetis audivissetis cepissent audivissent

Plu erfect Sub·unctive of ossum potuissem potuisses potuisset

potuissemus potuissetis potuissent

RULE: PASSIVE VOICE: Combine the perfect passive participle with the imperfect subjunctive of sum.

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

p Main Verb Subordinate Verb R I PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE--to show action

M PRESENT TENSE incomplete at the time of the main verb A FUTURE TENSE R FUTURE PERF. TENSE PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--to show action y completed at the time of the main verb

s Main Verb Subordinate Verb E c IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--to show action 0 IMPERFECT TENSE incomplete at the time of the main verb N PERFECT TENSE D PLUPERFECT TENSE A PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--to show action R completed at the time of the main verb y

NOTE: The perfect (rather than imperfect) subjunctive is used in result clauses in secondary sequence if the completed state of the action needs to be emphasized. It is also common for a main verb in the present perfect tense ("has/have _'d") to be regarded as primary.

Hoc facis (fades) ut me iuves. Hoc fecisti (faciebas) ut me iuvares. Rogant quid scripserimus. Rogaverunt quid scripsissemus. Tam severus est magister ut vitetur. Tam severus erat magister ut vitaretur.

You do (will do) this to help me. You did (were doing) this to help me. They are asking what we wrote. They asked what we had written. The teacher is so strict that he is avoided. The teacher was so strict that he was avoided.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

CLAUSES: PROTASIS =condition ("if ... ")

I. SIMPLE FACT A. PRESENT

Present Indicative* Si hoc fa cit, If she does/is doing this,

APODOSIS =conclusion ("then ... ")

Present Indicative priidens est. she is wise.

*Present subjunctive may be used in the protasis if the subject is an indefinite "you" (second-person singular) and the action is generalized, not occurring at a particular time: Si hoc facias. priidens es. "If [ever] you do this, you are wise." ·

B. PAST Imperfect or Perfect Indicative*

. Si hoc faciebat/fecit, If she was doing this, If she did (has done) this.

Imperfect or Perfect Indicative priidens erat/fuit . she was wise. (imperfect) she was (has been) wise. (perfect)

*Imperfect subjunctive (faceret) may be used in the protasis if the action is repeated or customary: "if she did this [habitually]. she was wise." Cicero rarely used the subjunctive in this way. but the practice became much more common in later Latin.

II. FUTURE A. MORE VIVID

Future Indicative* Si hoc f aciet. If she does/will do this.

Future Indicative priidens erit. she will be wise.

*Future perfect (fecerit) may be used in the protasis to show a future action that will be completed before the action in the apodosis.

B. LESS VIVID ("should-would") Present Subjunctive* Si hoc faciat. If she did/were to do/should do this.

Present Subjunctive priidens sit. she would be wise.

*Perfect subjunctive (fecerit) may be used in the protasis to show a future action that would be completed before the action in the apodosis.

III. CONTRARY-TO-FACT A. PRESENT

Imperfect Subjunctive Si hoc faceret. If she were doing this.

B. PAST Pluperfect Subjunctive Si hoc fecisset. If she had done this.

Imperfect Subjunctive priidens esset. she would be wise.

Pluperfect Subjunctive priidens fuisset. she would have been wise.

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INDEPENDENT USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

I. JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

The jussive subjunctive is also called the hortatory subjunctive. In the present tense (rarely the perfect) it expresses a command or an exhortation (e.g .. hos Jatrones interficiamus "let us kill these robbers" - Caes .. BG 7.38). In the imperfect or pluperfect tense it denotes an unfulfilled obligation in past time (e.g .. morerentur "they should have died"; if pluperfect tense had been used, it would simply have given more emphasis to the fact that the obligation was in the past). The negative is introduced by ne.

The jussive subjunctive may also show concession (present or perfect tense). The negative is introduced by ne. Example: ne sit summum malum dolor. malum certe est ("granted that [conceding that] pain is not the greatest evil. it certainly is an evil" - Cicero. Tusc. 2.14).

2. OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

The optative subjunctive expresses a wish. Present tense shows that the wish is possible (e.g .. sint incolumes "may they be safe"); imperfect tense shows that the wish is unaccomplished in present time; pluperfect tense shows that the wish is unaccomplished in past time; perfect tense is archaic and solemn-sounding (e.g .. di faxint "may the gods bring about"). The optative subjunctive is often (and always if the tense used is imperfect or pluperfect) introduced by utinam (e.g .. utinam viverent "would that they were alive [but they aren't]"). In poetry the optative subjunctive may be introduced by ut or uti (e.g .. ut pereat positum robigine telum "may the weapon. unused, perish with rust" - Hor. Sat. 2.r.43) or by si (e.g .. si nunc se nobis ille aureus arbore ramus I ostendat "if only that golden branch would show itself to us now!" - Verg .. Aen. 6.187-188). The negative has ne.

3. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

The deliberative subjunctive is used in questions implying doubt or indignation (any tense. most often present) or the impossibility of a thing's being done (imperfect or pluperfect tense). The negative has non. Examples: quid agam? ("What am I to do?"); ego non venirem? ("Should I not have come?"); quid diceres ("What were you to say [could you have said]?").

4. POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE

The potential subjunctive suggests that an action is possible or conceivable. It often expresses a cautious or modest assertion in the 1st-person singular of verbs of saying. thinking. or wishing. or in the indefinite 2nd-person singular of such verbs. The present and perfect tenses refer to the future. imperfect tense to the past. The negative has non. Examples: non dixerim ("I would/ could not venture to say"); freto assimilare possis ("you might compare it to a sea" - Ovid, Met. 5.6); videres susurros ("you might have seen the whispers [i.e .. them whispering]" - Hor .. Sat. 2.8.77).

5. EXCLAMATORY SUBJUNCTIVE

The exclamatory subjunctive (present or imperfect tense) is used in exclamatory questions. It may be introduced by ut. by the enclitic -ne, or by no word at all. Examples: egone ut te interpellem ("the very idea that I might interrupt you!" - Cic .. Tusc. 242): ego tibi irascerer ("the thought that I might have been angry at you!" - Oc .. Q. fr. I .3).

While the exclamatory subjunctive usually refers to something only contemplated as occurring. the EXCLAMATORY INFINITIVE refers to something that actually is occurring (present tense) or has occurred (perfect tense). Examples: mene incepto desistere victam ("the shame that I. beaten. am giving up on my attempt!" - Verg .. Aen. r.37); te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse ("alas. that you have fallen into such grief for me!" - Cic .. Fam. 14.r).

DEPENDENT USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

I. PURPOSE CLAUSE A. Purpose clause (adverbial): utor ne+subjunctive

Vivit ut cenet. He lives to eat (so that he might eat. in order to eat, etc.). Hoc facit ne erret. He does this lest he make (in order that he not make) a mistake.

B. Relative purpose clause: if it is descriptive. a purpose clause may be introduced by a relative pronoun instead of ut.

Magister misit puerum qui fratrem iuvaret. The teacher sent the boy to help his brother (literally. who might/should help his brother).

C. Comparative purpose clause: if it contains a comparative. a purpose clause may be introduced by quo instead of ut.

2. RESULT CLAUSE

Dux eos Jaudavit quo audacius pugnarent. The general praised them so that they would fight more boldly (literally. by which they would fight more boldly).

A. Result clause (adverbial): utor ut non+ subjunctive; may be signaled by ita. sic. talis. tam. tantus. etc. in the main clause.

Laborat tam diligenter ut sit defessus. He works so hard that he is tired out.

B. Relative result clause: if it is descriptive, a result clause may be introduced by a relative pronoun instead of ut.

Nemo est tam stultus qui hoc non faciat. No one is so foolish as not to (literally. who would not) do this.

C. Noun result clause (a clause indicating result and acting as direct object after a main verb of making. effecting. or bringing about or as subject of an impersonal main verb): utor ut non +subjunctive; utis often omitted with facio and with the impersonal verbs Jicet. oportet. and necesse est.

Fae [ut] pugnent. Make them fight (literally. bring it about that they fight).

3. RELATIVE CLAUSE OF CHARACTERISTIC (a relative clause with a general. indefinite, interrogative, or negative antecedent; indicates a characteristic of the antecedent): relative pronoun + subjunctive

Relative clauses of characteristic are common after these expressions: nemo est qui there is no one who... sunt qui there are some who ... nihil est quad there is nothing that... quis est qui who is there who ... ? Nemo erat qui hoc crederet. There was no one who believed this.

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4. INDIRECT QUESTION (a noun clause acting as direct object after a main verb of saying. asking. knowing. etc.): interrogative word+ subjunctive

Scio quid putes. I know what you think.

5. INDIRECT COMMAND (a jussive noun clause acting as direct object after a main verb of asking. commanding. persuading. urging. warning. wishing. etc.): ut or ne (utis sometimes omitted)+ subjunctive

Impero ut laboretis. I order you to work.

6. FEAR CLAUSE (a noun clause acting as direct object after a main verb of fearing): ne (affirmative, "lest," "that") or ut(negative, "lest...not," "that...not") +subjunctive

Timeo ne properes. I fear that you are hurrying. Timeo ut labores. I fear that you are not working.

7. PROVISO CLAUSE (an adverbial clause stating a provisional circumstance): dummodo or modo + subjunctive ( + ne if negative)

Brunt felices dummodo ne discedas. They will be happy. provided that (so long as) you do not leave.

8. CAUSAL CLAUSE A. quad or quia: introduces a reason; takes the indicative mood when the reason

is given on the authority of the author, the subjunctive mood when the reason is given on the authority of another.

Cur igitur pacem nolo? quia turpis est. Why then do I not wish for peace? Because (as I myself say) it is disgraceful. (Cic., Phil. 7.9) Mea mater irata est quia non redierim. My mother is angry because (as she says) I did not return. (Plaut., Cist. IOI)

B. quoniam or quando: introduces a reason given on the authority of the author; takes the indicative.

Quoniam !idem magistri cognostis. cognoscite nunc discipuli aequitatem. Since you have learned the teacher's integrity. now learn his pupil's fairness. (Cic., Pro Rose. rrg)

g. QUIN CLAUSE A. quin literally means "how not?" or "why not?" and may be used at the start of

an independent clause with indicative or subjunctive. Quin ego hoc rogem? Why shouldn't I ask this?

B. quin may also introduce a dependent subjunctive clause after verbs of hindering. resisting. refusing. doubting. delaying. etc .. when they are negatived (expressly or by implication). ne or quominus may take the place of quin if the main verb is positive.

Facere non possum quin cotidie ad te mittam. I cannot help but (there's nothing I can do except) send to you every day. (Cic .. Att. 12.27.2)

Non erat dubium quin Helvetii plii.rimum possent. There was no doubt that the Helvetians were most powerful. (Ca es .. BG r.3)

C. quin (= qui. quae. quad+ non) may introduce a relative clause of characteristic or a relative clause of result.

Ecquis fuit quin lacrimaret? Was there anyone who did not shed tears? (Cic., Verr. 5.r2r)

IO. CUM CLAUSE: an adverbial clause, either causal. concessive (adversative). or temporal. describing the circumstances under which the action of the main verb takes place. The choice of subjunctive or indicative mood in the cum clause depends upon its type.

TYPE OF CUM CLAUSE LATIN ENGLISH

CUM CAUSAL Cum veniat, discedimus. Because he is coming. we are leaving.

Subjunctive mood is used; Cum veniret. discessimus. Because he was coming. we left. tense is determined by Cum venerit, discedimus. Because he has come, we are sequence of tenses. leaving.

Cum venisset, discessimus. Because he had come, we left.

CUM CONCESSIVE Cum veniat. discedimus. Although he is coming. we are leaving.

Subjunctive mood is used; Cum veniret, discessimus. Although he was coming. we left. tense is determined by Cum venerit, discedimus. Although he has come, we are sequence of tenses. leaving.

Cum venisset. discessimus. Although he had come, we left.

CUM TEMPORAL Cum venit. discedimus. When he is coming. we are leaving. Indicative mood is used if Cum veniet, discedemus. When he comes (literally. "shall cum clause refers to the Cum venerit. discedemus. come"), we shall leave. present or the future. When he has come (literally. "shall

have come"), we shall leave.

CUM TEMPORAL Cum veniret, discessimus. When he was coming. we left. Subjunctive mood is used Cum venisset. discessimus. When he had come, we left. if cum clause refers to the past; follows sequence of tenses. Indicative may be Cum venit, discessimus. When he came [i.e .. at that precise used if the past actions in moment]. we left. the sentence took place at exactly the same time.

USES OF THE ABLATIVE CASE

In Classical Latin the ablative case performs the duties of three originally distinct cases: the ablative. the locative, and the instrumental. Thus the ablative has many different uses.

I. AGENT(+ a or ab): COMPARISON: DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE: MANNER ( + cum; cum is optional if noun is modified by an adjective): MEANS (INSTRUMENT): RESPECT (SPECIFICATION):

A patre monebatur. Sori5re sapientior es. Sori5re multi5 sapientior es. Cum ciJ.ra lodlti sunt. Magna (cum) ciJ.ra Jodi.ti sunt. Gladii5 interfectus est. Sapientia excellit.

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SEPARATION: MetiJ. liberabimur. TIME WHEN: TIME WITHIN WHICH:

Tertio anno discessit. Tribus annis regressus est.

II. An ablative may be used with each of the following ADJECTNES: contentus. -a. -um. dignus. -a. -um. fretus. -a. -um. indignus. -a. -um. praeditus. -a. -um

III. An ablative of means may be used with each of the following DEPONENT VERBS: fruor. frui. friJ.ctus sum; fungor. fungi. fiJ.nctus sum: potior. potiri, potitus sum; iJ.tor. iJ.ti, iJ.sus sum: vescor, vesci. --. These five verbs take no direct object in the accusative.

IV. A phrase that can be detached from the main framework of a sentence without leaving the structure incomplete is called an absolute phrase. Example: School having started(or with school having started). I have begun to think about Latin again.

An ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE is an absolute phrase that combines a noun or pronoun with a participle. an adjective, or another noun or pronoun. both in the ablative case. Absolute absolutes are much more common in Latin than in English because Latin has no perfect active participle. It is impossible. for example. to say "having broken her leg" in Latin; instead one must say "her leg having been broken" (criJ.re fractO).

An ablative absolute usually indicates time. cause. or attendant circumstance. It may be translated with a participial phrase. an adverbial clause. or a prepositional phrase.

EXAMPLES: Noun+ participle: PeciJ.nia accepta. Sibylla libros tradidit.

Having received the money. the Sibyl handed over the books.

Noun+ adjective: Caelo sereno. obsciJ.rata Jax est. Although the sky was clear. the light was obscured [in an eclipse].

Noun+noun: Nihil desperandum Teucro duce. Under Teucer's leadership there should be no despairing.

TRANSLATING LATIN PARTICIPLES

As verbal adjectives. participles are capable of being modified by adverbs and prepositional phrases; if active in voice. they may also take direct and/ or indirect objects. Often the best way to translate a participle is with an ADVERBIAL CLAUSE introduced by a conjunction such as "when," "while," "after," "since," "because," "if," or "although."

I. PRESENT ACTNE PARTICIPLE

A. Femina. !ilium videns. gaudet/gaudebat/gaudebit. The woman. seeing her son. rejoices/rejoiced/will rejoice.

Here. no matter what the tense of the main verb is. the action of seeing takes place at the SAME TIME as the rejoicing. so both Latin and English require a present participle. Instead of the literal translation "seeing her son," you may prefer to use an adverbial clause:

B. The woman. when she sees her son, rejoices; when she saw her son. rejoiced; when she sees/will see her son, will rejoice.

II. PERFECT P ASSNE PARTICIPLE

A. Femina, filii5 visa. gaudet/gaudebat/gaudebit. The woman, having seen her son. rejoices/rejoiced/will rejoice.

Here, no matter what the tense of the main verb is. the action of seeing takes place BEFORE the rejoicing. so both Latin and English require a perfect participle. Instead of the literal translation "having seeing her son," you may prefer to use an adverbial clause:

B. The woman. after she has seen her son. rejoices; after she had seen her son. rejoiced; after she sees/will see her son, will rejoice.

Notice that the Latin literally says "the son having been seen"; this perfect passive construction (ablative absolute) is necessary because Latin has no perfect active participle ("having seen"). To avoid sounding stilted, you may choose to translate the participle as if it were active.

III. FUTURE ACTNE PARTICIPLE

A. Femina. !ilium visura. gaudet/gaudebat/gaudebit. The woman. about to see her son. rejoices/rejoiced/will rejoice.

Here. no matter what the tense of the main verb is. the action of seeing takes place AFTER the rejoicing. so both Latin and English require a future participle. Instead of the literal translation "about to see her son," you may prefer to translate with an adverbial clause:

B. The woman. because she will see her son. rejoices; because she would see her son. rejoiced; because she will see her son. will rejoice.

USES OF THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE (GERUNDIVE)

In Latin the future passive participle, also called the GERUNDIVE. shows NECESSITY ("needing to be _'d"), implying that something had, has, or will have to be done. It often appears as a predicate adjective (agreeing with the subject in gender, number, case) combined with a form of sum and modified. not by the ablative of agent as one might expect, but by the DATIVE OF AGENT. showing the person on whom the necessity or obligation falls.

This construction is called the PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC because it is a roundabout (= periphrastic) way of expressing what could be said straightforwardly with debe6 +an active infinitive. The examples below illustrate how to transform statements of necessity from active to passive voice, using the gerundive.

Active voice: Passive voice:

Omnes duces quaerere pacem debent/ debebant/ debebunt. Omnibus ducibus pax quaerenda est/erat/erit.

All leaders have to/must seek peace. All leaders had to seek peace. All leaders will have to seek peace.

= Peace has to/must be sought by all leaders. = Peace had to be sought by all leaders. = Peace will have to be sought by all leaders.

Notice that it is the form of sum. and not the gerundive. that indicates whether the expression is past, present, or future in tense. Despite its name. the future passive participle does not imply anything about the time of the action; this distinguishes it from the other three Latin participles. which all show time relative to the main verb.

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The gerundive has a second use connected with the GERUND. A gerund is a verbal noun meaning "the action of _-ing" or simply "to_." In Latin a gerund can appear in any of five cases and be used in any way a regular noun can be. In the nominative case it is identical with the infinitive; in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative cases, it is identical with the neuter singular gerundive (e.g .. iuvandi, iuvand6, iuvandum, iuvand6). It never occurs in the vocative or in the plural. Like participles. gerunds are capable of being modified by adverbs and prepositional phrases, and of taking direct and/ or indirect objects.

The gerund is frequently combined with the prepositions ad, causfi, or gratifi to show PURPOSE. as an alternative to a purpose clause (ut +subjunctive) or a supine.

EXAMPLES: adiuvandum iuvandi causa/grfitifi ad amic6s tm5s iuvandum

amicos tu6s iuvandi causfi/grfitia

="for the purpose of helping" or "to help" ="for the sake of helping" or "to help" ="for the purpose of helping your friends" or "to help your friends" ="for the sake of helping your friends" or "to help your friends"

You will rarely see the last two examples because the Romans found the combination gerund+ direct object ugly. They preferred to transform it, putting what would have been the direct object into whatever case the gerund would have been in. then modifying that ex-direct object with a gerundive in the appropriate gender, number, and case. This is the other common use of the gerundive: as a SUBSTITUTE (less logical but more elegant) for the gerund.

EXAMPLES: ad amic6s tu6s iuvandum > ad amic6s tu6s iuvand6s amicos tuos iuvandi causa/grfitifi > amic6rum tu6rum iuvandorum causfi/gratifi

When it takes the place of a gerund, the future passive participle no longer shows necessity and thus should not be translated "needing to be_'d." Translate the gerundive construction exactly as you would have translated the original gerund+ direct object.

Present

Perfect

Future

EXAMPLES: Present

Perfect

Future

INFINITIVES

ACTIVE VOICE

-are, -ere, -ere (3rd-i6 =-ere), -ire

perfect active stem+ -isse

perfect passive stem +-urus, -ura, -urum+esse

PASSIVE VOICE

-ari, -eri. -i (3rd-i6 = -i). -iri

perfect passive stem +-us, -a, -um + esse perfect passive stem +-um+ iri

..-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

laudare, monere, agere (capere), audire laudavisse, monuisse, egisse (cepisse). audivisse laudaturus,moniturus,acturus (capturus), auditurus, -a. -um esse

laudari, moneri, agi (capi), audiri

laudatus, monitus, actus (captus), auditus, -a, -um esse laudatum, monitum, actum (captum), auditumiri

NOTE: Infinitives may be used either as verbal nouns (gerunds) or as verbs (complementary infinitives, object infinitives, substitutes for finite verbs in indirect discourse).

INDIRECT DISCOURSE (= INDIRECT STATEMENT)

VERBS that commonly introduce indirect discourse: SAYING: ait. dico, doceo, narro, nego. ni1nti6. ostendo, scribo KNOWING: intellego. memoria teneo. nescio, scio THINKING: credo. puto. spero PERCEIVING: audio, sentio. video

TENSES of the infinitive in indirect discourse: r. PRESENT infinitive indicates same time as that of the main verb. 2. PERFECT infinitive indicates time before that of the main verb. 3. FUTURE infinitive indicates time after that of the main verb.

Dicunt

Dixerunt

Dicent

eum iuvare earn. eum iilvisse earn. eum ii1ti1rum [esse] earn.

eum iuvare earn. eum iilvisse earn. eum ii1ti1rum [esse] earn.

eum iuvare earn. eum iilvisse earn. eum ii1ti1rum [esse] earn.

They say

They said

They will say

that he is helping her. that he helped her. that he will help her.

that he was helping her. that he had helped her. that he would help her.

that he is helping her. that he helped her. that he will help her.

jLATIN WORDS THAT LOOK ALIKE!

ab (prep.) = away from. by ad (prep.)= to, toward. near

ac (conj.) = and at (conj.)= but atque (conj.) = and also

alienus, -a, -um= belonging to another person, someone else's, not one's own aliquis, aliquid =someone, something alius, alia, aliud =other. another

audeo, audere, ausus sum = dare audio, audire, audivi, auditum = hear, listen to

aut (conj.) =or autem (conj.)= however, moreover

civis. civis (m. or f.) = citizen civitas, civitatis (f.) =citizenship. city-state, state

cogito. cogitare. cogitavi. cogitatum = think. ponder cogo. cogere. coegi. coactum =drive together, force, compel

dico, dicere. dixi, dictum= say diico, diicere. diixi, ductum =lead

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discedo, discedere, discessi. discessum =go away. depart disco, discere, didici =learn

gens, gentis (f .) = clan. race, nation, people genus. generis (n.) =kind. sort. class

ibi (adv.) = there ubi (adv.) =where

idem, eadem, idem = the same quidem (adv.) = indeed, certainly mora, morae (f.) =delay mors, mortis (f.) =death mos. moris (m.) =habit, custom. manner (mores. morum =habits, character)

noster, nostra, nostrum= our vester, vestra, vestrum =your

peto. petere, petivi, petitum =seek, aim at, beg. beseech puto, putare. putavi, putatum =reckon, suppose. judge, think, imagine

quidam, quaedam, quiddam = a certain person. a certain thing quis, quid (after si, num nisi. or ne) = anyone, anything. someone, something quisquam. quidquam/ quicquam =anyone, anything quisque, quaeque, quidque/ quicque =each person. each thing quisquis, quidquid/quicquid =anyone who. whoever, anything that, whatever

senectG.s, senecti1tis (f .) =old age senex, senis (adj. and noun) = old. aged; old man

servio, servire, servivi, servitum= serve. be a servant to(+ dat.) servo, servare. servavi, servatum =save, preserve

tamen (adv.)= nevertheless. still tandem (adv.) = at last, finally

terreo. terrere, terrui, territum =frighten, terrify timeo, timere. timui =fear, be afraid. be afraid of

vinco, vincere. vici, victum =conquer vito, vitare, vitavi, vita tum= avoid, shun vivo, vivere. vixi, victum =live

vir. viri (m.) = man vis. vis (f.) =force. power. violence (pl. vires. virium =strength); vis also= 2nd pers. sg. of volo

vita, vitae (f .) =life vitium, vitii (n.) = fault, crime, vice

To help remember quidam, quisquam, quisque, and idem, here is a useful ditty: "Be dam certain not to have any quam's about each quebecause dem's the same!"

THE ROMAN NAME

Praenomen corresponds to our first name, but not in its use as a sign of familiarity or intimacy. The number of praenomina was very limited, and the eighteen most common ones were regularly abbreviated:

A. Aul us L. Lucius Q. Quintus App. (Ap.) Appius M. Marcus Ser. Servi us *C. Gaius M'. Mani us Sex. (S.) Sextus *Cn. Gnaeus Mam. Mamercus Sp. Spurius D. Decimus N. (Num.) Numerius T. Titus K. Kaeso P. Publius Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius

*C was the original symbol for a G sound; in the abbreviations for Gaius and Gnaeus, the old value of C is preserved.

The eldest son often took his father's praenomen; a woman usually had no praenomen.

Nomen is the name of the gens or family; it is actually an adjective identifying the person as "belonging to the __ family." Every child in the family had the same nomen, in the masculine form for sons, in the feminine form for daughters. Thus the sons of a man named C. Julius might be called C. Julius (the older son) and L. Julius (the younger son). The daughters of C. Julius would all be called Julia, distinguished by the addition of adjectives like maior, minor, altera, secunda, tertia, etc.

Cognomen is a semi-descriptive name that was usually handed down in a family; many cognomina were originally nicknames, often describing a physical feature of an ancestor (e.g., Caesar = "hairy"; Naso = "nose"; Cicero = "chickpea" or perhaps "wart"). Possession of three names (or just two since the cognomen was optional) was a sign of citizenship.

Additional cognomina might be added to a name to commemorate a notable event or accomplishment or to indicate adoption from another gens. The Romans of the classical period had no special name for these extra cognomina, but later grammarians invented the word agnomina for them. Example: P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus (Africanus refers to his military exploits in Africa, Aemilianus identifies his original nomen as Aemilius; he had been adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio and taken on his adoptive father's three names).

The full formal name of a Roman citizen also included filiation, i.e., the identification of his father's praenomen; grandfather's and great-grandfather's praenomina might be mentioned as well. Filiation showed that one's father (and grandfather and great-father in some cases) had been a citizen. Example: M. Tullius M. f. (=Marci filius "son of Marcus") M. n. (=Marci nepos "grandson of Marcus") M. pr. (= Marci pronepos "great-grandson of Marcus") Cicero. Membership in a tribe or voting group, another sign of citizenship, might also be noted. Example: C. Julius C. f. Sergia tribu ("from the Sergian tribe") Caesar.

Slaves were customarily given single names in the Greek fashion, whether or not they were Greeks or Greek-speaking (which most of them were). Example: Chryseros Gaii servus ("Goldy-love, slave of Gaius"). A freed slave would adopt the praenomen and nomen of his former master and use his own old name as cognomen. Example: C. Julius C. lib. (= Gaii libertus, "freedman of Gaius") Chryseros. A slave freed by an emperor would be called Aug. lib. (= Augusti libertus "freedman of Augustus"). Thus a freedman, even in his name, could not escape his servile past.

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20 THE ROMAN CALENDAR AND DATING

Traditionally, the Romans referred to a particular year by giving the names of the consuls of that year. Another method was to reckon the date relative to the founding of Rome in 753 B.C. A.U.C. 1, for example, meant the first year ab urbe condita ("after the foundation of Rome"), i.e., 753 B.C.; A.U.C. 2 = 752 B.C.; A.U.C. 753 = 1 B.C.; A.U.C. 754=1 AD., etc.

The Roman year had 12 months: Ianuarius (Ian.), Februarius (Feb.), Martius (Mart.), Aprilis (Apr.), Maius (Mai.), Iunius (Iun.), Iulius (Iul.--originally Quinctilis, changed to honor Julius Caesar), Augustus (Aug.--originally Sextilis, changed to honor Augustus Caesar), September (Sept.), October (Oct.), November (Nov.), December (Dec.). The names are adjectives modifying mensis "month." During the Republic the year began on Mar. 1, the day military operations started, or on Mar. 15, the day the consuls took office. In 153 B.C. the first day of the consulship was changed to Jan. 1, and that became the first day of the civil year.

Until Julius Caesar reformed the calendar in 46-45 B.C., a normal year consisted of 355 days. Each month had 29 days except for March, May, July, and October with 31 and February with 28. Every other year an extra month of 22 or 23 days would have to be added ("intercalated") between February 23 and February 24. Caesar instituted a regular cycle of four years, of which three had 365 days, the fourth 366 days (with a leap or bissextile day added after February 23).

To indicate which day of the month it was, the Romans used one of three reference points: the Kalends (always the 1st of the month), the Nones (either the 5th or the 7th day of the month), and the Ides (either the 13th or the 15th of the month). "In March, July, October, May, the Ides are on the 15th day, the Nones the 7th; all else besides have two days less for Nones and Ides."

As soon as one of the reference days had passed, a Roman would start counting how many days were left until the next reference point. March 2, for example, would not be the day after the Kalends of March; instead, it would be 6 days before the Nones of March. The Romans counted inclusively, i.e., they included the present day in their calculations. March 5, for example, would not be 2 days, but 3 days, before the Nones of March (March 7).

ROMAN NUMERALS: I= 1, V = 5, X = 10, L = 50, C = 100, D = 500, M = 1000. Usually no more than three of the same symbol can stand in a row. Right shows addition; left shows subtraction. One symbol cannot be subtracted from two; e.g. 19 should be XIX, not IXX; 1900 should be MCM, not CMM.

March 1 =Kai. Mart. (abbreviation of Kalendis Martiis - "on the Kalends of March") March 2 =a. d. VI Non. Mart. (abbreviation of ante diem VI Nanas Martias -

March 3 = a. d. V Non. Mart. March 4 =a. d. IV Non. Mart. March 5 =a. d. III Non. Mart.

"on the 6th day before the Nones of March")

March 6 = prid. Non. Mart. (abbreviation of pridie Nanas Martias -"on the day before the Nones of March")

March 7 =Non. Mart. (abbreviation of Nanis Martiis - "on the Nones of March") March 8 =a. d. VIII Id. Mart. (abbreviation of ante diem VIII Idus Martias -

"on the 8th day before the Ides of March") March 14 = prid. Id. Mart. March 15 =Id. Mart. (abbreviation of Idibus Martiis - "on the Ides of March") March 16 =a. d. XVII Kai. Apr. (abbreviation of ante diem XVII Kalendas Apriles -

"on the 17th day before the Kalends of April") March 31 = prid. Kai. Apr. April 1 =Kai. Apr. (abbreviation of Kalendis Aprilibus - "on the Kalends of April")

The CURSUS HONOR UM during the late Roman Republic

CONSUL (2 per yr.) - minimum age 42 - chief civil and mili.tary magistrate of Rome, held imperium (supreme authority), was escorted by 12 lictors

PRAETOR (6 or 8 per yr.) - minimum age 39 - judicial magistrate in Rome, held imperium (supreme authority), was escorted by 6 lictors

TRIBUNUS PLEBIS (10 per yr.) - plebeian tribune, had immunity from harm, could veto any decree of the senate or any act of a magistrate

AEDILIS (2 plebeian, 2 curule per yr.) - aedile, city manager of Rome, in charge of markets, roads, sewers, baths, temples, theaters, public games

QUAESTOR (20 per yr.)- minimum age 30 - financial manager who served in Rome or as assistant to a proconsul or propraetor in a province

VIGINTI(SEX) VIRI (26, later 20 per yr.) - minor magistrates responsible for running the mint and the prisons, holding executions, judging minor law suits, cleaning streets, keeping the peace at night in Rome

TRIBUNUS MILITUM ( 6 per legion; some were elected, some appointed) - tribune of the soldiers, senior military officer of a Roman legion

To become a consul in Rome, a man (women could not hold political office) had to move up through a "course of offices" (cursus honorum) whose order was fairly fixed. The quaestorship and praetorship were required; the other magistracies were optional. All the offices above the military tribunate were elective and had one-year terms. '

Only men from plebeian families (i.e., those that did not belong to the traditional social elite of Rome) were eligible to be plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles; the other magistrates could be either patrician or plebeian. Consuls, praetors, and curule aediles were called CURDLE magistrates because they were entitled to use a special chair (sella curulis).

Consuls and praetors were escorted by LICTORS, men who walked in front of them, carrying fasces (bundled rods), and cleared the way for the magistrates.

Once he had served as quaestor, a man was automatically admitted to the Roman SENATE. A person who succeeded in becoming a senator (or better yet, even a consul) despite having no senators among his ancestors was called a novus homo. Attaining a curule office (especially the consulship) gave nobilitas to the man and his descendants; a noble had the right to decorate the atrium of his home with wax masks (imagines) of all his ancestors who had been curule magistrates.

After holding the consulship, a man could not be consul again for ten years. Praetors and consuls were sent to govern provinces the year after they held office; they were then called PROPRAETORS or PROCONSULS. Every five years two ex-consuls were elected to be CENSORS, whose job was to update the list of citizens. They also had the power to add members to the senate or expel senators guilty of illegal or immoral behavior. No office was more respected than the censorship.

In emergencies a dictator might be appointed to serve (with the imperium of a consul) until the crisis ended; he chose his own assistant, the magister equitum.

The pontifex maximus, elected for life, was the chief priest in the state religion. AUGURS were elected officials who took the auspices (i.e., interpreted the signs) before every major public undertaking to see whether the gods approved of it.

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108 107 106 100 91-87 88 87 86 84 83 82-80 79 75 73-71 70

69 67 66 63

62 61

60 59

58-50 58

57 57-56 56

55 54 53 52 51-50 49

48

47

46

45 44

44-43 43

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SIGNIFICANT EVENTS DURING THE AGE OF CICERO (all dates= B.C.)

Birth (approximate year) of L. Sergius Catilina (Catiline) C. Marius serves 1st term as consul, reforms Roman army. Birth of M. Tullius Cicero & Cn. Pompei us Magnus (Pompey) Marius serves 6th term as consul; birth of C. Julius Caesar Social War; Rome's Italian allies are granted Roman citizenship. L. Cornelius Sulla seizes Rome; Marius flees, joins L. Cornelius Cinna. Marius & Cinna seize Rome while Sulla is fighting in Greece; proscriptions Marius serves 7th term as consul, with Cinna; Marius dies in office. Cinna is killed in a mutiny; birth (approximate year) of C. Valerius Catullus Sulla returns to Italy, supported by Pompey & M. Licinius Crassus. Civil war; Sulla wins, serves as dictator for 3 years; proscriptions Sulla resigns dictatorship & retires from public life (dies in 78). Cicero serves as quaestor in Sicily. Spartacus leads slave rebellion but is defeated by Crassus & Pompey. Consulship of Pompey & Crassus; birth of Publius Vergilius Maro (Vergil); Cicero

successfully prosecutes proconsul C. Verres for governing Sicily corruptly. Cicero serves as plebeian aedile. Pompey clears pirates from Mediterranean Sea in 3 months. Cicero serves as praetor; Catiline's 1st conspiracy; Pompey defeats Mithridates VI. Cicero serves as consul; Catiline's 2nd conspiracy; Pompey captures Jerusalem;

Caesar elected pontifex maximus; birth of Octavian(= future emperor Augustus) Defeat & death of Catiline; Pompey returns to Italy, disbands his army. Caesar serves as propraetor of Further Spain; Pompey triumphs in Rome;

P. Clodius Pulcher is put on trial for violating Bona Dea festival (acquitted). 1st triumvirate (Pompey, Crassus, & Caesar) is formed. Caesar serves as consul; Pompey marries Caesar's daughter Julia; death of Clodia's

(= Lesbia's?) husband Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer Caesar serves as proconsul of Gaul & Illyricum, fights Gallic Wars. Clodius serves as tribune, instigates exile of Cicero; Cicero flees to

Macedonia; Clodius' gangsters destroy Cicero's house on the Palatine. Pompey & T. Annius Milo promote Cicero's recall; Cicero returns to Rome. Catullus visits Bithynia, accompanying the propraetor C. Memmius. Pompey, Crassus, & Caesar reaffirm triumvirate at a meeting at Luca in Italy;

Cicero and Crassus successfully defend M. Caelius Rufus. Consulship of Pompey & Crassus; Pompey builds 1st stone theater in Rome. Death of Julia; death (approximate year) of Catullus Crassus is defeated and killed by Parthians at Carrhae; Cicero is elected augur. Clodius is killed by Milo's gang; Clodius' gang burns the Senate House; Milo is exiled. Cicero serves in Cilicia as proconsul, corresponds with Caelius. Caesar crosses Rubicon (iacta alea est), beginning civil war against Pompey; Caesar

defeats Pompey's men at Ilerda, Spain, returns to Rome, serves as dictator. Caesar serves as consul, defeats Pompey at Pharsalus in Greece; Pompey is killed

in Egypt; Caelius and Milo are executed for stirring up rebellion in Italy. Caesar serves as dictator, defeats Ptolemy XIII, reinstates Cleopatra as queen of

Egypt, defeats Pharnaces II at Zela in Pontus (veni, vidi, vici). Caesar serves as dictator & consul, reforms calendar, defeats Pompey's men at

Thapsus in Africa, causing M. Porcius Cato Uticensis to commit suicide. Caesar serves as dictator & consul, defeats Pompey's men at Munda, Spain. Caesar serves as dictator for life & consul; Cleopatra visits Rome with her son Caesarian;

Caesar is murdered on the Ides of March; Cleopatra and Caesarian return to Egypt. Cicero writes the Philippics against M. Antonius (Antony). 2nd triumvirate (Antony, Octavian, M. Aemilius Lepidus) formed; proscriptions;

murder of Cicero on December 7 Caesar is deified; M. Iunius Brutus & C. Cassius Longinus (murderers of Caesar) commit

suicide after being defeated by Antony & Octavian at Philippi in Greece.

STYLISTIC DEVICES

Alliteration: repetition of the same letter(s) at the beginning of successive words for an impressive sound effect.

Anaphora ("carrying back"): repetition of the same word at the beginning of successive phrases or clauses for emphasis.

Apostrophe ("turning away"): a dramatic address to a (usually absent) person or thing.

Asyndeton ("not bound together"): omission of conjunctions; creates a staccato effect and allows rapid accumulation of ideas.

Chiasmus: inverted (ABBA) word order, e.g., noun-adjective-adjective-noun; named after the x-shaped Greek letter "chi."

Climax ("ladder"): arrangement of ideas (often three) in ascending order (i.e., in phrases or clauses of increasing length or significance) for greater impact.

Hendiadys ("one through two"): joining two nouns in the same case with a conjunction instead of (more logically) putting one of them in the genitive case or making one of them an adjective. Puts equal weight on the two nouns instead of subordinating one to the other.

Irony: stating the opposite of what is meant; frequently associated with sarcasm and ridicule.

Litotes ("plainness"): affirming a thing by denying its opposite.

Metaphor: an implied comparison (i.e., not using "like" or "as").

Oxymoron ("sharp-dull"): a seeming contradiction. Its use startles the audience and gives emphasis to the idea.

Paronomasia: a pun, a play on words that sharpens the meaning.

Personification: attributing personal qualities to an inanimate object for greater vividness.

Polysyndeton ("much bound together"): the use of more conjunctions than necessary; produces a smooth, dignified rhythm.

Preterition (praeteritio, "passing over"): a pretended omission. It actually calls attention to the "passed over" topics.

Prosopopoeia ("impersonation"): speaking in the character (literally, "wearing the mask") of another person, dramatizing what someone else would say or would have said.

Rhetorical Question: a type of question that does not expect a reply; the speaker is not in doubt about the answer. It is a forceful way of making a statement.

Simile: an expressed comparison (i.e., using "like" or "as").

Synecdoche ("understanding with"): naming just a part of something when the whole is meant, or vice versa, for variety. This is a subcategory of metonymy ("change of name"): using a word as a substitute or a symbol for another word that is related to it in meaning.

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