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Latin American Green City Index Assessing the environmental performance of Latin America’s major cities A research project conducted by the Economist Intelligence Unit, sponsored by Siemens

Transcript of Latin American Green City Index - Siemens Singaporesg.siemens.com › ... ›...

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Latin American Green City Index Assessing the environmental performance of Latin America’s major cities

A research project conducted by the Economist Intelligence Unit, sponsored by Siemens

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Latin American Green City Index | Contents

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Contents

018 Managing the city as a ‘living organism’An interview with Nicholas You, urban environmental expert

020 Exemplar projects020 Energy and CO2

São Paulo: Harvesting methane to power the city

021 Land use and buildingsBuenos Aires: Setting an example with public buildingsQuito: Any reason to plant a tree

022 TransportBus Rapid Transit: From Curitiba to BogotáBuenos Aires: Bringing it all together

004 Expert advisory panel

006 Introduction

008 Results

010 Overall key findings

014 Key findings from the categories

014 Energy and CO2

014 Land use and buildings015 Transport015 Waste016 Water016 Sanitation017 Air quality017 Environmental governance

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

São Paulo, Brazil

Belo Horizonte, Brazil

Brasília, Brazil

Curitiba, Brazil

Porto Alegre, Brazil

Montevideo, UruguayBuenos Aires, Argentina

Santiago, Chile

Lima, Peru

Bogotá, Colombia

Quito, Ecuador

Medellín, Colombia

Mexico City, Mexico

Monterrey, Mexico

Guadalajara, Mexico

Puebla, Mexico

City portraits032 Belo Horizonte036 Bogotá040 Brasília044 Buenos Aires048 Curitiba052 Guadalajara056 Lima060 Medellín064 Mexico City068 Monterrey072 Montevideo076 Porto Alegre080 Puebla084 Quito088 Rio de Janeiro092 Santiago096 São Paulo

024 WastePuebla: Turning waste into cashBelo Horizonte: A win-win solution for waste pickers

025 WaterPorto Alegre: Delivering water the right way

026 Air qualityThree approaches to vehicle emissions: Quito, Belo Horizonte and Porto AlegreMexico City: Policy pays off

028 Methodology

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Latin American Green City Index | Expert advisory panel

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Expert advisory panelA panel of global experts in urban environmental sustainability advised the Economist

Intelligence Unit (EIU) in developing the methodology for the Green City Index, including

the Latin American Green City Index and forthcoming Indexes in other regions.

The EIU would like to thank the panel for their time and valuable insight.

Brunella BoselliStatistician, Regional Develop-ment Policy Division, Organisa-tion for Economic Cooperationand Development (OECD)

Brunella Boselli has been with theregional development policydivision of the OECD since 2003.She is responsible for regionalstatistics, and is one of the authorsof the flagship publication “OECDRegions at a Glance”. She hasrecently developed the OECDMetropolitan Database, whichcontains socio-economic data for82 metropolitan areas, and iscurrently working on a new OECDterritorial definition for metropoli-tan regions.

Gordon McGranahanHead of Human SettlementsGroup, International Institutefor Environment and Develop-ment

Gordon McGranahan currentlydirects the Human SettlementsGroup at the International Institutefor Environment and Develop-ment. Trained as an economist, hespent the 1990s at the StockholmEnvironment Institute, in charge oftheir Urban EnvironmentProgramme. He works on a rangeof urban environmental issues,with an emphasis on addressingpoverty and environmentalproblems in and around the home,and how the critical scale of urbanenvironmental burdens changes ascities become wealthier. Keypublications include: “The Citizensat Risk: From Urban Sanitation toSustainable Cities” and “The risingtide: Assessing the risks of climatechange and human settlements inlow-elevation coastal zones”. Hewas the convening lead author ofthe urban systems chapter of theMillennium Ecosystem Assess-ment.

Mary Jane C. OrtegaSecretary GeneralCITYNET

Mary Jane C. Ortega is the formermayor of the city of San Fernando,Philippines, and served the cityfrom 1998 to 2007. She is now thesecretary general of CITYNET, anetwork of 119 member cities andNGOs that works to improve livingconditions in human settlementsin Asia-Pacific. She was the charterpresident of the Solid WasteManagement Association of thePhilippines, and was recentlyelected back to the position ofpresident. She was a member ofthe executive committee of theUnited Nations Advisory Councilon Local Authorities (UNACLA)from 2000 to 2007. She receivedthe UN-Habitat Scroll of HonourAward in 2000.

Hiroaki SuzukiLead Urban Specialist and Eco2

Team Leader, CorporateFinance Economics and UrbanDepartment, World Bank

Hiroaki Suzuki has more than 20years of operational experience inthe infrastructure sector and publicsector at the World Bank. Havingworked in the East Asia and PacificRegion, as East Asia urban sectorleader and China urban sectorcoordinator for the last five years,he joined the Bank’s CorporateFinance Economics and UrbanDepartment in 2009 as lead urbanspecialist and Eco2 team leader. Heis the main author of “Eco2 cities:Ecological Cities as Economic Cities”(www.worldbank.org/eco2).

Pablo VaggioneFounder, Design ConvergenceUrbanism

Pablo Vaggione is an urbanspecialist with over 15 years ofexperience. His cross-sector andmultidisciplinary approachprovides cities and actors in urbandevelopment with integrated,strategic and practical plans torespond to the challenges ofsustainable urbanisation. He hasworked in East and South-EastAsia, Western Europe, and Latinand North America, in thepreparation of city developmentstrategies, plans for theregeneration of historic urbanareas, and sustainable develop-ment blueprints for new districts.He provides advice on urban issuesto a number of multilateralorganisations, local governmentsand companies. His work forMadrid received in 2007 the WorldLeadership Award. Between 2007and 2010 he served as theSecretary General of theInternational Society of City andRegional Planners (ISOCARP), aprofessional organization ofplanners from 70 countries.

Sebastian VeitSenior Climate EconomistAfrican Development Bank

Sebastian Veit is senior climateeconomist at the AfricanDevelopment Bank in Tunis. Whileat the organisation he has focusedon green growth strategies inAfrica and renewable energyissues. In 2007 he was a consultantto the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change,and from 2004 to 2007 he was aconsultant with the World Bank inWashington DC. At the World Bankhe specialised in energy and water.

David WilkClimate Change Lead Specia-list, Sustainable Energy andClimate Change Unit, Inter-American Development Bank

David Wilk joined the Inter-American Development Bank inearly 2001 as an urban environ-mental senior specialist. Hisprofessional experience in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean duringthe 1990s included a range ofmanagement and consultingactivities with the World Bank,international organisations andconsulting firms. His work withthese organisations was in the areaof land use and environmentalplanning, watershed manage-ment, sustainable urban transportand environmental assessment ofdevelopment and infrastructureprojects.

Nicholas YouChairman, Steering Committeeof the World Urban Campaign, UN-Habitat

Nicholas You is chairman of,amongst others, the Cities andClimate Change Commission of theWorld Future Council, and theAssurance Group of the UrbanInfrastructure Initiative of theWorld Business Council for Sus-tainable Development. Afterrunning UN-Habitat’s BestPractices and Local LeadershipProgramme for over a decade, hewas appointed as the senior policy and strategic planningadviser of the agency. From 2007to 2009 he led the developmentand roll out of UN-Habitat’sstrategic and institutionalmanagement plan. As part of thatplan, he was asked in January2009 to spearhead UN-Habitat’sWorld Urban Campaign. Upon hisretirement from the UN in July2010, some 50 partners repre-senting public, private and civilsociety institutions worldwide elected him as chairman of the Campaign’s Steering Committee.

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Latin American Green City Index | Introduction

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Introduction

environmental considerations are a major partof this integrated puzzle. To take one example,urban sprawl has put immense pressure onexisting infrastructure, with implications forbuildings, public transport, road networks,water quality and access, waste collection, andsanitation. The path of least resistance for devel-opment, meanwhile, has often been alongexisting highways, which encourages residentsto use private cars, and contributes to deteriorat-ing air quality. Environmental governance hasalso been affected, as growing cities now strad-dle multiple municipal jurisdictions.

The Latin American Green City Index, an Econo-mist Intelligence Unit study, sponsored by Siemens,seeks to measure and assess the environmentalperformance of 17 major Latin American citiesacross a range of criteria. This report presentsthe key findings and highlights from the Index,and is intended to provide stakeholders with a

Latin America’s rural environmental chal-lenges, such as Amazonian deforestation,

often receive the most attention from themedia, environmentalists and other observersaround the world. Although these issues are cer-tainly vital, urban environmental concerns suchas traffic congestion, land use policies, wastedisposal and air quality are more immediate tothe majority of Latin America’s residents, simplybecause 81% of the population already lives incities. According to the United Nations Popula-tion Division, Latin America is the mosturbanised region in the developing world. It isalready more urbanised than some parts of thedeveloped world. And the percentage of thepopulation living in cities in Latin America isexpected to rise further. By 2030, the figure willreach 86%, on a par with Western Europe.

The rapid rise in city populations has had eco-nomic, political and social implications, and

The challenge of rapid urbanisation

unique tool to help Latin American cities learnfrom each other, in order to better address thecommon environmental challenges they face.

The report is divided into five parts. First, itexamines the overall key findings, including anin-depth look at Curitiba, the regional leader.Second, it examines the key findings from theeight individual categories in the Index — ener-gy and CO2, land use and buildings, transport,waste, water, sanitation, air quality and environ-mental governance. Third, the report presents avariety of leading best-practice ideas fromacross the region. Fourth, it gives a detaileddescription of the methodology used to createthe Index. Finally, an in-depth profile for eachcity outlines its particular strengths, weaknessesand ongoing environmental initiatives. Theseprofiles rightly constitute the bulk of the report,because the aim of the study is to share valuableexperience.

What the Index measures: Testing commmon perceptions

The 17 cities selected for the Latin American Green City Index include most major

Latin American urban areas. They are both the capital cities of these countries as

well as certain leading business capitals selected for their size and importance. The

cities were picked independently rather than relying on requests from city govern-

ments to be included, in order to enhance the Index’s credibility and comparability.

Another decisive factor in the selection was the availability of data.

The methodology, described in detail in a separate section in this report, has been

developed by the EIU in cooperation with Siemens. It relies on the expertise of both

organisations, a panel of outside experts, and the experience from producing last

year’s European Green City Index. One of the great strengths of the Latin American

Green City Index is the breadth of information it uses. There are 31 individual indica-

tors for each city, and these indicators are often based on multiple data points. Value

also comes from how the Index is presented. Each city is assessed in eight categories

and placed within a performance band to indicate its relative results. The process is

transparent, consistent, replicable, and reveals sources of best practice.

Some of the Index results, on first glance, may be surprising. São Paulo, for exam-

ple, a city with a reputation for chronic traffic congestion and extensive urban sprawl,

is ranked above average overall. Buenos Aires and Montevideo, however, two pleas-

ant and beautiful cities, perform below average overall. Neither the Index nor these

common perceptions are wrong — they rely on different information. Perceptions of

cities are often based on subjective observations about quality of life, including fac-

tors such as beautiful architecture, recreation or cultural institutions. Residents’ envi-

ronmental perceptions, unsurprisingly, tend to focus on issues that are highly prob-

lematic and visible, such as traffic congestion, uncollected waste, or polluted air or

rivers. The Index, on the other hand, measures environmental performance across

eight categories — energy and CO2, land use and buildings, transport, waste, water,

sanitation, air quality and environmental governance — and gives equal weighting to

each. The Index also evaluates policies, which are a reflection of cities’ commitment

to reducing their future environmental impact. Often it takes the public many years to

recognise the effects of new policies. An example is Mexico City. The city is almost cer-

tainly better known for its air quality weaknesses than its strengths in transport poli-

cies, let alone its advanced eco-building policies; and therefore some might expect it

to perform badly overall. The Index, however, because of what it is measuring, takes a

different perspective.

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Latin American Green City Index | Results

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Results

Category results

well below average above wellbelow average average above

average average

Santiago Guadalajara

Medellín

Montevideo

Porto Alegre

Puebla

Belo Horizonte

Brasília

Buenos Aires

Lima

Monterrey

Quito

Bogotá

Curitiba

Mexico City

Rio de Janeiro

São Paulo

Energy and CO2

well below average above wellbelow average average above

average average

Lima

Montevideo

Medellín

Quito

Brasília

Buenos Aires

Curitiba

Guadalajara

Monterrey

Porto Alegre

Puebla

Santiago

Belo Horizonte

Bogotá

Mexico City

Rio de Janeiro

São Paulo

Land Use and Buildings

well below average above wellbelow average average above

average average

Brasília Guadalajara

Monterrey

Porto Alegre

Puebla

Belo Horizonte

Buenos Aires

Lima

Medellín

Montevideo

Rio de Janeiro

Bogotá

Curitiba

Mexico City

Quito

São Paulo

Santiago

Transport

well below average above wellbelow average average above

average average

Brasília Belo Horizonte

Buenos Aires

Lima

Medellín

Montevideo

Guadalajara

Mexico City

Rio de Janeiro

Bogotá

Monterrey

Porto Alegre

Puebla

Quito

Santiago

São Paulo

Curitiba

Waste

well below average above wellbelow average average above

average average

Buenos Aires

Guadalajara

Lima

Montevideo

Rio de Janeiro

Medellín

Mexico City

Porto Alegre

Puebla

Quito

Belo Horizonte

Bogotá

Brasília

Curitiba

Monterrey

Santiago

São Paulo

Water

well below average above wellbelow average average above

average average

Bogotá

Buenos Aires

Guadalajara

Lima

Mexico City

Montevideo

Quito

Belo Horizonte

Porto Alegre

Puebla

Rio de Janeiro

Brasília

Curitiba

Monterrey

Santiago

São Paulo

Medellín

Sanitation

well below average above wellbelow average average above

average average

Bogotá

Buenos Aires

Lima

Mexico City

Monterrey

Montevideo

Guadalajara

Porto Alegre

Puebla

Rio de Janeiro

Santiago

São Paulo

Belo Horizonte

Brasília

Medellín

Quito

Curitiba

Air Quality

well below average above wellbelow average average above

average average

Guadalajara Belo Horizonte

Lima

Monterrey

Porto Alegre

Buenos Aires

Medellín

Puebla

Quito

Santiago

São Paulo

Bogotá

Brasília

Curitiba

Montevideo

Mexico City

Rio de Janeiro

Environmental Governance

well below average above wellbelow average average above

average average

Overall Results

Guadalajara

Lima

Buenos Aires

Montevideo

Medellín

Mexico City

Monterrey

Porto Alegre

Puebla

Quito

Santiago

Belo Horizonte

Bogotá

Brasília

Rio de Janeiro

São Paulo

Curitiba

Here are the complete results for the 17 cities in the Latin AmericanGreen City Index, including the overall results and placements within

the eight individual categories. The cities were placed in one of five perfor-mance bands, from well below average to well above average.

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Latin American Green City Index | Overall key findings

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Overall key findings

located along the banks of one of the city’s mainwater sources. The key reason for Curitiba’s out-standing performance is a long history of takinga holistic approach to the environment, which,as the Index demonstrates and experts confirm,is unusual in the rest of the region. As early asthe 1960s, faced with rapid population growth,city officials implemented proposals to reduceurban sprawl, create pedestrian areas, and pro-vide effective, low-cost rapid transit. The city’sBRT has since become a model for a number ofLatin American cities. By the 1980s, the urbanplan involved integrated initiatives thataddressed issues such as the creation of greenareas, waste recycling and management, andsanitation. This integrated planning allows goodperformance in one environmental area to cre-ate benefits in others: part of the reason forCuritiba’s well above average placing in air quali-ty is successful public transport, and its perfor-mance in each category is linked to the holisticapproach. The city’s strategy has received praisefrom experts, including Nicholas You, urbanenvironmental specialist (see interview later inthis report). Furthermore, concern about envi-

Curitiba: A class apart

Curitiba, a long-time sustainability pioneer inthe region, is the clear leader in the Index. Thebirthplace of “bus rapid transit” (BRT) and Brazil’sfirst major pedestrian-only street, Curitiba is theonly city in the Index to rank well above averageoverall. It achieves this unique distinction in twoindividual categories, air quality and waste, andplaces above average in five others. The city’senvironmental oversight is consistently strongtoo, and it also has, with only a few exceptions,among the best policies in each category. Since2009, for example, the city’s environmentalauthority has been conducting an ongoingstudy on the CO2 absorption rate in Curitiba’sgreen spaces, as well as evaluating total CO2

emissions in the city. It is working to relocatethose living in informal settlements to low-costhousing — where sanitation, waste collection,and water are easier to supply. The state watercompany operating in Curitiba has also extend-ed water services and sewerage connections toall of the 1,790 households in the informal set-tlement, “Vila Zumbi dos Palmares”, which is

ronmental issues became as much a part of citi-zens’ identities as it is in cities such as Copen-hagen and Stockholm, which led the EuropeanGreen City Index. Politicians in Curitiba cannotsimply react to immediate environmental crises;the public expects them to look ahead.

Brazilian cities: Leading the way on policy

Five of the six cities that finish above average orwell above average overall in the Index are fromBrazil — Belo Horizonte, Brasília, Curitiba, Rio deJaneiro, and São Paulo. Although the cities havea very high share of hydropower, which givesthem an advantage in their energy and CO2 per-formance, on the surface they do not have anyother particular shared strengths. The perfor-mances of the individual Brazilian cities varywidely within the categories. The best exampleof this is in the waste category, where Curitiba iswell above average and Brasília well below.

However, there is one overriding asset that iscommon among the Brazilian cities, includingPorto Alegre: strong environmental policies.

This point comes through clearly when thequantitative indicators are removed from theanalysis. Five of the six Brazilian cities performat least as well, and often significantly better,when only the policy indicators are assessed.São Paulo, for example, has one of the mostrobust climate change action plans in the Index.Belo Horizonte performs well for its eco-build-ings, water and air quality policies, while Rio de Janeiro stands out for its clean energy policies. The exception is Brasília, which dropsfrom above average to average overall whenonly policy indicators are taken into account,largely because it scores very well on certainquantitative indicators such as the amount ofwastewater treated, green spaces per personand average daily concentrations of air pollu-tion. But even Brasília performs well for regula-tions on urban sprawl and protecting greenspaces.

This common strength comes as no surpriseto experts. Brazilian concern with environmen-tal policy dates back several years. Article 23 ofthe 1988 constitution, for example, grantedmunicipalities the power, along with the nation-

al and state governments, “to protect the envi-ronment and fight pollution in any form”, and“promote … the improvement of housing andbasic sanitation conditions”. Three years later, in1991, Rio de Janeiro hosted the first Earth Sum-mit, and the country created its national Min-istry of the Environment. Since then environ-mental issues have received a growing policypriority in Brazilian cities. This does not meaninstant, visible solutions to long-standing chal-lenges: many environmental issues can takedecades to address. Nevertheless, it is an indica-tion of a stronger, current performance as wellas an indication of likely future improvements inthe situation on the ground.

Environmental performance and income: The missing link in Latin America

One surprising finding when examining theoverall results is that there is no clear relation-ship between overall environmental perfor-mance and city income in the Index, defined inthe Index as average GDP per capita (see chart

on page 12). For example, average income forCuritiba, which ranked well above average in theIndex overall, is within 15% of the income fig-ures for three other cities with widely differingperformances: Rio de Janeiro, at above average;Porto Alegre, at average; and Guadalajara at wellbelow average. This contrasts sharply with thestrong link between environmental perfor-mance and GDP per person found in similar EIUstudies in other regions, including the EuropeanGreen City Index and initial research taking placein Asia. These studies involve cities with a widerincome range than in the Latin American Index,but that does not explain the absence of a linkbetween GDP and environmental results: in theother studies, the correlation is clear even justfor those cities that fall into Latin America’ssmaller income range.

Latin Americans have not completely sus-pended the laws of economics, as ProfessorRoberto Sánchez-Rodríguez, professor at theUniversity of California, and an expert on urbanenvironmental issues, points out. “Richer citieshave more resources, and with growing incomethere is a trend in the population to become

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Latin American Green City Index | Overall key findings

environmental problems. The results of theIndex as a whole, however, indicate an unclearrelationship between wealth and environmentalperformance. This suggests that something elseis impeding wealthier cities from using moneyalone to improve their environmental results.

One problem at a time: In search of the holistic approach

Much of the answer to the muted effect ofincome in Latin America lies in how cities haveresponded to rapid population growth and theresulting urban sprawl. The Mexico City metro-politan area, for example, went from roughly 11million to 18 million people between 1975 and2000. Similarly, between 1970 and 1990, SãoPaulo’s metropolitan area population expandedby nearly 90% from 8.1 million to 15.4 million.Medium-sized cities are facing less growth inabsolute numbers, but still very substantial per-centage increases. Medellín has grown byroughly 16%, to 3.5 million, in the same period.Urban sprawl has of course followed. For exam-ple, UN Habitat reports that Guadalajara grew in

area by over 65% between 1990 and 2006 — anaverage annual rate of 3.2%, or about 1.5 timesfaster than its population was increasing duringthe same period. As a result, officials are leftplaying catch-up. Even in the wealthier cities,they tend to fix the most immediate problemsonly when there is a strong political demand fora solution, rather than to engage in comprehen-sive actions or forward planning. “Until there issome kind of crisis — it could be a political onebecause of protests or because an agency can’tprovide a service or runs out of money — envi-ronmental issues are not high on the list of prior-ities and not much gets done,” says ProfessorAlan Gilbert of University College London, anexpert on Latin American urbanisation and theenvironment. This ad hoc problem-solvingapproach means that certain areas in particularget ignored. In practice, he says, this approachmeans that when it comes to issues like sanita-tion, for example, a sewerage system is going tocome before wastewater treatment.

This ad hoc approach becomes clear inanother surprising finding in the Index — thewide variety of city performances across Index

categories. Twelve of the 17 cities had at leastone above average and one below average cate-gory ranking. The others varied between aver-age and well above or well below. Prof Gilbert hasalso observed this trend. “The difficulty is thatthey are all doing differently on different crite-ria,” he says.

Urban sprawl has also put limits on policyoptions. As detailed below and in the city pro-files, vehicle numbers are having negativeeffects not just on transportation but on air qual-ity and greenhouse gas emissions. The sheersize of certain Latin American cities has madesome officials very reluctant to tackle vehicleusage. In fact, the way cities are arranged hasfostered economic interests and cultural atti-tudes highly favourable to the automobile.When Bogotá’s mayor introduced a BRT systemsome years ago, he faced a taxi driver strike; andafter he introduced further regulations restrict-ing automobiles, he was nearly impeached.Another consequence of urban sprawl has beenthat many larger cities have now grown to coverseveral municipal jurisdictions, with the differ-ent local governments sometimes in the hands

of opposing political parties. Prof Sánchez-Rodríguez explains that bringing these stake-holders together, or even getting them to agreeon a common vision for the city, is difficult. As aresult, not only is it harder to go beyond solvingimmediate, very local problems, but it is alsomore difficult to access the economic resourcesof the whole city.

Looking to the future, the environmentalchallenges for Latin American urban areas willgrow. Experts predict that cities, especiallymedium-sized ones, will increase in populationand area. This new urban space is alreadyencroaching on environmentally marginal land.Infrastructure will come under increasing pres-sure from larger populations and the extremeweather effects of climate change, includingflooding, droughts and storms. In addition, thegrowth of cities outside of the formal planningframework will also continue. Addressing thesechallenges will require a broad, long-termvision, and it is the intention of this report to pro-vide examples of strategies and best practicesthat will help cities adopt a long-term broadvision for environmental sustainability.

Environmental performance and income: no clear trend

18,000

16,000

14,000

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

Average city income (US$ GDP per person) by performance band

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

overall

more aware of environmental issues and to con-sider them important,” he says. More incomecan have the opposite effect in some cases toothough. When richer citizens buy more cars, for

example, it can diminish the city’s environmen-tal performance. In poorer cities that lack basicinfrastructure, there is no doubt either thatmoney would go a long way to solving some

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Latin American Green City Index | Key findings from the categories

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Key findings from the ca tegories

addressing other areas such as energy, build-ings, or waste. � Only seven of 17 environmental depart-ments have energy issues within their environ-mental remit, and just ten have climate change.Sometimes overlapping jurisdiction is the rea-son. In Mexico, for example, the state govern-ments guide most environmental policy at themunicipal level.� Often those cities with the most renewableenergy tend to have the weakest climate changepolicies. Of the nine cities with over 80% renew-able energy, only three score better than aver-age in this Index category. São Paulo’s perfor-mance, on the other hand, comes fromcombining renewable energy with strong cleanenergy policies and a robust climate changeaction plan.

Land use and buildings

The Index suggests that Latin American cities try

Energy and CO2

The energy and CO2 category only takes intoaccount emissions from electricity consump-tion, due to a lack of reliable data on the overallenergy consumption per city. Because of this,Latin American cities in the Index tend to scorewell on CO2 emissions, since many rely heavilyon hydropower. This advantage, however,seems to reduce their focus on emissions reduc-tion policies.� Nine of 17 cities derive more than 80% oftheir electrical energy from renewable sources.São Paulo for example relies entirely onhydropower and has no greenhouse gas emis-sions from electricity production at all, con-tributing to its well above average performancein this category. � Conversely, four of the cities have no climatechange action plan at all. The plans of five otherscover greenhouse gas emissions from only a sin-gle specific activity, such as transport, without

harder to guard existing urban green spacesrather than create new ones. They do less well,however, on creating environmentally friendlybuildings. Widespread population growth maybe an influence in both cases. Urban sprawl,especially informal settlements, makes protec-tion of green spaces a political imperative, butthe need to house so many makes tough build-ing standards problematic. � Policies on green spaces are widespread. All17 cities have at least some kind of protection ofgreen spaces and environmentally sensitiveareas, and all but one make some attempt tostop urban sprawl. � The continuing growth of these cities, in-cluding the frequent encroachment of informalsettlements into environmentally sensitiveareas, however, suggests that such poli-cies, while necessary, may not always be effec-tive. � Only nine cites have full or partial eco-build-ing standards. Just five have full regulations in

place to motivate households and business tolower their energy use. � Only four fully promote citizen awareness onways to improve the energy-efficiency of build-ings. � Climate change action plans address energyand emissions issues in buildings in just five cities.

Transport

Many Latin American cities have successfully setup extensive public transport systems. However,they have not performed as well on the moresensitive challenge of getting people out of theircars. But those efforts are necessary to addressthe region’s deeply entrenched culture of indi-vidual transportation.� Cost considerations have shaped the region’spublic transport networks. Notably, Curitibagave birth to “bus rapid transit” (BRT) systems,and most cities now either have them or arebuilding them. In addition, cities with higher

population densities, where systems are easierto establish and more cost effective, tend tohave longer networks. Yet only eight cities in theIndex have fully comprehensive mass transitpolicies or well integrated pricing. � Policies to reduce the number of cars on theroad are rare. Just two cities have park and rideschemes. None currently has carpooling lanes.Only Santiago, rated well above average in thiscategory, has a congestion charge.� Comprehensive public transport networksare only part of the solution to reducing relianceon cars. Index figures indicate that the numberof vehicles per person in a city goes up withincome per capita, independent of the quality orsize of the public transport system.

Waste

The cities in the Index do well on the essentialsof waste disposal. According to official data,fourteen cities collect and dispose over 95% of

waste, and for eight cities the figure is 100%.The overall average for all 17 cities is 96%. Theapparent near universality of waste collectionsuggests that, in at least many cases, waste gen-erated by residents of informal settlements doesnot appear in these figures. Nevertheless, citiesdo well in collecting waste from recognised dis-tricts. � Waste generated per person, at an Indexaverage of 465 kg per year, is noticeably lowerthan the figure in last year’s European Green CityIndex, at 511 kg per year.� Once past the provision of basic waste collec-tion, a divide opens up. Most cities have onlypartial industrial or hazardous waste disposalstrategies or illegal waste-disposal monitoring.� The city portraits show wide variations whenit comes to recycling. Some cities, including thecategory leader, Curitiba, have extensive, effec-tive recycling systems. In some other cases,though, although programmes exist, these arebasic and minimal.

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Latin American Green City Index | Key findings from the categories

Water

The region’s cities generally take water qualityvery seriously. They pay somewhat less atten-tion to maintaining water infrastructure,because it may be possible to overlook someproblems as long as residents get clean water.� Ninety-eight percent of residents of cities inthe Index have access to potable water. This maynot include residents of informal settlements insome cases, but typically water companies havebeen active in extending service to such areas.� Adoption and monitoring of water qualitypolicies and standards are widespread. � The region also does well on efficiency. Citiesin the Index consume on average 264 litres perperson per day, which is low compared to theEuropean average of 288 litres per person perday. In some cities this low consumption isbecause of supply constraints. In others, years ofencouraging conservation are bearing fruit.Such efforts are common, and every cityengages in them to some degree. But beyond

exhortation and water meters, which are pre-sent in 13 of 17 cities, more concrete efficiencysteps are rare. � Leakage, on the other hand, is high, at anaverage of 35%. Surprisingly, city leakage ratesdo not correlate at all with GDP per capita andtherefore, presumably, infrastructure budgets. Itis possible that the high figures reflect unregu-lated water use by residents of informal settle-ments. Also, with a few notable exceptions,most Index cities do not face high levels of waterstress, so leakage may not be perceived as apressing issue.

Sanitation

The region sees a sharp division between theprovision of sanitation services and whatauthorities do with the wastewater once collect-ed. While lack of access to sanitation is a socialand political issue, as well as an environmentalone, wastewater being pumped into rivers and

the ocean has less political impact than neigh-bourhoods without services. � On average 94% of residents in cities in theIndex have access to sanitation, and for 13 citiesthe figure is over 90%. Although the high pro-portion may leave out some in informal settle-ments, it reflects concerted efforts to connectmost households, often including those inrecognised and unrecognised areas. � Wastewater treatment, on the other hand, isvery poor. On average only 52% of wastewater istreated, and eight of 17 cities treat less than halftheir water. Two treat none. � Only five cities have evaluated sanitation aspart of a baseline environmental review in thelast five years. This means it is the environmen-tal area in the Index that receives the least offi-cial examination. � Part of the problem is that wastewater treat-ment can be expensive. Medellín is the only cityranked well above average on sanitation, and ithas invested heavily over the last 15 years.

Air quality

Latin American cities recognise their all too obvi-ous air quality problems and have active policiesto address them. Nevertheless, the car cultureremains an ongoing difficulty.� The region does relatively well on sulphurdioxide levels — the main source of which is typically fossil fuel combustion for power sta-tions, notably coal. The average daily mean inthe Index cities, 11 micrograms per cubic metre,is about half the World Health Organisation’s(WHO) guideline maximum of 20 micrograms.Nitrogen dioxide, however, more generally asso-ciated with burning fuel in internal combustionengines, notably in cars, is a very serious issue.The average level in the Index, at 38 microgramsper cubic metre, comes worryingly close to theWHO maximum of 40 micrograms. This is a fig-ure that eight cities equal or exceed. Particulatematter — with multiple sources, including roaddust and industrial processes — tells a similarstory. The average daily concentrations, at 48

micrograms per cubic metre, are only just underthe WHO level of 50 micrograms. Seven citiesexceed this figure. Only five of the 17 cities meetall three WHO guidelines.� Index cities take the issue seriously throughpolicies. All monitor their air quality, and codesand air quality promotion in some form are alsouniversal.� Many Index cities face specific topographicor climatic challenges that make it more difficultto improve air quality. � As the city profiles show, however, the bigproblem for many cities is vehicle traffic. Thosewith strong policies on car and truck emissionstesting or the promotion of public transporttend to do better. Curitiba is ranked well aboveaverage, and its BRT system is often cited as areason for its better air quality.

Environmental governance

The cities in the Index have formal environmen-tal governance structures in place, but for cer-

tain ones these policies may be too constrainedby other departments or overlapping jurisdic-tions to be truly effective. � All cities have environmental departmentsand involve stakeholders at least to some extentin decision-making on projects with major envi-ronmental impacts. Most also provide access toinformation through a central point.� Only 11 of 17 of these environmental depart-ments, though, have the full capacity to imple-ment their own policies. Just nine monitor andpublish results on environmental performanceevery three years, and four have not completedbaseline environmental reviews. � Limits also exist on what certain depart-ments can do. Just seven monitor energy con-sumption in their cities and only 10 have climatechange in their remits. � The city portraits suggest that part of theproblem is the fractured state of governance inmany cities, with power divided among differ-ent levels of government, different municipali-ties, or both.

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Latin American Green City Index | Managing the city as a ‘living organism’

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Managing the city as a ‘living organism’

The Index results seem to show that most Latin American cities addressenvironmental issues on a case-by-casebasis, often in response to a crisis. Thenotable exception is Curitiba, which wasthe only one of 17 cities to place wellabove average overall in the Index. What is preventing other cities fromcomprehensively addressing environ-mental challenges?There are several obstacles, including short-term politics versus long-term planning,decentralisation and the lack of empowerment

America, and how exactly do informalsettlements affect the environmentalperformance of a city?Informal settlements are, by definition,unsustainable. They represent a high degree ofsocial and economic exclusion. One of LatinAmerica’s most advanced thinkers of his time,Milton Santos, said that poverty is the worstform of pollution. Informal settlements areliving proof that we are not planning our citieswell.

Often cities report high levels of access tobasic services, such as potable water,waste collection and sanitation, when thesituation on the ground may be verydifferent because of the presence ofinformal settlements. What are theimplications for trying to get an accuratepicture through data?If you are looking at indicators, such as waterconsumption per capita or waste generation percapita, and leave out informal settlements,you’re leaving out part of the picture. The watercompany has a remit, and the sewage companyhas a remit, and their remits do not typicallyinclude informal settlements. They rightly say“100% coverage”, while the city as a whole maydrop down to 70% access. Since the Green CityIndex is comparative within a region, that is,comparing Latin American cities with eachother, the distortion won’t be that serious. If wecompare across regions, we have to be a littlemore careful.

What are the objectives of UN-Habitat withrespect to improving statistics on informalsettlements?UN-Habitat has been trying to show that themethods being used do not provide an accuratepicture of what is happening when it comes toinformal settlements. It will take years tochange the way statistical offices work andcensus data is taken. The statistical issue is, howdo you gradually refine techniques so theseproblems are not overlooked. When data isdisaggregated, for example, at the household orneighbourhood level, which UN-Habitat hasbeen doing for some time, we begin to seeanother picture of reality. A common syndrome,for example, is that we often confound

proximity with access. People living in informalsettlements may literally be living next door towater supply, sewerage and garbage collectionservices, or for that matter to schools andhospitals, yet not have access to these services.

Can we identify any common approaches in the way cities are addressing the challenge of informalsettlements?I believe that we are beginning to see anemerging pattern which favours upgradinginformal settlements, as opposed to removaland demolition. Slums are communities withtheir own social, cultural and economicnetworks. A lot of the reason why people don’tmove from the informal settlement is because,in terms of location, they are ideal, with accessto jobs, or services they would otherwise haveto pay considerably more for. Most slumsstarted their life located on the margins of thecity. Over time, with rapid growth, the slumactually finds itself located in the middle of thecity. Removal or relocation is also asking peopleto move from a neighbourhood where theyhave lived a good part of their life, if not theirwhole life.

What kinds of upgrades are citiesundertaking?Upgrading takes place on several fronts—hooking the settlement into the infrastructuregrid, and providing waste collection, water, andsanitation. There is also an issue of tenure. Mostof the time an informal settlement remainsinformal because it is not clear who owns or hasthe right to the land. The service provider, thewater or sewerage company, for example, arevery reluctant to put in infrastructure if tenure isnot clear.

What incentives do cities have to upgrade rather than remove the settle-ments?The cities that are trying to play a proactive rolerealise that globalisation is affecting everyone,everywhere. They can become victims ofglobalisation, or get some of the benefits. Theproactive cities realise you can’t have highpercentages of your population sociallyexcluded and expect to be a global city.

We discussed Curitiba as a good exampleof top-down, long-term urban planning.How can planning in other cities beimproved?For many years I headed a best practiceinitiative at UN-Habitat, and we found literallyhundreds of examples of innovations, newmodels, new technologies. The single biggestquestion I had to ask myself all the time was,‘Why aren’t these best practices becoming thenorm?’ The only answer I came up with is thatthe lessons from best practices are not being fedinto policymaking at the highest level. Theyremain isolated initiatives that might inspire afew other cities, but they don’t necessarily havean impact on public policy, and therefore don’tget replicated at scale. We need to realise thereis a lot of innovation out there. How can wesystematically document these stories andrecord the lessons learned, and provide afeedback mechanism directly into policy? The World Urban Campaign is working on aninitiative to get cities to tell their stories under anew perspective of “living practices”. What areyou doing today to tackle tomorrow’schallenges? What innovations are being tested,what new tools are being developed?

In general, what are the most importantsteps that cities in Latin America and therest of the world have to take to becomemore environmentally sustainable?We have to take planning seriously. I don’t mean‘sectoral’ planning, where each sector—water,energy, waste, sanitation—plans independent-ly. We must look at the city or the metro regionas a whole. Competing jurisdictions are one ofthe biggest enemies to sustainable urbanisa-tion. You have metropolitan areas cutting acrossmany jurisdictions, with several planningcommissions and independent serviceproviders. You could be busy trying to greenyour city, but half of the population thatdepends on your city may live in the suburbsand fall under a different governmentalstructure; and these governments are busybuilding the next shopping mall, the next golfcourse, the next exburb. The city is a livingorganism that needs to be managed as a singleentity, and just like any living organism, it needsto develop holistically.

The path to greener cities, says Nicholas You, requires rethinking how we manage them. Holistic planning

too often suffers from a sector-by-sector approach across competing jurisdictions, and policymakers fail

to see the city as a single entity. Mr You is chairman of the Steering Committee of UN-Habitat’s World

Urban Campaign, a platform for private and public organisations to share sustainable urban policies and

tools. He also leads several other global sustainable development initiatives, and served on the expert

panel that advised the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) on the methodology for the Latin American

Green City Index. He spoke to the EIU about the results of the Index, the difficulty of measuring the

environmental impact of informal settlements and the necessity to administer cities as “living organisms”.

of local authorities, and overlapping jurisdic-tions. But there is one key issue: who isresponsible for doing what? This is a pervasiveproblem throughout much of the world.Everybody is responsible for a slice of theproblem — such as water, energy and transport— but nobody controls the bigger picture.Service providers work in splendid isolation,which is inimical to the holistic approachrequired to make our cities more sustainable.You mention Curitiba. Many would argue thatCuritiba is an example of a city that has beendoing for decades what all cities are supposed

to be doing: namely top-down, long-term urbanplanning.

Informal settlements clearly affect a city’senvironmental footprint. Yet by theirnature, informal settlements are not wellcovered by statistics. For that reason theEconomist Intelligence Unit could notinclude data about informal settlements inthe Latin American Green City Index in away that was methodologically sound.How might this affect the overall envi-ronmental picture of cities in Latin

An interview with Nicholas You, urban environmental expert

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Latin American Green City Index | Exemplar projects

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Exemplar Projects

The benefits do not stop at cutting emissions.The initiative qualifies as a “clean developmentmechanism” under the Kyoto Protocol, a pro-gramme which offers carbon credits for emis-sion reduction projects. The credits are equiva-lent to 1 tonne of CO2, which can be traded, soldor used to meet carbon emission reduction tar-gets in other countries. São Paulo splits the car-bon credits from the project with its partnercompany, and the city has been selling its shareto raise money for other projects. It participatedin the first-ever spot market auction on a regu-lated exchange in 2008, and made US$36 mil-lion in that year alone. The city is using much ofthe money to improve the neighbourhoodsaround the landfills. In 2009, for example, itopened two leisure areas, totalling 9,200 squaremetres, which included playgrounds, walkingpaths and community space.

São Paulo: Harvesting methane topower the city

Many cities are generating electricity from themethane that arises from landfills, but SãoPaulo’s efforts in this area stand out among LatinAmerican cities. The city recently closed two ofits largest landfills, Bandeirantes in 2007, andSão João in 2009.

Rather than let methane from the decayingmaterial add to greenhouse gas emissions, thecity contracted with a private company to cap-ture the gas at the former landfills and burn it togenerate electricity. The two sites have a jointcapacity of 46 megawatts, which makes it one ofthe largest methane harvesting initiatives in theworld. The two projects are expected to cut car-bon emissions by about 11 million tons through2012.

Energy and CO2

to monitor consumption in every governmentbuilding.

Officials started with city buildings becausethey are often large, and can achieve substantialsavings quickly. They also set an example for theprivate sector. The city’s environmental depart-ment is starting work on legislation that willimpose energy efficiency measures on privatesector buildings. Another of the programme’sgoals is to create energy-efficiency guides forhouseholds, businesses and industry.

Quito: Any reason to plant a tree

2001 report for Quito’s municipal governmentconcluded that the city had 9,000 hectares ofurban tree cover, but recommended doublingthis amount in order to reap a range of environ-mental benefits. Studies suggest that tree coverabsorbs air pollution, reduces energy consump-tion by providing shade, and can improve waterconservation by limiting rainwater run-off. As aresult, Quito created its “Forestation and Refor-estation Project”, and by 2008, the programmehad led to the planting of about 6 million trees,mostly native species. The unique strength of

Buenos Aires: Setting an examplewith public buildings

In 2008 Buenos Aires launched a programmethat aims to dramatically reduce energy con-sumption in 100 public buildings. The “EnergyEfficiency Programme in Public Buildings” tar-gets energy reductions of 20% from 2007 levelsby the end of 2012, and is expected to eliminate5,000 tonnes of carbon emissions. Officialsstarted small but intend to expand rapidly. Byearly this year, they had thoroughly audited fivebuildings — two offices, two hospitals and aschool — and developed individually tailoredenergy reduction plans for each. The first audit,for example, examined energy use in the officeused by Argentina’s Environmental ProtectionAgency, which is supporting the programme.The audit found the potential to reduce overallenergy consumption by 30%, including reduc-ing the energy consumed by computers by 55%.The audits will be used as best practice examplesto extend the programme to 31 more buildingsover the course of 2010. In late 2009 the citygovernment bolstered the programme by man-dating the appointment of an energy manager

Land use and buildingsIdeas from other cities

Rio de Janeiro is creating new cycle lanes and

green spaces, including developing a green corri-

dor lined by 11,000 trees, as part of a larger

US$202 million project to revitalise its port in the

historic city centre. The “Marvellous Port” project

will also refurbish decaying historical buildings,

and improve transport access and sanitation ser-

vices.

To increase its green spaces, Santiago plans to

have private developers transform 3,900

hectares of city area into public parks and green

spaces in exchange for accessing another 5,700

hectares for building development.

São Paulo passed a law in 2009 requiring that

all new municipal buildings meet energy-effi-

ciency standards and that existing buildings be

retrofitted with technology to mitigate their envi-

ronmental impact.

Ideas from other cities

Belo Horizonte is a leader in solar energy in

Brazil, with about 12 times the volume of solar

collectors per person compared to the country as

a whole, according to city officials. Its new foot-

ball stadium, being built for the upcoming World

Cup in 2014, will have panels that generate

enough energy for its own operations. On days

with no games, the power will be sold to the lo-

cal electricity company.

The biggest hydroelectric project in Colombia is

being built near Medellín. The city-owned utili-

ty, Empresas Públicas de Medellín, is leading the

construction of the 2.4 gigawatt HidroItuango

project. It will have eight generators, and is

scheduled to start operations in 2018. The build-

ing consortium has already begun a series of

consultations with community leaders on envi-

ronmental and social issues related to the pro-

ject, which the contract requires.

Curitiba is studying the carbon absorption rates

of its green spaces, as part of a draft plan to limit

the city’s overall emissions.

the project is the diverse methods it employs.Programme officials have not imposed a single,all-encompassing plan. Rather, they have coop-erated with numerous departments and institu-tions throughout Quito, in addition to their owndirect efforts. One specific city-run initiativeincluded lining Quito’s grand avenues withtrees. The latest high visibility city initiative is toemploy city workers and volunteers to replant300,000 trees lost in forest fires during summer2009. In 2006, the city ran a tree-planting com-petition with neighbourhood groups in 145 dis-tricts. The “My Neighbourhood is Dressed inTrees” competition led to the planting and main-tenance of 140,000 trees.

Although about one quarter of the trees diedfrom reasons ranging from a lack of mainte-nance to cars crashing into them, the pro-gramme has seen steady progress. By 2008 theequivalent of 5,000 hectares had been reforest-ed, although some of these were planted in sur-rounding rural areas. The programme demon-strates that encouraging a wide range ofinstitutions and individuals to simply get trees inthe ground and let nature take its course canhave environmental and aesthetic benefits.

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and exit times. The city has also integrated itsurban planning with the system so that develop-ment occurs along the BRT corridors, whichmeans the network is easily accessible for a largepercentage of residents.

Curitiba grew along with its BRT network, butBogotá’s BRT — “Transmilenio” — has shownhow well the system can be adapted to an exist-ing city. The city opened Transmilenio in 2000and at 84 km today, it is still growing. Nine linesuse dedicated lanes in the middle of some of thecity’s largest avenues. In 2009, the Transmileniocarried an average of 1.6 million riders per day,and it has cut journey times by a third. As part ofthe programme, the city replaced the previousnetwork of smaller, more polluting buses, which

Bus Rapid Transit: From Curitiba to Bogotá

Curitiba’s bus network is among the most influ-ential in the world. Dating back to the mid-1960s, the network centerpiece is the six-line“bus rapid transit” (BRT) service, comprising longand articulated buses that run on 72 km of dedi-cated roads extending in spoke patterns from thecity centre. The BRT is the backbone of Curitiba’stransit system, which includes several thousandkilometers of routes and carries 1.8 million ridersper day. The BRT operates very much like a metrosystem.

Passengers pay to enter one of the more than350 stations specially designed to reduce entry

Transport

allowed it to sell carbon credits under the KyotoProtocol. This has earned the city an estimatedUS$100 to US$300 million, according to the“New York Times”. The system is by no meansperfect — it suffers from frequent over-crowd-ing — but it is at least affordable for residents ina relatively low-income city. Similar networkshave been implemented in seven other cities inthe Index, and are planned in several furthercities throughout Latin America.

Buenos Aires: Bringing it all together

Buenos Aires’s “Plan for Sustainable Mobility” isaddressing city transport through an integrated

Ideas from other cities

Santiago is expanding its metro system. It is

well on the way to finishing a 14 km extension to

one line, and is planning a sixth line that will cov-

er 15 km and 12 new stations. The new line is

designed to improve the metro’s integration with

rail and bus networks.

On the weekends, Quito limits entry to the city

centre to pedestrians and bicycles.

With Metrocable, Medellín has used cable cars

to integrate various impoverished sections of the

city and informal settlements with the main pub-

lic transportation networks.

Mexico City has a compulsory transportation

system for children going to school, reducing the

number of trips by parents in private cars.

effort involving initiatives in ten areas. Several ofthese involve significant infrastructure improve-ments.

Introducing BRT lines on key routes has cuttravel times by 10% to 25%, although in somecases by up to two thirds. Meanwhile, adoptingarticulated buses and hybrid vehicles on someroutes will cut carbon consumption.

The city is also hoping to get at least 5% ofthe city’s commuters, roughly 300,000 people,to use bicycles, about six times the current level.Safety concerns are the main challenge to thiseffort, however. In a survey, roughly 60% of resi-dents said that they would use bicycle paths, buthalf said that safety was their top priority whenriding.

As a result, the city is trying to make cyclingsafe. By the end of 2010, 100 km of new bicyclepaths should be open in the city centre. BuenosAires is also creating more bicycle parkingplaces, and plans to launch a public bicyclerental system this year. The municipality is alsooffering its 120,000 employees subsidised loansto buy bicycles, in the hope that this will set anexample for private companies.

The programme has also increased the num-ber of pedestrian areas, and has widened foot-paths to make walking easier. For those whoremain in their vehicles, the city has installedmore modern traffic lights that react to chang-ing traffic conditions, and can even change thedirection of lanes if necessary.

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ASMARE, into the waste collection system. Thecity gave the association access to dedicatedrecycling points, a sorting centre, and trucks totransport material to recycling plants. The asso-ciation divides the profits from bringing materi-als to the recycling plants between members.Since then the scheme has grown, and wastepickers now run collection services for compa-nies and households. The association helpsprocess about 450 tonnes of rubbish eachmonth, bringing the city substantial savings,even after it pays a subsidy and managementfees to the association.

The scheme not only has a major environ-mental impact but also provides substantial eco-nomic and social benefits for the waste pickers.The association now has 380 members and itsactivities employ some 1,500 people, almost allof whom were previously homeless. Non-gov-ernmental organizations have been brought into give literacy training for members, and voca-tional training for their children. The associationprovides help with life and health insurance,makes agreements with local pharmacies forlow-cost medicine, and organises day careplaces for children under 6 years old.

munity groups in informal settlements. The citygives residents a chance to legally connect theirhouses to the water system, and pay a “socialrate” of US$5 per month for up to 10,000 litresof water, which saves up to 40% over the stan-dard charge. In addition, the water bill is oftenresidents’ only formal proof of residence, whichhelps integrate residents into the city’s econo-my. The programme also educates residentsabout the importance of clean water andresponsible water use. In the first three years ofoperation, the programme helped 15,000 fami-lies, and the rate of unpaid water bills in informalsettlements dropped from 64% to 27%, leadingto an overall citywide reduction from 14% to 9%.

Porto Alegre: Delivering water the right way

Porto Alegre’s “Right Water” programme helpspeople in informal settlements access waterlegally, reduces system leaks and encouragesconservation. Without a right to residency manyof those in informal settlements cannot legallyconnect their homes to the water system. Theresulting illegal connections, in addition to los-ing revenue for the city, tend to be leak prone,and can lead to contamination in the legal watersupply.

The city’s water company, DMAE, started theprogramme in 2005 in cooperation with com-

WaterIdeas from other cities

Buenos Aires intends to have water meters in-

stalled for all customers as part of a plan to reduce

consumption by 40% by 2012.

Sabesp, the statewide water company in São

Paulo, has a comprehensive programme to moni-

tor leaks and illegal connections. They have in-

creased the number of inspectors, which led to the

detection of 12,000 illegal connections between

January and July 2010, representing 70% of the to-

tal number of illegal connections detected the pre-

vious year. The volume of water lost through these

connections was almost 2.5 billion litres. The com-

pany also has technology that helps it monitor all of

the water in the system, spotting major leaks quick-

ly and forecasting water consumption levels based

on outdoor temperatures. In addition, Sabesp runs

public awareness campaigns to help residents iden-

tify water leakages and water waste in their homes.

Monterrey has reduced leakages in its water sys-

tem from an estimated 32% in 1998 to 21% by

2008, through a comprehensive programme includ-

ing checking and replacing valves, upgrading pipes,

installing pressure gauges and household meters,

leak detection and eliminating illegal connections.

Ideas from other cities

To ensure proper waste disposal in informal set-

tlements, Curitiba has a “Purchase of Garbage”

programme. Residents receive food baskets in ex-

change for bringing 8-10 kg of waste to central

collection points, and their neighbourhood asso-

ciation receives money for community services.

The initiative collects about 6,800 tonnes of

waste each year.

São Paulo’s “Ecopoint” initiative tries to stop resi-

dents from illegally dumping large waste items

on city streets. The city has established free, cen-

tral collection points for waste too large to fit in

residential bins, such as old furniture, tree limbs,

and construction waste. In the first six months of

2010, the city says it collected 57,400 cubic me-

tres of waste that would otherwise have been

left on the streets.

Santiago is working with four charities to en-

courage community participation in recycling.

Residents deposit materials at one of 39 central

collection points. The charities earn money for

collecting and transferring the materials to recy-

cling plants.

Puebla: Turning waste into cash

“Green Wallet” is a private initiative to promoterecycling in Puebla. Members join the schemeand receive a debit card. They get one “peco”, anelectronic credit, for every kilogram of wastethey bring to depots located throughout the city,at schools, universities, and convenience stores.Members also get more credits for electronicwaste, depending on the item. Merchants whosponsor the scheme accept the credits in theirshops. The goods and services available rangefrom children’s clothing and books, constructionsupplies, movie tickets, and mobile phone airtime. Several merchants also give discounts sim-ply for having a membership card.

The project was introduced in early 2010 andby August 2010 it had collected 22 tonnes ofsolid and electronic waste. This may seem smallcompared to the estimated 819,000 tonnes thatthe municipality produces annually, but is animpressive beginning for a private initiative. Theorganisation also looks set to grow, with plans tobegin collecting organic waste in the future andto begin similar projects in the surroundingregion soon. Eventually it hopes to open fran-chises throughout Mexico.

Belo Horizonte: A win-win solutionfor waste pickers

Waste pickers, people who rummage throughwaste looking for recyclable items, are commonin many Latin American cities, and often facelifelong social marginalisation and poor health.After years of public hostility to waste pickers,Belo Horizonte took a different approach,improving their quality of life and waste collec-tion in the city at the same time.

In 1993, the city entered a formal agreementto integrate the local waste pickers association,

Waste

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Belo Horizonte and Porto Alegre havelaunched roadside inspections of diesel vehi-cles, which often produce the most pollution.Belo Horizonte’s programme, called “OxygenOperations”, includes random checks on someof the roughly 120,000 diesel vehicles in thecity. Officials fine vehicle owners who fail thetests, and they have the power to remove thevehicle from the road. Porto Alegre, on the otherhand, publicly announces where it will locatecheckpoints. Even with this transparency, 42%of vehicles checked in the first part of 2007 werein violation of pollution standards, and werecharged an average fine of about US$70.

Mexico City: Policy pays off

It may seem strange to highlight air qualityefforts in Mexico City, a city that performs belowaverage in the Index for this category, but the

Three approaches to emissions:Quito, Belo Horizonte and Porto Alegre

Vehicle exhaust is a significant air quality chal-lenge for many Latin American cities, and theyare addressing the problem in different ways,ranging from requiring annual tests to conduct-ing random spot checks on the roadside. In2003, Quito was one of the first cities in theregion to implement a strict vehicle monitoringpolicy. Private vehicles must pass an annualemissions test, and buses and taxis are subjectto testing every two years. If vehicles fail thetests, owners must pay for the necessary repairsor risk losing their registration permit. Drivingwithout a permit can lead to heavy fines. Themunicipality estimates that levels of carbonmonoxide in the city have dropped 25% to 30%since the programme was implemented.

Air quality

Index performance only tells part of the story.There is much to learn from Mexico City’sremarkable, ongoing efforts.

In 1992 the United Nations said Mexico Cityhad the most polluted air on the planet. Every-thing about the city, then and now, seems toimpede improvement. It has a booming popula-tion and a rising number of cars. The city’s highaltitude makes combustion less efficient, andthe surrounding mountains create frequentatmospheric inversions, which trap smog overthe city. The city’s response since 1992 has beenfocused and comprehensive, with a series ofclean air strategies that borrow from global bestpractice and build on the city’s previous efforts.The policies have all involved various initiativesacross a range of fields, recognising that air pol-lution is a social challenge in addition to a tech-nological one.

The original policy, which lasted from 1990 to

1995, combined 42 individual initiatives, and thelatest, PROAIRE III, which lasted from 2002 to thisyear, has 89. These include the reduction of in-dustrial and automobile emissions, urban sprawlcontainment, policy integration, education pro-grammes and communicating risks to the public.

While Mexico City still performs relativelypoorly compared with other cities in the regionfor levels of the three air pollutants measured inthe Index — nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxideand particulate matter — there have beenimpressive reductions of these and other pollu-tants in the air since the 1990s and early 2000s.By 2002, airborne lead was no longer an issue,and the average level of sulphur dioxide wasone-sixth that of the early 1990s.

PROAIRE III has focussed in particular onozone and particulate matter. Average levels ofozone, for example, have dropped by about 20%and average daily maximum levels by 28%

Ideas from other cities

Curitiba requires emissions audits at factories

every four years. Facilities that do not meet stan-

dards face fines, and the state can close down

any that fail twice.

Santiago has a longstanding policy of using

trees along streets and in parks specifically to re-

duce levels of particulate matter in the air. A

2008 study in the Journal of Environmental Man-

agement found that this strategy costs around

US$8,000 for every 1 tonne reduction in sus-

pended air particles. This was cheaper than sev-

eral types of conversion to cleaner fossil fuels.

In 2008, an air quality monitoring station was set

up to measure pollution in the vicinity of

Montevideo’s La Teja refinery. It is part of a pro-

ject called ARPEL/CIDA, which is supported by the

regional organisation of gas and petroleum in-

dustries and the Canadian Development Agency.

The goal is to evaluate refinery emissions to im-

prove the refinery’s efficiency and surrounding

air quality.

through the 2002-10 period. For the smallestparticulate matter, PM2.5, the correspondingdeclines are 13% and 23% since records began in2004. Carbon monoxide is down noticeably and,even for pollutants where the average hasstayed stable, maximum figures have tended toshow an improvement.

Although the city has seen definite progress,it recognises there is still a long way to go. Tothat end, the city has launched PROAIRE IV for2011-2020. As part of the preparation, the cityhas a web page inviting experts and the public tosuggest strategies for improving air quality.There is no quick fix, but Mexico City’s decades-long efforts are showing that comprehensiveapproaches, and openness to the best ideas, canmake a huge difference.

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Latin American Green City Index | Methodology

28 29

Methodology

that the data was insufficiently reliable or com-parable to justify a detailed ranking of Indexresults, the Latin American Green City Indexresults are presented in groups of cities’ scores inrelation to the average score.

The Index scores cities across eight categories —energy and CO2, land use and buildings, trans-port, waste, water, sanitation, air quality, andenvironmental governance — and 31 individualindicators. Sixteen are quantitative and measurehow a city currently performs — for example, acity’s electricity consumption or waste produc-tion. The remaining 15 qualitative indicatorsassess aspirations or ambitions — for example, acity’s commitment to reducing the environmen-tal impact of energy consumption, or greenstandards for public building projects.

Data collection: An EIU team collected databetween April and June 2010. Wherever possi-ble, the data were taken from publicly availableofficial sources, such as national/regional statis-tical offices, local city authorities, local utilities

The Latin American Green City Index mea-sures the current environmental perfor-

mance of 17 major Latin American cities, as wellas their commitment to reducing their futureenvironmental impact. The selection sought toinclude the major Latin American metropolitanareas, but cities had to be omitted where city-specific data were significantly lacking. This wasthe case for Guatemala City (Guatemala), Sal-vador (Brazil), and Santo Domingo (DominicanRepublic).

The methodology, developed by the EIU in coop-eration with Siemens, builds on the work of theEuropean Green City Index and aims to follow itsstructure. However, to be applicable to LatinAmerica, the structure has been adapted toaccommodate variations in data quality andavailability, and environmental challenges spe-cific to the region. An independent panel ofinternational experts in the field of urban sus-tainability also provided important insights andfeedback in the construction of the Latin Ameri-can Green City Index. Moreover, due to concerns

companies, municipal and regional environ-mental bureaux, and environmental ministries.The data are generally for the year 2008-2009,but when these were not available they weretaken from earlier years.

Data quality: Compared with Europe, the avail-ability and comparability of data across citieswas far more limited in Latin America. In somecases the EIU used data from different adminis-trative levels; from the city, for example, insteadof the wider metropolitan area. As all indicatorsare scaled either by the corresponding area,population, or GDP, use of city or metro datadoes not decrease comparability significantly. Infact, what constitutes a city or metropolitan areacan differ largely from city to city. Quito, forexample, has an administrative area thatincludes large areas of non-urbanised land,whereas Buenos Aires is completely urbanisedand at the centre of a larger metropolitan area.Where data gaps existed, the EIU applied robusttheoretical techniques to calculate estimates.These techniques, however, did not take into

account the effects that informal settlementsmight have on indicators, such as “access topotable water” or “access to sanitation”. Informalsettlements can vary both in size and definition,but data generally is lacking on their infrastruc-ture, access to municipal utilities, and popula-tion. Therefore, the EIU has assumed that theLatin American Green City Index represents onlythe formal areas of each city. The EIU used inter-national CO2 coefficients provided by the UNIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change toestimate the CO2 emissions produced by eachcity’s electricity mix. Only in very exceptionalcases, notably Lima and Montevideo, did the EIUestimate CO2 and electricity consumption basedon regression analysis, referencing data of peercities when specific city information was notavailable.

The EIU made every effort to obtain the mostrecent data, including checking quantitativedata points with the cities’ environmentaldepartments. Data providers were also contact-ed where uncertainties arose regarding individ-

ual data points. Nevertheless, it remains possi-ble that the EIU may have missed an alternativereliable public source or more recent figures.

Indicators: In order to compare data pointsacross cities, and to calculate aggregate scoresfor each city, the data gathered from varioussources had to be made comparable. For thispurpose, the quantitative indicators were “nor-malised” on a scale of zero to ten, with the bestcity scoring ten points and the worst zero. Mostindicators use a min-max calculation, where thebest city receives ten points and the worst cityzero. In some cases, reasonable benchmarkswere inserted to prevent outliers from skewingthe distribution of scores. In such cases, citieswere scored against either an upper or a lowerbenchmark, or both. For example, a lowerbenchmark of 800 kg per person was used inscoring “waste generated per person” and allcities with more than 800 kg of waste per personreceived a score of zero.

Cities use varying definitions for certain indi-cators, notably definitions of green space,

access to potable water, municipal waste gener-ated, length of transport networks, and admin-istrative areas. In such cases, the EIU sought asmuch as possible to standardise the definitionused. However, it is possible that some differ-ences still exist.

Qualitative indicators were scored by EIU ana-lysts with expertise in the relevant city, based onobjective criteria that consider cities’ targets,strategies, and concrete actions. The qualitativeindicators were also scored on a scale of zero toten, with ten points assigned to cities that meetthe criteria on the checklist. For the “greenhousegas (GHG) monitoring” indicator, for example,cities were assessed according to whether theyregularly monitor GHG emissions and publishtheir findings every one to three years.

Qualitative indicators which seek to measurethe existence of policies in certain areas — forexample, the containment of urban sprawl —have also been multiplied by the city’s “PolicyImplementation Effectiveness Rating”, a mea-

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3130

Latin American Green City Index | Methodology

sure of efficiency at implementing environmentalpolicies. These ratings were produced by EIU ana-lysts with thorough knowledge of the relevantcity on a scale of one to five, with five beinghighly effective.

Index construction: The Index is composed ofaggregate scores of all of the underlying indica-tors. These are first aggregated by category, cre-ating a score for each. These are in turn aggre-gated into an overall score. To create thecategory scores, within each category all theunderlying indicators received the same weightduring aggregation. The scores were thenrebased onto a scale of zero to 100. To build theoverall Index scores, the EIU assigned evenweightings to each category score so that nocategory was given greater importance than anyother. The Index is essentially the sum of all cate-gory scores, rebased to 100. The equal weight-ing of each category reflects feedback from theexpert panel.

Finally, the cities were placed in one of fivebands, both within categories and overall,reflecting the relevant scores. These bands are

built around the average (mean) score and thestandard deviation — a statistical term whichdescribes to what extent about two-thirds of thevalues differ from the mean. The bands are defined as follows:� Well above average: Scores more than 1.5times the standard deviation above the mean� Above average: Scores between 0.5 and 1.5times the standard deviation above the mean� Average: Scores between 0.5 times the stan-dard deviation below and 0.5 times the standarddeviation above the mean� Below average: Scores between 0.5 and 1.5times the standard deviation below the mean� Well below average: Scores more than 1.5times the standard deviation below the mean

Clusters: In order to conduct a deeper analysisof city trends, the 17 cities in the Index wereclustered into a series of groups, calculated onpopulation, area, income, density and tempera-ture. These included:� Population: “small population”, with a popu-lation below 5 million; “mid population”, with apopulation between 5 and 10 million; and “highpopulation” with a population exceeding 10 mil-lion inhabitants.

� Area: “small area”, with an administrativearea smaller than 2,000 square kilometres; “mid area”, with an administrative area between2,000 square kilometres and 7,000 square kilo-metres; and “large area”, with an administrativearea larger than 7,000 square kilometres.� Income: “low income”, with GDP per capita ofless than US$8,000; “middle income”, with GDPper capita of US$8,000 to US$16,000; and “highincome”, with GDP per capita of more thanUS$16,000.� Density: “low density”, with a population ofless than 1,000 people per square kilometre;“mid density”, with a population between 1,000people per square kilometre and 5,000 peopleper square kilometre; and “high density”, with apopulation of more than 5,000 people persquare kilometre.� Temperature: “low temperature”, with anaverage temperature of below 17 degrees Cel-sius; “mid temperature”, with an average tem-perature of between 17 degrees Celsius and 20degrees Celsius; and “high temperature”, withan average temperature above 20 degrees Cel-sius.

Category

Energy

and CO2

Land use

and

buildings

Trans-

port

Waste

Water

Sani-

tation

Air

quality

Environ-

mental

gover-

nance

Indicator

CO2 emissions from electricity

consumption per capita

Electricity consumption per unit

of GDP

Clean energy policy

Climate change action plan

Green spaces per capita

Population density

Eco buildings policy

Land use policy

Length of mass transport

network

Stock of cars and

motorcycles

Urban mass transport

policy

Congestion reduction policy

Share of waste collected

and adequately disposed

Waste generated per

capita

Waste collection and

disposal policy

Waste recycling and re-use policy

Water consumption per capita

Water system leakages

Population with access

to potable water

Water quality policy

Water sustainability policy

Population with access to

improved sanitation

Share of wastewater treated

Sanitation policy

Nitrogen dioxide concentration

levels

Sulphur dioxide concentration levels

Suspended particulate matter

concentration levels

Clean air policy

Environmental management

Environmental monitoring

Public participation

Normalisation technique*

Min-max; upper benchmark of 10 kg per

capita inserted to prevent outliers.

Min-max; lower benchmark of 1,250 mega-

joules per unit of GDP inserted to prevent

outliers.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Zero-max; upper benchmark of 100 m2

per person inserted to prevent outliers.

Zero-max; upper benchmark of 7,000 per-

sons per km2 inserted to prevent outliers.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

1. Zero-max; upper benchmark of

7 km/km2 inserted to prevent outliers.

2. Min-max.

Min-max.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Min-max.

Min-max; lower benchmark of 800 kg per

person inserted to prevent outliers.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Min-max; lower benchmark of 500 litres per

person per day inserted to prevent outliers.

Zero-max; lower benchmark of 50%

inserted to prevent outliers.

Min-max; lower benchmark of 80%

inserted to prevent outliers.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Min-max; lower benchmark of 50%

inserted to prevent outliers.

Zero-max.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Min-max; upper benchmark of 20 ug/m3

to prevent outliers.

Min-max.

Min-max; upper benchmark of 20 ug/m3

to prevent outliers.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Scored by EIU analysts on a scale of 0 to 10.

Description

Total annual CO2 emissions in kilograms per capita from

electricity consumption.

Total annual electricity consumption, in megajoules per unit of GDP

(in thousands of US$).

Measure of a city’s efforts to reduce carbon emissions associated

with energy consumption.

Measure of a city’s strategy to combat its contribution to climate change.

Sum of all public parks, recreation areas, greenways, waterways and

other protected areas accessible to the public, in m2 per inhabitant.

Population density, in persons per km2.

Measure of a city’s efforts to minimise the environmental impact

of buildings.

Measure of a city’s efforts to minimise the environmental and

ecological impact of urban development.

Composed of two sub-indicators: 1. Total length of all train, tram,

subway, bus and other mass transport routes within the city’s boundaries,

measured in terms of the area of the city (in km/km2); and 2. Total length

of all superior modes of public transport, i.e. BRT, trolleybus, tram, light rail

and subway, measured in terms of the area of the city (in km/km2).

Total stock of cars and motorcycles, with half-weighting allocated

to motorcycles, measured in terms of vehicles per person.

Measure of a city’s efforts to create a viable mass transport system

as an alternative to private vehicles.

Measure of a city’s efforts to reduce congestion.

Share of waste collected by the city and adequately disposed either in

sanitary landfills, incineration sites or in regulated recycling facilities.

Expressed in terms of the total volume of waste generated by the city.

Total annual volume of waste generated by the city, including waste

not officially collected and disposed, in kg per capita.

Measure of a city’s efforts to improve or sustain its waste collection

and disposal system to minimise the environmental impact of waste.

Measure of a city’s efforts to reduce, recycle and re-use waste.

Total water consumed by the city, on a daily basis, expressed in

litres per person.

Share of water lost in transmission between supplier and end user,

excluding illegally sourced water or on-site leakages, expressed

in terms of total water supplied.

Share of the total population with access to on-site piped water sources

or protected communal sources within close proximity of living quarters.

Measure of a city’s policy towards improving the quality of water used by the city.

Measure of a city’s efforts to manage water sources efficiently.

Share of the total population either with direct connections to sewerage,

or access to improved on-site sources such as septic tanks and improved

latrines that are not accessible to the public. This figure excludes open

public latrines or sewers and other shared facilities.

Share of wastewater produced by the city that is collected and treated

to at least a basic/primary level.

Measure of a city’s efforts to reduce pollution associated

with inadequate sanitation.

Annual daily mean of NO2 concentrations.

Annual daily mean of SO2 concentrations.

Annual daily mean of PM10 concentrations.

Measure of a city’s efforts to reduce air pollution.

Measure of the extensiveness of environmental management

undertaken by the city.

Measure of the city’s efforts to monitor its environmental performance.

Measure of the city's efforts to involve the public in environmental

decision making.

Type

Quantitative

Quantitative

Qualitative

Qualitative

Quantitative

Quantitative

Qualitative

Qualitative

Quantitative

Quantitative

Qualitative

Qualitative

Quantitative

Quantitative

Qualitative

Qualitative

Quantitative

Quantitative

Quantitative

Qualitative

Qualitative

Quantitative

Quantitative

Qualitative

Quantitative

Quantitative

Quantitative

Qualitative

Qualitative

Qualitative

Qualitative

Weight

25%

25%

25%

25%

25%

25%

25%

25%

25%

25%

25%

25%

25%

25%

25%

25%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

33%

33%

33%

25%

25%

25%

25%

33%

33%

33%

List of categories, indicators and their weightings

*Cities score full points if they reach or exceed upper benchmarks, and zero points if they reach or exceed lower benchmarks.

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improve its result in the categories of waste andenvironmental governance, where it comes inbelow average. Belo Horizonte is the only city inthe lower income range in the Index (with a GDPper person of less than US$8,000) to earn anabove average overall result.

Energy and CO2: Belo Horizonte ranksaverage for energy and CO2. With 94% of itselectricity generated from hydropower, the cityemits an estimated 31 kg of CO2 per person fromelectricity, one of the lowest rates in the Indexand the lowest overall when compared to citieswith similar incomes. In an effort to reduce ener-gy consumption and drive climate change poli-cy, the city created a Committee on ClimateChange and Eco-efficiency (see “green initia-tives” under “Environmental governance” be-low).

While the committee is playing an active rolein driving policy, and the city has conducted arecent baseline review of greenhouse gases, itlacks clear CO2-emissions reduction targets andhas not joined any international covenants with

binding greenhouse gas emissions reductiongoals. The city’s score in this category is furtherhindered by a comparatively high rate of elec-tricity consumption compared to its economicoutput. Belo Horizonte consumes 850 mega-joules of electricity per US$1,000 of GDP —above the index average of 761 megajoules.

Green initiatives: Belo Horizonte’s new foot-ball stadium, being built for the upcoming WorldCup in 2014, will have panels that generateenough energy for its own operations. On dayswith no games, the power will be sold to thelocal electricity company.

Land use and buildings: Belo Horizonteranks above average in land use and buildings.As a city with a small administrative area, BeloHorizonte has one of the highest populationdensities in the Index. The city’s score is also bol-stered by its policies regarding land use and eco-buildings. Belo Horizonte has strict laws to con-trol urban sprawl, and in 2005 the city created amunicipal parks foundation to revitalise green

spaces (see “green initiatives” below). In thearea of eco-buildings, Belo Horizonte mandatesthat large buildings over 6,000 square metresmeet energy-efficiency standards. The city runspublic awareness campaigns and has incentivesin place to encourage businesses and house-holds to save energy. Belo Horizonte’s perfor-mance in this category is constrained by its rela-tively poor score in green spaces. Despite thepresence of many small parks in the city, BeloHorizonte still has only 18 square metres ofgreen space per inhabitant, which is one of thelowest in the Index.

Green initiatives: In 2005 the city created amunicipal parks foundation to revitalise and pro-tect its green spaces. The institution managesand maintains the city’s 69 parks, and runs edu-cational programmes to encourage citizens touse the parks and create a sense of public own-ership over the city’s green spaces. In 2008 theinstitution ran an initiative entitled “One Life,One Tree”, in which it planted one tree in thename of each child born in the city that year.

Transport: Belo Horizonte receives an aver-age rank in the transport category. The city’smetro has only one 28 km line. Therefore thesuperior public transport network (defined inthe Index as transport that moves large numbersof passengers quickly in dedicated lanes, such asmetro, bus rapid transit or trams), at just 0.08km per square kilometre of city territory, fallsbelow the Index average of 0.13 km. On theother hand, bus coverage is extensive. Overallthe city has a slightly above average mass trans-port network, at an estimated 5.5 km per squarekilometre of city territory. This is the secondlongest mass transport network when mea-sured against the low-incomes cities in the

Latin American Green City Index | Belo Horizonte_Brazil

32 33

Belo Horizonte_Brazil

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 2.4

Administrative area (km2) 330.9

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) 6,267.4

Population density (persons/km2) 7,326.0

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 23.0

and buildings, where it ranks above averagethanks to its high population density and well-developed eco-buildings policies. The city alsoranks above average for water and air quality. Itsstrong performance in these categories is large-ly attributable to its policies regarding waterquality and clean air, respectively. Belo Hori-zonte receives average ranks for energy andCO2, transport and sanitation. Despite itsimpressive overall performance, the city could

Belo Horizonte is the capital of the mineral-rich state of Minas Gerais. Located in the

interior of southeastern Brazil, Belo Horizontesits at the heart of the country’s steel and miningregion. The city’s economy, long dominated bymining, agriculture and automotive manufac-turing, is now driven primarily by services indus-tries, although manufacturing has retained asignificant presence. GDP per capita is US$6,300, which places it in the lower end of theLatin American Green City Index for averageincome, and lowest among the six Braziliancities covered in the report. While the metropoli-tan area, with 6.3 million people, is the country’sthird most populous, the city proper is home tojust 2.4 million, the 13th biggest in the Index.Data included in the Index for Belo Horizontecomes from the city level.

Belo Horizonte’s relatively low averageincome does not appear to have harmed its envi-ronmental performance, however. The cityachieves a strong result in the Latin AmericanGreen City Index, placing above average overall.The city performs particularly well in land use

Index. Like many Latin American cities, Belo Hor-izonte has experienced an explosion of privatecar ownership. The city has, on average, 0.39cars per inhabitant, which is more than theIndex average of 0.30, and frequently suffersfrom severe congestion. In many ways the cityhas been proactive about the challenge. It has awell-developed traffic management system, forexample, which includes traffic light sequenc-ing, information systems and dedicated deliverytimes for freight vehicles. While the city does notyet have any congestion reduction initiatives likeSão Paulo’s “no-car day”, officials say such a pro-gramme is planned. Other congestion reductioninitiatives in the pipeline include carpoolinglanes, limited vehicle zones, park and ride sys-tems and a congestion charge or road toll.

Green initiatives: The city has been develop-ing an “urban mobility plan” since 2005.Although the full details have not been releasedyet, one aspect of the plan will reportedly focuson building more bike lanes. The city also plansto add two lines to its metro system, bringingthe total length to 50 km. Work on the secondline has been slow and no timeline has beenannounced for construction of the third line.

Waste: Belo Horizonte is below average in thewaste category. The city-owned waste companycollects and adequately disposes of 95% of thecity’s waste in a managed landfill. The companyalso operates a fleet of small collection trucks inthe city’s difficult-to-navigate informal settle-ments. There is a well-developed recycling pro-gramme in Belo Horizonte, with dedicated binsthroughout the city, and regular collections from34 neighbourhoods. The city also scores well forits waste collection and disposal policies, includ-ing strict regulations on the city’s landfill and the

Based on Belo Horizonte City

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Belo Horizonte Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on Belo Horizonte City, 2) Based on Belo Horizonte City. Figure based on official estimates on the length of bus routes, 3) Based on Belo Horizonte City.Data based on proportion of population with access to sewerage.

Quantitative indicators: Belo Horizonte

Latin American Green City Index | Belo Horizonte_Brazil

34 35

way it monitors hazardous waste disposal.Despite progressive policies, Belo Horizonte pro-duces 921 kg of waste per person per year, al-most twice the 17-city average of 465 kg and thelargest amount in the Index, which weighs heav-ily on its performance in this category.

Green initiatives: Belo Horizonte has been apioneer in organising waste pickers to supportthe city’s overall recycling goals. Pastoral daTerra, a Catholic organisation, first organised thecity’s homeless into a cooperative of waste col-lectors. Since the early 1990s the city has regu-lated waste picker cooperatives and they havebeen instrumental in the city’s vast recyclingschemes. Waste pickers have access to collectedmunicipal waste before it is dumped into thelandfill.

That material is then processed at one of thecity’s three recycling centres and the coopera-tives divide profits between members. Around450 tonnes of recyclable materials are collectedper month, according to Asmare, the local wastepickers association. Additionally, in 2009 BeloHorizonte opened a waste transfer facility to cuttravelling times for compactor trucks that com-prise the city’s waste collection fleet. Thesetrucks offload at the transfer facility, which isequipped with an exhaust system to prevent theexposure of waste to open air. High volumetrucks then complete the longer journey to thelandfill. The city says the facility optimises costsand reduces waste transfer time.

Water: Belo Horizonte is above average in thewater category. The city has abundant waterresources, which come primarily from two riversin the region. The state water company, Copasa,supplies potable water to nearly 100% of BeloHorizonte’s residents. The city consumes anaverage of 170 litres of water per person perday, well below the Index average of 264 litres.About a third of water is lost to network leak-ages, in line with the 17-city average of 35%.

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person

(litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Companhia Energética de Minas Gerais;

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística; Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change

Companhia Energética de Minas Gerais; Instituto Brasileiro

de Geografia e Estatística; Economist Intelligence Unit

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

Secretaria Municipal do Meio Ambiente: Instituto Brasileiro

de Geografia e Estatística

EIU estimate; Companhia Brasileira de Trens Urbanos;

Prefeitura de Belo Horizonte

BHTrans

Denatran

Prefeitura de Belo Horizonte / Superintendência de Limpeza Urbana

Prefeitura de Belo Horizonte / Superintendência de Limpeza Urbana

Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento; Instituto

Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento

Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento;

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento;

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento;

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

Fundação Estadual do Meio Ambiente

Fundação Estadual do Meio Ambiente

Fundação Estadual do Meio Ambiente

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2007

2007

2007

2007

2009

2010

2010

2009

2009

2008

2008

2008

2007

2007

2008

2008

2008

Belo Horizonte

31.2 1, e

850.3 1

7,326.0 1

18.3 1

5.5 2, e

0.08 1

0.39 1

95.0 1

920.7 1

169.9 1

34.0 1

99.5 1

95.4 3, e

61.8 1

33.7 1

4.4 1

27.8 1

Belo Horizonte performs particularly well for itswater quality policies, which include codes tomonitor and improve surface water quality, andenforcing standards on local industry. Copasa isalso vigilant in testing for key pollutants in thewater supply. Regarding water sustainabilitypolicies, the city has a conservation policy inplace and has implemented various efficiencymeasures, such as water meters and rainwatercollection and banning hose-pipes. However,Belo Horizonte receives only partial marks forpublicly promoting efficient water consump-tion. Most such campaigns are run by the staterather than on a city level.

Green initiatives: Belo Horizonte has an ambi-tious US$78 million plan to reduce pollution inthe city’s water sources. Financed by the Inter-American Development Bank, an institution thatprovides loans and grants throughout LatinAmerica and the Caribbean, the project willimprove drainage infrastructure, and aims tolimit the dumping of untreated sanitation intothe rivers and water basins. One goal is toachieve drinking-level quality in the city’s majorbodies of water before the 2014 World Cup.

Sanitation: Belo Horizonte is average in thesanitation category. Its middling performancecomes in spite of careful monitoring by Copasa,the state waterworks company, which subjectsmuch of the city’s wastewater to two stages oftreatment. In 2008 the city adopted its MunicipalSanitation Plan, which outlines policies andactions through to 2011. A key goal outlined inthe sanitation plan is “universalisation”, or expan-sion of sanitation services to 100% of the city’sresidents. The plan calls for the improvement ofconnections to the sanitation system in the city’sinformal settlements. In 2007 an estimated 95%of the city’s residents had access to sanitation,narrowly above the 17-city average of 94%. Thecity’s sanitation performance is weighed down bya wastewater treatment rate of 62%. While above

wide responsibilities and for the ability to imple-ment its own environmental legislation. Thedepartment’s remit is, however, somewhat lim-ited, since it must cooperate closely with otherorganisations responsible for sanitation, trans-port and housing, for example. But Belo Hori-zonte’s score is hindered by its approach to mon-itoring. For example, the city does not fullymonitor its environmental performance regular-ly and publish the results. Also, it has conducteda baseline environmental review but left out keypolicy areas such as sanitation, waste and trans-

port. Belo Horizonte involves its citizens in deci-sions on projects with environmental impacts.This includes engaging citizens in “participatorybudgeting”. The programme, adapted from asimilar one in Porto Alegre, is a process in whichcity residents and elected delegates meet annu-ally to vote on a wide range of municipal spend-ing priorities, including for environmental areassuch as transport and sanitation. However, BeloHorizonte receives only partial marks for provid-ing the public with access to information onenvironmental topics.

Green initiatives: Belo Horizonte’s Committeeon Climate Change and Eco-efficiency is an advi-sory body that has responsibility for developinginitiatives and working with private entities toreduce greenhouse gas emissions, among otheraspects of climate change policy. Another keyresponsibility is knowledge sharing and coordi-nation, in order to harmonise policy betweenindividual government departments. A cross-section of city stakeholders participates in thecommittee, including representatives from uni-versities, NGOs and local industry.

the Index average of 52%, the city still has signifi-cant room for improvement in this area.

Green initiatives: In 2006 Belo Horizontesecured US$80 million in financing from the fed-eral government’s “Sanitation for All” pro-gramme. The city is investing in 150 projects, 91of which are in informal settlements, to achieveuniversal access to sanitation.

Air quality: Belo Horizonte ranks above aver-age in air quality. The result is underpinned bybetter-than-average emissions levels for the threepollutants measured in the Index. For nitrogendioxide, a primary source of which is automobileexhaust, the city registers 34 micrograms percubic metre — not its best result, but still belowthe 17-city average of 38 micrograms. Averagedaily concentrations for particulate matter andsulphur dioxide are much better and consider-ably below the average Index concentrations.The city’s emissions levels suggest that strongair quality policies are having a positive effect.For example, the city’s Committee on ClimateChange and Eco-efficiency has identified air pollution as one of the primary areas in which itcan improve. The Minas Gerais state environ-mental foundation, FEAM, operates nine airmonitoring stations around the metropolitanarea and releases a report on pollution levelsonce a day.

Green initiatives: Belo Horizonte has a road-side vehicle inspection programme, “OxygenOperations”, in which officials perform randomchecks on some of the roughly 120,000 dieselvehicles in the city. Vehicle owners that violatepollution regulations are fined and can evenhave their vehicle taken off the streets.

Environmental governance: Belo Hor-izonte ranks below average in environmentalgovernance. The city is marked highly for havinga dedicated environmental department with

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policies among the 17 cities. Bogotá ranks be-low average in sanitation, primarily because ofrelatively weak sanitation policies, and belowaverage in air quality, a result driven by high lev-els of sulphur dioxide. The city performs stronglyin some categories when compared with citiesof similar population and income. Among thenine cities with mid-sized population (between5 and 10 million people), Bogotá has the mostgreen spaces per person and the highest shareof its population with access to potable water.And among the seven cities with incomes in themiddle range in the Index (with a GDP per per-son between US$8,000 and US$16,000), it hasthe best rate of electricity consumption per unitGDP and the lowest number of vehicles per person.

Energy and CO2: Bogotá ranks above aver-age in energy and CO2. It emits an estimated 40kg of CO2 per person from electricity consump-tion, well below the Index average of 202 kg perperson. The figure is helped by a comparativelysmall industrial presence within city limits andalso by the high share of renewables in its elec-tricity mix. More than 80% of Bogotá’s electricityis generated from hydro power. Also, accordingto local experts, around 70% of the industry thatdoes operate in the city has converted from coaland diesel to natural gas. Some studies alsopoint out that Bogotá’s temperate climate,between 13 to 18 degrees Celsius, reduces theneed for air conditioning. Moreover, the citysources more than 80% of its electricity produc-tion from hydropower, similar to the rest of thecountry. Bogotá also scores well for electricityconsumption, using an estimated 397 mega-joules for every US$1,000 in GDP, far less thanthe Index average of 761 megajoules. This isalso the best rate in the Index among cities withincomes in the middle range. Bogotá does notfare as well for its energy and CO2 policies, how-ever, particularly regarding clean energy, whereit places close to the bottom of the Index. Bogotáis marked down for having an energy strategythat is less comprehensive than in other citiesand for not specifically sourcing or producingmore clean and renewable energy.

Green initiatives: In the last decade the cityhas gradually replaced buses that run on carbon-intensive fuel with buses that run on naturalgas, particularly through the introduction of the“TransMilenio bus rapid transit” (BRT) system(see “green initiatives” under “Transport” be-low). The total number of vehicles operating onnatural gas in Colombia as a whole rose fromabout 9,000 in 2002 to 300,000 as of December2009. The Doña Juana biogas project capturesand treats methane from the city’s Doña Juanalandfill. Project designers expect to save 5.8 mil-

Latin American Green City Index | Bogotá_Colombia

36 37

Bogotá_Colombia

of the figures in the Index were calculated basedon the capital district.

Bogotá ranks above average overall in theIndex. The city’s performance is bolstered byabove-average rankings in six of the eight cate-gories: energy and CO2, land use and buildings,transport, waste, water and environmental gov-ernance. Its performance in the energy and CO2

category is driven by relatively low electricityconsumption and comparatively low carbonemissions from electricity production. In landuse and buildings, Bogotá has fairly abundantgreen spaces and some of the better land use

Bogotá is the capital of Colombia and thecountry’s most populous city, with 7.3 mil-

lion people. Located on a high plateau in theAndes mountains, it is the eighth most denselypopulated city in the Latin American Green CityIndex, at 4,100 people per square kilometre. Thecity is Colombia’s financial centre, and the met-ropolitan area boasts some of the country’slargest producers of food products and cut flow-ers. Bogotá has an average GDP per person ofUS$8,400, the tenth highest in the Index. Themetropolitan area, with a population of 8.5 mil-lion, includes five distinct municipalities, but all

lion tonnes of CO2 emissions between 2009 and2016. The project machinery will run on the bio-fuel produced from the process, and the remain-der will be distributed to local industry.

Land use and buildings: Bogotá ranksabove average in land use and buildings, astrong result driven by abundant green spaceand relatively strong land use policies. At 107square metres per person, Bogotá’s figure forgreen spaces is sixth highest in the Index andfirst among cities with mid-sized population.The city also benefits from having relativelyrobust policy on the protection of green spacesand containment of urban sprawl as well ascomparably good green standards for publicbuildings.

Green initiatives: The “public spaces” policyacknowledges that the city needs more greenspace, especially in low-income areas, and setsout a general policy to increase investment inthis. More specifically, Bogotá’s urban planningframework requires designers to set aside green

space for new developments. For example, inthe plan for the city’s northern region, 132,000new housing units will be accompanied by 76hectares of parkland.

Transport: Bogotá ranks above average intransport. The city is helped by a relativelylengthy mass transport network. It stretches anestimated 6.9 km per square kilometre, the fifthlongest in the Index and higher than the Indexaverage of 5 km per square kilometre. The net-work lacks a metro, but over the past decade thecity authorities have invested heavily in the“TransMilenio BRT system” and in cycle paths(see “green initiatives” below). Bogotá alsoscores relatively well for having a low ratio ofcars to people, at 0.15 vehicles per person,which is the lowest among cities with incomesin the middle range. Bogotá is marked up forhaving a comprehensive urban mass transportpolicy and exclusive bus lanes for the BRT. Thepricing system for mass transport is partly inte-grated and the city has taken some steps toreduce emissions from mass transport.

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 7.3

Administrative area (km2) 1,776.0

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) 8,411.2

Population density (persons/km2) 4,087.7

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 13.0

Based on Bogota, Distrito Capital

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Bogotá Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin American Green City Index | Bogotá_Colombia

38 39

Green initiatives: Bogotá’s flagship transportinitiative, the TransMilenio BRT system, openedin 2000. More than 1,000 buses carry about 1.6million commuters per day using exclusive lanesthroughout the city. Passengers board on elevat-ed platforms using contactless smart cards. Thesystem connects to a feeder system of 400 addi-tional buses, and cycle paths. The BRT wasadapted from a system in Curitiba, and similarbus networks have spread throughout LatinAmerica. In addition, Bogotá’s 300-km cycle net-work is one of the most extensive in the world.On Sundays and holidays, Bogotá closes morethan 70 km of streets to cars as part of its“Ciclovía” programme, which attracts thousandsof cyclists, runners and pedestrians to the citycentre. The idea, which was first implemented in1976, has been copied throughout the world,including in New York and London.

Waste: Bogotá ranks above average in thewaste category. The city generates the second-lowest amount of waste in the Index, at an esti-mated 290 kg per person, well below the Indexaverage of 465 kg. The city also manages to col-lect and dispose of just under 100% of the city’swaste. In contrast, the city’s performance isweighed down by relatively weak waste policies,including a partly integrated waste strategy and insufficient monitoring of illegal waste.There are also shortcomings in enforcing waste disposal standards. Although Bogotá doeshave a recycling service, it is often informal, andthere are no easily accessible central collectionpoints.

Water: Bogotá ranks above average in thewater category. The city has the Index’s lowestrate of water consumption per person, at 114litres per person per day compared with an aver-age of 264 litres. Official figures suggest thatclose to 100% of the population has access topotable water, which leads the Index amongcities with incomes in the middle range. Howev-

er, Bogotá lacks a comprehensive policy onwater conservation. It is also one of a few citiesin the Index that receives only partial marks forpromoting water conservation among the pub-lic because awareness campaigns on the ratio-nal use of water are undertaken by the nationalgovernment rather than the city administration.Like most cities in the Index, Bogotá sets stan-dards for levels of key pollutants in drinkingwater, regularly monitors water quality andenforces water pollution standards on localindustry.

Green initiatives: In July 2010 the mayor pro-posed an initiative to conserve water, through atwin-pronged strategy of public awareness cam-paigns and more accurate billing. The proposalwas part of a five-point strategy covering waterpolicy, as well as sanitation, wetland revival anddrainage improvements.

Sanitation: Bogotá has a below-average rankin the sanitation category. Although the city hasthe second highest rate of access to sanitationservices in the Index, with official figures at nearly100%, it scores relatively poorly on levels ofwastewater treated. Only an estimated 29% of itswastewater is treated, compared with the Indexaverage of 52%. Bogotá ranks poorly for sanita-tion policies too, mainly owing to a lack of moni-toring and standards for wastewater treatment.

Green initiatives: The city’s water and sewer-age masterplan calls for the aqueduct networkto be rehabilitated and extended by around 200km and the sewerage network to be extendedand improved by 2015. It also calls for deconta-mination of the Bogotá river, one of the region’smain water sources. As part of the plan, thenational government is helping to finance a newsewage plant to serve the river basin region.

Air quality: Bogotá ranks below average forair quality, which is largely attributable to rela-

some key environmental initiatives, includingthe cycle paths mentioned above. Bogotá’s envi-ronmental authority also has one of the widestremits of the 17 cities and is responsible formonitoring most of the key environmental areascovered in the Index.

The city has a relative lack of public participa-tion in the development of environmental poli-cies, defined in the Index by whether public con-sultation is planned or has taken place forprojects with a relatively high environmentalimpact. However, Bogotá appears willing toimprove in this area, with an initiative aimed at

increasing public participation (see “green initia-tives” below).

Green initiatives: In order to improve publicparticipation and environmental awareness, thelocal government has developed an outreachand civic engagement centre, including a pro-gramme for children called the “EnvironmentalClassroom” with meetings that take place inlocal parks. The civic centre also presents a vari-ety of indicators that allow citizens to track theplanning and implementation of local environ-mental projects.

tively high levels of sulphur dioxide and sus-pended particulate matter. At 22 microgramsper cubic metre, Bogotá registers the secondhighest average daily level of sulphur dioxide inthe Index.

The sulphur dioxide figure was taken from2008, the same year that the city put restrictionson sulphur in diesel fuel (see “green initiatives”below), so the city’s performance is likely toimprove over the next few years. And for aver-age daily levels of suspended particulate matter,Bogotá measures 58 micrograms per cubicmetre, above the average of 48 micrograms.Bogotá scores relatively well on average dailylevels of nitrogen dioxide, at 33 micrograms percubic metre, compared with the Index averageof 38 micrograms. Regarding clean air policies,Bogotá scores reasonably well, with good marksfor its air quality codes, monitoring standardsand public awareness campaigns. The city has13 air quality stations continuously monitoringthe concentration of major air pollutants andpublishing the information on the departmentalwebsite.

Green initiatives: A national law from 2008requires fuel distributors to reduce the sulphurcontent in diesel from 1,200 parts per million toless than 500 parts per million, with the goal ofreaching 50 parts per million by 2013. All Trans-Milenio buses currently use diesel with 50 partsper million of sulphur content. The city’s envi-ronmental authority is working in partnershipwith TransMilenio and local universities on a 10-year air decontamination plan, which outlinespolicies to raise air quality over the period. Thework is in its early stages and the partnership hasrun a series of public workshops to gather ideas.

Environmental governance: Bogotáranks above average for environmental gover-nance. The city does particularly well in environ-mental management and environmental moni-toring, owing to a decade of implementing

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on Bogotá, Distrito Capital, 2) Based on Bogotá, Distrito Capital. Estimate based on average length of bus route and number of bus routes, 3) Based on Bogotá, Distrito Capital, 4) Based on Bogotá, Distrito Capital. Based on total amount of waste collected, 5) Based on Bogotá, Distrito Capital. Based on total non-billed water volume, 6) Based on Bogotá, Distrito Capital. Proportion of population with access to sewerage

Quantitative indicators: Bogotá

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person

(litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Departamento Administrativo Nacional

de Estadística; International Energy Agency;

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

EIU estimate; Departamento Administrativo Nacional

de Estadística

Depart. Administrativo Nacional de Estadística; Alcaldía Mayor de Bogotá D.C.

Secretaría de Planeación; Departamento Administrativo

Nacional de Estadística

EIU estimate; Secretaría de Planeación

Transmilenio, S.A.

Subsecretaria de Planeacion Territorial, „Destino Capital;

Movilidad Sostenible“, Nov. 2009

Secretaría de Planeación; Secretaría de Hábitat

Secretaría de Hábitat: Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística

Acueducto Agua y Alcantarillado de Bogota;

Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística

Acueducto Agua y Alcantarillado de Bogota

Secretaría de Planeación

Secretaría de Planeación

Agua y alcantarillado de Bogotá

Secretaría Distrital de Medio Ambiente

Secretaría Distrital de Medio Ambiente

Secretaría Distrital de Medio Ambiente

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2007

2007

2008

2008

2007

2010

2007

2009

2009

2009

2009

2007

2007

2009

2008

2008

2008

Bogotá

40.4 1, e

396.8 1,e

4,087.7 1

107.3 1

6.9 2, e

0.05 1

0.15 1

99.7 3, e

289.8 4, e

114.3 1

36.6 5, e

99.4 1

99.8 6, e

28.6 3, e

32.9 1

21.7 1

58.0 1

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results for government energy policy. Althoughthe city recently formed a council on climatechange, it has failed to adopt any clear CO2 emis-sions reduction targets or sign up to any interna-tional covenants regarding the reduction ofgreenhouse gases. Furthermore, Brasília is oneof only four cities in the index not to have con-ducted a recent baseline review of greenhousegas emissions.

Land use and buildings: Brasília has anaverage rank for land use and buildings.Although the city is renowned for urban plan-ning, its middling score in this category is largelyattributable to its low population density. At 436people per square kilometre versus the Indexaverage of 4,500 people per square kilometre,Brasília’s population density is the lowest in theIndex. This is distorted by the city’s vast adminis-trative area, much of which is uninhabited.However, Brasília was designed with large andplentiful parks and therefore boasts an estimat-ed 985 square metres of green space per person— the second highest in the Index, behindQuito. Brasília’s 67 protected parks and conser-vation areas are subject to an environmental

Latin American Green City Index | Brasília_Brazil

40 41

Brasília_Brazil

its mass transport system remains sub-standard.When compared with the two other cities withhigh incomes in the Index (with GDP per head ofabove US$16,000), it has the lowest rate of CO2

emissions from electricity consumption.

Energy and CO2: Brasília has an averagerank for energy and CO2. With all of its electricitycoming from renewable sources — 98% of itfrom hydroelectric plants — the city has one ofthe lowest rates of CO2 emissions from electrici-ty, at an estimated 8 kg per person. This is sec-ond only to São Paulo and considerably belowthe Index average of 202 kg per capita. Brasília’sCO2 emissions from electricity are particularlyimpressive when measured against the twoother cities with high incomes in the Index. Theaverage emissions from electricity for high-income cities jumps to 285 kg per person. Thecity also has one of the lowest rates of electricityconsumption compared with its economic out-put. Brasília consumes 301 megajoules of elec-tricity per US$1,000 GDP, less than half of the17-city average of 761 megajoules. However,the city’s performance on emissions and energyconsumption is partly cancelled out by weaker

Brasília, with 2.5 million residents, is the capi-tal city of Brazil. The purpose-built city was

founded in 1960, when it replaced Rio deJaneiro as the seat of the federal government. Itis today renowned for its modernist architectureand broad avenues, and considered one of thegreat experiments in urban planning of the 20thcentury. The city was designed along two mainthoroughfares with distinct residential, com-mercial and administrative zones. Brasília boaststhe second highest GDP per capita in the Index,at US$21,100 per person — considerably higherthan the 17-city average of US$11,100 per per-son. Public administration dominates Brasília’seconomy, but the city also has a large services

law, and a land management plan establisheslimits on urban sprawl. Brasília could improve itsranking in this category by strengthening itspolicies on eco-buildings: the city does not offerincentives to motivate businesses or householdsto lower energy use nor does it have a plan forimplementing green standards in public build-ings or any standards for energy efficiency innew buildings.

Green initiatives: In 2009 Brasília’s state-owned property company, Terracap, beganwork on its long-planned “Green Neighbour-hood” in the north-west of the city. The new res-idential community includes 220 energy-effi-

the city’s open air dump. Once the dump isclosed, the city will build permanent housesconnected to its sanitation network and withpotable water connections for nearly 35,000people living in the area, in addition to buildingschools and other neighbourhood infrastruc-ture.

Transport: Brasília ranks well below averagein transport. The city was planned in the 1950s,when Brazil’s automotive industry was takingoff. As a result the city is designed for cars, withfew pedestrian paths. Today the city’s stock ofcars and motorcycles totals 0.37 vehicles perperson, compared with a 17-city average of

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 2.5

Administrative area (km2) 5,802.0

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) 21,082.1

Population density (persons/km2) 436.5

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 21.0

Based on Brasilia, Distrito Federal

industry and is home to one of Brazil’s largesttelecommunications companies and severalmajor banks. Much of the city’s 5,800 squarekilometres of the federal district, Brasília’sadministrative area, is classified as a conserva-tion area. The wider metropolitan area has apopulation of 3.7 million people and a muchlarger boundary, but all data used in the Indexcome from the federal district.

Brasília ranks above average in the Indexoverall. It performs best in the categories forwater, sanitation, air quality and environmentalgovernance, where it ranks above average.Brasília’s performance is bolstered in these cate-gories by a very low rate of water system leak-ages, a high share of wastewater treated, below-average concentrations of two out of three airpollutants measured in the Index and a strongrecord of environmental management. The cityreceives average rankings for energy and CO2

and land use and buildings. Despite its strongoverall performance, Brasília has significant roomfor improvement in waste and transport, earningranks of well below average in both categories.Brasília generates one of the highest rates ofwaste per capita and, as a city designed for cars,

cient buildings, which will be built with installedsolar panels and eventually house an estimated40,000 people. The neighbourhood is due to becompleted by 2025. Furthermore, Brasília, withsupport of the World Bank, is also planning tolaunch a US$34 million urbanisation pro-gramme in an informal settlement at the edge of

0.30. Brasília has a 45-km metro consisting oftwo lines with about 150,000 daily passengers.Its superior transport network (defined in theIndex as transport that moves large numbers ofpassengers quickly in dedicated lanes, such as ametro, bus rapid transit or tram network) totalsabout 0.09 km per square kilometre of urban

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Brasilia Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin American Green City Index | Brasília_Brazil

42 43

territory, just below the Index average of 0.1 km.However, buses are the primary form of publictransport, and they are frequently overcrowded.Brasília is shown to have the shortest mass trans-port network in the Latin American Green CitiesIndex in relation to its size, at just 0.5 km persquare kilometre of urban territory comparedwith a 17-city average of 5.0 km. The city alsoperforms poorly in urban mass transport policy.The city’s mass transport plan, “IntegratedBrasília”, calls for investment in expanding busand metro services, construction of passengerterminals and the creation of more bus lanes,but has yet to be fully implemented. Brasíliascores better on policy to reduce congestion.Although the city lacks traffic reduction initia-tives like carpooling lanes or park and ride sys-tems, officials have begun to promote cycling asa form of transport, which boosts its score.

Green initiatives: In 2009 Brasília started con-structing the country’s first modern, electricity-powered tram system. Scheduled for comple-tion ahead of the 2014 World Cup, the tram linewill extend 23 km and link Brasília’s airport tothe city’s southern, central, and northern zones,with 25 stations. The US$870 million project isexpected to reduce road traffic on the W3, oneof Brasília’s major thoroughfares, by 30%. Fur-ther tram lines are under consideration.

Waste: Brasília is well below average in thewaste category. The city’s poor performance islargely attributable to a very high rate of wasteproduction: Brasília generates 875 kg of wasteper person per year, considerably higher thanthe Index average of 465 kg. This is even highwhen compared with other high-income citiesin the Index, which produce an average of 657 kgof waste per person per year. Brasília collects anddisposes of 95% of its waste, just below the 17-city average of 96%. It is one of the few majorcities in Brazil that still operates an open-air dump,which has long been slated for closure (see

“green initiatives” below). There are 12 wastemanagement stations in the city and a local sys-tem to recycle waste was launched in 2007.

Green initiatives: In 2009 Brasília opened apublic bidding process to build a new managedlandfill. The US$175 million, state-of-the-artfacility will be the city’s first and only landfill,and the winner will have one year to build thefacility. When the new landfill is fully opera-tional, the city will close its existing open airdump. The bidding process was suspended ontechnical grounds, but officials say it will bereopened in 2011.

Water: Brasília ranks above average for water.Its strong performance in this category is largelythanks to a comparably low rate of water systemleakages. Brasília loses 27% of its water supplyto leakages, less than the 17-city average of 35%— only Monterrey and Puebla have lower rates.Brasília’s water infrastructure is relatively newand therefore more efficient than the infrastruc-ture of many other cities in the Index. Almost100% of the population has access to potablewater, according to official sources.

On average, Brasília consumes 176 litres ofwater per capita per day versus the Index aver-age of 264 litres. The capital city has a regulato-ry agency for water, energy and basic sanitation,which, along with the waterworks companyCaesb, regularly monitors the water system forpollutants. Brasília is also taking steps to pre-serve the quality of its vast underground waterresources, natural springs and the man-madeParanoá Lake (see “green initiatives” in “Sanita-tion” below).

Green initiatives: In an effort to reduce waterconsumption, in 2009 the city adopted a mea-sure that offers consumers a 20% discount onwater bills if they consume less water in a givenmonth than during the same month in the previ-ous year. In addition, over the past two years

records an annual average daily concentrationof nitrogen dioxide of just 13 micrograms percubic metre, which is the lowest in the Index,and well below the 17-city average of 38 micro-grams. The city also has the lowest concentra-tion of particulate matter, at just 11 microgramsper cubic metre versus the Index average of 48micrograms. However daily sulphur dioxide con-centrations of 13 micrograms per cubic metreare slightly higher than the average of 11 micro-grams. Although the city’s performance in thiscategory is already impressive, less reliance onprivate car transport would boost its score fur-ther. Brasília monitors air quality (see “green ini-tiatives” below) and also promotes cleaner air by

informing citizens about pollutant levels andabout the dangers of household pollution.

Green initiatives: Brasília’s state-run environ-mental institute, IBRAM, runs seven monitoringstations in the city, and in 2009 IBRAM partneredwith the University of Brasília to improve its capabil-ities. Together the organizations are closely moni-toring air quality in highly polluted areas close tothe main bus station, along major streets and neara large cement factory. The organisations also co-produce the city’s annual air quality report.

Environmental governance: Brasíliaranks above average for environmental gover-

nance, one of its best performances in theIndex. The city’s environmental policy and pro-grammes seem to have been unaffected bypolitical difficulties in early 2010. The state sec-retariat for urban development, habitation andenvironment, Seduma, acts as the central pointof contact for public information on environ-mental performance. The department also con-ducts regular reviews of its environmental per-formance and the results are publicly available.The environment department also organisesregular public audiences with non-governmen-tal organisations and other stakeholders, partic-ularly when drafting plans for programmes suchas “Sustainable Brasília”.

new buildings have been equipped with watermeters, and meters will be installed in olderbuildings within five years.

Sanitation: Brasília ranks above average forsanitation. As a relatively young city, Brasíliabenefits in this category from its comparativelynew sanitation infrastructure. The city treats100% of its collected wastewater, considerablyhigher than the Index average of 52%. However,an estimated 92% of Brasília’s residents haveaccess to sanitation services, which is slightlylower than the 17-city average of 94%. The city’srecord in this area will likely improve thanks toongoing projects (see “green initiatives” below).The city’s score is further bolstered by a solidrecord in sanitation policy. It regularly monitorson-site sanitation facilities in homes and com-munal areas, for example, and like most cities inthe Index, Brasília promotes awareness of pre-ventative sewerage maintenance mainly throughpublic awareness campaigns.

Green initiatives: In 2007 the city launchedthe $150 million “Sustainable Brasília” project inpartnership with the World Bank to preserve thequality of water resources and expand environ-mental sanitation services. Under the pro-gramme Brasília is undertaking a combinationof activities to reduce pollution and prevent thedumping of untreated wastewater into its watersources. The initiatives are primarily aimed atexpanding sanitation infrastructure to currentlyunder-served neighbourhoods and upgradingdrainage and pipe networks. “SustainableBrasília” also has a significant urbanisation com-ponent and aims to improve living standards forresidents close to the city’s natural springs.

Air quality: Brasília ranks above average forair quality, together with Belo Horizonte, Quitoand Medellín. The city’s strong performance inthis category is largely attributable to the rela-tive absence of polluting industries. Brasília

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on Brasília, Distrito Federal, 2) Based on the urban area of Brasília. Not all data on bus lines accounted for due to unavailability of data, 3) Based on the urban area of Brasília, 4) Based on Brasília, Distrito Federal. Based on total waste collected, 5) Based on Brasília, Distrito Federal. Proportion of population with access to sewerage, 6) Based on Brasília, Distrito Federal. Estimated annual daily mean of NO2, 7) Based onBrasília, Distrito Federal. Estimated annual daily mean of SO2, 8) Based on Brasília, Distrito Federal. Estimated annual daily mean of PM10.

Quantitative indicators: Brasília

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person

(litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Companhia Energética de Brasilia; Secretaria de Estado de

Desenvolvimento Urbano, Habitação e Meio Ambiente

Companhia Energética de Brasilia; Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia

e Estatística; Economist Intelligence Unit

Secretaria de Estado de Desenvolvimento Urbano, Habitação e Meio Ambiente;

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

Secretaria de Estado de Desenvolvimento Urbano,

Habitação e Meio Ambiente

Secretaria de Estado de Desenvolvimento Urbano, Habitação e Meio Ambiente

Dftran, DFMetro

Denatran

Secretaria de Estado de Desenvolvimento Urbano, Habitação e Meio Ambiente

Secretaria de Estado de Desenvolvimento Urbano, Habitação e Meio Ambiente

Companhia de Saneamento Ambiental do Distrito Federal; Secretaria de Estado

de Desenvolvimento Urbano, Habitação e Meio Ambiente

Secretaria de Estado de Desenvolvimento Urbano, Habitação e Meio Ambiente

Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento; Secretaria de Estado de

Desenvolvimento Urbano, Habitação e Meio Ambiente

Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento

Secretaria de Estado de Desenvolvimento Urbano, Habitação e Meio Ambiente

Secretaria do Meio Ambiente

Secretaria do Meio Ambiente

Secretaria do Meio Ambiente

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2009

2007

2009

2009

2009

2010

2010

2009

2009

2008

2008

2008

2008

2008

2008

2008

2008

Brasília

7.8 1, e

301.2 1

436.5 1

985.1 1, e

0.5 2, e

0.09 3

0.37 1

95.1 4

874.6 4

175.9 1

27.0 1

99.8 1

91.8 5, e

100.0 1

13.4 6, e

13.4 7, e

10.9 8, e

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high level of CO2 emissions from electricity islargely due to the low share of renewables usedin electricity production. Just over a quarter ofthe electricity consumed in Buenos Aires comesfrom hydropower, while the majority is pro-duced from natural gas. On the other hand, thecity consumes 535 megajoules of electricity perUS$1,000 GDP, compared to the Index averageof 761 megajoules. However, this is the highestrate of electricity consumption when measuredagainst the two other higher-income cities in theIndex. Buenos Aires performs better when itcomes to policies aimed at reducing CO2 emis-sions. The city has adopted a comprehensive cli-mate change action plan, which is described inmore detail in the “green initiatives” below.However, Buenos Aires could improve its perfor-mance in this category by implementing a cleanenergy strategy aimed at reducing the environ-mental impact of energy consumption andincreasing investment in energy efficiency.

While several cities in the Index have alreadybegun converting local waste by-products toenergy, bolstering their energy and CO2 score inthe process, Buenos Aires scores less well on thisindicator because it has only gone as far as com-pleting feasibility studies on bio-digestion andbiogas recovery. The city also lags behind otherIndex cities in terms of investing in clean energyand renewables.

Green initiatives: In 2009 the city adopted acomprehensive climate change action plan. Itsets a target to reduce CO2 emissions 30% by2030 from 2008 levels, achieving a reduction of5 million tonnes of CO2 per year. Specific mea-sures in the plan include replacing standardstreet lights with energy-efficient LED lights,introducing more efficient household appli-ances, and launching a public-awareness cam-paign to promote energy conservation. In 2010 the city of Buenos Aires put its firsthybrid electric bus into circulation, the firststage in its “Ecobus” project. The project aims toreplace the city’s entire fleet with low-pollutionhybrid vehicles, which, authorities say, will cutCO2 emissions by 230,000 tonnes a year.

Land use and buildings: Buenos Airesranks average in the land use and buildings cate-gory. The city scores well for population density,with the highest density among the cities in theIndex, at 15,000 inhabitants per square kilome-tre, compared to the 17-city average of 4,500people per square kilometre. However, this highdensity comes at the expense of green spaces.With just 6 square metres of green spaces perperson within the city area, Buenos Aires hasone of the lowest figures in the Index. While thecity does not actively promote awareness

Latin American Green City Index | Buenos Aires_Argentina

44 45

Buenos Aires_Argentina

well below average rank in the water category.Although all of Buenos Aires’s residents haveaccess to potable water, the city has a high rateof water consumption and system leakages. Thecity’s score is further hindered by below averagerankings in waste, sanitation and air quality. How-ever, when measured against other high-incomecities in the Index (GDP per capita above US$16,000), Buenos Aires has the highest share ofresidents with access to potable water and sani-tation services. Furthermore, the city has adopt-ed one of the most ambitious climate changeaction plans in the Index, and its performance inmany categories will likely improve as a result.

Energy and CO2: Buenos Aires ranks aver-age in energy and CO2, due mainly to a highlevel of CO2 emissions from electricity usage.Each year the city produces 527 kg of CO2 emis-sions per capita from electricity usage, almosttriple the 17-city average of 202 kg per person,and the second highest level in the Index. Its

Buenos Aires is the capital city of Argentina.Although the metropolitan area is home to

some 12.5 million people, the Autonomous Cityof Buenos Aires is considerably smaller, with 3.1million inhabitants. Only the smaller city properis calculated in the Latin American Green CityIndex, making Buenos Aires the tenth biggestcity in the Index. The city has the highest GDPper capita in the Index, at an estimatedUS$24,200. And along with the wider metropol-itan area, Buenos Aires is the country’s econom-ic powerhouse, contributing nearly a quarter of

among residents about ways to improve energyefficiency in their homes, its score is bolsteredby the city administration’s proactive measuresto implement energy-efficient and environmen-tally friendly programmes in municipal build-ings. The city has pledged to cut energy con-sumption in government buildings by 20% from2007 levels through the end of 2012 (see “greeninitiatives” below).

Green initiatives: The city’s “Energy EfficiencyProgramme in Public Buildings” aims to reduceenergy consumption in public buildings by 10%in 2010 and 20% from 2007 levels through theend of 2012. Under the initiative, the city firstconducted energy assessments of municipalbuildings, taking into account air conditioning,heating, lighting, use of computers and otherelectric equipment. Individual energy-efficiencyplans were then tailored for each building tomaximise energy-savings opportunities and willbe used as best practice to adopt in other publicbuildings. The city is also developing a plan torevitalise green spaces by creating a network of

green corridors with bicycle lanes that connectexisting green spaces. This will include parks,plazas and the Costanera Sur Ecological Reserve,in the east of Buenos Aires, which remains animportant focus for environmental conserva-tion. Neither a timeline nor firm targets for theprogramme have been announced.

Transport: Buenos Aires ranks average intransport. The city’s public transport system iswell developed, and the density of the network,at 7 km per square kilometre of city territory isabove the 17-city average of 5 km per squarekilometre. The metro boosts Buenos Aires’sscore in the area of superior public transportnetworks (defined in the Index as transport thatmoves large numbers of passengers quickly indedicated lanes, such as a metro, bus rapid tran-sit or tram network). It is one of the longest inthe Index at 0.26 km per square kilometre of cityterritory. However, many commuters still chooseto drive. Buenos Aires has the highest stock ofcars and motorcycles in the Index, at an estimat-ed 0.66 vehicles per person — more than twice

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 3.1

Administrative area (km2) 203.2

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) e 24,222.9

Population density (persons/km2) 15,013.4

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 17.8

Based on Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Airese) EIU estimate

Argentina’s GDP. Its commercial activities aredominated by financial services, real estate,business services and manufacturing. It alsoboasts one of the busiest ports in South Ameri-ca. The port is located on the River Plate, whichruns along Buenos Aires and links Argentina toUruguay. As a result, the city is a major logisticsand transport hub.

Despite its relative affluence, Buenos Airesranks below average in the Index overall. Thecity’s best results come in the areas of energyand CO2, land use and buildings, transport, andenvironmental governance; in each of these cat-egories it ranks average. Its performance in theenergy and CO2 category is driven by a relativelylow rate of electricity consumption per unit ofGDP and strong policies aimed at curbing theeffects of climate change. In the area of trans-port, Buenos Aires has one of the longest publictransport networks and well-developed policiesaimed at congestion reduction. However, thecity’s overall performance is weighed down by a

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Buenos Aires Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin American Green City Index | Buenos Aires_Argentina

46 47

the 17-city average of 0.3. The city is working toreduce emissions from mass transport and hasadopted low-emission public buses. The city alsopromotes green transport, such as cycling.

Green initiatives: As part of its “Plan for Sus-tainable Mobility”, the city has added “preferen-tial routes” to eight major commuter thorough-fares to improve traffic flow. Measures includedesignating separate lanes along these routesfor public and private transport. The initiativehas cut travel times by up to two thirds and hasalso reduced emissions from idling vehicles. Thesustainable mobility plan also foresees a bicyclerental scheme, similar to those in many Euro-pean cities. Users will be able to rent bicyclesfrom designated locations for short periods andreturn them to any other station in the city. Thecity administration has not yet announced atimeline for this initiative.

Waste: Buenos Aires ranks below average inthe waste category. The city of Buenos Aires col-lects and adequately disposes of 100% of itswaste, compared to the 17-city average of 96%.However, the city of Buenos Aires generates 606kg of waste per person per year. This is the thirdhighest rate of waste generation in the Index —only Brasília and Belo Horizonte produce morewaste. On average the cities in the index pro-duce 465 kg per inhabitant per year. The largeamount of waste generation is largely attribut-able to the city’s well-developed consumer cul-ture and the high standard of living that many ofBuenos Aires’s residents enjoy. The city performsbetter on waste policy because it imposes envi-ronmental standards for landfills, enforces andmonitors the proper disposal of hazardouswaste, and boasts an integrated strategy aimedat reducing waste and promoting re-use or recy-cling.

Green initiatives: The Ministry of Environmentand Public Space released its draft Urban

Hygiene Proposal for the city in July 2010. Theplan calls for an overhaul of the city’s waste col-lection system, and includes the guiding princi-pal of “zero waste”, which aims to be achieved byexpanding recycling and improving collectionand disposal services.

Water: Buenos Aires ranks well below averagefor water, its poorest placement in the Index.While 100% of Buenos Aires’s population haveaccess to potable water, ranking first with PortoAlegre, Curitiba and Quito, the city has consider-able scope for improvement in this category.The residents of Buenos Aires have the highestrate of water consumption in the Index, at 669litres of water per person per day, more thandouble the 17-city average of 264 litres per day.The high rate of consumption is in part attribut-able to the city’s lack of progress in the area ofwater sustainability policy. The city does nothave a code for reducing water stress or con-suming water more efficiently. Buenos Airesalso loses an estimated 41% of its water to leak-ages, compared to an Index average of 35%.And while the city does monitor the quality ofsurface water, Buenos Aires is the only city in theIndex that lacks a policy aimed at improving thequality of its surface water.

Green initiatives: Buenos Aires has adopted acity-wide water master plan to deal with allfacets of water management. An essential com-ponent of the plan is the installation of waterusage meters across the city. While many region-al peers have already taken this step and havecut water usage, Buenos Aires hopes to catch upby setting a target to reduce water consumptionby 40% from current levels by 2012.

Sanitation: Buenos Aires places below aver-age in sanitation. Although the high populationdensity of Buenos Aires and historical wealthmean that the city has a widespread and gener-ally robust sanitation infrastructure — an esti-

a new air monitoring network (see “green initia-tives” below) it does not yet monitor sulphurdioxide or particulate matter, which hinders itsscore in the area of air quality monitoring. Thecity has an average daily concentration of nitro-gen dioxide of 27 micrograms, one of the lowestconcentrations of nitrogen dioxide in the Indexand well below the 17-city average of 38 micro-grams. Due to lack of monitoring, however, dataon average daily sulphur dioxide and particulatematter concentrations is outdated. Buenos Airesalso underperforms most other cities in theIndex when it comes to having a comprehensiveair quality code, but it does score highly for

informing citizens about the danger of house-hold pollutants.

Green initiatives: Buenos Aires has recentlyimplemented a new air monitoring networkdesigned to help tackle the city’s chronicallypoor air quality. The network has 45 monitoringfacilities analysing various common pollutantsat strategic locations throughout the city.

Buenos Aires has also set a target to reducegreenhouse gas emissions from mobile and sta-tionary sources by 10% by 2012, partly throughverifying that vehicles meet minimum emissionstandards.

Environmental governance: BuenosAires ranks average in environmental gover-nance. The city’s score in this category is bol-stered by the wide-ranging scope of its Environ-mental Protection Agency’s activities and itsregular monitoring of environmental perfor-mance.

The city also has the legal capacity to imple-ment its own environmental legislation, but it ismarked down for the limited scope of citizen andNGO involvement in drafting environmentalplans. Furthermore, the city’s most recent envi-ronmental review omitted sanitation, waste,transport, land use, and human settlements.

mated 99% of residents have access to sanita-tion, which is above the Index average of 94% — the city is one of only two in the Index that fails to treat its wastewater. A largequantity of untreated sanitation flows directlyinto the already-polluted River Plate. Further-more, the city is one of just a few in the Indexthat does not have any public awareness cam-paigns to promote the efficient use of sanita-tion systems.

Green initiatives: As part of the city’s watermaster plan the government is working toupgrade the outdated infrastructure of theRadio Antiguo sewerage system, which datesback to 19th century and accounts for 8% of thetotal network. A lack of investment has resultedin a poor record for sewage treatment, and mostefforts are currently focused solely on monitor-ing. Further initiatives in the plan include theinstallation of new drains and secondary collec-tors in 17 water basins around the city by 2012.

Air quality: Buenos Aires places below aver-age for air quality. The city’s dense, traffic-choked streets are the primary source of most ofthe air pollution. While the city has inaugurated

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires. Based on composition of energy sources used in generation of electricity in Argentina, 2) Based on Ciudad Autono-ma de Buenos Aires, 3) Based on Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires. Year for motorcycle data is 2003, 4) Based on Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires. Based on proportion of population with access to sewerage, 5) Based on Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires. Basedon the median of minimum and maximum of the daily air emissions

Quantitative indicators: Buenos Aires

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person (litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Agencia de Protección Ambiental, Ciudad de Buenos Aires;

International Energy Agency; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Agencia de Protección Ambiental, Ciudad de Buenos Aires;

Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires

Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos de la República;

Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires

Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires

EIU estimate; Atlas Ambiental de la Ciudad 2009;

Subgerencia de Transporte Urbano

Subteraneos de B.A.

Dirección Nacional del Registro de la Propiedad del Automotor;

Gobierno de la Ciudad de B.A.

Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Minist. de Ambiente y Espacio Público

Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires;

Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos de la República

Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires

Asociación de Entes Reguladores de Agua Potable y Saneamiento

de las Américas

Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires

Anuario Estadístico 2009, Ministerio de Hacienda GCABA

Agencia de Protección Ambiental, Ciudad de Buenos Aires

Agencia de Protección Ambiental, Ciudad de Buenos Aires

Atlas de Buenos Aires

World Bank

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2008

2008

2009

2008

2008

2010

2008

2008

2008

2008

2008

2001

2008

2008

2009

1997

1999

Buenos Aires

527.3 1, e

535.3 2

15,013.4 2

6.1 2

7.0 2

0.26 2

0.66 3, e

100.0 2

606.1 2

669.2 2

41.0 2, e

100.0 2

99.3 4, e

0.0 2

27.0 2

16.0 5, e

107.0 2

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tions. Curitiba remains at the top of the Indexwhen measured against cities with similarincomes and populations.

Energy and CO2: Curitiba ranks aboveaverage in energy and CO2. The city emits con-siderably less CO2 from electricity than the Indexaverage, at an estimated 70 kg of CO2 per per-son compared to the 17-city average of 292 kg.The city consumes 743 megajoules of electricityper US$1,000 GDP, which is just slightly belowthe average of 761 megajoules. Curitiba has agood record in trying to reduce loss of energy intransmission and to consume energy more effi-ciently, and it makes at least partial efforts to

convert waste by-products to energy. Andalthough the city scores well for its energy strat-egy and investments in renewable energy — thecity produces 84% of its electricity fromhydropower — it is marked down for not havingmonitored greenhouse gas emissions and pub-lishing the results. However, this will likelychange (see “green initiatives” below).

Green initiatives: Since 2009 the city’s envi-ronmental authority has been conducting anongoing study on the CO2 absorption rate in Cu-ritiba’s green spaces, as well as evaluating totalCO2 emissions in the city. Curitiba officials saythe results will help them draft plans to neutra-lise emissions. The city is also in the process ofchanging all street lights from incandescent toenergy-efficient fluorescent bulbs. It hasannounced plans to replace all diesel oil used inpublic transport with environmentally friendly,low-emission biofuels, although the timetable isunclear.

Land use and buildings: Curitiba ranksaverage in land use and buildings, its lowest

Latin American Green City Index | Curitiba_Brazil

48 49

Curitiba_Brazil

Curitiba is the capital of the Brazilian state ofParaná, situated in the country’s fertile

southern region. Although 3.5 million peoplereside in the metropolitan area, just 1.9 millionlive within the Curitiba city limits, making it thesecond smallest city in the Latin American GreenCity Index. All data included in the Index is basedon the smaller city proper. Its economy, thefourth biggest in Brazil, is driven primarily bycommerce and services, but industry makes upabout a third of its GDP. It is, for example, thesecond largest car manufacturer in the country.

placement in the Index. As a city with a low pop-ulation and one of the smallest administrativeareas in the Index, Curitiba has a populationdensity of 4,300 persons per square kilometre,which is mid-range for the Index and just slightlybelow the 17-city average of 4,500 inhabitants.The city could improve its performance in thiscategory by increasing its green spaces. At 52square metres per person, Curitiba is just mid-range in the Index. However, Curitiba receivesthe best scores for protecting the green spaces itdoes have, and for its comprehensive plan tocontain urban sprawl. The city is a middling per-former on eco-buildings policies, since it has nei-ther adopted eco-efficient standards for build-

living in informal settlements. The city adminis-tration says it aims to relocate to permanenthousing some 18,000 families living in informalsettlements along Curitiba’s river banks by theend of 2012. This project aims to improve livingstandards and protect the city’s more vulnerableecological areas. In 2007 Curitiba launched aprogramme to incentivise landowners to estab-lish public parks on their private land. Landown-ers who create parks are exempt from local andfederal urban land taxes. The city says the pro-gramme is helping preserve green areas andlimit urban sprawl.

Transport: Curitiba ranks above average intransport. Over the last three decades, Curitibahas based its mass transport system on bus“axes”, which are dedicated corridors where onlybuses operate, also known as “bus rapid transit”(BRT). The city has six such axes carrying710,000 daily commuters. The transit system isintegrated, with commuters able to pay one fareand transfer between different bus lines. Curiti-ba’s investment in buses has helped give it thesecond longest mass transport network in theIndex, at an estimated 8.5 km per square kilome-tre, well above the 17-city average of 5 km persquare kilometre. At the same time, the cityscores well for its urban mass transport policy.Curitiba is taking steps to reduce emissions fromurban mass transport, through the replacementof diesel-powered buses with ones running onbiofuels (see “green initiatives” below). Despiteits well-developed public transport system,Curitiba is marked down for its stock of cars andmotorcycles. The city has 0.50 vehicles per per-son, the second highest rate in the Index andwell above the average of 0.30 cars per person.However, the city is proactively tackling its trafficproblems, and earns top place for its congestionreduction policies. Curitiba uses a combination

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 1.9

Administrative area (km2) 430.9

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) 10,796.6

Population density (persons/km2) 4,296.2

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 17.0

Based on City of Curitiba

ings, nor does it offer incentives for businessesand households to lower their energy use.

Green initiatives: Curitiba is participating inthe federal government’s “My House, My Life”scheme to provide low-cost housing for people

The city is also home to numerous well-knownnational and international companies. Curitibaboasts the eighth highest GDP per person in theIndex, at US$10,800. The city also is widely con-sidered to be the best planned of Brazil’s majorcities, and it has won international recognitionfor its efforts in sustainable development.

Curitiba continues to live up to its reputationfor sustainable urban planning with an excep-tional performance in the Index. It is the onlycity that achieves an overall rank of well aboveaverage, making it the greenest city in the Index.Curitiba performs particularly well in the area ofwaste and air quality, and is the only city toachieve well above average in these categories.Its placement is bolstered by progressive policiesin both waste management and clean air. Inmost other categories Curitiba places among thetop performers, ranking above average. Its poor-est placement is in the area of land use andbuildings, where it ranks average. Curitiba’simpressive performance is largely attributable toits well-developed policies. The city is amongthe best-performing cities for its policies inalmost all categories, with a few notable excep-

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Curitiba Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin American Green City Index | Curitiba_Brazil

of traffic light sequencing, traffic information sys-tems, dedicated delivery times and access pointsaround the city in order to reduce congestion.

Green initiatives: In 2007 Curitiba startedrehabilitating the Green Line, a stretch of federalhighway that links eastern and western Curitiba.The Green Line now has four exclusive bus lanesand three lanes for private vehicles in each direc-tion. The aim is to cut commuting times, linkopposite sides of the city and the neighbor-hoods in between, and encourage the use ofpublic transport by cutting bus travel times. Fur-thermore, six of the 12 buses running on the lineoperate on soybean-derived biofuel. Officialsare closely monitoring their performance, andeventually the city wants all of its buses to runon biofuels. The city is also establishing a public-private partnership to build the city’s first metro.The US$1.2 billion project is scheduled to openin 2014, although this target seems unlikelygiven that construction has not yet begun. Thetransport department says nearly 500,000 com-muters will travel between the 22 plannedmetro stations every day.

Waste: Curitiba is the only city in the Index toachieve a well above average ranking in thewaste category. In 1988 it became the first of sixBrazilian cities in the Index to shut down its openrubbish dump, and instead dispose of all wastein a managed landfill. Now Curitiba is one ofeight cities in the Index that collects and ade-quately disposes of 100% of its municipal waste.Its score is also bolstered by progressive policieson waste collection and disposal, and wasterecycling and re-use. The city enforces strictenvironmental standards on its sole landfill andalso has a programme to separately collect andtreat hazardous waste, as well as debris fromconstruction and demolition. Curitiba also hasthe most advanced recycling programme inBrazil (see “green initiatives” below). On theother hand, the city generates 473 kg of waste

per person per year, slightly more than the 17-city average of 465 kg. Reducing the amount ofwaste generated would boost its already impres-sive performance in this category even more.

Green initiatives: In 1989 Curitiba launchedits now-renowned recycling programme. Resi-dents separate recyclable materials, includingglass, plastics, paper and old electronic devices,which the city collects from households threetimes a week. To ensure proper disposal of wastegenerated in 41 informal settlements, whichhave dense, winding streets that are difficult forwaste companies to access, the city introducedits “Purchase of Garbage” initiative. The city hasdesignated central collection points where resi-dents receive food baskets in ex-change for each8-10 kg of waste they hand over. Furthermore,the city pays the neighborhood association 10%of the value of each food basket for communityworks or services. Curitiba authorities estimatethat 6,800 tonnes of waste are collectedthrough this initiative each year.

Water: Curitiba ranks above average in thewater category. The city’s water consumption isone of the lowest in the Index, behind onlyBogotá. On a per capita basis, the city consumes150 litres of water per day, well below the 17-city average of 264 litres. The low level of waterconsumption is largely attributable to manyyears of successful public awareness campaignsto encourage water conservation. Furthermore,Curitiba is the leading city in the Index for thestrength of its water sustainability policy, whichis contained in the city’s municipal waterresources plan. The top marks for policy are dri-ven by the presence of several efficiency mea-sures, including water meters, separate pipes fornon-drinking water, hose-pipe bans and rainwa-ter collection. The city is marked down for onlypartially monitoring surface water quality andimposing limits for levels of pollutants in surfaceor drinking water. However, this result is skewed

gramme to inform citizens about the dangers ofhousehold pollutants. It also has a comprehen-sive air quality code, helping Curitiba achievebetter than average pollutant levels. The cityrecords an average daily concentration of nitro-gen dioxide at 23 micrograms per cubic metre,compared to the Index average of 38 micro-grams. While still well below the average, thecity’s nitrogen dioxide emissions can likely beattributed to the city’s continued reliance onmotor vehicles — they are a primary source ofthis pollutant. The city also does well on sulphurdioxide and suspended particulate matter emis-sions, with both well below the average levels.

Green initiatives: In 2002 the state govern-ment introduced a law that establishes strict

emissions standards for industry, and mandatesemissions audits at factories every four years.Authorities issue fines to facilities that do notmeet standards, and if factories fail twice, thestate can close them down.

Environmental governance: Curitibaranks above average for environmental gover-nance. It performs particularly well for environ-mental management, thanks to having a desig-nated environmental department which moni-tors the city’s environmental impact and draftsstrategic plans on environmental policy. In 2010the city allocated about US$106 million to theenvironmental department, or about 5% of thetotal city budget. Curitiba also actively engagescitizens and NGOs in formulating environmental

policy. As a result it gets the highest marks in theIndex for public participation, along with Santia-go. While Curitiba has conducted a recent base-line environmental review that included water,sanitation, waste, transport, human settlementsand climate change, the review omitted air qual-ity, land use and energy. Other Index citiesincluded all of these components in their review.

Green initiatives: In 1989 Curitiba added envi-ronmental education into the curriculum of itspublic schools. The school system adopted aninterdisciplinary method for teaching conserva-tion, recycling and a wide range of environmen-tal issues. The city provides training courses onenvironmental education for teachers and sup-ports class fieldtrips to parks and forests.

by the fact that the state-run environmentalagency monitors water quality rather than thecity itself. This should change though, as the cityhas plans to monitor water quality at 70 pointsthroughout the city in the future.

Green initiatives: The state water companyhas extended water services — as well as sewer-age connections — to all of the 1,790 house-holds in “Vila Zumbi dos Palmares”, an informalsettlement. The programme guarantees thedelivery of clean drinking water and alsoimproves water quality for Curitiba as a whole,largely because the informal settlement sitsalong the banks of the Palmital River, one of thecity’s main water sources.

Sanitation: Curitiba ranks above average insanitation. The city treats 98% of its wastewater,the third best performance in the Index, behindBrasília and Monterrey, and much higher thanthe 17-city average of 52%. Curitiba’s score isalso boosted by strict standards for wastewatertreatment and regular monitoring, and the citypromotes public awareness on the efficient useof sanitation systems. The city could work toimprove sanitation access, however. Only 93%of residents have access to services, one of thelower rates in the Index and slightly below theaverage of 94%.

Green initiatives: The main initiative to im-prove the Curitiba’s sanitation system is aUS$585 million statewide programme called“From River to River”. This comprehensive planinvolves improving sanitation, as well asdrainage and the quality of the state’s waterbasins. The programme will run through 2018.

Air quality: Curitiba ranks well above aver-age in air quality. Along with Santiago, the cityboasts the most advanced clean air policy in theIndex. It regularly monitors air pollutants, forexample, and participates in a statewide pro-

50 51

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on City of Curitiba. Estimated from energy sources used in electricity production in Brazil, 2) Based on City of Curitiba, 3) Based on City of Curitiba. Basedon proportion of population with access to sewerage

Quantitative indicators: Curitiba

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person (litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Agência Curitiba; Curitiba, Prefeitura da Cidade; International

Energy Agency; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Agência Curitiba; Curitiba, Prefeitura da Cidade;

Economist Intelligence Unit

Agência Curitiba; Curitiba, Prefeitura da Cidade

Agência Curitiba; Curitiba, Prefeitura da Cidade

Agência Curitiba; Curitiba, Prefeitura da Cidade

URBS Curitiba

Denatran

Agência Curitiba; Curitiba, Prefeitura da Cidade

Agência Curitiba; Curitiba, Prefeitura da Cidade

SANEPAR - Companhia de Saneamento do Paraná

Agência Curitiba; Curitiba, Prefeitura da Cidade

Agência Curitiba; Curitiba, Prefeitura da Cidade

SANEPAR - Companhia de Saneamento do Paraná

SANEPAR - Companhia de Saneamento do Paraná

Secretaria de Estado do Meio Ambiente -

Relatório de Qualidade do Ar Curitiba e RMC

Secretaria de Estado do Meio Ambiente -

Relatório de Qualidade do Ar Curitiba e RMC

Secretaria de Estado do Meio Ambiente -

Relatório de Qualidade do Ar Curitiba e RMC

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2007

2007

2009

2009

2009

2010

2010

2007

2009

2010

2009

2009

2010

2010

2007

2007

2007

Curitiba

70.4 1, e

743.5 2

4,296.2 2

51.5 2

8.5 2, e

0.19 2

0.50 2

100.0 2

473.2 2

150.0 2

39.2 2

100.0 2

92.5 3

98.3 2

22.5 2

6.6 2

25.9 2

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significant manufacturing sector, emits an esti-mated 333 kg of CO2 per capita from electricityconsumption, well above the Index average of202 kg. This high rate of CO2 emissions is partlya result of the low share of renewables in elec-

Latin America Green City Index | Guadalajara_Mexico

52 53

Guadalajara_Mexico

Guadalajara, the capital of the Mexican stateof Jalisco, is the country’s second most pop-

ulous city behind Mexico City. The metropolitanarea, with a population of 4.4 million, includesthe municipality of Guadalajara City and sevenother municipalities. Data included in the LatinAmerican Green City Index are based on a com-bination of municipal, metropolitan and statefigures, according to availability. The local econ-omy has grown quickly in recent years, driven byan export boom following the 1994 NorthAmerican Free Trade Agreement with the USand Canada. Guadalajara has in particularbecome an electronics industry hub, with sever-

tricity production. An estimated 15% ofGuadalajara’s electricity comes from renewablesources (primarily hydropower), though due to alack of local data, this percentage is estimatedon the basis of national figures. So far, Guadala-jara has not regularly monitored greenhouse gaslevels, nor has it adopted a climate changeaction plan of its own, although it will be cov-ered by a forthcoming plan by the state of Jalisco(see “green initiatives” below). Guadalajara alsohas a relatively low rate of electricity consump-tion compared to its economic output, at an esti-mated 632 megajoules per US$1,000 of GDP,below the Index average of 761 megajoules.

Green initiatives: The state of Jalisco is devel-oping a “State Action Programme on ClimateChange”, modeled on other statewide plans cre-ated elsewhere in Mexico. Although still unfin-ished, some of the plan’s details have beenreleased. It will call for an inventory of green-house gas emissions in the state, and promotegreenhouse gas reductions through a number ofspecific measures aimed at buildings, landfills,transport, and forest protection. Many of thesemeasures are aimed specifically at improvingGuadalajara’s environmental performance. Inaddition, the 2009 opening of the city’s first “busrapid transit” (BRT) could reduce the city’s CO2

emissions by 30,000 tonnes per year, accordingto city officials (see “green initiatives” under“Transport” below).

Land use and buildings: Guadalajara isaverage in land use and buildings. The metro-politan area has the fourth highest amount ofgreen spaces among the 17 cities in the Index, at423 square metres per person. Guadalajara is,however, marked down for its policies to main-tain green spaces relative to other cities in the

Index, although it does better for protectingenvironmentally sensitive areas from develop-ment. The city requires that all developmentprojects pass an environmental impact study.Guadalajara’s score is hindered by its policiesregarding eco-buildings. The city does not setstandards for the eco-efficiency of new build-ings by private developers, for example, nordoes it implement green standards for publicbuilding projects. However, its performance inthis area should improve thanks to the state’sforthcoming climate change action plan, whichis expected to address some of these issues.

Green initiatives: The State Action Pro-gramme on Climate Change (see “green initia-tives” under “Energy and CO2”) will outline a“state sustainable buildings policy project” thatwill promote using LEDs for public lighting, aswell as solar panels and energy-efficient appli-ances in homes. In addition, there is a national“Sustainable Light” plan to replace more than 45million incandescent light bulbs in 11 millionMexican homes with energy-saving bulbs by2012. The initiative will save an estimated 2.8million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissionsannually. The city of Guadalajara is also review-ing existing green buildings policies across Mex-ico, with a view to implementing its own regula-tions based on best practices.

Transport: Guadalajara ranks below averagein transport. The metropolitan area’s mass trans-port network, which consists of a two-linemetro, an electric trolley line and a large fleet ofbuses, is shorter than the 17-city average, at 2.3km per square kilometre, compared to the aver-age of 5 km. While the system has suffered inthe past from underinvestment and a lack ofcoordinated planning, Guadalajara has recently

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 4.4

Administrative area (km2) 2,734.0

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) e 9,408.8

Population density (persons/km2) 1,596.6

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 20.0

Based on Guadalajara Metropolitan Areae) EIU estimate

al major international players locating opera-tions in the city. The manufacturing sector,including shoes and textiles, also contributessignificantly to the city’s economic output.Guadalajara boasts a GDP per person of an esti-mated US$9,400, putting it mid-range in theIndex in terms of income.

Economic growth has brought environmen-tal challenges though, and Guadalajara isranked well below average overall in the LatinAmerican Green City Index. The city’s highestrankings are in the land use and buildings,waste, and air quality categories, where it placesaverage. Guadalajara places below average inenergy and CO2, transport and sanitation. It hassignificant room for improvement in the areas ofwater and environmental governance, placingwell below average, due to a very high rate ofwater consumption, and weaknesses in environ-mental monitoring. Guadalajara’s scores in sev-eral categories are hindered by its policies,which are in many cases less robust than thoseof other cities in the Index; however, the cityscores much better for its codes regarding cleanenergy, waste collection and air quality.

Energy and CO2: Guadalajara ranks belowaverage in energy and CO2. Its performance isinfluenced by relatively high CO2 emissions fromelectricity consumption and relatively weak poli-cies to address climate change. The city, with its

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Guadalajara Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin America Green City Index | Guadalajara_Mexico

54 55

taken notable steps to significantly improve itstransport system. In 2009, the city opened itsfirst BRT line (see “green initiatives” below), fol-lowing the model of several other cities in theIndex. Its superior public transport network(defined in the Index as transport that moveslarge numbers of passengers quickly in dedicat-ed lanes, such as a metro, bus rapid transit ortrams) is the second longest in the Index, at 0.26km per square kilometre, above the 17-city aver-age of 0.1 km per square kilometre. On the otherhand, the city lacks an integrated pricing systemfor public transport, though officials say theywill introduce one in the future, along withplanned park and ride systems. But some localgovernment policies have served inadvertentlyto increase car traffic rather than reduce it. Taxcuts for car owners have contributed to a 23%drop in the use of public transport in the lastdecade, while private transport has jumped14%, according to state statistics. Today themunicipality of Guadalajara has 0.37 vehiclesfor every inhabitant, slightly above the Indexaverage of 0.3.

Green initiatives: The city opened its US$48million BRT system in March 2009, with routestotalling 16 km. A further 56 km are scheduledto be added by 2010. Overseen by the state gov-ernment but operated by a private company, thesystem of exclusive high-speed bus lanes is simi-lar to many others opening across Latin America.The city is also planning on adding a third line toits existing metro system. Furthermore, in 2008,Guadalajara started a free bicycle-lending pro-gramme, “Pedalling Guadalajara”. There are now200 cycle stations around the city with capacityfor up to 74,000 users per day. Guadalajara alsolaunched a voluntary share and ride car pro-gramme for public sector employees in 2008,called “share your car”. The city is also planningon introducing congestion charges and “no-cardays” to reduce the number of private vehicleson city roads.

Waste: Guadalajara is average in the wastecategory. The city scores well for collecting andadequately disposing of an estimated 100% ofits waste, based on official statewide figures.The Guadalajara metropolitan area generatesjust slightly more than the average amount ofwaste, at 473 kg per person per year versus of465 kg. The city enforces environmental stan-dards on landfill and incineration sites, and hasrules to encourage residents to properly disposeof waste. Its results for recycling policies aremixed, however. On one hand, Guadalajara hasa collection programme and recycles all of thefive materials included in the Index — organicwaste, electrical waste, glass, plastics and paper.On the other hand, it lacks an integrated strate-gy aimed at reducing, recycling and re-usingwaste.

Green initiatives: Local authorities plan toincrease the total amount of organic and non-organic separated waste from 40% to 50%.However, no specific timetable or details on howthey will achieve this target have been disclosed.The city is also calling for greater emphasis onthe conversion of municipal waste into energy,although hard details on the investmentrequired — and specific targets set — remainelusive.

Water: Guadalajara ranks well below averagein the water category. The city’s daily averageconsumption, at an estimated 651 litres perperson per day, is the second highest in theIndex and well above the 17-city average of 264litres. This estimate is based on the municipalityof Guadalajara rather than the metropolitanarea, due to a lack of data. Guadalajara also getsmarked down for the relatively low proportionof its population with access to potable water,at 89%, compared to the average of 98%. Thecity loses 37% of its water through system leak-ages, slightly more than the 35% Index average.However the city scores better for water sus-

two new water treatment plants, El Ahogadoand Agua Prieta, which should substantiallyraise the rate of wastewater treatment inGuadalajara. The US$80 million El Ahogadoplant is already under construction, with justover a third finished. The Agua Prieta plant,which is estimated to need US$90 million tocomplete, still needs approval from the statecongress.

Air quality: Guadalajara ranks average in airquality. The city’s emissions are near the aver-ages for each of the air pollutants measured inthe Index — sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxideand suspended particulate matter.

Like many cities in Latin America, Guadala-jara has an abundance of cars, which are mainlyresponsible for pollutant levels. Guadalajaradoes benefit from having relatively robust cleanair policies. It has an air quality code, regularlymonitors pollutants at different locationsaround the city and is participating in a nation-wide programme to improve monitoring capa-bilities. Furthermore, it receives full marks formeasures to inform citizens about the dangersof air pollution.

Environmental governance: Guadala-jara ranks well below average in environmentalgovernance.

While it does have a dedicated environmen-tal department that oversees and implementspolicy, the department does not have the remitto address issues regarding sanitation, humansettlements, energy or climate change. The citydoes not regularly monitor its overall environ-mental performance and publish informationon its progress.

To respond to enquiries by the public,Guadalajara has a central contact point for infor-mation on environmental topics and projects.But it only partly involves citizens, non-govern-ment organisations and other stakeholders indecisions on projects of major environmentalimpact.

tainability policies, thanks to a code aimed atreducing water stress and programmes to pro-mote public awareness about efficient waterconsumption. The city also uses water metertariffs to improve efficiency. And whileGuadalajara has a code that targets the qualityof surface water, it could improve its perfor-mance by enforcing stricter water pollutionstandards on local industry.

Green initiatives: To respond to water leakagereports, as well as to answer general customerenquiries, the Inter-municipal System of Waterand Sewage (SIAPA), which manages Guadala-jara’s water supply and service, has an onlinecustomer service capability, and 11 officesspread across the metropolitan area. The depart-ment also promotes sustainable practices fordomestic water use, such as bathroom mainte-nance, and informing citizens about how to con-serve water while going about daily activitiessuch as dish washing, showering, car washingand cooking.

Sanitation: Guadalajara ranks below aver-age in the sanitation category. According to offi-cial figures, a high percentage of the populationin the metropolitan area has access to sanita-tion, at an estimated 95%, just above the 17-cityaverage of 94%. However, only an estimated25% of Guadalajara’s wastewater is treated,against a much higher Index average of 52%.This estimate is based on statewide figures dueto a lack of local data. The city could also boostits score by strengthening sanitation policies.Guadalajara lacks a code promoting environ-mentally sustainable sanitation systems; also itdoes not regularly monitor on-site treatmentfacilities like septic tanks. On the other hand, thecity does have minimum standards for the treat-ment of wastewater and regularly monitors thewastewater that is treated.

Green initiatives: Plans are underway to build* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on state of Jalisco, 2) Based on state of Jalisco. GDP estimate based on figures, 3) Based on Guadalajara Metropolitan Area, 4) Based on municipality ofGuadalajara, 5) Based on Gualalajara Metropolitan Area. Based on total waste collected, 6) Based on municipality of Guadalajara. Based on daily water extraction, 7) Based on Guadalajara Metropolitan Area. Households with access to potable water, 8) Based onGuadalajara Metropolitan Area. Households with access to sewerage

Quantitative indicators: Guadalajara

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person

(litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía; Interna-

tional Energy Agency; Consejo Nacional de Población; Intergo-

vernmental Panel on Climate Change

EIU estimate; Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía; Consejo

Nacional de Población; Economist Intelligence Unit

Consejo Nacional de Población

Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía

Secretaría del Medio Ambiente para el Desarrollo Sustentable;

Sistema de Tren Eléctrico Urbano; Consejo Nacional de Población

Macrobus

INEGI

Secretaría de medio ambiente y recursos naturales

Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía; Consejo Nacional de

Población

Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía; Consejo Nacional de

Población

Comisión Nacional del Agua

Consejo Estatal de Población

Consejo Estatal de Población

Comisión Nacional del Agua

Gobierno de Jalisco

Gobierno de Jalisco

Gobierno de Jalisco

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2008

2008

2009

2005

2009

2010

2010

2008

2008

2008

2008

2005

2005

2008

2008

2008

2008

Guadalajara

332.9 1, e

631.6 2, e

1,596.6 3

423.3 3

2.3 3

0.26 4

0.37 4

100.0 1, e

472.7 5

651.2 6, e

37.0 4

89.1 7

94.5 8, e

24.7 1, e

41.4 3

11.4 3

41.5 3

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above the Index average of 202 kg. The city mayimprove its performance in this area in the com-ing years thanks to national legislation aimed atimproving energy efficiency and boostinginvestment in renewables. Lima is a member of“C40”, a group of large cities committed to tack-ling climate change, promoted by the ClintonFoundation. However, given that initiatives toreduce CO2 emissions fall under the auspices ofthe national environmental ministry, created in2008, the municipality’s efforts have concen-trated on energy-efficiency projects. But the cityitself lacks a comprehensive plan for reducingthe environmental impact of energy consump-tion.

Green initiatives: By the end of 2010 the cityaims to replace over 6,000 incandescent trafficlights with new LED lights, considered to be 90%more efficient. Furthermore, in the last fewyears, leading electricity generators have begunusing natural gas sourced from the large naturalgas fields located in Camisea, in the south ofPeru. The national government is promotingnatural gas consumption in the transport andindustrial sectors by providing financial incen-tives for car conversions from oil to natural gas.By April 2010, more than 85,600 vehicles hadbeen converted nationwide, from just 150 in2005. Furthermore, the entire fleet of buses run-ning on Lima’s Metropolitano bus corridor (see“green initiatives” in “Transport” below) runs on100% natural gas, resulting in a reduction of185,000 tonnes of CO2 emissions annually.

Land use and buildings: Lima ranks wellbelow average for land use and buildings. Likemany cities in Latin America, Lima experienced apopulation boom in the 20th century, driven bymassive waves of rural migration, and today thecity faces a severe housing shortage. However,given the large size of its administrative area,the city has a below-average population densityof an estimated 3,000 people per square kilome-tre, compared with the Index average of 4,500people. The metropolitan area of Lima has just 2square metres of green spaces per person, thelowest amount in the Index, although the citydoes protect its existing green spaces and envi-ronmentally sensitive areas. Lima performs lesswell in the area of eco-buildings policies. Thecity lacks incentives, regulations and standards,as well as awareness campaigns, to promotegreater energy efficiency in buildings.

Green initiatives: In 2007 the 49 districts inthe Lima metropolitan area signed the “GreenLima and Callao Pact”, aimed at increasing theshare of green spaces around the city. The pro-gramme has yielded some results: the munici-

Latin American Green City Index | Lima_Peru

56 57

Lima_Peru

performances are in the areas of energy andCO2, and transport, placing average in both. Itscomparatively better placements in these cate-gories are due to a relatively low level of electric-ity consumption per unit of GDP as well as robusttraffic congestion reduction policies. The cityplaces below average in most other categories,but its poorest rank is in the land use and build-ings category, owing to a very small amount ofgreen spaces and weak policies regarding ener-gy efficiency in buildings. However, when measured against the six other cities in the Index with low incomes (below US$8,000 GDP per capita), Lima has both the lowest water consumption per person and the lowestaverage daily concentration of nitrogen dioxidelevels.

Energy and CO2: Lima ranks average forenergy and CO2. The city consumes an estimat-ed 678 megajoules of electricity per US$1,000of GDP, compared to a 17-city average of 761megajoules. This estimate is based on statewidedata. With 59% of its electricity coming fromhydropower, the city emits an estimated 217 kgof CO2 per person from electricity consumption,

The capital of Peru, Lima is home to 8.4 mil-lion people in the metropolitan area, about a

third of the country’s population. It is the thirdmost populous city in the Latin American GreenCity Index. Data for Lima are based primarily onthe metropolitan area and state figures. Lima isthe second poorest city in the Index in terms ofGDP per capita, at US$4,900, which is less thanhalf the Index average. Lima is Peru’s politicaland economic hub, accounting for over half ofthe country’s GDP. Some of the biggest contribu-tors to the local economy are manufacturing,construction, and fishing. A considerable por-tion of Lima’s businesses are small and microenterprises, many operating in the informal sec-tor, which hampers the authorities’ efforts toenforce environmental standards. Lima is sur-rounded by a desert and has extremely low lev-els of rainfall, putting tremendous pressure onexisting water resources. The metropolitan areaof Lima comprises the city of Lima, which isdivided into 43 separate local government dis-tricts, and Callao, a separate region adjacent tothe city, divided into six districts.

Lima ranks well below average overall in theLatin American Green City Index. The city’s best

pality has prioritised building large recreationalareas, such as the Water Park and several otherparks in the city’s poorest neighbourhoods. Offi-cials also have been revamping public squaresand other green areas along the main avenues inthe city centre. According to Grupo GEA, a non-governmental organisation, green spaces haveincreased by about 58% since 2004.

Transport: Lima is average for transport. Thecity’s mass transport system consists of a metrorunning on one line, which is currently beingextended (see “green initiatives” below), and anextensive fleet of buses. In 2009 the networkserving the metropolitan region measured anestimated 5.2 km per square kilometre, justslightly longer than the Index average of 5 kmper square kilometre. However, the overalllength of the network masks the generallychaotic state of the city’s transport system andserious congestion problems caused by anexcess amount of buses and taxis. The city, incollaboration with the national ministry of

transportation, has attempted to reorganise busroutes and remove polluting vehicles, but withlittle success. Lima lacks an integrated pricingsystem for mass transport, and it has been slowto improve the network in general (though thisshould change as measures in the city’s masterplan are adopted). The city scores better for itstraffic management system, which includestraffic light sequencing, dedicated freight deliv-ery times, and the construction of access pointsaround the city.

Green initiatives: In mid-2010 the city un-veiled its first “bus rapid transit” (BRT) systemalong the so-called Metropolitano corridor. The26 km corridor runs from north to south along38 stations. Four private companies operate 75high-capacity buses, all of which run on naturalgas and transport nearly one million passengersper day. This BRT corridor is the first stage in along-term master plan to overhaul the city’stransport network. The master plan, publishedin 2005, calls for the construction of eight addi-

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 8.4

Administrative area (km2) 2,817.0

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) 1 4,873.0

Population density (persons/km2) e 2,982.2

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 20.0

Based on Lima Metropolitana1) Based on Departamento de Limae) EIU estimate

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Lima Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin American Green City Index | Lima_Peru

58 59

tional BRT corridors and the extension of thecity’s existing metro line. Works are currentlyunderway on the metro, at a cost of US$300 mil-lion. Due for completion by July 2011, the citywill add an additional 11.7 km to the existing 9.2km line. Studies to build a second, 22-km line,which will run from east to west, are due tobegin before the end of 2010.

Waste: Lima ranks below average in the wastecategory. Although it places comparativelypoorly in this category, Lima, like many otherlow-income cities in the Index, generates one ofthe lowest amounts of waste. The city produces314 kg of waste per person each year, wellbelow the Index average of 465 kg. However,the city collects and adequately disposes of just78% of its waste, the lowest rate in the Indexand well below the 17-city average of 96%. Thecity’s waste is processed in six landfills aroundthe metropolitan area. But a large portion stillends up at open-air dumps, is incinerated, orthrown into either the Rímac River or the PacificOcean. Each of the 49 administrative districts inthe Lima and Callao metropolitan area collectsand disposes of its own waste, resulting in afragmented waste strategy. Lima complies withnational efforts to encourage residents to re-useand recycle, and is one of several cities in theIndex that has legalised and carefully regulateswaste picking.

Green initiatives: Waste pickers, who conducta large share of recycling in the city, are beingorganised into unions. There are currently morethan 200 organisations that collect solid wasteand more than 400 that sort and sell it to be re-used. Private and public initiatives have resultedin the installation of central collection points forglass, paper and plastics recycling, which havebeen embraced to varying degrees by the pub-lic, depending on the district. Furthermore, theHuaycoloro landfill, where almost half of Lima’swaste is processed, is implementing a waste-to-energy project.

Water: Lima ranks below average for water.Lima’s water consumption, at 151 litres per per-son per day, is the third lowest in the Index andwell below the 17-city average of 264 litres.However, this is primarily due to lack of supplyrather than efficient water use. Rainfall in Limaaverages just 9 millimetres per year; water istherefore extremely scarce and most of the city’sdrinking water is from the Rimac River. Just 87%of the city’s residents have access to potablewater, well below the 17-city average of 98%.Furthermore, the city loses 38% of its water sup-ply to system leakages, compared to an Indexaverage of 35%. Despite its overall poor perfor-

Air quality: Lima ranks below average for airquality. Its performance in this category is due toabove-average levels of sulphur dioxide and par-ticulate matter, mainly from transport. Accordingto city officials, a majority of cars in the city oper-ate on highly polluting diesel fuel. The daily con-centration of particulate matter, at 94 micro-grams per cubic metre, is nearly double the Indexaverage of 48 micrograms. Sulphur dioxide con-centrations are also high, at 18 micrograms percubic metre, compared to a 17-city average of 11micrograms. Only nitrogen dioxide levels arebelow average. The city has weak clean air poli-cies, which are a reflection of the fragmentationof responsibilities between several national min-istries, municipalities and other institutions.

Green initiatives: In 2001 the city created the“Management Committee of the Clean Air Initia-tive for Lima and Callao”, comprised of represen-tatives from several relevant ministries and theprivate sector. The committee prepared a cleanair programme for 2005 to 2010 that identifiedfive areas of action to reduce air pollution in themetropolitan area, including measures to tacklepolluting fuels and to manage traffic. However,according to some estimates, only about 15% ofthe measures have been completed so far.

Environmental governance: Lima ranksbelow average for environmental governance.This ranking is largely a result of the fragmentedallocation of resources and responsibilities for

environmental management among multipleinstitutions and levels of government. In 2006the municipality of Lima created a dedicatedenvironmental department, but it lacks theauthority to implement its own environmentallegislation.

In the last five years the city has conducted abaseline review of only its waste sector, omittingwater, sanitation and air quality, among others.Most policy initiatives come from the recentlycreated national ministry for the environment,where technical expertise is concentrated. Onthe other hand, like most cities in the Index,Lima involves citizens, NGOs and other stake-holders in decisions on projects with environ-mental impact.

mance in this category, the city performs betterin the area of water sustainability policies. It hasa policy aimed at reducing water stress and con-suming water more efficiently, and also activelypromotes public awareness about efficientwater consumption. Water and sanitation ser-vices are provided by Sedapal, a state-run water-works company with no institutional links to themunicipality of Lima. The production of potablewater takes place at three treatment plants, andthe national environmental health departmentis in charge of monitoring of water quality. Whilewater quality monitoring takes place, and stan-dards regarding levels of pollutants exist, theenforcement of those standards, particularly onindustrial polluters, tends to be low. This hindersthe city’s score in the area of water quality policy.

Green initiatives: Since 2006 the national min-istry of housing, construction and sanitation, hascollaborated with Sedapal on an initiative toexpand the potable water supply to an additional1 million people in Lima. The US$715 millionnational programme, known as “Water for All”, isrunning 344 projects, including the constructionof water treatment facilities. In an effort toimprove water management, the national gov-ernment passed a new law regulating the sectorin 2010. The law also created a national waterauthority (ANA) to act as a supervisory body.

Sanitation: Lima ranks below average in thesanitation category. The city’s performance islargely attributable the negligible share ofwastewater treated. Lima treats just 9% of itswastewater, and most untreated wastewater isdumped into the Pacific Ocean. Furthermore,only 86% of the population has access to sanita-tion services, compared to the Index average of94%. Areas with no sewage system use septictanks. Sedapal, the state-owned water companyresponsible for sanitation, monitors the fewexisting treatment sites. But the city lacks a com-prehensive plan to provide environmentally sus-tainable sanitation services, although it is mak-ing more investment to improve its sanitationinfrastructure (see “green initiatives” below).

Green initiatives: Since 2006 the nationalgovernment has sought to reverse decades ofunderinvestment in sanitation infrastructure,and has named sanitation one of its top priori-ties. In 2009 the government auctioned the con-struction of a large wastewater treatment plantknown as Taboada, and by the end of 2010 it willtender a second concession to build and operateanother mega plant known as La Chira, at a costof US$145 million. The city expects that thesetwo plants will have the capacity to treat all ofLima’s wastewater.

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on Departamento de Lima. Based on electricity consumption estimates for Departamento de Lima and composition of energy sources used in electricitygeneration in Peru, 2) Based on Departamento de Lima. Based on regression analysis. GDP figures are for Departamento de Lima and the year 2006, 3) Based on Lima Metropolitana, 4) Based on Ciudad de Lima, 5) Based on Departamento de Lima, 6) Based on Departa-mento de Lima. Population with access to sewerage and septic tanks

Quantitative indicators: Lima

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person

(litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática; International

Energy Agency; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

EIU estimate; Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática; International

Energy Agency; Economist Intelligence Unit

Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática; Municipalidad Metro-

politana de Lima

Pensando Lima

EIU estimate; Tren Urbano de Lima; Municipalidad Metropolitana de Lima

Metropolitano , Autoridad Autonoma de Tren Electrico

Ministerio Transportes y Comunicaciones

Municipalidad Metropolitana de Lima

Municipalidad Metropolitana de Lima

Servicio de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado de Lima; Instituto Nacional de

Estadística e Informática

Superintendencia Nacional de Servicios de Saneamiento

Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática

Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática

Servicio de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado de Lima

Programa Nacional de Vigilancia Sanitaria de Calidad del Aire

Programa Nacional de Vigilancia Sanitaria de Calidad del Aire

Programa Nacional de Vigilancia Sanitaria de Calidad del Aire

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2007

2007

2006

2009

2009

2010

2009

2009

2009

2009

2008

2007

2007

2008

2009

2009

2009

Lima

217.1 1, e

678.3 2, e

2,982.2 3, e

2.0 3

5.2 3, e

0.01 4

0.14 4

78.1 3

314.2 3

151.5 3

37.5 3

87.3 5

85.8 6

8.5 3

24.5 3

18.1 3

93.5 3

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gy projects, one is planned for 2011 (see “greeninitiatives” below), which will boost its perfor-mance in this area. Medellín does have relativelylow CO2 emissions from electricity consump-tion, at an estimated 74 kg per person versus anIndex average of 202 kg. This low figure ishelped by an above average share of renewableenergies in the electricity mix: the city generatesmore than 80% of its electricity from hydropow-er. The Medellín region has benefited from aKyoto Protocol programme allowing developedcountries to receive carbon credits for helpingdeveloping countries lower their emissions (see“green initiatives” below).

Green initiatives: In 2004 the city-ownedenergy company, EPM, and the Electric PowerDevelopment Company of Japan built a hydro-electric project on the Herradura River that sup-plies nearly 32 megawatts to the Medellín met-ropolitan area. It is estimated to have cut CO2

emissions by about 69,000 tonnes per year. Theproject falls under the Kyoto Protocol’s “cleandevelopment mechanism”, which offers carboncredits for developed countries that support

Latin American Green City Index | Medellín_Colombia

60 61

Medellín_Colombia

falls below average in energy and CO2, land useand buildings, and waste. Medellín leads theIndex in three individual indicators — it has thelowest stock of cars and motorcycles, generatesthe least amount of waste per person and hasthe lowest levels of sulphur dioxide. Comparedto cities in the lower income range (belowUS$8,000 in GDP per person), Medellín has thelongest mass transport network, the best rate ofwastewater treatment, and the highest percent-age of people with access to sanitation.

Energy and CO2: Medellín is below aver-age in energy and CO2. This performance ismainly due to the large amount of electricityconsumed by the city compared to its economicoutput. Medellín uses 982 megajoules perUS$1,000 of GDP, well above the Index averageof 761 megajoules. Regarding energy and CO2

policies, Medellín could improve its perfor-mance by investing in renewable energy, regu-larly monitoring greenhouse gas emissions, andsigning up to international covenants to reducegreenhouse gas emissions. Although the city ismarked down for not having any waste-to-ener-

Medellín is Colombia’s second largest city,behind Bogotá, and an important econom-

ic and political centre in the country. As the capi-tal of the Antioquia department, Medellín ac -counts for around 11% of Colombia’s GDP. It isthe country’s top exporter of clothing, cut flow-ers and chemical products. The Medellín metro-politan region has a population of 3.5 millionand the third smallest average income, atUS$5,500 GDP per person, nearly half the Indexaverage of US$11,100. With a few exceptionsnoted below, most of the data for Medellín in

earlier this decade in the city’s “Eastern-Centralzone”, a low-income area with many informalsettlements. The city brought dwellings in linewith building codes, cleaned up public spacesand improved transport links, including con-necting the area to the city’s tramway system,Metrocable, which links with the wider metrosystem (see “green initiatives” in “Transport”,below). The PUI project has since been expand-ed with plans to improve neighbourhoods in thenorthwest and downtown.

Transport: Medellín ranks average in trans-port. The city’s mass transport network extends5.6 km per square kilometre across the metro-politan area, compared to the Index average of 5km, and it is the longest among cities in theIndex with low incomes. The network includes alarge fleet of buses, a metro and tramway. Whilethe system lacks an integrated pricing system,for which Medellín is marked down in the area ofmass transport policies, the city is taking steps toencourage the public to take greener forms oftransport. Medellín stands out for having thelowest stock of cars and motorcycles in theIndex, at 0.07 vehicles per person. The figure isbased on the municipality of Medellín, and iswell below the average of 0.3 vehicles per per-son. And despite its low stock of cars, traffic canbe chaotic. As a result city officials have imple-mented congestion reduction measures, such as“no-car days” and dedicated delivery times forfreight. However the city still lacks a congestioncharge and carpooling lanes.

Green initiatives: The city’s tramway system,Metrocable, opened in 2004 as a way of con-necting Medellín’s least developed suburbs tothe wider metro system. Furthermore, works arenow underway on Metroplus, a “bus rapid tran-

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 3.5

Administrative area (km2) 1,165.0

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) 5,547.8

Population density (persons/km2) 3,001.5

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 22.0

Based on Medellin Metropolitan Area

emissions reduction projects in developingcountries. These credits are each equivalent to 1tonne of CO2, which can be traded, sold or usedto meet carbon emission reduction targets inother countries. EPM and the state govern-ment’s local development agency are collabo-rating on a dam and hydroelectric plant on theCauca River that will be the country’s largestwhen it comes online in 2018. Capacity will be2.4 gigawatts, and construction is expected tobegin in 2013. Furthermore, EVAS, a Colombianwaste disposal company, and Green Gas Interna-tional, a clean energy company, have partneredon a methane-capture project at the El Guacallandfill, which receives waste from many of themunicipalities in the Medellín metropolitanarea. The project, which will have a capacity of20 megawatts, is part of the Kyoto Protocol’sclean development mechanism as well. It isexpected to start in 2011 and last 21 years, sav-ing an estimated 3.5 million tonnes of carbonemissions.

Land use and buildings: Medellín ranksbelow average in land use and buildings. Thecity is marked down for its relative lack of greenspaces, at 5 square metres per person, althoughit scores better for its policies to protect andmaintain its existing green spaces and environ-mentally sensitive areas. The city also gets mar -ked down for its eco-building policies that arenot as ambitious as those of other cities. Forexample, Medellín does not promote awarenessamong citizens on ways to improve energy effi-ciency in buildings.

Green initiatives: The Integral Urban Project(PUI) is a core component of the city’s urbandevelopment plan, primarily covering land usebut extending into transport as well. It started

the Index are based on the metropolitan area,rather than the smaller municipality of Medellín.

Medellín is ranked average overall in theIndex. Its best performance is in the sanitationcategory, where it is the only city rated wellabove average, based on high rates of sanitationaccess and wastewater treatment, and consis-tently strong sanitation policies. Medellín is alsoabove average in the air quality category, drivenby relatively small levels of pollution and robustclean air policies. The city is average in trans-port, water and environmental governance. It

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Medellín Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin American Green City Index | Medellín_Colombia

62 63

person per day, compared to the Index averageof 264 litres. Medellín is marked down for itshigher-than-average water leakage rate, at 37%,compared to the average of 35%. It also has oneof the lower rates of access to potable water, at97%, just below the Index average of 98%, a fig-ure based on the municipality. Medellín doeswell for its water quality policies, which includeestablishing a water quality code, regular moni-toring of surface water quality and enforcingwater pollution standards for local industry. Thecity could improve its water efficiency policies,however, as it lacks initiatives outlined in theIndex such as water meters and tariffs, and facil-ities for rainwater collection.

Green initiatives: Medellín’s River SanitationProgramme, which encompasses water manage-ment as well as sanitation improvements, hasbeen recognised as a good-practice model forurban water policy by the Inter-American Devel-opment Bank. The first phase of the programmeupgraded aqueduct networks and encouragedlandowners along the Medellín River to adoptland preservation and water conservation prac-tices. The local government also oversees awater management plan for the Aburrá-Medellínriver basin, which includes cleaning up small trib-utaries and channels, and improving water quali-ty and hydropower capacity.

Sanitation: Medellín ranks well above aver-age in the sanitation category, and is the onlycity at this level in the category. In the metropol-

overall governance score is brought down byweaker environmental management policies.For example, the city has a dedicated environ-mental authority that regularly monitors andpublishes information about environmental per-formance, but it does not have the ability toimplement its own environmental legislation.The city has conducted a baseline environmen-tal review within the last five years, but this didnot look at some specific areas such as trans-

port, land use, human settlements, or climatechange. The city authorities offer citizens a cen-tral contact point for environmental perfor-mance, and also involve citizens and stakehold-er groups in decisions on projects that havemajor environmental impact.

Green initiatives: Recognising that it lacks theinfrastructure to enforce some of its environ-mental regulations, the local government has

started working with civilian groups to identifyindustrial polluters and force the companiesresponsible to comply with existing laws. Theauthorities have set up a system where citizenscan report facilities that are dumping untreatedindustrial wastewater into the sewerage net-work. This initiative is a major component of thecity’s sustainable development plan and thelocal government hopes it will enable betterresponses and planning.

itan area, nearly 100% of people have access tosanitation services, an estimate based on officialfigures. The city treats 95% of its wastewater,which is considerably more than the Index aver-age of 52%. Moreover, on these two indicators,Medellín leads the seven cities in the low-income peer group. The results suggest that thecity’s comprehensive plan to address water andsanitation issues is showing results (see refer-ences under “green initiatives” above, andbelow). Not surprisingly then, the city also per-forms well on sanitation policies, mainly owingto high standards for wastewater treatment,regular monitoring, and its promotion of aware-ness around efficient use of sanitation systems.

Green initiatives: In addition to the city’s RiverSanitation programme that has been ongoingsince 1993, a new wastewater treatment plantis scheduled to open in late 2012 as part of theplan. Furthermore, the city is targeting 100%treatment for the wastewater it collects.

Air quality: Medellín ranks above average inair quality, and first among cities with lowincomes in the Index, largely thanks to relativelyrobust clean air policies, as well as the lowestaverage daily emissions of sulphur dioxide in theIndex. At only 1 microgram per cubic metre incomparison to an average of 11 micrograms, itreflects the high share of clean hydroelectricsources for so much of the city’s power. In thetwo other air-pollutant metrics used in theIndex—nitrogen dioxide and suspended partic-ulate matter—Medellín’s average daily levels arejust above the Index averages. Medellín has anumber of clean air policies in place, includingan air quality code, regular monitoring and pub-lic awareness campaigns.

Environmental governance: Medellínranks average in environmental governance.The city performs relatively well in environmen-tal monitoring and public participation, but the

sit” (BRT) service. The BRT will be comprised of800 new, natural gas-powered buses servingtravellers in dedicated lanes. Medellín’s BRT ismodelled on Bogotá’s TransMilenio, and theconcept is spreading quickly in Latin America invarious forms. The expectation is that the BRTwill reduce traffic and improve air quality, sincethe new buses run on cleaner fuel, and at thesame time many of the city’s older, more pollut-ing models will be taken out of service as part ofthe programme. Furthermore, the “pico y placa”(“peak and plate”) programme restricts vehiclesfrom driving in the city during peak periods fortwo days of the week, on a rotating basis, basedon license plate numbers.

Waste: Medellín is below average in the wastecategory. The city generates the least amount ofwaste in the Index, at 252 kg per person peryear, versus the Index average of 465 kg. How-ever, the share of city waste collected and ade-quately disposed of, at 87%, falls short of theIndex average of 96%. Moreover, Medellín’swaste disposal standards and monitoring aresome of the weakest in the Index. The city is alsoone of the least rigorous when it comes to recy-cling. It recycles glass, plastics and paper, forexample, but not organic or electrical waste,although it does have on-site collection and cen-tral collection points.

Water: Medellín ranks average in the watercategory. The city has the fourth-lowest waterconsumption level in the Index, at 152 litres per

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on Medellin Metropolitan Area, 2) Based on municipality of Medellin, 3) Based on municipality of Medellin. Based on households with access to potablewater, 4) Based on Medellin Metropolitan Area. Proportion of population with access to sewerage

Quantitative indicators: Medellín

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person

(litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Gobernación de Antioquia, Anuarios Estadísticos de Antioquia,

Empresas Públicas de Medellín - EPM, Empresa Antioqueña de Energía -

EADE; Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística; International

Energy Agency; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Gobernación de Antioquia, Anuarios Estadísticos de Antioquia, Empresas

Públicas de Medellín - EPM, Empresa Antioqueña de Energía - EADE; Econo-

mist Intelligence Unit

Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística;

Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá

Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá;

Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística

Metro de Medellín; Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá. Subdirección de

Movilidad y Transporte; Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá

Metro de Medellin

Secretaria de Transportes y Transito de Medellin

Gobernación de Antioquia, Anuario Estadístico de Antioquia,

Empresas Varias de Medellín

Gobernación de Antioquia, Anuario Estadístico de Antioquia, Empresas

Varias de Medellín; Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística

Gobernación de Antioquia, Anuarios Estadísticos de Antioquia, Empresas Púb-

licas de Medellín - EPM; Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística

UN-Water Decade Programme on Capacity Development

Municipalidad de Medellín

Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá, Encuesta de Calidad de Vida;

Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística

Gobernación de Antioquia, Anuarios Estadísticos

Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá

Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá

Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2008

2007

2009

2007

2009

2010

2010

2008

2008

2008

2008

2008

2009

2008

2009

2009

2009

Medellín

74.4 1, e

982.1 1

3,001.5 1

5.0 1

5.6 1

0.08 2

0.07 2

86.8 1

252.3 1

152.4 1

37.0 1

97.0 3

99.7 4, e

94.8 1

40.0 1

1.0 1

56.8 1

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ico City produces an estimated 15% of its elec-tricity from renewable energy sources, thoughdue to a lack of local data, this percentage is esti-mated on the basis of national figures. The cityemits an estimated 318 kg of CO2 from electrici-ty consumption per person, well above the aver-age of 202 kg.

Green initiatives: The city adopted its climatechange action plan in 2008, with the goal of cut-ting CO2 emissions by 12% — the equivalent ofseven million tonnes — by 2012, and to lay thefoundations for further long-term reductions.The plan is comprehensive in its ambitions. Itaims to change consumption habits, attractinvestment and financing for greenhouse gasmitigation projects, promote technologicalinnovation, position Mexico City as a leader ininternational mitigation efforts, and set guide-lines for climate change policies.

Land use and buildings: Mexico Cityranks above average in land use and buildings,which is the best placement in this category fora high-income city. Its strong performance islargely attributable to its ambitious eco-building

Latin America Green City Index | Mexico City_Mexico

64 65

Mexico City_Mexico

and air quality categories, where it places belowaverage. Its performance in air quality is a resultof higher-than-average concentrations of thethree air pollutants measured in the Index.

Energy and CO2: Mexico City ranks aboveaverage for energy and CO2, the best placementin this category among the three cities withhigher incomes in the Index. The city’s perfor-mance in this category is bolstered by the lowestlevel of electricity consumption in comparisonto its economic output. The city consumes just279 megajoules of electricity per US$1,000 ofGDP, which is well below the 17-city average of761 megajoules. Mexico City’s score is furtherboosted by its clean energy policies and climatechange action plan (see “green initiatives”below). According to the climate change actionplan, around 90% of CO2 emissions in the cityresult from the production, transformation,transport and use of energy. The city makesefforts to consume energy more efficiently, andhas conducted a baseline environmental reviewof its emissions. On the other hand, CO2 emis-sions are fairly high. Over 80% of the city’s elec-tricity comes from oil, coal and natural gas. Mex-

With 20 million residents, the metropolitanarea of Mexico City is home to one-fifth of

Mexico’s population. Three decades of explosivepopulation growth from the 1960s through the1980s transformed Mexico City into the thirdlargest urban agglomeration in the world. Thecity proper constitutes about one-fifth of thetotal urban area, and is delineated by the FederalDistrict, which is home to some 8.8 million resi-dents. Mexico City’s metropolitan regionspreads into the neighbouring states of Mexicoand Hidalgo. The Index data for Mexico City aretaken from the smaller Federal District, makingMexico City the second most populous city inthe Latin American Green City Index, behind SãoPaulo. The wider metropolitan region is thecountry’s political, cultural and financial capital,and by far the most important engine of eco-nomic activity, producing one-third of Mexico’stotal GDP. Dangerous levels of air pollution in the1990s led officials to relocate a significant por-tion of heavy industry away from the city. Itremains an important industrial hub, but overthe past two decades services have increasinglydominated the city’s economic activity. MexicoCity boasts the third highest GDP per capita in

policies, which include a plan to certify buildingsas environmentally sustainable. Under the pro-gramme, the city offers incentives to encouragedevelopers to integrate emissions reductionmeasures in building designs. Mexico Cityreceives a middling score for land use policies.The city’s rapid population growth and increas-ing urbanisation have made it difficult to con-tain urban sprawl and conserve environmentallysensitive areas, although officials have a set ofpolicies in place to address both problems. Thecity has 28 square metres of green spaces perperson, and with nearly 6,000 people per squarekilometre, the Federal District has the fifth high-est population density in the Index.

Green initiatives: Since unveiling its “GreenPlan” in 2007 (see “green initiatives” under “Envi-ronmental governance” below), the city hasconserved some 13,600 hectares of environ-mentally sensitive areas. The city is also prepar-ing to deploy an environmental surveillanceforce, which will have the technical expertise toprotect conservation areas and limit the impactof informal settlements. The Green Plan alsoincludes a reforestation programme, which callsfor planting 2.5 million plants per year. In addi-tion, there is a national “Sustainable Light” planto replace more than 45 million incandescentlight bulbs in 11 million Mexican homes withenergy-saving bulbs by 2012. The initiative willsave an estimated 2.8 million tonnes of green-house gas emissions annually.

Transport: Mexico City is above average fortransport. The city’s public transport network iscomprised of a metro system, heavy and lightrails, electric trolleybuses, and an extensive bussystem. It boasts the longest superior publictransport network in the Index (defined as trans-

port that moves large numbers of passengersquickly in dedicated lanes, such as a metro, busrapid transit or trams), at 0.33 km per squarekilometre, compared to the 17-city average of0.1 km per square kilometre. And the overallpublic transport network totals 5.6 km persquare kilometre of city territory, just above the17-city average of 5 km, with some 4.4 millionpassengers riding the network each day. Howev-er, cars remain a major form of transport and thecity has one of the largest stocks of cars andmotorcycles in the Index, at 0.4 vehicles per per-son compared to the Index average of 0.3 vehi-cles. Regarding transport policies, althoughMexico City has a comprehensive urban masstransport policy, and is making investments ingreen transport, the city lacks an integrated pric-ing system for the public transportation system.The city has already implemented “no-car days”,a park and ride system, and a traffic lightsequencing system to reduce congestion andimprove traffic flow, but lacks congestioncharges and carpooling lanes.

Green initiatives: The city has been proactive-ly overhauling its transport system, and has awide-range of initiatives underway. In 2005 thecity inaugurated its first “bus rapid transit” (BRT)system, with a dedicated bus lane on the Aveni-da Insurgentes, the city’s main north-south thor-oughfare. A second BRT line running east towest opened in 2007, and a third line is nowunder construction. Under Mexico City’s inte-grated public transport plan for 2007-2012 andits climate change action plan, the city haslaunched several additional initiatives to expandthe public transportation network and promotealternatives to cars. Works are currently under-way on a 12th metro line. In early 2010, MexicoCity introduced a public rental bike scheme

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 8.8

Administrative area (km2) 1,485.0

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) 20,358.9

Population density (persons/km2) 5,954.2

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 17.0

Based on Mexico D.F.

the Index, at US$20,400, behind Buenos Airesand Brasília. But, like many cities in the Index,income inequality remains very high.

Mexico City is also hosting the World MayorsSummit on Climate change in November 2010,which will promote the strategic importance oflocal communities in global climate change miti-gation efforts. It is taking place ahead of theUnited Nations Framework Convention on Cli-mate Change’s Conferences of the Parties inCancun, Mexico (COP 16) in November andDecember 2010.

Despite significant challenges posed by itslarge population, Mexico City ranks averageoverall in the Latin American Green City Index.Its strongest performance is in the area of envi-ronmental governance, where it ranks wellabove average, thanks to robust environmentalmonitoring, the wide remit of its environmentaldepartment and a high level of public participa-tion. The city ranks above average in the cate-gories of energy and CO2, land use and build-ings, and transport. Mexico’s capital receivesaverage rankings in the waste and water cate-gories. However, the city's overall performanceis hindered by poor outcomes in the sanitation

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Mexico City Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin America Green City Index | Mexico City_Mexico

66 67

high rate of water system leakages, at 37% ver-sus the average of 35%. The Federal District’swaterworks company has established standardsfor key pollutants in drinking water and alsoenforces industrial water pollution standards.However, Mexico City has some of the leastambitious water sustainability policies in theIndex. About 63% of the water supply comesfrom local sources, including the Mexico Valleyand Lerma aquifers, and external sources fromthe Balsas and Cutzamala basins supply theremaining 37%. But the water supply is undertremendous pressure in Mexico City, owing tooverexploitation and contamination of localsources. Although the city has a water efficiencypolicy and promotes conservation, it lacks manymeasures to use water resources more efficient-ly, such as water meters or rainwater collection.

Green initiatives: To reduce water consump-tion, the city has raised water tariffs, althoughprices remain heavily subsidised, by anywherebetween 65% and 95% depending on theneighbourhood. The city also has a programmeto replace 10,000 km of water pipes per year, inan effort to reduce system leakages. The Feder-al District government has set an example forthe city by announcing a goal to reduce itswater consumption by 20%.

Sanitation: Mexico City ranks below averagefor sanitation. An estimated 99% of residentshave access to sanitation, according to officialsources, yet the city only treats 13% of its waste-water. This is considerably below the 17-cityaverage of 52%, although the city is taking stepsto improve its wastewater treatment perfor-mance (see “green initiatives” below). As a resultof a longstanding lack of investment, sanitationinfrastructure is out of date and damaged.Although wastewater treatment standards aregood and monitoring takes place, the city’s planto promote environmentally sustainable sanita-tion services remains patchy.

has instituted voluntary audits for industrial pol-luters that have led to reductions of about 3,000tonnes of air pollution emissions per year.

Environmental governance: MexicoCity ranks well above average in environmentalgovernance, one of only two cities at this level inthe category. Worrying levels of air pollution inthe early 1990s pushed environmental issues tothe top of the public agenda, and over the past

two decades the city has made significantprogress to improve its performance. Its rank isbolstered by the environmental secretariat’sproactive approach to environmental manage-ment.

The city’s monitoring programme is the bestin the Index, along with Rio de Janeiro. It alsohas the capacity to implement its own environ-mental legislation. Public participation in envi-ronmental projects is also high.

Green initiatives: In mid-2007, city authoritiesunveiled a 15-year, cross-departmental “GreenPlan” lasting until 2021.

The US$1 billion plan, supported by theWorld Bank and the United Nations, contains 26strategies and 113 specific action points toimprove the city’s sustainability. When progresswas last reviewed in mid-2009, three-quartersof the action points had been started and 7%had been completed.

Green initiatives: In 2009 the government fin-ished building two new wastewater treatmentplants at San Pedro Atocpan and Lago de Texco-co, and a third plant is currently under construc-tion. The city has instituted on-site monitoringto ensure that businesses comply with existingstandards.

Air quality: Mexico City ranks below aver-age in the air quality category despite havingmade significant improvements in recent years.The city no longer tops the list of the world’smost polluted cities, as it did in the early 1990s.This is the result of two decades of new mea-sures to combat air pollution, such as investingin high-tech monitoring equipment, trainingexperts, and working on a consensual long-term plan across all levels of government andwith city residents. Yet the city’s score is low-ered by still higher-than-average levels of thethree pollutants evaluated in the Index—sul-phur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and suspendedparticulate matter. Mexico City’s geography is ahindrance too. It is surrounded by a ring of highpeaks and volcanoes, which block the windsthat might otherwise disperse pollutants natu-rally.

Green initiatives: The city’s clean air pro-gramme, PROAIRE, has 89 measures to improveair quality, including bi-annual vehicle checks,strict emissions limits and regulations to removethe most polluting vehicles from the roads.Between 2007 and 2009, more than 35,000taxis — out of a total fleet of more than 110,000— were replaced by less-polluting taxis, and20,000 were removed altogether. Mexico Cityhas also been replacing its fleet of old microbus-es with cleaner, more efficient vehicles. As of2009, 839 of the older buses had been removedfrom the city’s streets and replaced with clean-burning ultra low sulphur diesel fuel. The citysays this measure will also reduce CO2 emissionsby 80,000 tonnes a year. Furthermore, the city

known as “Ecobici”, which provides around1,200 public bikes at 86 docking stations. In addi-tion, the city has a compulsory transportationsystem for children going to school, reducing thenumber of trips by parents in private cars.

Waste: Mexico City ranks average in the wastecategory. The city collects and adequately dis-poses of all of its waste, according to officialsources. However, its score in this category islowered by the amount of waste the city gener-ates: at 489 kg per person per year, this is abovethe Index average of 465 kg. According to thecity’s Environmental Agenda for 2007 to 2012,60% of the city’s waste is inorganic, and justunder half is generated by the residential sector.All waste is sent to the Bordo Poniente landfill.The facility is, however, close to reaching maxi-mum capacity, presenting the city with a signifi-cant challenge in the years to come. The city’sperformance in the waste category is alsoweighed down by its collection and disposal poli-cies. The enforcement of industrial waste stan-dards is insufficient; only about half of all indus-tries comply with the existing norms. Patchymonitoring of illegal waste disposal, including lit-tering and illegal dumping, is also a critical issue.Although thousands of waste pickers perform animportant waste selection service, their activitiesare not regulated comprehensively.

Green initiatives: The city has introducedmonetary incentives for firms that usebiodegradable materials in their packaging. Inmid-2010 the city approved a ban on free plasticbags in shops. The measure will start in 2011,when services and retail businesses are expect-ed to have biodegradable options in place. Sell-ers that fail to comply will face hefty fines.

Water: Mexico City ranks average for water.The city consumes an estimated 178 litres ofwater per person per day, well below the 17-cityaverage of 264 litres. However, the city has a

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on Mexico D.F. Based on national electricity composition, 2) Based on Mexico D.F., 3) Based on Mexico D.F. Proportion of population with access to sewerage

Quantitative indicators: Mexico City

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person

(litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía; International

Energy Agency; Consejo Nacional de Población; Intergovernmental Panel

on Climate Change

Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía; Economist Intelligence

Unit

Consejo Nacional de Población

Environmental Secretariat of Mexico DF

Departamento de Transporte, Mexico D.F.; Consejo Nacional de Población

Transparencia DF , Servicios de Transportes Electricos S.A. , Metro DF

INEGI

Programa de Gestión Integral de los Residuos Sólidos para el Distrito

Federal 2010

Programa de Gestión Integral de los Residuos Sólidos para el Distrito

Federal 2010

Sistema de Aguas de la Ciudad de México (Información elaborada por la

Dirección Técnica)

Sistema de Aguas de la Ciudad de México (Información elaborada por la

Dirección Técnica)

Sistema de Aguas de la Ciudad de México (Información elaborada por la

Dirección Técnica)

Secretaría de medio ambiente y recursos naturales

Comisión Nacional del Agua

Secretaría del Medio Ambiente (Información elaborada por la Dirección

General de la Gestión de la Calidad del Aire)

Secretaría del Medio Ambiente (Información elaborada por la Dirección

General de la Gestión de la Calidad del Aire)

Secretaría del Medio Ambiente (Información elaborada por la Dirección

General de la Gestión de la Calidad del Aire)

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2008

2008

2009

2009

2009

2010

2008

2010

2010

2010

2010

2010

2007

2008

2009

2009

2009

Mexico City

318.3 1,e

279.1 2

5,954.2 2

28.4 2

5.6 2

0.33 2

0.40 2

100.0 2

489.0 2

178.0 2, e

37.0 2

98.0 2

98.9 3, e

12.9 2

60.0 2

13.0 2

51.0 2

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other Mexican cities in the Index, only produces15% of its electricity from renewable energysources, versus the Index average of 64%. Envi-ronmental authorities seem to recognise theneed for action, however, with Monterrey scor-ing very well for its energy and climate changepolicies. The city has had a recent baseline envi-ronmental review of greenhouse gas emissions.It also regularly monitors its emissions and pub-lishes the findings. Monterrey is one of only fourcities in the Index that converts local waste by-products to energy. And the city is covered by acomprehensive climate change action plan (see“green initiatives”, below).

Green initiatives: The state government’s cli-mate change action plan, which covers Monter-rey, calls on the city to reduce CO2 emissions sig-nificantly during 2010-2015. The report wasdeveloped by the Monterrey Institute of Tech-nology and Higher Education, in cooperationwith the federal and state government. The planproposes numerous measures to reduce CO2

emissions in buildings, transport, and waste dis-posal, among others (see “green initiatives” inspecific categories, below). In 2003, the stategovernment entered into a joint venture withBioeléctrica de Monterrey, a private company, toopen a US$17 million electricity-generationfacility, “BENLESA”. The facility uses solid, non-hazardous waste as a renewable source of ener-gy, by burning methane in landfills. The projectsupplies all of the electricity to run the city’s two-line metro system and 45% of the city’s electrici-ty used for public lighting. The goal is to supply100% of public lighting electricity by 2012. Localauthorities say the project has cut CO2 emissionsby 1.2 million tonnes since starting operations.

Land use and buildings: Monterrey isaverage in the land use and buildings category.The city has the third highest amount of greenspaces in the Index, at 750 square metres perperson, a figure from 2005, due to a lack of

Latin American Green City Index | Monterrey_Mexico

68 69

Monterrey_Mexico

city’s overall environmental performance shouldimprove during the next five years, however, asan ambitious statewide climate change actionplan comes fully into effect. The plan includesseveral initiatives to reduce CO2 emissions frommany different sources in the city.

Energy and CO2: Monterrey ranks averagein energy and CO2. The city emits an estimated723 kg of CO2 from electricity consumption,considerably higher than the Index average of202 kg. Consuming 848 megajoules of electrici-ty per US$1,000 of GDP, Monterrey also exceedsthe Index average of 761 megajoules. One ofthe contributing factors to Monterrey’s relativelyhigh CO2 emissions and electricity consumptionis the region’s climate, which, at the extremes,can reach as high as 44° Celsius in the summerand as low as -12° Celsius in the winter. This sub-stantially increases the use of air-conditionersand heaters. An extensive and relatively energy-inefficient manufacturing base in Monterreymay also be a factor in driving up CO2 levels fromelectricity consumption. And Monterrey, like

Monterrey, with 4 million residents in themetropolitan area, is the capital of the

Mexican state of Nuevo León, and the third mostpopulous city in the country after Guadalajaraand Mexico City. The data for Monterrey in theLatin American Green City Index comes mainlyfrom the metropolitan area or statewide figures,rather than the smaller city of Monterrey, whichhas a population of 1.1 million. Monterrey’seconomy has prospered in recent years, boostedin part by the 1994 North American Free Trade

more up-to-date data. Monterrey’s performancefor green spaces is partly helped by having a rel-atively low population, but the city also hasstrong land use policies. Monterrey scores par-ticularly well for green spaces protection andurban sprawl containment. In terms of eco-buildings policies, Monterrey’s local authoritiesare marked down for not setting green stan-dards for public building projects.

Green initiatives: The state’s climate changeaction plan includes a US$2.5 million residentialprogramme to replace energy-inefficient light-ing with LEDs, and electrical appliances withmore energy-efficient equivalents.

It also includes a US$3.5 million plan toinstall solar heaters and energy-efficient air con-ditioning devices. Furthermore, the state hasbudgeted US$2.3 million to build “eco-industrialparks”, which utilise energy-efficient design andlimit emissions. In addition, there is a national“Sustainable Light” plan to replace more than 45million incandescent light bulbs with energy-saving bulbs in 11 million Mexican homes by

2012. The initiative will save an estimated 2.8million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissionsannually.

Transport: Monterrey is below average intransport, a ranking explained mainly by thecity’s relatively short mass transport network inrelation to its area. Although the system is domi-nated by an extensive bus network, and supple-mented by a two-line metro, the metropolitanarea’s relatively wide administrative boundarymeans the length in the Index registers at anestimated 0.8 km per square kilometre, com-pared to the Index average of 5 km per squarekilometre. Monterrey receives relatively highmarks when it comes to urban mass transportpolicy, despite the complexity of managingtransport across multiple municipalities in themetropolitan area. Monterrey is marked up forhaving an integrated pricing system for publictransport and for taking steps to reduce emis-sions from mass urban transport. However, thecity receives low marks for congestion reductionpolicies. The city has so far failed to introducemeasures such as “no-car days”, carpoolinglanes, and park and ride systems.

Green initiatives: The statewide climatechange action plan calls for the construction of a27 km “bus rapid transit” (BRT) system, and ini-tial work has already begun. The plan also fore-sees a new light rail line, which is expected toincrease the current capacity of the transit net-work by more than two-thirds to 600,000 pas-sengers per day.

Waste: Monterrey ranks above average in thewaste category. The city scores well for manag-ing to collect and dispose of all of the waste itgenerates, an estimate based on collection rates

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 4.0

Administrative area (km2) 3,177.0

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) 15,220.6

Population density (persons/km2) 1,254.5

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 22.0

Based on Monterrey Metropolitan Area

Agreement between Mexico, Canada and theUS. A range of big-name multinational compa-nies have set up base there, and some largefirms with a strong Latin American presencehave also chosen Monterrey as a location foroperations. However, the economy is still domi-nated by carbon-heavy manufacturing: steel,glass, cement and auto parts are among themajor industries. The strong economy results inthe fourth highest GDP per person in the Index,at US$15,200.

Monterrey is ranked average overall in theIndex. Its best results are in the categories ofwaste, water and sanitation, with above averageperformances. The city shows particularlystrong results for the amount of green spacesper person in the city, and it has the lowest rateof water system leakages in the entire Index.Indeed, the city won an international award in2010 for its decade-long efforts on reducingleakages. Monterrey is average in two cate-gories — energy and CO2, and land use andbuildings — and below average in transport, airquality and environmental governance. The

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Monterrey Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin American Green City Index | Monterrey_Mexico

70 71

initiatives” below). Water consumption in Mon-terrey, at an estimated 228 litres per person perday, is also lower than the Index average of 264litres. An estimated 95% of Monterrey’s popula-tion has access to potable water, a figure basedon access across the state as a whole, which isslightly below the 17-city average of 98%. Thecity scores well for measuring key pollutants insurface and drinking water. It also has watermeters and tariffs, but is marked down for lack-ing other efficiency measures covered in theIndex, such as rainwater collection facilities,separate pipes for non-drinking water, hose-pipe bans and recycling grey water.

Green initiatives: Monterrey has reduced leak-ages in its water system from an estimated 32%in 1998 to 21% by 2008, through a comprehen-sive, internationally recognised water manage-ment programme. This ongoing effort hasinvolved checking and replacing valves, upgrad-ing pipes, installing pressure gauges and house-hold meters, leak detection and eliminating ille-gal connections. In 2010, the city’s state-runDrainage and Water Service of Monterrey(SADM) finished “Monterrey V”. This US$237million plan further im-proved the water and

ting minimum standards for wastewater treat-ment, and for publicly promoting the efficientuse of sanitation systems.

Green initiatives: The sanitation component ofthe state’s US$237 million “Monterrey V” pro-gramme (see also “green initiatives” in the “water”section, above) includes new sewerage lines andwastewater collectors, and has increased waste-water treatment capacity from 9,000 litres persecond to 13,500 litres per second.

Air quality: Monterrey ranks below averagein air quality. This result reflects higher-than-

average sulphur dioxide and suspended particu-late matter levels, which are driven in part by thepresence of heavy industry in the city. Levels ofparticulate matter, at 77 micrograms per cubicmetre, are among the highest in the Index, andwell above the average of 48 micrograms.Authorities recognise the need for action,reflected in the city’s positive results on clean airpolicies. It regularly monitors air quality aroundthe city, including each of the pollutants coveredin the Index, and informs citizens about the dan-gers of household pollutants.

Environmental governance: Monter-

rey ranks below average in the environmentalgovernance category. It has a dedicated environ-mental department that oversees policy, but itspowers are shared with the state government,which has a strong influence on policy, and hastaken the lead on climate change, for example.In the Index, Monterrey is one of only five citiesmarked down for not regularly monitoring andpublishing information on its overall environ-mental performance.

The city has, however, conducted a baselineenvironmental review with-in the last five years,covering water, waste, air quality, transport,energy and climate change.

sanitation systems, which included the buildingof 73 km of new water delivery pipelines and sixpumping stations throughout the metropolitanregion. The city is set to improve its water sys-tem even further, since the state climate changeaction plan has budgeted US$2 million toupgrade infrastructure and modernise residualwater treatment plants across the state.

Sanitation: Monterrey is above average inthe sanitation category. Ninety-five percent ofits population has access to sanitation, accord-ing to official figures based on access across thestate as a whole. But the city is one of only two inthe Index — Brasília is the other — that managesto treat 100% of its wastewater, well above theaverage of 52%. These impressive figures are theresult of significant investment in the metropoli-tan region’s sanitation capacity over the past 15years. Since 1995, the state government hasbuilt four wastewater treatment plants to servethe Monterrey metropolitan area, and has justfinished the “Monterrey V” project, which has asignificant sewerage element (see “green initia-tives” below). The city has relatively strongresults on sanitation policies as well, particularlyfor regularly monitoring sanitation facilities, set-

throughout the state. At the same time, Monter-rey also produces a relatively low amount ofwaste per person per year — 317 kg versus theIndex average of 465 kg. Regarding waste dis-posal policies, Monterrey scores well for enforc-ing and monitoring industrial hazardous wastestandards. The city has some recycling servicesin place, with central collection points and theability to recycle organic waste, glass, plasticsand paper. The city also has an integrated policyaimed at reducing, reusing and recycling waste.

Green initiatives: The city of Monterrey hasimplemented a recycling programme in 500neighbourhoods that collects organic and non-organic waste on different days of the week.

Water: Monterrey ranks above average in thewater category. The city’s strong overall perfor-mance is underpinned by the most efficientwater system in the entire Index — it loses acomparatively low 21% of its water flow throughleaks, considerably better than the Index aver-age of 35%. In 2010, the Inter-American Devel-opment Bank awarded Monterrey its “LatinAmerican water prize” for the city’s efforts toreduce leaks over the past decade (see “green

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on Monterrey Metropolitan Area. Based on composition of energy sources used in electricity production in Mexico, 2) Based on Monterrey MetropolitanArea, 3) Based on Monterrey Metropolitan Area. The figure on bus routes used for this indicator does not include all bus routes, but only the length of roads covered by at least one bus route. The length of bus routes was not available, 4) Based on Municipality of Mon-terrey, 5) Based on Nuevo León, 6) Based on Monterrey Metropolitan Area. Based on annual collection of municipal waste, 7) Based on Monterrey Metropolitan Area. Based on daily water extraction, 8) Based on Nuevo León. Based on access to sewerage

Quantitative indicators: Monterrey

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person (litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía;

International Energy Agency; Consejo Nacional de Población;

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía;

Gobierno de Nuevo León; Economist Intelligence Unit

Marco Geoestadistico Municipal, INEGI 2007,

Consejo Nacional de Población

Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía;

Consejo Nacional de Población

Gobierno de Nuevo León; Instituto Nacional de Estadística y

Geografía; Consejo Nacional de Población

TransMetro y MetroBús, STC Metrorrey,

Despacho de Transmetro y Metrobús

INEGI

Secretaría de medio ambiente y recursos naturales

Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía

Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía

Comisión Nacional del Agua

Secretaría de medio ambiente y recursos naturales

Secretaría de medio ambiente y recursos naturales

Comisión Nacional del Agua

Gobierno de Nuevo León

Gobierno de Nuevo León

Gobierno de Nuevo León

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2008

2008

2009

2005

2009

2010

2008

2008

2008

2008

2008

2007

2007

2008

2009

2009

2009

Monterrey

722.7 1, e

847.5 2

1,254.5 2

749.8 2

0.8 3, e

0.02 4

0.36 4

100.0 5

316.9 6

228.5 7, e

21.0 2

95.2 5, e

95.2 8, e

100.0 5

33.1 2

14.0 2

76.6 2

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Energy and CO2: Montevideo ranks belowaverage in energy and CO2. The city scores wellfor CO2 emissions from electricity consumption,at an estimated 80 kg per person across the met-ropolitan area, which is significantly below theIndex average of 202 kg. Almost 90% of Monte-video’s electricity comes from renewable sources,with most of that from hydropower. Electricityconsumption compared to economic output ismuch more than the average, however, at anestimated 1,100 megajoules per US$1,000 GDP,compared to the 17-city average of 760 mega-joules. The city’s relatively high energy con-sumption is due partly to generous public subsi-dies for electricity, especially for medium-sizedand large businesses, although the nationalenergy company, UTE, has in the past year start-ed to implement tariff differentiations to en courage more energy efficiency among cus-tomers (see “green initiatives” below). Mon te -video has policies on clean energy and climatechange in place, but they could be strength-ened. For example, the city’s climate changeaction plan covers only energy, but not otherareas like water, sanitation, waste, transport orbuildings. On the other hand, Montevideo hassigned up to international covenants to reducegreenhouse gases.

Green initiatives: The national energy utility,UTE, has implemented different tariffs for resi-dential customers, including a dual tariff forpeak and non-peak hours. There is also a “mini-mal use tariff” currently covering 150,000households that have committed to using lessthan 170 kilowatts per month in exchange for alower bill. A variant of this system is planned forcommercial users, but no concrete plans exist atthe moment. In addition, the Uruguay nationalgovernment is promoting wind energy and ithas overseen a few pilot projects, one of which issupplying electricity for Montevideo’s streetlights. Another project initiated by the nationalgovernment is a 2 megawatt wind farm that willhave the capacity to supply 20% of the city’spublic electricity. It is expected to start opera-tions at the end of 2010. The city itself is now inthe planning stage of developing its own largerwind farm within city limits, although officialshave not yet announced the capacity or costs.

Land use and buildings: Montevideo iswell below average for land use and buildings,largely because of comparatively weak policieson eco-buildings and land use. For example, thecity has partial codes covering eco-standards innew buildings, but it does not yet have incen-tives in place for businesses and households tolower their energy use. The city’s performance inthis category is also weighed down by having

Latin American Green City Index | Montevideo_Uruguay

72 73

Montevideo_Uruguay

in the Index and below the average ofUS$11,100.

Montevideo is ranked below average overallin the Index. Its best result is for environmentalgovernance, where it ranks above average, dueparticularly to its efforts in monitoring the city’senvironment and publicly releasing the results.In the transport category, the city sees an aver-age performance, but its result in this category isbolstered by a strong public transport policy, anintegrated pricing system for mass transit andpromoting green transport. The city ranks belowaverage in five other categories — energy andCO2, waste, water, sanitation and air quality —for the most part because of relatively less ambi-tious policies than other cities in the Index. How-ever, Montevideo does score particularly well forgenerating one of the smaller amounts of wasteamong the 17 cities, and it has some of the bestwater quality policies in the Index.

Montevideo is the capital of Uruguay and thecountry’s economic and financial centre.

With a population of 2 million in the metropoli-tan area, it is Uruguay’s biggest city, but still oneof the least populous among the 17 cities in theLatin American Green City Index. Data includedin the Index are based on a combination of themetropolitan area and the smaller MontevideoCity, which has a population of 1.3 million. Mon-tevideo stands on the estuary of the River Plate,and is home to the country’s main port, a con-duit for the bulk of Uruguay’s meat, dairy andgrain exports.

The city has an older downtown area, nearthe port, which contains the main university andgovernment offices, and a newer area, towardsthe coast, which houses the city’s burgeoninglogistics and high-tech sectors. Economically,the metropolitan area generates a GDP ofUS$6,400 per person, which is the fifth-lowest

one of the lower population densities in theIndex — at 2,500 people per square kilometre,compared to the average of 4,500 people persquare kilometre — and fewer green spacesthan most Index cities, at 9 square metres perperson. Most of Montevideo’s green spaces areparks set aside in the 19th century and thebeginning of the 20th century, and the city’sapproach to green spaces has traditionally beento protect existing areas, rather than create newones. This approach is set down in the city’s cur-rent land use plan, in force since 1998, whichsays construction activity must protect andimprove existing green areas. A new, more com-prehensive system of protection is in the plan-ning stages (see “green initiatives” below),which will also involve measures that shouldboost the amount of green spaces in the future.

Green initiatives: Montevideo is currentlydeveloping a more comprehensive urban sus-tainability plan for 2010 to 2020 that willencompass wetlands, beaches and the ruralenvironment, along with green spaces. Regard-

ing green spaces specifically, the plan aims torecover existing areas in the city’s urban corethat have suffered from a lack of maintenanceand to expand green areas in outlying neigh-bourhoods. The city also has an educational pro-gramme, called “Montevideo Verde”, to publiclypromote the importance of green spaces con-servation among residents. The first events tookplace in 2009, and they include guided tours ofmost of the city’s parks and other environmen-tally sensitive areas such as wetlands. In onepart of the programme, for example, botanistslead groups of children in planting vegetation inparks.

Transport: Montevideo ranks average in thetransport category. The mass transport networkextends 1.9 km per square kilometre across themetropolitan area, compared to the Index aver-age of 5 km per square kilometre. Montevideolacks a metro, so mass transport in the city con-sists mainly of fleets of older buses. Centralroads tend to be congested, although trafficflows more freely than in most Latin American

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 1 2.0

Administrative area (km2) 2 525.5

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) 1 6,417.3

Population density (persons/km2) 2 2,546.7

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 3 16.01) Based on Montevideo Metropolitan Area, 2) Based on Departamento de Montevideo, 3) Based on Montevideo City

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Montevideo Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin American Green City Index | Montevideo_Uruguay

74 75

Green initiatives: The municipality and thenational government agreed to build Monte-video’s first landfill for hazardous industrialwaste, which is scheduled to be finished by theend of 2010. Furthermore, the city has launchedan educational programme for children andyoung adults about proper waste disposal inpublic places. The initiative includes a televisionadvertisement broadcast on local stations. Theprogramme grew out of a previous waste dis-posal promotion campaign in 2008 and 2009.

Water: Montevideo ranks below average inthe water category. The city scores well forwater quality policies, which include relativelyrobust standards for surface water, regular sur-face water quality monitoring, and drinkingwater standards. The percentage of the popula-tion with access to potable water is equal to theaverage, at an estimated 98%. However, manycities already have achieved universal access todrinking water. The city’s score is further hin-dered by a very high rate of water consumption— the third highest in the Index — at 375 litresper person per day across the metropolitan area,compared to the 17-city average of 264 litres.Due to Montevideo’s location on an estuary ofthe River Plate, water supply is plentiful. And as aresult, the city has been slow to adopt water sus-tainability policies. Montevideo is one of twocities in the Index that lacks a code aimed at con-suming water more efficiently; the city has notimplemented water meters, separate pipes fornon-drinking water, recycling of graywater,hose-pipe bans or rainwater collection. Howev-er, it does run public awareness campaigns toencourage the rational use of water.

Green initiatives: In early 2010, OSE, thenational agency in charge of delivering potablewater to the city, finished a three-year project tobuild a sixth water pipeline connecting thecountry’s largest potable water treatment facili-ty to the city of Montevideo and surrounding

core urban areas. Montevideo, for example, hasan air quality code, regularly monitors air qualityat different locations around the city (see “greeninitiatives” below), and informs residents aboutthe dangers of air pollution.

Green initiatives: In 2005 Montevideo estab-lished an extensive air quality monitoring net-work, consisting of eight stations in differentparts of the city, to monitor a wide range of pol-lutants. In 2008, an air quality monitoring sta-tion was set up to measure pollution in the vicin-ity of the La Teja refinery, located in the city’sbay. The goal is to evaluate refinery emissions toimprove the refinery’s efficiency, and surround-ing air quality. It is part of a project called

ARPEL/CIDA, which is supported by the regionalorganisation of gas and petroleum industriesand the Canadian development agency.

Environmental governance: Monte-video ranks above average in environmental gov-ernance — its best performance. It has an envi-ronmental department overseeing policy, withthe ability to implement its own environmentallegislation. The department’s remit is somewhatlimited compared to the best-scoring cities inthe Index, however. Policies on waste, transport,energy and climate change, for example, are notdirectly monitored by the municipal environ-mental authority. Montevideo performs well formonitoring its environmental performance and

publishing the results, and the city provides resi-dents with a central point of contact for informa-tion about environmental projects.

Green initiatives: Montevideo is the only city inUruguay to adhere to the principles of Agenda 21,a United Nations blueprint with guidelines forincluding environmental considerations whendeveloping government policies. To this end, thecity has established the “Montevideo Environ-mental Group”, an association of non-govern-mental organisations, businesses and publicorganisations that provides oversight and tracksthe city’s commitment to environmental goals. Italso runs workshops on environmental topics such as air quality and waste management.

areas. The pipeline is expected to meet the city’swater needs until 2035.

Sanitation: Montevideo is below average inthe sanitation category. Only an estimated 50%of wastewater is treated in Montevideo City,compared to the Index average of 52%. The per-centage of residents with access to sanitation isalso below the average, at an estimated 83%compared to 94%. The city scores well for its pol-icy on monitoring on-site sanitation facilities inhomes and communal areas. Although Montev-ideo still has much work to do, sanitary normshave strengthened in recent years and the cityhas ambitious goals. The government has acomprehensive plan to improve its sanitation(see “green initiatives” below), and has publiclydeclared its goal to be the “Latin American citywith the best sanitation system”.

Green initiatives: Montevideo has a US$260million plan to provide proper sanitation to theentire city by 2020, and improve wastewatertreatment. The assessment phases have ended,and works have gradually started on the plan,which foresees the construction of a new waste-water facility that will treat about 44% of thecity’s disposed water, and help to clean up thecity’s bay. It also calls for upgrading wastewatercollection and transport capabilities.

Air quality: Montevideo is below average inthe air quality category, a result mainly due tohigher than average concentrations of nitrogendioxide and sulphur dioxide. Relatively lax auto-mobile emissions standards are mainly toblame, in addition to pollution from the city’sport area. Montevideo’s location on an estuaryhelps to disperse pollution, but this effect isoften cancelled out by the region’s humid cli-mate, which tends to trap pollution over the city.The city’s clean air policies are relatively robust,however, and officials have taken measures totackle the problem in recent years, especially in

capitals. The city also has one of the smallerstocks of cars and motorcycles in the Index, at0.16 vehicles per person versus the Index aver-age of 0.3. The city has a comprehensive urbanmass transport policy, including an integratedpricing system and dedicated bus lanes.

Green initiatives: Montevideo’s “Mobility Plan2010-2020” aims to reduce car use throughmeasures such as promoting public transportand increasing the number of pedestrian-onlyareas in the urban centre. An important part ofthe plan is to extend public transport from theurban centre to peripheral areas through exclu-sive bus lanes.

Construction began on the first of these buscorridors in 2009, and is expected to be finishedin the first half of 2011. Also in 2009, the citystarted building an exclusive cycle route thatruns parallel to a main city street. The bike laneruns along the Camino Carrasco, and the cityhas plans for building a second route on GeneralFlores as one of the first steps in the decade-longMobility Plan.

Waste: Montevideo is below average in thewaste category. It scores well for generating oneof the lower amounts of waste in the Index, at303 kg per person per year across the metropoli-tan area, much better than the average of 465kg. The city is marked down for only collectingand disposing of an estimated 85% of its waste,compared to the 17-city average of 96%. In gen-eral Montevideo’s policies covering waste dis-posal and recycling can be improved. For exam-ple, the city has environmental standardscovering landfills and incineration sites, as wellas for disposing industrial hazardous waste, butthese are only partially monitored and enforced.Montevideo has been proactive about the dis-posal of special waste, however, by establishingan on-site collection scheme that will acceptelectronic equipment and other large householditems.

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on Montevideo Metropolitan Area. Based on electricity consumption estimates and energy sources used in electricity generation in Uruguay,2) Based on Montevideo Metropolitan Area. Estimate based on robust analysis of the relationship between GDP, population and energy consumption in other cities in Latin America where the data were available, 3) Based on Departamento de Montevideo,4) Based on Montevideo Metropolitan Area, 5) Based on Montevideo City, 6) Based on access to water for Uruguay due to lack of data, 7) Based on Montevideo City .Based on access to sewerage

Quantitative indicators: Montevideo

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person (litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas; International Energy

Agency; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

EIU estimate ; Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas; International Energy

Agency; Oficina de Planeamiento y Presupuesto

Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas

Servicio Geomática, Intendencia Montevideo;

Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas

Unidad Ejecutiva Plan Movilidad Urbana, Intendencia Montevideo;

Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas

Administradores de Ferrocarriles del Estado

Estadisticas de Transporte Anuario 2007, Direccion Nacional de Tranporte

El Pais

Departamento de Desarrollo Ambiental

Obras Sanitarias del Estado; Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas

Obras Sanitarias del Estado

Obras Sanitarias del Estado

Servicio de Estudios y Proyectos, Intendencia de Montevideo; Instituto

Nacional de Estadísticas

Servicio de Estudios y Proyectos, Intendencia de Montevideo

Grupo Ambiental de Montevideo

Grupo Ambiental de Montevideo

Grupo Ambiental de Montevideo

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2007

2007

2009

2007

2009

2010

2006

2008

2010

2008

2008

2008

2009

2009

2009

2009

2009

Montevideo

79.6 1, e

1,146.6 2, e

2,546.7 3

9.2 4

1.9 4

0.07 5

0.16 5

85.0 4, e

303.0 4

374.9 4

36.1 4, e

98.0 6, e

83.4 7, e

50.0 5, e

52.0 5

28.0 5

39.0 5

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Green initiatives: In September 2009 the city’senvironmental department launched a newagency, the Resource Centre on RenewableEnergies, to promote renewable energy in PortoAlegre. The centre distributes information aboutrenewable technologies, including details oninstallation costs and vendor names. The centreis also responsible for developing potentialrenewable energy policies.

Land use and buildings: Porto Alegreranks average in the land use and buildings cate-gory. The population density, at 2,900 personsper square kilometre inside the city limits, fallsbelow the 17-city average of 4,500 inhabitants.At the same time, the metropolitan region of

Latin American Green City Index | Porto Alegre_Brazil

76 77

Porto Alegre_Brazil

city’s high electricity consumption, its failure toadopt a climate change action plan, and itsmixed progress in clean energy policies. Themetropolitan region consumes 974 megajoulesof electricity per US$1,000 GDP, which is one ofthe highest rates in the Index and well above the17-city average of 761 megajoules. Porto Alegredoes not monitor greenhouse gas emissionsand, while it is investing in developing clean andrenewable sources of energy, the city earns onlypartial marks for its investment in waste-to-energy programmes. On the other hand, withnearly 90% of its electricity already producedfrom renewable sources, primarily hydropower,the Porto Alegre metropolitan region has amuch stronger record in terms of CO2 emissionsfrom electricity. It emits an estimated 86 kg ofCO2 per inhabitant annually in the metropolitanarea, considerably lower than the Index averageof 202 kg. Furthermore, Porto Alegre’s perfor-mance in the energy and CO2 category will likelyimprove following the creation of a governmentbody charged with guiding policy in the area ofRenewable Energies (see “green initiatives”below).

Porto Alegre is the capital of Brazil’s southern-most state, Rio Grande do Sul. Long a mag-

net for foreign immigrants, the metropolitanarea is now home to 4.7 million people. Howev-er, with a few exceptions noted below, dataincluded in the Latin American Green City Indexare based on figures for the city of Porto Alegre,which has 1.4 million residents. Located at theconfluence of five rivers, the city has a majorport that serves as a transport hub for all ofsouthern Brazil, and contributes significantly tothe local economy. In particular, agriculturalproducts from around the state pass through

tal basis. The ten solar panels will captureenough energy to heat 600 litres of water a day.The city is also building 210 houses, as part of itssocial housing project, with solar-poweredwater heaters as an alternative to electric show-ers, which are common in much of Brazil.

Transport: Porto Alegre ranks below averagefor transport. The city has a higher-than-averagestock of cars and motorcycles, at 0.38 vehicles perperson, compared to the 17-city average of 0.30.The length of the mass transport network is alsoshorter than average, at an estimated 3.6 km persquare kilometre, compared to the Index averageof 5 km. The city performs well, however, forurban mass transport policies, thanks to its inte-

Green initiatives: Porto Alegre is investingUS$380 million to extend the metro, adding 10km and four stations towards the city’s northernsuburbs. Though long discussed, plans for a sec-ond metro line have not been specified. Howev-er, the city has unveiled a US$17 million projectto construct a 1 km connection from the interna-tional airport to the metro. This so-called Aero-movel, an air-propelled train, is being financedby the federal government in preparation for theWorld Cup, and is scheduled to open in late2011. Furthermore, the city is adding 40 km ofbike lanes to encourage residents to use greenerforms of transport.

Waste: Porto Alegre ranks above average inthe waste category, its best performance in theIndex. This is largely due to its waste collectionand disposal policy, and a well-developed recy-cling and re-use programme. Recyclable materi-al is collected twice a week, and local authoritiesrun public information campaigns on recyclingand waste reduction. Porto Alegre also does wellon waste collection, gathering and disposing of99% of the waste produced in the city limits. Thecity of Porto Alegre generates 345 kg of wasteper person per year, compared to the Index aver-age of 465 kg. In 1997 the city was one of thefirst in the country to open a managed landfill. Itwas closed in 2002 when it reached capacity, infavour of the privately run Recreio landfill, locat-ed 113 km outside of the city. And since 2006the city has run a separate collection scheme formedical and other special forms of waste.

Green initiatives: In August 2010, Porto Ale-gre announced a pilot project to place 1,000household waste containers around the city, inan effort to reduce the amount of waste left onstreets, improve transport logistics and cut back

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 1.4

Administrative area (km2) 497.0

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) e 12,081.9

Population density (persons/km2) 2,895.0

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 20.0Based on City of Porto Alegre, e) EIU estimate

Porto Alegre has one of the lowest amounts ofgreen space in the Index, with only 6 squaremetres per person. Despite its small amount ofgreen spaces, the city is making an effort toplant trees along city roads and in parks and topreserve native vegetation. Porto Alegre alsohas strict guidelines for environmental licensingaimed at protecting conservation areas, boost-ing its performance in land use policies. Like-wise, the city performs well in the area of eco-buildings policy. It has a well-developed set ofstandards to guarantee the eco-efficiency ofnew buildings and actively promotes awarenessabout ways for citizens to improve energy effi-ciency of buildings. On the other hand, it is oneof several cities in the Index that does not incen-tivise businesses and households to lower theirenergy use.

Green initiatives: While Porto Alegre lacks acomprehensive strategy aimed at improvingenergy efficiency in municipal buildings, theenvironmental secretariat has taken tentativesteps in this direction, by using solar energy toheat water at one of its offices on an experimen-

grated pricing system and the presence of exclu-sive bus lanes. The city also has a traffic manage-ment system with 40 cameras connected to acentral control room, where the traffic lights aremanaged according to the flow of vehicles.

Porto Alegre before being exported around theworld. Services also play an important role in thecity’s economy, as do some heavy industries,including steel and car manufacturers.

Porto Alegre ranks average overall in theLatin American Green City Index. The city’s bestperformance is in the waste category, where itranks above average, thanks to a well-developedrecycling programme and strong policiesregarding waste collection and disposal. PortoAlegre achieves average rankings in the areas ofland use and buildings, water, sanitation, and airquality. Despite its middling rank in water andsanitation, the city is one of a few in the Indexthat has achieved universal access to potablewater and sanitation services, according to offi-cial figures. On the other hand, the city has sig-nificant room for improvement in energy andCO2, transport, and environmental governance.It places below average in these three cate-gories.

Energy and CO2: Porto Alegre ranks belowaverage in energy and CO2. Its poor perfor-mance in this category is attributable to the

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Porto Alegre Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin American Green City Index | Porto Alegre_Brazil

78 79

fy and curb illegal connections, and offers graceperiods and instalment plans for residents whocannot pay their water bills in full. The city saysthe delinquency rate has dropped from 14% afew years ago to less than 10% today.

Sanitation: Porto Alegre ranks average inthe sanitation category. All of the city of PortoAlegre’s residents have access to sanitation ser-vices, according to official figures — well abovethe 17-city average of 94%. In contrast, the citytreats only 20% of this wastewater, well belowthe Index average of 52%. However, Porto Ale-gre sees the need for improvement and hascomprehensive sanitation policies in place,including an ambitious goal to significantlyincrease the share of wastewater treated (see“green initiatives” below).

Green initiatives: In 2000 the city unveiled itscomprehensive sanitation plan. The US$250million “Pisa” project set a goal to increase waste-water treatment to 77% by 2012, although thecity appears far from meeting that target. Four-teen projects are currently under way, includingnew wastewater treatment facilities, new pipesand effluent collectors and upgrades to existingpumping stations.

emissions tests. Vehicles that fail are impoundedand owners can be fined.

Environmental governance:Porto Alegreranks below average for environmental gover-nance. The city hasn’t conducted a baselineenvironmental review in the last five years, andenvironmental issues are split within variousdepartments of the local government, whichmay hamper comprehensive action and lead to alack of efficiency in policy implementation.However, Porto Alegre was the first major Brazil-ian city to establish an environmental secretariatin 1976, and the environmental department

remains active in drafting legislation and guid-ing policy. The city also makes efforts to involvethe public by guaranteeing access to environ-mental information.

Green initiatives: In 1989 Porto Alegre be-came the first city in Brazil to adopt a “participa-tory budget” process, which has since become amodel for cities around the country. Each yearthe city holds a series of neighbourhood, region-al and citywide meetings where residents andelected delegates vote on a wide range ofspending priorities, including for environmentalareas such as transport and sanitation. Regard-

ing sanitation, for example, city officials say theprocess has directly resulted in the expansion ofservices.

In 2009, Local Governments for Sustainabili-ty, an international association of which PortoAlegre is a member, named the city as one offive “model” cities to take part in a renewableenergy initiative. With the organisation’s back-ing, model communities develop a sustainableenergy strategy. The city created the ResourceCentre on Renewable Energies (see “Energy andCO2” section above) as part of the programme,and is studying other potential projects.

Air quality: Porto Alegre ranks average in airquality. Like many cities in the Index, road trafficis the primary source of air pollution. The cityhas one of the lowest concentrations of sulphurdioxide in the Index, with daily levels at an esti-mated 2 micrograms per cubic metre versus anIndex average of 11 micrograms. Porto Alegre’sdaily concentration of particulate matter is 34micrograms per cubic metre, less than the aver-age of 48 micrograms. However, the city per-forms less well for nitrogen dioxide emissions, aprimary cause of which is automobiles: averagedaily concentrations total an estimated 54micrograms per cubic metre versus an Indexaverage of 38 micrograms. While the city oper-ates two monitoring stations near major inter-sections that measure only particulate matterand carbon dioxide emissions, the state environ-mental projection agency operates three moni-toring stations in Porto Alegre that check for avariety of air pollutants.

Green initiatives: While many cities requirecars to pass yearly emissions tests, the city ofPorto Alegre instead performs random checkson trucks and buses, under its “Operation CleanAir” programme. City officials set up checkpointsalong major streets and pull drivers aside for

on collection time. Officials plan to introducethe programme in the city centre in 2011, alongwith a promotion campaign.

Water: Porto Alegre ranks average in thewater category. The city’s water company,DMAE, loses 29% of water to system leakages,which, though high, is still one of the lowestleakage rates in the Index, and below the aver-age 35%. The city provides potable water to allof its residents, according to official figures. Thecity lies on the eastern bank of the Guaiba Lake,at the convergence of five rivers, so as a resultwater is plentiful in Porto Alegre. Porto Alegrealso performs well in water sustainability poli-cies thanks to public awareness campaigns pro-moting conservation. The city’s water ranking ishindered, however, by relatively high water con-sumption; the city consumes 313 litres per per-son per day, considerably more than the 17-cityaverage of 264 litres.

Green initiatives: In 2005 the city’s watercompany launched the “Right Water” pro-gramme to reduce the number of clandestinelinks to the water network and expand access topotable water in informal settlements. The cityworks with local residents’ associations to identi-

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e EIU Estimate, 1) Based on Porto Alegre Metropolitan Region. Based on composition of energy sources used for electricity generation in Brazil, 2) Based on Porto Alegre Metropolitan Region. GDP data for 2007, 3) Based on City of Porto Alegre, 4) Based on Porto Alegre Metropolitan Region

Quantitative indicators: Porto Alegre

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person

(litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Balanco Energetico do RS/CEEE, Sulgas; International

Energy Agency; Governo do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul; Intergo-

vernmental Panel on Climate Change

Balanco Energetico do RS/CEEE, Sulgas; Fundação de Economia e

Estatística; Economist Intelligence Unit

Fundação de Economia e Estatística; Instituto Brasileiro de

Geografia e Estatística

Secretaría Municipal do Meio Ambiente; Fundação de

Economia e Estatística

Porto Alegre Sanitation Secretariat; METROPLAN

etpc Porto Alegre, Trensurb

Denatran

Departamento Municipal de Limpeza Urbana (DMLU)

Departamento Municipal de Limpeza Urbana (DMLU);

Fundação de Economia e Estatística

Departamento Municipal de Água e Esgotos;

Fundação de Economia e Estatística

Departamento Municipal de Água e Esgotos

Departamento Municipal de Água e Esgotos

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

DMAE

PROAR

PROAR

ECCPHA

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2008

2008

2008

2009

2008

2010

2010

2008

2008

2008

2008

2009

2000

2009

2009

2008

2009

Porto Alegre

85.6 1, e

973.7 2, e

2,895.0 3

6.0 4

3.6 4, e

0.02 3

0.38 3

98.6 3, e

344.6 3

313.0 3

28.6 3

100.0 3

100.0 3, e

20.0 3

53.8 3, e

1.9 3, e

34.3 3

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Land use and buildings: Puebla ranksaverage for land use and buildings. The cityboasts 303 square metres of green space perperson, the fifth highest amount in the Index. Inrecent years Puebla has made a concerted effortto improve its parks and protect green spaces(see “green initiatives” below), which boosts itsperformance in the area of land use policies. Thecity has a code aimed at containing urbansprawl, and it protects environmentally-sensi-tive areas from development. It also scores fullmarks for having green standards for publicbuildings. However the city does not activelypromote awareness about ways for residents toimprove the energy efficiency of their homesand businesses. Its performance in this categoryis further hindered by its low population density.With just 1,900 inhabitants per square kilome-tre, Puebla falls considerably below the Indexaverage of 4,500 persons.

Green initiatives: Puebla has two main initia-tives aimed at protecting, preserving and restor-ing its green spaces: the “Urban Reforesting Pro-gramme” and the “Green City Programme”.Since 2009 the city has invested more than

Latin American Green City Index | Puebla_Mexico

80 81

Puebla_Mexico

energy policy and efforts to adopt a climatechange action plan. Its poor performance inboth areas is a result of policy being driven at thestate and national rather than city level. Howev-er the city has a few local initiatives to reduce theenvironmental impact of energy consumption,including a plan to install solar panels in parksand to upgrade lighting on city streets (see“green initiatives” below).

Green initiatives: The State of Puebla is due topublish its “Mitigation Strategy to Adapt to Cli-mate Change” in November 2010. The strategywill outline actions to curb carbon emissions andpromote sustainable urban development. At thecity level, officials have identified lighting as oneof the key areas to improve energy efficiencyand reduce electricity consumption. In 2008Puebla launched a US$6.2 million programmeto upgrade public lighting on city streets. Pueblaalso installed its first solar-powered public light-ning in several major city parks. Furthermore,Puebla has installed infrastructure at its mainlandfill to flare methane, but the final phases ofthe project are still being planned, before itbecomes operational.

Located in south-central Mexico, Puebla is thecapital of the state of Puebla. With 2.6 million

residents, it is the fourth most populous metro-politan area in the country, and 11th largest cityin the Latin American Green City Index. The datafor Puebla in the Index is a mix of figures fromthe metropolitan area, the municipality ofPuebla and estimates based on statewide statis-tics. The city has a strong manufacturing pres-ence, which is dominated by automobiles, auto-parts and logistics. Despite this, Puebla has thesixth lowest income in the Index, at an estimat-ed US$6,500 GDP per capita. As in other Mexi-can cities, air pollution is a substantial challengein Puebla. The problem is compounded by thecity’s geographical setting: it is situated in a val-ley surrounded by mountains and the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt.

Despite its low income, Puebla ranks averagein the Index overall. The city’s placement isbuoyed by a particularly strong performance inthe waste category, where it ranks above averagethanks to a high rate of waste collected and ade-quately disposed, and a low amount of wastegeneration. The city earns average ranks in mostother categories, except for in energy and CO2,

US$7.3 million in these initiatives, creatingmore than 50 acres of green spaces and plantingmore than 37,700 trees. Puebla also joinedforces with several major Mexican companies tosubstitute over 1 million incandescent lightbulbs with energy-efficient LED bulbs in resi-dences around the city. In addition, there is anational “Sustainable Light” plan to replacemore than 45 million incandescent light bulbs in11 million Mexican homes with energy-savingbulbs by 2012. The initiative will save an esti-mated 2.8 million tonnes of greenhouse gasemissions annually.

Transport: Puebla is below average in trans-port. It does not have a metro system and is theonly city in the Index that lacks any form of supe-rior transport (defined in the Index as transportthat moves large numbers of passengers quicklyin dedicated lanes, such as a metro, bus rapidtransit or tram network). Overall, Puebla’s masstransport network measures an estimated 5.1km per square kilometre across the metropolitanarea, which is just slightly longer than the 17-city average of 5.0 km. The transport system isdominated by an extensive bus network, buttaxis also play an important role, and they con-tribute to traffic congestion. Puebla’s stock ofcars and motorcycles is 0.24 vehicles per person,a figure based on the municipality. This is justbelow the Index average 0.30 vehicles, but thesecond highest when measured against citieswith similar incomes. Puebla receives only par-tial marks for its urban mass transport policybecause it is driven by the state rather than localgovernment. The city also lacks an integratedpricing system for its mass transport network.On the other hand, it has taken steps to reduceemissions from mass transport. Puebla is alsoone of a handful of cities in the Index that has no

traffic-management system in place. The citydoes not have traffic light sequencing or a trafficinformation system, nor does it have dedicateddelivery times for freight. Furthermore, the cityalso lacks congestion-reduction initiatives in theform of carpooling lanes, “no-car days” or parkand ride systems.

Green initiatives: Authorities are planning a“bus rapid transit” (BRT) system for Puebla,although time frames and targets have not beenreleased publicly. The system would be mod-elled on a system implemented across LatinAmerica, in which buses operate unimpeded inexclusive lanes throughout the city.

Waste: Puebla is above average in the wastecategory, its strongest performance in theIndex. The city’s strong placement is largelythanks to its comprehensive policies regardingwaste collection and disposal. The city enforcesstrict environmental standards at its Chiltepecmanaged landfill and organizes separate collec-tion and disposal of many forms of specialwaste, including: household hazardous waste,medical and infectious waste and chemical andpharmaceutical waste. Furthermore, Puebla hasan integrated policy to encourage residents toreduce, re-use and recycle.

The city generates a relatively small amountof waste, at an estimated 310 kg per person peryear compared to the Index average of 465 kg.And an estimated 100% of the waste producedin the city is collected and adequately disposed,though due to a lack of local data this estimate isbased on state figures.

Green initiatives: In an effort to increase recy-cling rates in Puebla, a private initiative knownas the “green wallet”, was introduced this year.

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 1 2.6

Administrative area (km2) 1 2,223.0

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) 2, e 6,535.2

Population density (persons/km2) 1 1,185.6

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 3 16.0e) EIU estimate, 1) Based on Puebla-Tlaxcala Metropolitan Area, 2) Based on State of Puebla, 3) Based on Municipality of Puebla

and transport, where it drops to below average.Puebla’s placement in these areas is a reflection ofpoor policy implementation in both clean energyand urban mass transport. When measuredagainst the six other low-income cities (thosewith GDP per capita below US$8,000), Puebla hasthe lowest rate of electricity consumption per unitof GDP, and, along with Quito, the highest rate ofwaste collected and adequately disposed.

Energy and CO2: Puebla is below averagein energy and CO2. Puebla produces an estimat-ed 15% of its electricity from renewable energysources, though due to a lack of local data, thispercentage is estimated on the basis of nationalfigures. The low contribution of renewables tothe electricity mix results in a high rate of CO2

emissions from electricity consumption, at anestimated 242 kg per person each year, com-pared to the 17-city average of 202 kg. However,Puebla does well on electricity consumption perunit of GDP, at an estimated 661 megajoules ofelectricity per US$1,000, below the Index aver-age of 761 megajoules and the lowest amountamong cities with similar incomes. Puebla’s per-formance in this category is hindered by its clean

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Puebla Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin American Green City Index | Puebla_Mexico

82 83

Sanitation: Puebla is average in the sanita-tion category. Its performance is hindered by abelow average percentage of residents withaccess to sanitation services. Only an estimated80% of Puebla’s population has access to sanita-tion, the lowest in the Index and considerablybelow the 17-city average of 94%. Furthermore,SOAPAP treats only 43% of the city’s wastewater,which is below the Index average of 52%. However, the city’s sanitation rank is boosted by its extensive policies, which suggests the cityis addressing the problem. SOAPAP has, inrecent years, invested heavily in expandingwastewater treatment and sanitation services.The city has strict standards for wastewatertreatment and regularly monitors its facilities. Italso conducts outreach programmes to raiseawareness about the safe and efficient use ofsanitation systems.

Green initiatives: SOAPAP has several pro-grammes under way to expand access to sanita-tion services, particularly in low-income neigh-bourhoods, and to increase wastewatertreatment. For example, it has investedUS$400,000 to lay 12 km of pipes to connectseveral low-income communities previouslywithout access to sanitation services.

Air quality: Puebla ranks average for airquality. Transport contributes over 80% of thecity’s air pollutants, and the problem is com-pounded by its location. Puebla is situated in avalley surrounded by mountains and volcanoes,which limits dispersion. The municipalityrecords an average daily concentration of sul-phur dioxide of 15 micrograms per cubic metreversus a 17-city average of 11 micrograms.Nitrogen dioxide levels, at 40 micrograms, arejust slightly above the Index average of 38micrograms, but particulate matter concentra-tions, at 31 micrograms per cubic metre, fallbelow the Index average of 48 micrograms.Puebla has four monitoring stations, which are

ering the areas of water, sanitation, waste, airquality, transport, land use, human settlements,energy and climate change, Puebla has failed todo so, hindering its overall placement in this cat-egory.

Green initiatives: Puebla’s Environmental Pro-tection and Sustainable Development Agencywas established as a decentralised agency thatactively engages with and involves citizens,NGOs and the private sector. It also has an edu-

cation and information department, which pro-motes public awareness of environmental issuesthrough research, media campaigns and schooloutreach programmes.

Local NGOs such as Puebla Metropolitana,and Puebla Verde, are also working to enhancepublic awareness through public events andinformation campaigns. In addition, theseorganisations are lobbying the city administra-tion to implement sustainable environmentalpolicies.

operated by the State Environmental Monitor-ing System. Air pollution levels are publicised viaradio, television, newspapers and on the organi-sation’s website.

Green initiatives: In an effort to reduce air pol-lution, the Puebla state Secretary of Environ-ment and Natural Resources has outlined aseries of air quality initiatives for the Puebla met-ropolitan region. These include automatedindustrial emissions control equipment in facto-ries, the reduction of gas leaks in households,and the adoption of vapour recovery equipmentat gas stations, among others. While the statehas required vehicle emissions tests since 1993,the state agency also calls for the programme tobe strengthened, through campaigns to raiseawareness about the requirement and bettersurveillance of vehicles that fail to comply withthe testing regulations.

The programme promotes residents’ participa-tion in waste recycling and re-use through incen-tives and rewards. Residents get one point credit-ed to their card for every kilogram of solid waste,including plastic, metal, glass, carton-tetra pakand electronic devices, they drop off at specificsites. Points can be exchanged for discounts andbenefits in a variety of shops and institutionsacross the city. More than 3,000 cards have beendistributed and more than 22 tonnes of wastehave been collected so far in 2010.

Water: Puebla ranks average in the water cat-egory. Today, 99% of the residents of the munic-ipality of Puebla have access to potable water,according to official figures. But the city’s watersupply comes from some of the most over-exploited aquifers in the country, and expertsexpect that the region will experience severewater shortages by 2016. Residents in themunicipality consume an average of 203 litresper person each day, compared to the Indexaverage of 264 litres. However this relatively lowlevel of water consumption is likely more a con-sequence of the limited water supply than policyaimed at rational usage. On the other hand, themunicipal waterworks company, SOAPAP, doespromote public awareness around efficientwater consumption. The city also performs wellin the area of water quality policies thanks to thecareful monitoring of its water supply andenforcing of water quality standards. Additional-ly, Puebla records a comparatively low rate ofsystem leakages, which at 25%, are the secondlowest in the Index and well below the 17-cityaverage of 35%.

Green initiatives: In an effort to reduce systemleakages and improve supply, SOAPAP hasinvested more than US$30 million since 2009 ininfrastructure works, including repairing tanksand pumps, constructing a new 5,500-cubic-metre storage tank, and drilling 10 new waterwells.

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on State of Puebla. Based on composition of energy sources used in electricity generation in Mexico, 2) Based on State of Puebla, 3) Based on Puebla-Tlaxcala Metropolitan Area, 4) Based on green space figures for 2005 in Puebla-Tlaxcala metropolitan zone, 5) Based on Puebla Metropolitan region, 6) Such a system does not operate in Puebla, 7) Based on Municipality of Puebla, 8) Based on State of Puebla. Total pop-ulation with access to sewerage.

Quantitative indicators: Puebla

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person (litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía;

International Energy Agency; Consejo Nacional de Población;

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía;

Economist Intelligence Unit

Consejo Nacional de Población

Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía;

Consejo Nacional de Población

Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Transporte;

Consejo Nacional de Población

N/A

INEGI

Secretaría de medio ambiente y recursos naturales

Secretaría de medio ambiente y recursos naturales;

Consejo Nacional de Población

Inf. Básica 2009 Org. Operadores/UDAPI/SOAPAP.

Inf. Básica 2009 Org. Operadores/UDAPI/SOAPAP.

Inf. Básica 2009 Org. Operadores/UDAPI/SOAPAP.

Secretaría de medio ambiente y recursos naturales;

Consejo Nacional de Población

Comisión Nacional del Agua

Secretaría del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales del

Estado de Puebla

Secretaría del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales del

Estado de Puebla

Secretaría del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales del

Estado de Puebla

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2008

2008

2009

2009

2008

2010

2008

2008

2008

2009

2009

2009

2007

2008

2009

2009

2009

Puebla

242.0 1, e

661.0 2, e

1,185.6 3

303.3 4, e

5.1 5, e

0.00 6

0.24 7

100.0 2, e

310.2 2, e

203.0 7

25.1 7

98.5 7

79.6 8, e

42.7 2

39.5 7

14.9 7

30.6 7

Environmental governance: Puebla isaverage in environmental governance. Whilethe state’s Secretary of Environment and NaturalResources is active in driving environmental pol-icy, the municipality of Puebla has its own Envi-ronmental Protection and Sustainable Develop-ment Agency (see “green initiatives” below). Theagency promotes citizen and other stakeholderparticipation, further boosting its score. On theother hand, while many cities in the Index haveconducted baseline environmental reviews cov-

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thening oversight on energy and CO2 issues,establishing public information campaigns, andpromoting concrete CO2 abatement policies.Abatement policies include blocking urbandeforestation and promoting greenhouse gasreduction schemes at landfills.

Land use and buildings: Quito is belowaverage in land use and buildings. The city ismarked up for its abundant green spaces, whichinclude urban parks, forested areas and 25nature reserves located within the municipality’sadministrative area. With almost 1,500 squaremetres of green spaces per person, Quito hasthe most in the entire Index. Its large amount ofgreen spaces is in part due to the administrativeboundaries of the city, since almost 80% of terri-tory under the Quito City Council jurisdiction isconsidered non-urban. But the city has alsobeen proactive over the last two decades in cre-ating parks in undeveloped areas in the urbancentre. Quito’s performance in the overall cate-gory is, however, weighed down by a low popu-lation density, at just over 500 inhabitants persquare kilometre versus an Index average of

Latin American Green City Index | Quito_Ecuador

84 85

Quito_Ecuador

Like many cities in Latin America, Quito has seena rapid rise of private car ownership in the pastdecade. While 52% of Quito’s electricity is gener-ated by hydropower, many other cities in theIndex have an even higher share of renewables inelectricity production. But Quito established asmall-scale waste-to-energy project in 2007 toproduce electricity from captured methane gasesat its Zambiza landfill, which supplies 3,000households with electricity. The city does notappear to be making other larger-scale invest-ments in clean energy, which hinders its score inthe area of clean energy policies. However Quitoplaces near the top of the Index for its climatechange action plan. The city monitors its CO2

emissions and recently adopted a strategy aimedat reducing them (see “green initiatives” below).It is also marked up for having joined internation-al covenants with emissions reduction goals.

Green initiatives: In 2009 the city adopted itslocal Climate Change Strategy to limit carbonemissions and reduce the environmental impactof energy consumption. The strategy includesimproving greenhouse gas monitoring, streng -

Quito is the capital of Ecuador and its secondmost populous city. With 2.1 million resi-

dents in the metropolitan area, it is one of thesmaller cities in the Latin American Green CityIndex. The city is set in a high valley in north-central Ecuador, flanked by active volcanoes.Apart from being the country’s administrativehub, Quito is also home to the headquarters ofthe majority of Ecuador’s largest companies. Itseconomy is dominated by services, includingwholesale and retail, financial services andtourism. Manufacturing, particularly auto-partsproduction, is also present. Quito accounts foraround one-fifth of Ecuador’s total GDP. Thecity’s GDP per capita, at US$3,000 is the lowestin the Index. The data for Quito in the Index isbased on the metropolitan area, with the excep-tion of the figure for the length of the transportnetwork, which is based on the urban area.

Quito is ranked average overall in the Index.The city’s best results are for the transport,waste and air quality categories, where it ranksabove average. In air quality, particularly, thecity is marked up for having low concentrationsof the three pollutants measured in this report,

4,500. Quito also scores poorly for its eco-build-ings policies, which are lacking an environmen-tal code for new buildings or any substantialincentives and awareness campaigns to moti-vate businesses and households to lower theenergy consumption of buildings. Except forsmall energy-saving schemes in place since2008, such as using LED light bulbs in cityoffices, there are no green standards for publicbuildings in place.

Green initiatives: Quito has an ambitious planto protect and reforest its green spaces. The“Forestation and Reforestation Project” began in2001, and by 2008 the programme had led tothe planting of about 6 million trees, mostlynative species. The latest high visibility city ini-tiative is to employ city workers and volunteersto replant 300,000 trees lost in forest fires dur-ing summer 2009. In 2006, the city ran a tree-planting competition with neighbourhoodgroups in 145 districts. The “My Neighbourhoodis Dressed in Trees” competition led to the plan-ting and maintenance of 140,000 trees.

Transport: Quito ranks above average fortransport. Quito started to focus on mass trans-port policies only in the late 1990s. The earliestproject was a system of electric and diesel pow-ered buses running on exclusive lanes, servingthe most populated areas. Currently there arethree dedicated bus lanes crossing the city fromnorth to south, and transporting over 450,000people per day. Quito’s mass transport networkin its urban area is an estimated 5.5 km persquare kilometre, just above the Index averageof 5 km per square kilometre. There are plans toexpand it, but progress has been slow due to thecity’s complicated geography — peripheralneighbourhoods are often located in adjacentvalleys — and to financing constraints. The citybenefits in the Index from having the second-lowest stock of cars and motorcycles, at 0.12 perperson, versus the average of 0.3 vehicles perperson.

Green initiatives: Quito has a comprehensivecongestion reduction policy to limit the effectsof rising car ownership. In addition to restricting

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 2.1

Administrative area (km2) 4,204.0

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) e 2,976.5

Population density (persons/km2) 504.9

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 14.0Based on Quito Metropolitan District, e) EIU estimate

and a well developed clean air policy. The city isaverage in the energy and CO2, water and envi-ronmental governance categories. Quito hasroom for improvement in land use and buildingsand sanitation, where it ranks below average. Itis, for example, one of only two cities in theIndex, along with Buenos Aires, with no waste-water treatment facilities. However, Quito hasthe most green spaces in the Index, and there isalso increasing interest within the city to imple-ment environmental policies at the municipallevel, but these have to compete against finan-cial and administrative challenges.

Energy and CO2: Quito ranks average forenergy and CO2. The city has the highest rate ofelectricity consumption in the Index, at 1,400megajoules per US$1,000 GDP, well above the17-city average of 761 megajoules. It achieves amiddling position in the area of CO2 emissionsfrom electricity. Quito emits an estimated 151 kgof CO2 per person from electricity consumptioneach year, below the Index average of 202 kg.According to city officials, road transportaccounts for over half of the total CO2 emissions.

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Quito Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin American Green City Index | Quito_Ecuador

86 87

most of its fresh water from nearby mountainstreams and glaciers, as well as from a few un -derground aquifers. Although water ratio ning isuncommon, Quito can suffer from low rainfallduring the dry season, from June to October,which puts pressure on the city’s reserves. Waterconsumption of 197 litres per person per day islower than the 17-city average of 264 litres, andthe water leakage rate, at 33%, is also just belowthe average of 35%. The city performs well in thearea of water sustainability policies thanks topublic awareness campaigns which encouragewater conservation. On the other hand, Quito isthe only city in the Index failing to enforce waterpollution standards on local industry.

Green initiatives: A new US$4 million watertreatment plant to the northwest of the city is dueto be finished in June 2011, and will supply potablewater to around 480,000 residents. The plant willalso relieve supply pressures for the city’s plannednew international airport, which will be locatednearby and expected to open at the end of 2011.

Sanitation: Quito ranks below average inthe sanitation category. Even so, Quito still pro-vides sanitation services to an estimated 97% ofits residents, according to official figures, whichis better than the Index average of 94%. The cityis marked down, however, because it lackswastewater treatment facilities. Efforts are un -der way to improve monitoring and creating awastewater treatment strategy, but for themoment Quito’s residential and industrialwaste water is dumped, untreated, into the city’stwo main rivers, Machángara and San Pedro.

Green initiatives: During the rainy season thecity’s sewage system often collapses, causingmajor flooding. To address this problem the cityhas unveiled a plan to build two back-up watercollection facilities to capture excessive rainfalland avoid flooding. These facilities are set to becompleted by mid-2011.

Air quality: Quito is above average for airquality. The city’s placement in this category islargely due to very low average daily concentra-tions of the three pollutants measured in theIndex. For example, the city records nitrogendioxide concentrations at 26 micrograms percubic metre, versus a 17-city average of 38micrograms. And sulphur dioxide levels are alsolow, at 9 micrograms per cubic metre, comparedto the Index average of 11 micrograms. Thisreflects the city’s small manufacturing base andstrict policies on vehicle emissions. Further-more, Quito’s below-average daily concentra-tion of particulate matter, at 30 micrograms percubic metre compared to a 17-city average of 48micrograms, stems in part from its temperateweather, which substantially reduces the needfor heating devices. The city also does well ininforming its citizens about the dangers of airpollution. And its efficient, 24-hour air qualitymonitoring, which relies on automatic equip-ment in remote stations around the metropoli-tan area, further bolsters its score.

Green initiatives: In 2003 Quito became thefirst city in Ecuador and in the Andean commu-nity of nations, which includes Ecuador, Peru,Colombia and Venezuela, to require automo-biles to pass emissions tests when they are regis-tered. The tests happen every year for privatecars and every two years for “public purpose”

parking in some core urban areas and buildingexclusive cycling lanes, officials close the citycentre to cars on weekends. Moreover, in 2010Quito became the first city in Ecuador to restrictthe number of vehicles coming into the city dur-ing peak hours on weekdays. The scheme isbased on license plate numbers, which is similarto a measure in place in São Paulo. The city saysit has reduced traffic at peak times by as much as30% in certain areas.

Waste: Quito ranks above average in thewaste category. The publicly owned metropoli-tan waste company, EMASEO, collects and ade-quately disposes of an estimated 100% of thecity’s waste. Quito’s score is further bolstered bythe relatively small amount of waste it produces.The city generates 300 kg per person per year,one of the lowest rates in the Index, and consid-erably below the 17-city average of 465 kg. Inthe past decade Quito has taken an active role inmanaging waste, improving collection and clos-ing open-air dumps. The city’s new landfill,located 45 km away from the urban centre,accepts hazardous, medical and infectiouswaste, in addition to household trash, and thecity imposes strict environmental standards onthe facility. So far, Quito lacks comprehensiverecycling and re-use programmes, though itsrecord here will likely improve in the comingyears (see “green initiatives” below).

Green initiatives: Although the city has beenslow to provide recycling services, it has plans toset up 48 central collection points between 2010and 2012 for paper, plastic and glass bottles. Inassociation with private businesses, the city alsoexpects to establish 1,000 collection points forhazardous household waste, including batteries.

Water: Quito ranks average in the water cate-gory. It is one of the four cities in the Indexwhich provides potable water to all of its resi-dents, according to official figures. The city gets

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on Quito Metropolitan District. Based on composition of energy sources used in electricity generation in Ecuador, 2) Based on Quito Metropolitan District3) Based on the urban area of Quito, 4) Based on Quito, 5) Based on Quito Metropolitan District. Total population with access to sewerage, 6) Based on Quito Metropolitan District. Confirmation from Municipio del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito that currently no waste-water treatment plants exist in Quito. These are foreseen for the year 2012, 7) Based on Quito Metropolitan District GDP figures for 2004 and national GDP growth rates

Quantitative indicators: Quito

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person

(litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Empresa Eléctrica de Quito; International Energy Agency; Insituto

Nacional de Estadística y Censos; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

EIU estimate; Empresa Eléctrica de Quito;

Economist Intelligence Unit

Insituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos; Programa de Educación

para la Prefectura del Pichincha

Mapa de Uso de Suelo y Cobertura Vegetal del Distrito

Metropolitano de Quito; Insituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos

Empresa Metropolitana de Movilidad y Obras Públicas;

Programa de Educación para la Prefectura del Pichincha

Empresa Metropolitana de Movilidad y Obras Públicas

Corporacion Municipal para el Mejoramiento del Aire de Quito,

“Inventario de Emisiones 2007” and “Informe Calidad del Aire 2009”;

Corporacion Municipal para el Mejoramiento del Aire de Quito,

“Inventario de Emisiones 2007” and “Informe Calidad del Aire 2”

Empresa Pública Metropolitana de Aseo; Secretaría de Ambiente/SIAD

Empresa Pública Metropolitana de Aseo; Insituto Nacional de

Estadística y Censos

Empresa Metropolitana de Alcantarillado y Agua Potable;

Insituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos

Empresa Metropolitana de Alcantarillado y Agua Potable

Empresa Metropolitana de Alcantarillado y Agua Potable;

Insituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos

Empresa Metropolitana de Alcantarillado y Agua Potable; Insituto Nacional de

Estadística y Censos

Municipio del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito

Corporación Para el Mejoramiento del Aire de Quito

Corporación Para el Mejoramiento del Aire de Quito

Corporación Para el Mejoramiento del Aire de Quito

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2009

2009

2009

2009

2009

2010

2009

2009

2009

2009

2009

2009

2009

2010

2008

2008

2008

Quito

151.2 1, e

1,426.8 1, e

504.9 2

1,494.7 2

5.4 3, e

0.15 3, e

0.12 4

100.0 2, e

300.3 2

197.2 2

32.7 2

100.0 2

96.7 5, e

0.0 6

25.9 2

8.7 2

30.3 2

vehicles, such as buses and taxis. If the automo-bile fails, the owner must pay for upgrades topass the test and register the vehicle. The cityestimates that carbon monoxide levels havedropped 25% to 30% since the programme started.

Environmental governance: Quitoranks average for environmental governance.Quito’s environmental secretariat coordinates

environmental policies, and provides residentswith a central contact point for information onenvironmental projects. In 2004 Ecuador’s Min-istry of the Environment granted the city envi-ronmental planning capacities and legal author-ity to draft environmental legislation. Quito hasalso made efforts to improve transparency andpromote greater involvement of citizens andstakeholders in decision-making. Major projectsthat have an environmental impact, in particular

in the areas of water, air, transportation andwaste, require public participation. In 2010, forexample, the municipality developed a compre-hensive transport and congestion abatementstrategy in collaboration with different interestgroups, such as transport representatives, pri-vate-sector associations and residents. How -ever, the city’s performance in the Index is weak-ened by slow progress on consistent and timelyenvironmental reviews and monitoring.

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per capita between US$8,000 and US$16,000).It is one of three mid-income cities that ranksabove average overall, and has the second low-est stock of cars and motorcycles among thesame peer group.

Energy and CO2: Rio de Janeiro ranksabove average in energy and CO2. The city’s per-formance in this category is largely due to itsclean energy policies and its clear goals for thereduction of CO2 emissions outlined in the city’sclimate change action plan (see “green initia-tives” below). In 1988 Rio became the first city inLatin America to publish an inventory of CO2

emissions. The city emits an estimated 73 kg ofCO2 per person from electricity usage, below the17-city average of 202 kg. This relatively lowlevel of CO2 emissions is a result of a very highcontribution of renewable energy to the city’selectricity production. Eighty-eight percent of

Latin American Green City Index | Rio de Janeiro_Brazil

88 89

Rio de Janeiro_Brazil

American Green City Index. The city’s best place-ment is in the area of environmental gover-nance, where, with Mexico City, it ranks wellabove average. Its impressive performance inthis category is thanks to a robust record onenvironmental monitoring and environmentalmanagement. Rio also performs well in theenergy and CO2, and land use and buildings cat-egories, emerging above average. The cityboasts a strong clean energy policy and strictlyregulates environmental standards for the con-struction of new buildings. Rio de Janeiroreceives average ranks in the areas of transport,waste, sanitation and air quality. Its overall scoreis constrained, however, by a below averageplacement in the water category, which is duepartly to having the highest rate of water systemleakages in the Index. Rio’s performance com-pares favourably when measured against theseven cities of similar incomes (those with a GDP

With 12.3 million residents, Rio de Janeiro isthe second most populous metropolitan

area in Brazil. Just over half of its residents livewithin the Rio city limits, about 6.4 million, mak-ing it the sixth most populous city in the LatinAmerican Green City Index. All of the figuresincluded in the Index are based on the city prop-

Rio’s electricity comes from renewable sources,primarily hydropower. The city consumes 678megajoules of electricity per US$1,000 of GDP,which is below the Index average of 761 mega-joules.

Green initiatives: In 2009 the city unveiled itscomprehensive climate change programme, “RioSustainable”. The plan foresees an 8% reduction— from 2005 levels — in the emission of CO2 andother greenhouse gases in the city by 2012, a16% reduction by 2016 and a 20% reduction by2020. As part of the programme, the city con-ducted a full review of CO2 emissions in collabora-tion with the federal university of Rio de Janeiro.The plan outlines a number of ways the city willmeet its reduction targets, including the mitiga-tion of emissions from transport and waste, theinstallation of energy-efficient LED lights inmunicipal buildings and street lights, and publicawareness initiatives, among other programmes.

Land use and buildings: Rio ranks aboveaverage in the land use and buildings category.The city scores particularly well thanks to its veryambitious land use and eco-buildings policies,which are among the best in the Index. More-over, the city, which has two of the world’slargest urban forests, the Pedra Branca NaturalPark and the Tijuca Forest, boasts 58 squaremetres of green space per person. Although thelatest available data for Rio dates back to 2001,while the data for other cities is more current,this is relatively high by Index standards. The citystrives to maintain its green spaces, and boasts astrict set of laws aimed at protecting these areasfrom development.

Green initiatives: Ahead of the 2016 OlympicGames, Rio is redeveloping the residential and

commercial areas around its port. The US$200million project involves refurbishing historicalbuildings, improving transport access and sani-tation services, and creating cycling lanes andgreen spaces, including a green corridor lined by11,000 trees. Around 30,000 people currentlylive in the run-down port area, and the city esti-mates that the neighbourhood will be home tomore than 100,000 residents when the projectis finished in 2016. Additionally, Rio’s climatechange action plan calls for the reforestation ofprotected areas. To achieve this, the city isinvesting US$15 million to plant 1,500 hectaresof trees through 2012.

Transport: Rio de Janeiro ranks average inthe transport category. Rio’s public transportsystem consists of both buses and a metro, andis the longest in the Index, measuring an esti-mated 8.7 km per square kilometre of city terri-tory — considerably longer than the 17-cityaverage of 5 km per square kilometre. Its superi-or transport networks (defined in the Index astransport that moves large numbers of passen-gers quickly in dedicated lanes, such as a metro,bus rapid transit or trams) measure 0.12 km persquare kilometre of city territory, just slightlylonger than the Index average of 0.10 km. Rio’smetro runs along two lines, extending a total of47 km, which leaves large portions of the cityserved only by buses. The city’s third metro lineis currently under construction, scheduled forcompletion by 2016 (see “green initiatives”below). Rio’s climate change action plan delin-eates goals for expansion of mass transport ser-vices, and further plans are laid out by the statetransportation secretariat. According to officialsources the city has 0.26 vehicles per inhabitant,which is just less than the Index average of 0.30vehicles. This is the lowest ratio among the

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 6.2

Administrative area (km2) 1,182.0

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) e 11,580.8

Population density (persons/km2) 5,234.1

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 25.0

Based on City of Rio de Janeiro, e) EIU estimate

er of Rio de Janeiro. Together with the widermetropolitan region, Rio generates just over 5%of Brazil’s GDP; it is the second largest economyin the country, behind São Paulo. The city’s com-mercial activities are largely dominated bytourism and services. Brazil’s oil industry isbased in Rio, as are the country’s biggest miningcompany and one of the most important televi-sion networks. Recently the city has received agreat influx of investments ahead of a series ofhigh-profile events, including the UN Confer-ence on Sustainable Development in 2012, theWorld Cup in 2014 and the 2016 OlympicGames. Rio is therefore in a unique position inthe Index to greatly improve its urban develop-ment and environmental performance over thecoming years. Investments are predominantlybeing made in infrastructure to accommodatean expected heavy inflow of visitors.

Rio ranks above average overall in the Latin

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Rio de Janeiro Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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90 91

following the adoption of a state initiative toimprove waste collection and disposal, andimprove landfill standards across the entire stateof Rio de Janeiro. The programme will providemunicipalities a total of US$88 million each year to eradicate all of the state’s open air dumps and ensure that waste is properly dis-posed. It also places emphasis on recycling andcomposting.

Green initiatives: Rio’s Gramacho landfill willbe closed in 2011 and replaced by a new onecurrently under construction at Seropédica. TheUS$47 million state-of-the-art facility will cutCO2 emissions by 1.4 million tonnes each yearby capturing methane gasses, and will also havethe capacity to generate biogas.

Water: Rio de Janeiro ranks below average inthe water category, largely due to high watersystem leakages and an above-average waterconsumption rate. Rio loses 58% of its water toleakages, the highest percentage in the Indexand well above the already high 17-city averageof 35%. The state waterworks company, NovaCedae, estimates that 15% of the city’s totalwater supply is lost to illegal connections in bothinformal settlements and large apartmentblocks, and is investing heavily to expand waterservices in order to tackle this problem (see“green initiatives” below). Rio consumes 301litres of water per person per day, compared tothe Index average of 264 litres. Although thecity does promote public awareness about effi-cient water consumption and encourage ratio-nal use with water tariffs, Rio earns only partialpoints in the area of water efficiency policy,because it lacks separate pipes for non-drinkingwater and does not recycle graywater. Accord-ing to official data, nearly all of Rio’s residentshave access to potable water, and nearly 80% ofthis is supplied by the world’s biggest watertreatment plant, Guandu, a facility that pro-duces 43,000 litres of potable water per second.

waste. Rio’s rugged topography prevents thedispersion of pollutants and high temperaturesexacerbate the problem. Rio city has the highestincidence of nitrogen dioxide in the Index, withaverage daily levels at 58 micrograms per cubicmetre, versus the 17-city average of 38 micro-grams. However, thanks to Brazil’s extensiveethanol programme, levels of sulphur dioxideare much lower at 4 micrograms per cubicmetre, well below the Index average of 11micrograms. Levels of particulate matter arealso low, at 24 micrograms per cubic metre ver-sus the Index average of 48 micrograms.

Green initiatives: The state of Rio de Janeiro

requires yearly emissions tests for all licensedcars, and vehicles that exceed emissions limitsare not allowed on state roads. Furthermore, thecity is testing 15 so-called B20 buses that run ondiesel with a blend of 20% biodiesel. The cityaims to have 8,500 B20 buses in operation by2016. Authorities say the full fleet of B20 buseswill reduce CO2 emissions by 148,000 tonnesand particulate matter by 3,300 tonnes per year.

Environmental governance: Rio rankswell above average for environmental gover-nance, its best placement in the Index. This ismainly because of the efficient network ofmunicipal and state-level institutions dedicated

to environmental monitoring, management andenforcement. The city has a strong record formonitoring air, water, waste, sanitation, trans-port, land use, human settlements, energy andgreen spaces, including urban forests. Rio alsoengages residents and NGOs on environmentalprojects. Non-governmental stakeholders have,for example, played a significant role in draftingplans for infrastructure development ahead ofthe 2016 Olympics. Rio has a designated envi-ronmental authority that oversees and imple-ments all aspects of environmental policy. Theauthority collaborates closely with other citydepartments, including housing, transportation,science and technology, and urban planning.

Green initiatives: Nova Cedae, the statewaterworks company, is investing US$58 mil-lion per year to stop illegal connections to thecity’s water supply. The company also now sup-plies potable water to 111 of the city’s informalsettlements to reduce the need to connect ille-gally. Additionally, schools in Rio teach waterconservation as part of the curriculum.

Sanitation: Rio de Janeiro ranks average inthe sanitation category. An estimated 83% ofRio’s residents have access to sanitation, whichis one of the lowest rates in the Index and wellbelow the average of 94%. In contrast, Rio treatsan estimated 85% of its collected wastewater,considerably more than the Index average of52%. New treatment facilities currently underconstruction will further improve Rio’s perfor-mance. Rio’s sanitation performance is alsoweighed down by a poor score for sanitationpolicies, primarily because it lacks a plan to pro-mote environmentally sustainable sanitationservices. The city fares better, however, in termsof wastewater treatment standards.

Green initiatives: Rio’s largest initiative toimprove sanitation, ongoing since 1994, is theGuanabara Bay Depollution Programme. At acost of US$793 million, the programme involvesthe construction of 1,248 km of effluent collec-tors, 28 km of drains, eight wastewater treat-ment facilities and the expansion of sanitationservices to 139,000 households. The pro-gramme is designed to address all aspects of thebay’s environmental performance. It alsoincludes works to improve flood control and thesupply of potable water and waste collection forresidents who live near the bay, though 90% ofthe budget has been allocated to sanitation.

Air quality: Rio de Janeiro ranks average inthe air quality category. The city’s traffic-chokedstreets are the main source of pollution, fol-lowed by pollution derived from municipal

Brazilian cities in the Index. Nonetheless Rio con-tinues to suffer from endemic traffic problems,and the city has been slow to implement con-gestion reduction policies. Officials say they arecreating limited vehicle zones, but other mea-sures such as “no-car days” or carpooling lanesare missing so far.

Green initiatives: The city and state trans-portation departments are implementing anambitious range of projects to improve publictransport ahead of the World Cup and Olympicgames. The state is investing US$678 million todouble the capacity of the two existing metrolines to 1.1 million passengers a day. In additionto purchasing new trains, two new metro sta-tions are being built and existing lines extended.In 2010, the city was scheduled to start buildingits US$2.9 billion third metro line (“Line 4”) to serve Rio’s western region. The state trans-portation secretariat says the line will have thecapacity for 230,000 passengers per day. Fur-thermore, by 2016 the city will have four majorbus corridors, modelled after Curitiba’s “busrapid transit” (BRT) system. Rio also plans toextend cycling lanes from 140 km in 2009 to340 km in 2012.

Waste: Rio de Janeiro ranks average in thewaste category. The city generates 525 kg ofwaste per person per year, which is above the17-city average of 465 kg per person per year,although it collects and disposes of nearly all ofit. The city’s waste is disposed in the Gramacholandfill, which is being replaced in 2011 (see“green initiatives” below).

The city earns middling scores for its policieson waste collection and disposal, and recyclingand re-use. While Rio does enforce environmen-tal standards for its landfills, its failure to disposeof household hazardous waste and chemicaland pharmaceutical waste separately from regu-lar municipal waste holds it back. Its perfor-mance in this area will likely improve, however,

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on City of Rio de Janeiro, 2) Based on City of Rio de Janeiro. Total population with access to sewage.

Quantitative indicators: Rio de Janeiro

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person

(litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Light; International Energy Agency; Instituto Brasileiro de

Geografia e Estatística; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Light; Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística; Economist In-

telligence Unit

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

Secretaría Municipal de Meio Ambiente

Secretaría de Transportes; MetroRio; Confederação Nacional do Trans-

porte; Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

Secretaria dos Transportes Metropolitanos

Denatran

Secretaría Municipal de Meio Ambiente; Companhia Municipal de

Limpeza Urbana

Secretaría Municipal de Meio Ambiente; Instituto Brasileiro de Geo-

grafia e Estatística

Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento;Instituto

Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Saneamento

Instituto Estadual do Ambiente

Instituto Estadual do Ambiente

Instituto Estadual do Ambiente

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2009

2007

2009

2001

2009

2010

2010

2008

2008

2008

2008

2007

2007

2008

2009

2009

2009

Rio de Janeiro

73.0 1, e

677.8 1

5,234.1 1

58.0 1

8.6 1

0.12 1

0.26 1

98.6 1, e

525.2 1

301.3 1

57.7 1

98.4 1

83.4 2, e

85.3 1, e

57.7 1

3.5 1

24.0 1

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202 kg, although it should be noted that Santia-go’s figure is from 2005. Many of Santiago’s poli-cies regarding energy and climate change areonly partial. For example, it lacks a comprehen-sive strategy to reduce the environmentalimpact of energy consumption, and its climatechange action plan covers water, buildings andenergy; but not sanitation, waste or transport.Santiago has signed up to international covenantsto reduce greenhouse gases and is makingefforts to reduce waste in transmission and con-sume energy more efficiently. However, ratherthan pioneering its own energy policies, the cityfollows those set down by the national environ-mental commission, Conama, which has nowbeen replaced by the new Ministry of Environ-ment, created in October 2010.

Green initiatives: Santiago’s state-owned metrocompany has several initiatives to cut CO2 emis-sions and reduce electricity consumption by 35gigawatts per year, which equals the electricityconsumed by about 19,400 households. Thecompany is implementing an automated traincontrol system that improves energy efficiency,and is also switching to more efficient lighting instations. These and other initiatives are expect-ed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by17,000 tonnes per year. In 2009 Chile’s nationalenergy commission announced a programme tosubsidise the purchase of high-efficiency elec-tric motors by the industrial sector. The commis-sion is introducing 6,000 new motors through2010, which will cut CO2 emissions by an esti-mated 2,600 tonnes a year. Furthermore, thecommune of Vitacura, one of the independentadministrative areas within the Santiago metro-politan region, has said it will become the firstcarbon-neutral municipality in Latin America in2010 by purchasing carbon credits to offset1,500 tonnes of CO2 emissions.

Land use and buildings: Santiago ranksaverage for land use and buildings. The city hasthe second highest population density in theIndex, at 10,900 people per square kilometre, afigure based on a smaller boundary within themetropolitan area, referred to as “Gran Santia-go”. This figure is well above the 17-city averageof 4,500 people per square kilometre. Santiagohas 26 square metres of green spaces per per-son, a figure also based on Gran Santiago, andone of the lower amounts of green spaces in theIndex. Santiago has some of the strongest poli-cies in the Index to limit urban sprawl and pro-tect environmentally sensitive areas. The cityhas been slow, however, to adopt energy effi-ciency standards in public buildings, and neitherhas the city adopted a code establishing eco-efficiency standards on new private buildings.

Latin American Green City Index | Santiago_Chile

92 93

Santiago_Chile

substantial overhaul and influx of investment inthe transport network, and well-developed poli-cies in this area. Santiago also places above aver-age in the areas of waste, water and sanitation,thanks largely to its policies aimed at improvingservices and reducing environmental impact.The city receives average ranks in land use andbuildings, air quality and environmental gover-nance. The city has the most room for improve-ment in the energy and CO2 category, where itplaces well below average, due to its high levelof electricity consumption and CO2 emissionsfrom electricity.

Energy and CO2: Santiago ranks wellbelow average for energy and CO2. The city hasthe second highest rate of electricity consump-tion compared to its economic output amongthe 17 cities, at 1,200 megajoules per US$1,000of GDP, which is considerably more than theaverage of 761 megajoules. Santiago also hashigher-than-average CO2 emissions from elec-tricity consumption, at an estimated 463 kg perperson per year, compared with the average of

Santiago is Chile’s administrative and finan-cial capital, and the country’s most populous

city, with 6.8 million residents in the metropoli-tan area. With a few exceptions noted below, alldata included in the Latin American Green CityIndex are based on the Santiago metropolitanregion. The region is a booming financial centre,generating about two-fifths of Chile’s economicoutput. The city serves as the Latin Americanhub for many multinational companies, as wellas the base for most Chilean conglomerates. It isalso home to some of the region’s most modernretail centres. City administration across themetropolitan area is divided into 52 “com-munes”, each with its own mayor. An “Inten-dant”, appointed directly by Chile’s president,heads up the metropolitan regional govern-ment, which is responsible for harmonising mul-tiple local and national policies on the environ-ment and other municipal issues.

Santiago ranks average overall in the Index.Its best result is in the transport category, whereit is the only city to rank well above average. San-tiago’s score in this category is bolstered by a

However, following the devastating earthquakethat struck central-southern Chile in February2010, which damaged or destroyed many build-ings in Santiago, the government is now back-ing the use of solar energy in new buildings, andmay introduce tax incentives for homeowners touse solar panels, which should help boost itsscore in this category.

Green initiatives: The “Santiago MetropolitanRegulation Plan”, which outlines the city’s over-all strategy for coping with population growth to2030, includes initiatives aimed at increasinggreen spaces. The plan calls on private develop-ers to transform 3,900 hectares of city area intopublic parks and green spaces in exchange foraccessing another 5,700 hectares for develop-ment. It also includes plans to revitalise threecity parks and to plant more trees along majorroads, which will be supported by the nationalforestry department.

Transport: Santiago ranks well above aver-age for transport, the city’s best performance in

the Index and the only city to achieve this highrank. The city’s public transport system is under-pinned by a metro and a “bus rapid transit” (BRT)system, which are further supported by a largefleet of feeder buses. Santiago’s overall networkextends to an estimated 5.1 km per square kilo-metre, just about in line with the Index averageof 5 km. But its superior public transport net-work (defined in the Index as transport thatmoves large numbers of passengers quickly indedicated lanes, such as a metro, bus rapid tran-sit or trams) extends an estimated 0.22 km persquare kilometre, which makes it the fourthlongest in the Index. It should be noted that thedata in the Index for transport are based on GranSantiago. In 2007, the city brought all bus oper-ators under one umbrella organisation and stan-dardised routes. Authorities have also reducedthe total number of buses from 7,000 to 4,500and are gradually replacing older vehicles withlower-emission models. The city’s metro hasundergone almost continuous expansion sinceopening in 1975, and it currently carries morethan 2.3 million passengers per day on five lines

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 6.8

Administrative area (km2) 15,403.2

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) 7,721.1

Population density (persons/km2) 1 10,920.7

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 14.0

Based on Santiago Metropolitan Area, 1) Based on Gran Santiago

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Santiago Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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94 95

39 central collection points for residents to vol-untarily deposit recyclable materials, includingpaper, plastics, batteries and glass. The charitieskeep the proceeds they earn from collecting andtransferring the materials to recycling plants.The commune has also launched residentialrecycling collection in 80 buildings in the city.Residents voluntarily separate household waste,and deposit recyclable materials in special con-tainers. Several other communes around themetropolitan area have similar programmes.

Water: Santiago is above average in the watercategory. Nearly 99% of Santiago’s populationhas access to potable water, according to officialsources. It also has a lower-than-average per-centage of leaks, at an estimated 30%, which isstill high but compares favourably to the Indexaverage of 35%. Since Chile privatised the coun-try’s water services in 1998, Spanish-ownedAguas Andinas has provided Santiago’s water.The company regularly monitors the quality ofits drinking water, a programme enforced by thenational environmental agency. There are chal-lenges associated with one of the city’s watersources, the Mapocho River, which is contami-nated by sewage and waste from copper miningupstream (see “green initiatives” in the “Sanita-tion” category, below), but the city has a robustpolicy for governing industrial pollution.

Green initiatives: Upon privatisation of waterservices in 1998, and a subsequent rise in waterprices, the national government introduced adirect subsidy for low-income households, inorder to guarantee access. The country’s provin-cial governments pay between 25% and 85% ofthe water bills for the poorest fifth of the popula-tion, and are then reimbursed by the nationalgovernment. In 2004 the national governmentalso introduced a programme to pay for the first15 cubic metres of water used by families livingin extreme poverty. Furthermore, to guaranteethe sustainably of Santiago’s Mapocho River,

try to shut down polluting engines on dayswhen air pollution is deemed too high; similarrestrictions are placed on vehicles (see “greeninitiatives” below). Also, the use of chimneys inhomes is forbidden. The city therefore receivestop marks particularly for its air quality code andmonitoring efforts, and air quality has improvedthrough these emissions control measures. Butthe city’s valley setting, bordered to the east bythe Andes mountains, means air is trapped overSantiago for much of the year, and pollutionremains relatively high. Average daily concen-trations of particulate matter, for example, areamong the highest in the Index, at 66 micro-grams per cubic metre, compared with the 17-city average of 48 micrograms.

Green initiatives: Chile’s national health min-

istry has a regional office, which monitors air pol-lution in the metropolitan area. When pollutionreaches critical levels, authorities limit the num-ber of vehicles entering the city according tolicence plate numbers. Also, Santiago has a long-standing policy of using trees along streets and inparks specifically in order to reduce levels of par-ticulate matter in the air. A 2008 study in the Jour-nal of Environmental Management found thatthis strategy costs around US$8,000 for every 1tonne reduction in suspended air particles, whichis cheaper than several types of conversion tocleaner fossil fuels, although this could change inthe future if prices for conversion come down.

Environmental governance: Santiagoranks average for environmental governance.The city has a strong record on citizen participa-

tion, thanks to initiatives overseen at the nation-al level (see “green initiatives” below). The newlycreated national ministry of environment nowserves as a central contact point for informationon environmental performance and projects.Santiago’s score in this category is hindered byits limited ability to implement its own environ-mental legislation. With 52 different com-munes, city governance can be complicated, soofficials often take the lead from the nationalgovernment on environmental policy.

Green initiatives: The ministry of environmenthas a formal process to encourage public inputon all projects with an environmental impact.Residents, non-governmental organisations andother stakeholders are regularly invited toexpress opinions to influence policy.

Aguas Andinas is conducting a major decontam-ination project (see “green initiatives” under“Sanitation” below).

Sanitation: Santiago is above average in thesanitation category. An estimated 97% of Santia-go’s residents have access to sanitation services,according to official sources, which is higherthan the Index average of 94%. The city treats anestimated 73% of its wastewater, according to2003 data, which is much higher than the 17-cityaverage of 52%. And the city’s wastewater treat-ment performance is likely to have improvedsince 2003, thanks to a national initiative aimedat treating all of its wastewater by 2012, a targetthe city appears well on track to meeting (see“green initiatives” below). Strong regulationshave also driven improvements in wastewatertreatment. The national body overseeing sanita-tion has powers to impose heavy fines on the pri-vate companies providing sanitation serviceswhen standards are not met.

Green initiatives: As part of a wider plan toimprove sanitation in the region, the privatecompany Aguas Andinas is scheduled to finish aUS$350 million wastewater treatment plant by2012, which will allow the city to treat all of itswastewater. In 2007 Santiago’s regional envi-ronmental authority, Corema, commissionedanother project, also managed by Aguas Andi-nas, to stop the flow of untreated wastewaterinto the Mapocho River, a major source of waterfor the city. Under the plan, the companydecommissioned 21 pipes that previously dis-charged untreated wastewater into the river.

Air quality: Santiago ranks average in airquality. Tackling air pollution is a national priori-ty, and Santiago has the strongest clean air poli-cies in the Index, along with Curitiba. Becausethe city often experiences critical air pollutionlevels, Santiago has introduced an emergencyenvironmental protection plan that forces indus-

covering roughly 90 km. In addition to overhaul-ing its mass transport system, the city has alsoadopted several traffic management measuresto reduce congestion, including traffic lightsequencing, a traffic information system, “nocar days” for vehicles without catalytic convert-ers, and some toll roads. Santiago has one of thesmallest stocks of cars and motorcycles in theIndex, at just 0.14 vehicles per person, com-pared to the 17-city average of 0.3, a figurebased on Gran Santiago.

Green initiatives: In 2010 the city started build-ing its sixth metro line, which will cover 12 sta-tions along a 15 km route when it opens in2014. Furthermore, Providencia, a communewithin the metropolitan area, started a bicyclerental scheme in 2009, complemented by sub-stantial investments in bicycle lanes. Users canrent a bicycle for up to one day, picking it up anddropping it off in specially designated areas.

Waste: Santiago is above average in the wastecategory, a strong performance driven by robustwaste disposal policies. Each of the city’s 52 com-munes is individually responsible for managingwaste collection and disposal, and theirapproaches vary. Some communes have bandedtogether to found their own collectively con-trolled company, while others have contractedseparately with a private firm, KDM. The system isrelatively efficient, since together the communescollect and adequately dispose of an estimated99% of the city’s waste. Santiago complies withstrict national guidelines governing its manylandfills — open air dumps are illegal in Chile —as well as the disposal of hazardous waste. Thecity generates a relatively large amount of waste,however, at 563 kg per person per year, com-pared with an Index average of 465 kg.

Green initiatives: The commune of Santiagohas teamed up with four charities to encouragecommunity participation in recycling. There are

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on Santiago Metropolitan Area, 2) Based on Gran Santiago, 3) Based on Gran Santiago area, 4) Based on Santiago Metropolitan Area. Total populationwith access to sewerage.

Quantitative indicators: Santiago

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person

(litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; Insitituto Nacional de Estadísticas; International Energy

Agency; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Insitituto Nacional de Estadísticas; Banco Central de Chile; Economist

Intelligence Unit

Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas; Foreign Investment Committee

Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente; Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas

Metro de Santiago; Ministerio de Transporte; Grupo CB

Jefe de Estaciones de Trenes Metropolitanos, S.A., Metro de Santiago

Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas

Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente

Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente; Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas

Superintendecia de Servicios Sanitarios; Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas

Superintendecia de Servicios Sanitarios

Superintendecia de Servicios Sanitarios; Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas

Superintendecia de Servicios Sanitarios; Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas

Superintendencia de Servicios Sanitarios

Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente

Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente

Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2005

2005

2009

2009

2009

2010

2010

2008

2008

2009

2008

2008

2008

2003

2009

2007

2009

Santiago

463.3 1, e

1,247.0 1

10,920.7 2

26.1 2

5.1 3, e

0.22 3, e

0.14 2

98.9 1, e

563.1 1

243.0 1

30.3 1, e

98.6 1

97.1 4, e

73.2 1, e

41.0 1

10.0 1

66.0 1

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a massive population explosion that has led torapid and often chaotic urbanisation.

Despite the massive challenges posed by thesize of its population, São Paulo ranks aboveaverage in the Latin American Green City index.The city’s strongest performance is in the energyand CO2 category, where it places well aboveaverage. This impressive placement is a result ofvery low CO2 emissions from electricity con-sumption and one of the most robust climatechange action plans in the Index. São Pauloplaces above average in all other categories withthe exceptions of air quality and environmentalgovernance. It ranks average in both categoriesdue to the lack of a comprehensive clean air pol-icy and a low level of public participation in envi-ronmental projects. São Paulo is, however, tak-ing proactive steps to improve its environmentalperformance, receiving high scores for govern-ment policies in many categories.

Energy and CO2: São Paulo ranks wellabove average in energy and CO2. With all of itselectricity generated by hydropower plants, SãoPaulo is unique in the Index for having an esti-mated zero CO2 emissions from electricity usage.This is considerably better than the 17-city aver-age annual emissions rate of 202 kg per personper year. São Paulo also has some of the mostcomprehensive clean energy and climate changepolicies in the Index (see “green initiatives”below). In 2005 the city conducted a full invento-ry of CO2 emissions which showed that transportwas the largest single source of the city’s emis-sions, followed by waste disposal. The São Paulometropolitan region consumes 553 megajoulesof electricity per US$1,000 of GDP, well belowthe Index average of 761 megajoules.

Green initiatives: In 2009 São Paulo officialsadopted an ambitious, comprehensive climatechange policy, which commits the city to reduceCO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions by 30%of 2005 levels by 2012. The city also establisheda climate change committee to monitor pro-gress. The city says it is has made impressivestrides to meeting this goal and has alreadyreduced emissions by 20%. This rapid reductionis a result of two waste-to-energy conversionplants. The city closed operations at its two mainlandfills, Bandeirantes and São João, in 2007 and2009, respectively, and installed thermoelectricpower plants at both facilities. By capturing andburning methane, the landfills supply a total of350,000 megawatt hours per year, and will cutCO2 emissions by 11 million tonnes through 2012.

Land use and buildings: São Paulo ranksabove average in land use and buildings. The cityproper has the fourth highest density in the

Latin American Green City Index | São Paulo_Brazil

96 97

São Paulo_Brazil

been transformed in recent decades and is nowdominated by services. Today it is Brazil’s eco-nomic and financial capital, and a major centrefor multinational companies operating in LatinAmerica, though several big industries remain inthe periphery of the city, including car manufac-turers. São Paulo generates around 12% of thecountry’s GDP and has the fifth highest GDP perperson in the Index, at US$15,100. Long a mag-net for both Brazilians and foreign immigrants,São Paulo has over the past century experienced

Ateeming megacity with 20.7 million resi-dents, São Paulo is Brazil’s most populous

metropolitan area. With 11 million people livinginside the São Paulo city limits, the city is alsothe most populous in the Latin American GreenCity Index. All data included in the Index is basedon city figures, except for data on electricity con-sumption and CO2 emissions from electricityconsumption, which are based on the metropol-itan area. São Paulo grew over the past centuryas a dynamic industrial hub, but its economy has

Index, at 7,300 inhabitants per square kilometre,considerably higher than the 17-city average of4,500 inhabitants per square kilometre. The cityalso has robust eco-buildings policies, thanks to alocal law requiring that all new buildings includesolar panels for hot water, and new energy-effi-ciency standards that came into effect in 2009(see “green initiatives” below). The city has 55square metres of green spaces per person — amiddling result among the 17 cities in the Index.With the exception of a few parks, São Paulo’sdense inner city is relatively void of green spaces,but the city’s result in this area would likelyimprove if the metropolitan area had been includ-ed. The city has significant room for improvementin the area of land use policy, with only partialefforts to contain urban sprawl and protect envi-ronmentally sensitive areas.

Green initiatives: In 2009 São Paulo adoptedAgenda 2012, which established a set of 223short- and medium-term goals for the city. Whilethe agenda covers a wide range of areas, frompolitical transparency to social inclusion, among

others, the initiative sets a series of goals in thearea of land use and buildings. These includeconstructing 50 new neighbourhood parks andthree parks along the Tietê River, in addition toplanting 800,000 trees. Agenda 2012 alsoincludes an initiative, run by the city’s housingdepartment, to install infrastructure andupgrade housing in 81 flood-prone informal set-tlements, expected to affect 75,000 families.The city is also in the process of upgrading hous-ing, installing basic infrastructure and establish-ing waste recycling programmes in what weretwo of São Paulo’s largest informal settlements,Heliopolis and Paraísopolis, as well as in otherareas. As a result, these former settlements haveevolved into low-income neighbourhoods.Regarding buildings, a 2009 law requires all newmunicipal buildings to meet energy-efficiencystandards and that existing buildings be retrofit-ted with technology to improve energy efficien-cy and to mitigate their environmental impact.

Transport: São Paulo ranks above average inthe transport category, an impressive placement

Background indicatorsTotal population (million) 11.0

Administrative area (km2) 1,509.0

GDP per person (current prices) (US$) 15,090.2

Population density (persons/km2) 7,314.5

Temperature (24-hour average, annual) (°C) 19.6

Based on City of São Paulo

wellbelow

average

belowaverage

average above average

wellabove

average

Performance

Energy and CO2

Land Use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

Environmental Governance

Overall Results

Sao Paulo Other cities

The order of the dots within the performance bands has no bearing on the cities’ results.

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Latin American Green City Index | São Paulo_Brazil

98 99

end in specified digits are prohibited from enter-ing the zone on certain days. Violators are sub-ject to heavy fines and repeat offenders can losetheir licenses. And in another move to reducecongestion, the city has since 2007 been widen-ing a ban on heavy vehicles on certain high-vol-ume avenues during peak hours.

Waste: São Paulo ranks above average in thewaste category. According to official figures,São Paulo collects and adequately disposes of allof the waste produced in the city limits. Two pri-vate contractors collect residential and house-hold waste, as well as recyclable materials. Thewaste is disposed of in two managed landfills.The city has a strong record in waste collectionand disposal policies thanks to strict enforce-ment of environmental standards on its landfillsand careful monitoring of the disposal of haz-ardous waste by industry. Despite its well-man-aged waste disposal programme, São Paulo pro-duces 550 kg of waste per inhabitant per year,above the Index average of 465 kg.

Green initiatives: São Paulo’s “Ecopoint” initia-tive is reducing the illegal dumping of largewaste items on city streets. The city has centralcollection points for residents to dispose, free ofcharge, items that do not fit in residential bins,up to one cubic metre in volume, such as furni-ture, tree cuttings and construction waste. Thecity has 38 collection centres and will open 10more by the end of 2010.

In the first six months of 2010 the city says itcollected 57,400 cubic metres of waste that oth-erwise would have been left on the streets. By2012 the city aims to have 96 stations in opera-tion, which will offer access to a majority of thepopulation.

Water: São Paulo ranks above average in thewater category. The city performs particularlywell in water quality policies thanks to closemonitoring by the statewide water company,

Sabesp, the state water company, closely moni-tors toxin levels in wastewater at treatment facil-ities, but São Paulo is one of the few cities in theIndex that fails to monitor on-site treatmentfacilities, like septic tanks, in homes and com-munal areas.

Green initiatives: The city is in the third andfinal phase of its long-term, US$1 billion sanita-tion expansion and improvement programme.By building 580 km of new effluent collectorsand other infrastructure improvements, the cityexpects to be able to treat wastewater from anadditional three million people in the metropoli-tan area when the project finishes in 2015. Thiswould be a 41% improvement in capacity.

Air quality: São Paulo ranks average in theair quality category. Its average daily emissionsof sulphur dioxide and suspended particulatematter are well below the 17-city averages.Average daily nitrogen dioxide levels, however,are worse than average, at 47 micrograms percubic metre compared to 38 micrograms, whichcan be attributed primarily to the prevalence ofautomobiles — the main source of air pollutionin São Paulo. The city has significant room toimprove its clean air policies relative to othercities in the Index. In São Paulo, for example, airquality policies are coupled with wider initiativesto reduce traffic congestion, which is an impor-tant step given the impact cars have on the city’sair quality. However, top-performers in this cate-

gory have policies that specifically target allforms of air pollution.

Environmental governance: São Pauloranks average in environmental governance.While the city has a designated environmentaldepartment, the level of policy implementationis limited and the level of public participationhas remained relatively poor. Furthermore,responsibilities for transportation, water andsanitation are split between the city and state,causing some fragmentation in policy. However,the environmental department budget hastripled between 2004 and 2009, to about US$220 million, demonstrating the city’s renewedinterest in environmental projects.

Sabesp. São Paulo consumes an average of 220litres of water per person per day, according toofficial figures, slightly below the 17-city aver-age of 264 litres. But the city appears commit-ted to lowering consumption even further, hav-ing installed water meters in most residentialbuildings. Nearly all of the population livingwithin the city limits has access to potablewater, according to official sources. São Pauloloses 31% of its water to system leakages,which, though high, is below the 17-city aver-age of 35%.

Green initiatives: Sabesp, the statewide watercompany, has prioritised the elimination of leaksand illegal connections to the water network. Ithas therefore increased the number of inspec-tors and adopted new technology that helps itmonitor all of the water in the system, spottingmajor leaks quickly and forecasting water con-sumption levels based on outdoor tempera-tures. Furthermore, Sabesp has an ongoing ini-tiative called “PURA”, to promote conservation inSão Paulo through public information cam-paigns and water-saving technology. Using bestpractices developed in collaboration with thePolytechnic University of São Paulo, Sabespworks with institutions such as schools, hospi-tals and prisons to encourage conservation,repair leaks and install water conservationequipment. Sabesp says it has reduced waterconsumption in its own administrative offices by72% and in municipal schools by 38%.

Sanitation: São Paulo ranks above averagein the sanitation category. Ninety-nine percentof São Paulo’s residents have access to sanita-tion, an estimate based on official figures, whichis better than the 17-city average of 94%. Thecity does not do as well on the percentage ofwastewater treated, but still better than theaverage, at 75% versus 52%. This means a largeamount of untreated wastewater is still dumpedinto the city’s main water source, the Tietê River.

for a city widely known for its endemic trafficproblems. And indeed, the city has one of thelargest stocks of cars and motorcycles in theIndex — 0.44 vehicles per person, compared tothe 17-city average of 0.30. However, São Paulois trying to limit the effects of the city’s deeplyentrenched car culture with comprehensivecongestion-reduction policies. These includeregulations limiting the number of cars enteringthe city centre and limited vehicle zones (see“green initiatives” below). Despite progress thecity still lacks other congestion reduction mea-sures, such as carpooling lanes, congestioncharges and park and ride systems, which wouldboost its score in this category. To further allevi-ate chronic congestion and encourage the useof public transport, the city and state are work-ing together on a US$18 billion plan calling fornew metro lines, new bus terminals, andimproved traffic control and signalling by 2020.São Paulo’s metro is modern and relatively effi-cient but its coverage is limited to some 69 kmand four main lines. The city is building a fifthline, but progress has been slow. Nevertheless,the city’s superior transport network (defined inthe Index as transport that moves large numbersof passengers quickly in dedicated lanes, such asmetro, bus rapid transit or tram networks) is thefifth longest superior transport network in theIndex. It measures 0.21 km per square kilometreof city territory, which is twice the 17-city aver-age of 0.10 km. Bus transport remains the mostcommon form of public transport and the cityboasts an extensive bus network, which, unlikethe metro, covers all areas of São Paulo. Overall,the mass transport system within the city limitsmeasures 7.5 km per square kilometre, wellabove the Index average of 5 km.

Green initiatives: Officials prohibit 20% of thecity’s cars from entering a large portion of cen-tral São Paulo during peak hours of each workday. Restrictions are based on license plate num-bers. For example, cars with license plates that

* Where data from different years were used only the year of the main indicator is listed, e) EIU Estimate, 1) Based on São Paulo Metropolitan Region. All electricity for São Paulo comes from hydro, therefore no CO2 emissions, 2) Based on São Paulo Metropolitan Region, 3) Based on City of São Paulo, 4) Based on City of São Paulo. Total population with access to sewerage.

Quantitative indicators: Sao Paulo

Energy and CO2

Land use and Buildings

Transport

Waste

Water

Sanitation

Air Quality

CO2 emissions from electricity consumption

per person (kg/person )

Electricity consumption per US$ GDP

(megajoules per thousand US$ GDP)

Population density (persons/km2)

Green spaces per person (m2/person)

Length of mass transport network (km/km2)

Superior public transport networks (km/km2)

Stock of cars and motorcycles (vehicles/person)

Share of waste collected and adequately disposed (%)

Waste generated per person (kg/person/year)

Water consumption per person

(litres per person per day)

Water system leakages (%)

Share of population with access to potable water (%)

Population with access to sanitation (%)

Share of wastewater treated (%)

Daily nitrogen dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily sulphur dioxide levels (ug/m3)

Daily suspended particulate matter levels (ug/m3)

Source

EIU estimate; AES

AES; Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística;

Economist Intelligence Unit

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

Secretaría de Meio Ambiente; Instituto Brasileiro de

Geografia e Estatística

SPTrans

SPTrans, Secretaria dos Transportes Metropolitanos

Denatran

Prefeitura de Sao Paulo

Prefeitura de Sao Paulo – "Informacoes Gerais Portal da Prefeitura

de Sao Paulo"

SABESP; Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

SABESP

SABESP; Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

SABESP; Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística

SABESP

Companhia Ambiental do Estado de São Paulo

Companhia Ambiental do Estado de São Paulo

Companhia Ambiental do Estado de São Paulo

Average

202.2

760.7

4,503.0

254.6

5.0

0.13

0.30

96.2

465.0

264.3

34.6

97.5

93.7

51.5

37.8

11.4

48.0

Year*

2009

2007

2009

2009

2009

2010

2010

2009

2009

2007

2007

2007

2009

2007

2009

2009

2009

Sao Paulo

0.0 1, e

552.7 2

7,314.5 3

54.7 3

7.5 3

0.21 3

0.44 3

100.0 3

550.0 3

220.5 3

30.8 3

99.2 3

99.1 4, e

75.0 3

47.0 3

4.0 3

33.0 3

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