Lake Champlain

For ships named after the lake, see USS Lake Cham-plain. For homonymy, see Champlain.

Lake Champlain (French: Lac Champlain) is a nat-ural freshwater lake in North America, located mainlywithin the borders of the United States (states of Vermontand New York) but partially situated across the CanadaUnited States border in the Canadian province of Quebec.The New York portion of the Champlain Valley includesthe eastern portions of Clinton County and Essex County.Most of this area is part of the Adirondack Park. Thereare recreational opportunities in the park and along therelatively undeveloped coastline of Lake Champlain. Thecities of Plattsburgh, New York and Burlington, Vermontare on the west and east shores of the lake, respectively,and the village of Ticonderoga, New York is located inthe southern part of the region. The Quebec portion islocated in the regional county municipalities of Le Haut-Richelieu and Brome-Missisquoi.

1 GeologyThe Champlain Valley is the northernmost unit of a land-form system known as the Great Appalachian Valley,which stretches from Quebec to Alabama. The Cham-plain Valley is a physiographic section of the larger SaintLawrence Valley, which in turn is part of the largerAppalachian physiographic division.[1]

It is one of numerous large lakes located in an arc fromLabrador through the northern United States and into theNorthwest Territories of Canada. Although it is smallerthan each of the Great Lakes: Ontario, Erie, Huron,Superior, or Michigan, Lake Champlain is a large bodyof fresh water. Approximately 1,269 km2 (490 sq mi) inarea, the lake is roughly 201 km (125 mi) long, and 23km (14 mi) across at its widest point.[2][3] The maximumdepth is approximately 400 feet (120 m). The lake variesseasonally from about 95 to 100 ft (29 to 30 m) abovemean sea level.[4]

1.1 HydrologyLake Champlain is situated in the Lake Champlain Val-ley between the Green Mountains of Vermont and theAdirondack Mountains of New York, drained northwardby the 106-mile (171 km)-long Richelieu River into theSt. Lawrence River at Sorel-Tracy, Quebec northeast

Landsat photo

and downstream of Montreal. It also receives the wa-ters from the 32-mile (51 km)-long Lake George, so itsbasin collects waters from the northwestern slopes of the

1

2 2 HISTORY

Lake Champlain near Burlington during sunset.

Green Mountains of Vermont and the northernmost east-ern peaks of the Adirondack Mountains of New York.The lake drains nearly half of Vermont. About 250,000people get their drinking water from the lake.[5]

The lake is fed by Otter Creek, the Winooski, Poultney,Missisquoi, and Lamoille Rivers in Vermont, and theAusable, Chazy, Boquet, Saranac and La Chute rivers inNew York.It is connected to the Hudson River by the ChamplainCanal.Portions of the lake freeze each winter, and in somewinters the entire lake surface freezes, referred to asclosing.[6] The lake temperature reaches an average of70 F (21 C) in July and August.[7]

1.2 Chazy ReefThe Chazy Reef is an extensive Ordovician carbonaterock formation which extends from Tennessee to Quebecand Newfoundland. It occurs in prominent outcroppingat Goodsell Ridge, Isle LaMotte, the northernmost islandin Lake Champlain.The oldest reefs are around The Head of the south endof the island; slightly younger reefs are found at the FiskQuarry; and the youngest (the famous coral reefs) are lo-cated in elds to the north.[8] Together, these three sitesprovide a unique narrative of events which took placeover 450 million years ago in the ocean in the SouthernHemisphere, long before the emergence of Lake Cham-plain twenty thousand years ago.

2 HistoryThe lake was named after the French explorer Samuelde Champlain, who encountered it in 1609. While theports of Burlington, Vermont; Port Henry, New York;and Plattsburgh, New York today are primarily used bysmall craft, ferries and lake cruise ships, they were of sub-stantial commercial and military importance in the 18th

Brooklyn Museum - GreenMountains, Lake Champlain - Winck-worth Allan Gay - overall

and 19th centuries.A variety of Native American names for the lake wererecorded by historians. Many historical works give Cani-aderi Guarunte as the Iroquois name for the lake (mean-ing: mouth or door of the country); the lake was an im-portant northern gateway to their lands.[9] A number ofother sources give Petonbowk (meaning the lake in be-tween) as the Abenaki name in their Algonquian languagefor the lake.[10] The St. Francis/Sokoki Abenaki Band,who make their home along the Masipskiwibi River (inMissisquoi language, Crooked River) in northwesternVermont, call the lake Bitawbagok, which has the samemeaning as Petonbowk.[11] Some early 21st-century ar-ticles appeared during the Champlain Quadricentennial(2009) claiming Ondakina as the local native name forthe lake, but none cites a veriable source.[12][13]

2.1 Colonial America and the Revolution-ary War

Map of Lac Champlain, from Fort de Chambly up to Fort St-Frderic in Nouvelle France. Cadastral map showing conces-sions and seigneuries on the coasts of the lake according to 1739surveying.

New France allocated concessions all along lake Cham-plain to French settlers, and built forts to defend the wa-terways. In colonial times, Lake Champlain was usedas a water passage (or, in winter, ice) between the SaintLawrence and the Hudson valleys. Travelers found it eas-ier to journey by boats and sledges on the lake ratherthan to go overland on the unpaved and frequently mud-bound roads of the time. The northern tip of the lake at

2.3 Modern history 3

Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec (known as St. John incolonial times under British rule) is a short distance fromMontreal. The southern tip at Whitehall (Skenesboroughin revolutionary times) is a short distance from Saratoga,Glens Falls, and Albany, New York.Forts were built at Ticonderoga and Crown Point (FortSt. Frederic) to control passage on the lake in colo-nial times. Important battles were fought at Ticonderogain 1758 and 1775. During the Revolutionary War, theBritish and Americans conducted a frenetic shipbuildingrace through the Spring and Summer of 1776 at oppositeends of the lake, ghting a signicant naval engagementon October 11 at the Battle of Valcour Island. While itwas a tactical defeat for the Americans and the small eetled by Benedict Arnold was almost entirely destroyed, theAmericans gained a strategic victory. The British inva-sion was delayed long enough so that the approach ofwinter prevented the fall of these forts until the follow-ing year. In this period, the Continental Army gainedstrength and was victorious at Saratoga.

2.2 War of 1812

During the War of 1812, British and American forcesfaced each other in the Battle of Lake Champlain, alsoknown as the Battle of Plattsburgh, fought on Septem-ber 11, 1814. This ended the nal British invasion of thenorthern states during the War of 1812. It was foughtjust prior to the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, and theAmerican victory denied the British any leverage to de-mand exclusive control over the Great Lakes or territorialgains against the New England states.Three US Naval ships have been named after this bat-tle, including the USS Lake Champlain (CV-39), the USSLake Champlain (CG-57), and a cargo ship used duringWorld War I.Following theWar of 1812, theUSArmy began construc-tion on "Fort Blunder", an unnamed fortication builtat the northernmost end of Lake Champlain to protectagainst attacks from British Canada. Its nickname camefrom a surveying error: the initial phase of constructionon the fort turned out to be taking place on a point .75miles (1.21 km) north of the Canadian border. Once thiserror was spotted, construction was abandoned. Localsscavenged materials used in the abandoned fort for use intheir own homes and public buildings.By the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842, the US-Canadian border was adjusted northward to include thestrategically important site of Fort Blunder on the USside. In 1844, work was begun to replace the remains ofthe 1812-era fort with a massive new Third System ma-sonry fortication known as Fort Montgomery. Portionsof this fort are still standing.

2.3 Modern history

A 1902 photograph of Fort Henry at Lake Champlain.

In the early 19th century, the construction of theChamplain Canal connected Lake Champlain to theHudson River system, allowing north-south commerceby water from New York City to Montreal and AtlanticCanada.In 1909, 65,000 people celebrated the 300th anniver-sary of the French discovery of the lake. Attending dig-nitaries included President William Howard Taft, alongwith representatives from France, Canada and the UnitedKingdom.[14][15]

In 1929, then-New York Governor Franklin Rooseveltand Vermont Governor John Weeks, dedicated the rstbridge to span the lake, built from Crown Point toChimney Point.[16] This bridge lasted until December2009. Severe deterioration was found, and the bridgewas demolished and replaced with the Lake ChamplainBridge, which opened in November 2011.On February 19, 1932, boats were able to sail on LakeChamplain. It was the rst time that the lake was knownto be free of ice during the winter at that time.[17]

Lake Champlain briey became the nations sixth GreatLake on March 6, 1998, when President Clinton signedSenate Bill 927. This bill, which reauthorized theNational Sea Grant Program, contained a line declaringLake Champlain to be a Great Lake. This status enabledits neighboring states to apply for additional federal re-search and education funds allocated to these national re-sources. Following a small uproar, the Great Lake sta-tus was rescinded on March 24 (although New York andVermont universities continue to receive funds to monitorand study the lake).[18]

2.4 Champ, Lake Champlain monsterIn 1609 Samuel de Champlain wrote that he saw a lakemonster ve feet (1.5 m) long, as thick as a mans thigh,with silver-gray scales a dagger could not penetrate. Thealleged monster had 2.5 foot (0.76 m) jaws with sharp

4 2 HISTORY

and dangerous teeth. Native Americans claimed to haveseen similar monsters 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m). Thismysterious creature is likely the original Lake Cham-plain monster.[19]:20 The monster has been memorializedin sports teams names and mascots: the Vermont LakeMonsters andmascot (Champ) of the states minor leaguebaseball team.[20] A Vermont Historical Society publi-cation recounts the story and oers possible explana-tions for accounts of the so-called monster: oating logs,schools of large sturgeons diving in a row, or ocks ofblack birds ying close to the water.[21]

2.5 EcologyA pollution prevention, control, and restoration plan forLake Champlain[22] was rst endorsed in October 1996by the governors of New York and Vermont, and the re-gional administrators of the United States EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA). In April 2003, the plan wasupdated and Quebec signed onto it. The plan is beingimplemented by the Lake Champlain Basin Program andits partners at the state, provincial, federal and local level.It is renowned as a model for interstate and internationalcooperation. Its primary goals are to reduce phosphorusinputs to Lake Champlain; reduce toxic contamination;minimize the risks to humans from water-related healthhazards; and control the introduction, spread, and impactof non-native nuisance species to preserve the integrity ofthe Lake Champlain ecosystem.Agricultural and urban runo from the watershed ordrainage basin is the primary source of excess phospho-rus, which exacerbates algae blooms in Lake Champlain.The most problematic blooms have been cyanobacteria,commonly called blue-green algae, in the northeasternpart of the Lake, primarily Missisquoi Bay.[23]

To reduce phosphorus runo to this part of the lake,Vermont and Quebec agreed to reduce their inputs by60% and 40%, respectively, by an agreement signed in2002.[24] While agricultural sources (manure and fertiliz-ers) are the primary sources of phosphorus (about 70%)in the Missisquoi basin, runo from developed land andsuburbs is estimated to contribute about 46% of the phos-phorus runo basin-wide to Lake Champlain, and agri-cultural lands contributed about 38%.[25]

In 2002, the cleanup plan noted that the lake had thecapacity to absorb 110 metric tons (110 long tons; 120short tons) of phosphorus each year. In 2009, a judgenoted that 218 metric tons (215 long tons; 240 shorttons) were still owing in annually, more than twice whatthe lake could handle. Sixty municipal and industrialsewage plants discharge processed waste from the Ver-mont side.[26]

In 2008, the EPA expressed concerns to the State of Ver-mont that the Lakes cleanup was not progressing fastenough to meet the original cleanup goal of 2016.[27] TheState, however, cites its Clean and Clear Action Plan[28]

as a model that will produce positive results for LakeChamplain.In 2007, Vermont banned phosphates for dishwasher usestarting in 2010. This will prevent an estimated 23short tons (1.82.7 t) from owing into the lake. Whilethis represents 0.6% of the phosphate pollution, it tookUS$1.9 million to remove the pollutant from treatedwastewater, an EPA requirement.[29]

Despite concerns about pollution, Lake Champlain is safefor swimming, shing, and boating. It is considered aworld-class shery for salmonid species (Lake trout andAtlantic salmon) and bass. About 81 sh species live inthe Lake, and more than 300 bird species rely on it forhabitat and as a resource during migrations.[30]

By 2008 at least six institutions monitoring lake waterhealth:

1. in 2002 the Conservation Law Foundation ap-pointed a lakekeeper, who reviews the states pol-lution controls,

2. Friends of Missisquoi Bay was formed in 2003,

3. the Lake Champlain Committee,

4. VermontWater Resources Board hired a water qual-ity expert in 2008 to write water quality standardsand create wetland protection rules,

5. in 2007 the Vermont Agency of Natural Resourcesappoints a lake czar to oversee pollution control.Clean and Clear, an agency of the Vermont stategovernment established in 2004; and

6. the Nature Conservancy, a non-prot group, focuseson biodiversity and ecosystem health.[31]

In 2001, scientists estimated that farming contributed38% of the phosphorus runo. By 2010, results of en-vironmentally conscious farming practices, enforced bylaw, had made any positive contribution to lake cleanli-ness. A federally funded study was started to analyze thisproblem and to arrive at a solution.[32]

Biologists have been trying to control lampreys in the lakesince 1985 or earlier. Lampreys are native to the area,but have expanded in population to such an extent thatthey wounded nearly all lake trout in 2006 and 70-80%of salmon. The use of pesticides against the lamprey hasreduced their casualties of other sh to 35% of salmonand 31% of lake trout. The goal was 15% of salmon and25% of lake trout.[33]

The federal and state governments originally budgetedUS$18million for lake programs for 2010. This was latersupplemented by an additional US$6.5 million from thefederal government.[34]

5The causeway connecting Colchester and South Hero.

2.6 RailroadHistorically four signicant railroad crossings were builtover the lake. As of 2011, only one remains.

The oating rail trestle from Larabees Point, Ver-mont to Ticonderoga, New York was operated bythe Addison Branch of the Rutland Railroad. It wasabandoned in 1918 due to a number of accidentswhich resulted in locomotives and rail cars fallinginto the lake.[19]:257

The Swanton-Alburgh trestle spans Lake Champlain between thetwo Vermont towns, a distance of about .8 miles (1.3 km)

The Island Line Causeway. This marble rock-landll causeway stretched from Colchester, Ver-mont (on the mainland) three miles (5 km) northand west to South Hero, Vermont. Two breaks in thecauseway were spanned by a xed iron trestle and aswing bridge that could be opened to allow boats topass. Rutland Railroad (later Rutland Railway) op-erated trains over this causeway from 19011961.The Railway was ocially abandoned in 1963, withtracks and trestles removed over the course of theten years that followed. The marble causeway still

remains, as does the xed iron trestle that bridgesthe lesser of the two gaps. The swing bridge overthe navigation channel was removed sometime in theearly 1970s.

Now called Colchester Park, the main three-mile (5 km)causeway has been adapted and preserved as a recreationarea for cyclists, runners, and anglers. Two smaller mar-ble rock-landll causeways were also erected as part ofthis line that connected Grand Isle to North Hero, Ver-mont and from North Hero to Alburgh.[19]:257[35]

The Alburgh, Vermont - Rouses Point, New Yorkrail trestle. From sometime in the late 19th centuryuntil 1964, this wooden trestle carried two railroads(the RutlandRailroad and the Central Vermont Rail-road) over the lake just south of the US 2 vehicularbridge. The iron swing bridge at the center (over thenavigation channel) has been removed. Most of thewooden pilings remain and can easily be seen look-ing south from the US 2 bridge. Part of the trestleon the Rouses Point side has been converted for useas an access pier associated with the local marina.

The Swanton - Alburgh, Vermont rail trestle. Builtin the same manner as at Rouses Point, it crosses thelake just south of Missisquoi Bay and the Canadianborder, within yards south of the Vermont Route 78bridge. It is still in use by the New England CentralRailroad.[36]

3 Natural historyIn 2010, the estimate of cormorant population, now clas-sied as a nuisance species because they take so muchof the lake sh, ranged from 14,000 to 16,000. A Fishand Wildlife commissioner said that the ideal populationwould be 3,300 or about 3 per 1 square kilometre (0.39 sqmi). Cormorants had disappeared from the lake (and allnorthern lakes) due to the use of DDT in the 1940s and1950s, which made their eggs more fragile and reducedbreeding populations.[37]

Ring-billed gulls are also considered a nuisance. Mea-sures have been taken to reduce their population. Author-ities are trying to encourage the return of black crownednight herons, cattle egrets, and great blue herons, whichdisappeared during the time DDT was being widelyused.[37]

4 Infrastructure

4.1 Lake crossingsThe Alburgh Peninsula (also known as the AlburghTongue), extending south from the Quebec shore of the

6 4 INFRASTRUCTURE

lake into Vermont, is accessible from the rest of thestate only via Canada. This is a distinction shared withPoint Roberts, Washington, and the Northwest Angle inMinnesota as well as Province Point (see below). Un-like the other three cases, this is no longer of practicalsignicance because highway bridges across the lake pro-vide access to the peninsula from within the United States(from three directions).

4.1.1 Province Point, Vermont

A few kilometres to the northeast of the town of EastAlburgh, Vermont, Province Point is the southernmosttip of a small promontory approximately 2 acres (1ha) in size 450048N 731136W / 45.013351N73.193257W.[38] The promontory is cut through by theUS-Canadian border; as such the area is a practicalexclave of the United States contiguous with Canada.

The Champlain Bridge between New York and Vermont, demol-ished in December of 2009.

The LCTC ferry slip at Grand Isle, Vermont.

4.1.2 Mainland

Two roadways cross over the lake, connecting Vermontand New York.

Since November 2011, the Lake Champlain Bridgehas crossed the southern part of the lake, connectingChimney Point in Vermont with Crown Point, New York.It replaced Champlain Bridge, which was closed in 2009because of severe structural problems found that couldhave resulted in a collapse.[39] In 2009, the bridge hadbeen used by 3,400 drivers per day,[40] and driving aroundthe southern end of the lake added two hours to the trip.Ferry service was re-established to take some of the traf-c burden. On December 28, 2009, the bridge was de-stroyed in a controlled demolition. A new bridge wasrapidly constructed by a joint state commitment, open-ing on November 7, 2011.[41]

To the north, US 2 runs from Rouses Point, New Yorkto Grand Isle County, Vermont in the town of Alburgh,before continuing south along a chain of islands towardsBurlington. To the east, Vermont Route 78 runs from anintersection with US 2 in Alburgh through East Alburghto Swanton. The US 2-VT 78 route technically runs fromthe New York mainland to an extension of the mainlandbetween two arms of the lake and then to the Vermontmainland, but it provides a direct route across the twomain arms of the northern part of the lake.

4.1.3 Ferry

North of Ticonderoga, New York, the lake widens appre-ciably; ferry service is operated by the Lake ChamplainTransportation Company at:

Charlotte, Vermont to Essex, New York (may nottravel when the lake is frozen)

Burlington, Vermont to Port Kent, New York (sea-sonal)

Grand Isle, Vermont to Cumberland Head, part ofPlattsburgh, New York (year-round icebreaking ser-vice)

While the old bridge was being demolished and the newone constructed, Lake Champlain Transportation Com-pany operated a free, 24-hour ferry from just south ofthe bridge to Chimney Point in Vermont at the expenseof the states of New York and Vermont at a cost to thestates of about $10 per car.[42][43]

The most southerly crossing is the Fort TiconderogaFerry, connecting Ticonderoga, New York withShoreham, Vermont just north of the historic fort.

4.1.4 Railroad

The Swanton, VT, to East Alburg, Vermont, rail trestle.

5.3 Lighthouses 7

4.2 WaterwaysLake Champlain has been connected to the Erie Canalvia the Champlain Canal since the canals ocial openingSeptember 9, 1823, the same day as the opening of theErie Canal from Rochester on Lake Ontario to Albany.It connects to the St. Lawrence River via the RichelieuRiver, with the Chambly Canal bypassing rapids on theriver since 1843. Together with these waterways the lakeis part of the Lakes to Locks Passage. The Lake Cham-plain Seaway, a project to use the lake to bring ocean-going ships from New York City to Montreal, was pro-posed in the late 19th century and considered as late asthe 1960s, but rejected for various reasons.

5 Surroundings

5.1 Major citiesBurlington, Vermont (pop. 42,217, 2010 Census) is thelargest city on the lake. The 2nd and 3rd most populatedcities/towns are (Plattsburgh, New York, and Colchester,Vermont, respectively) combined. The fourth-largestcommunity is the city of South Burlington.

5.2 Islands

At sunset, looking west from Grand Isle to Plattsburgh and CrabIsland

Lake Champlain contains roughly 80 islands, three ofwhich comprise four entire Vermont towns (most ofGrand Isle County). The largest islands:

South Hero Island, the largest, containing the townsof Grand Isle, Vermont and South Hero, Vermont

North Hero Island, containing the town of NorthHero, Vermont

Isle La Motte, containing the town of Isle La Motte,Vermont

The light house in Lake Champlain at dusk as seen from Burling-ton VT

Valcour Island, New York Juniper Island (Lake Champlain) Three Sisters Four Brothers[44]

Savage Island Burton Island (State Park) Cloak Island Garden Island (Gunboat Island) Crab Island, New York Dameas Island Hen Island Butlers Island Carletons Prize Young Island,[45]

Providence Island[46]

Stave Island[47]

Sunset Island

5.3 Lighthouses There is a historic stone lighthouse located onCumberland Head, which is privately owned.

The privately owned Isle La Motte lighthouse on thenorthern end of the island was originally red, but itfaded to pink over time.[48]

The privately owned cast iron Juniper Island Lightdates from 1846. In 1954 it was deactivated and re-placed by a steel tower.

8 8 REFERENCES

USCG, Burlington, Vermont - main installation.

On Point Au Roche, part of Beekmantown, NewYork, there is a privately owned, historic lighthouse.

Valcour Island, near the New York shore is home toBluPoint Lighthouse, built in 1871. It wasmannedby a full-time lightkeeper until 1930, making it oneof the last lighthouses to be manned on the Lake.The Cumberland Head Light operated until 1934.

Split Rock Lighthouse, south of Essex, New York,near a natural boundary of the territory between theMohawk and Algonquin tribes.[49]

5.4 Aids to navigation

All active navigational aids on the American portion ofthe lake are maintained by USCG Burlington station,along with those on international Lake Memphremagogto the east.[50] Aids to navigation on the Canadian por-tion of the lake are maintained by the Canadian CoastGuard.[51]

5.5 Parks

There are a number of parks in the Lake Champlain re-gion of both Vermont and New York.Two on the New York side of the lake include Point AuRoche State Park, which have hiking and cross countryskiing trails. A public beach is located on park grounds,and the Ausable Point State Park. The Cumberland BayState Park is located on Cumberland Head, with a camp-ground, city beach, and sports elds.There are various parks along the lake on the Vermontside, including Sand Bar State Park in Milton, featur-ing a 2,000 feet (610 m) natural sand beach, swim-ming,canoe and kayak rentals, food concession, picnicgrounds and a play area. At 226 acres (91 ha), GrandIsle State Park contains camping facilities, a sand volley-ball court, a nature walk trail, a horseshoe pit and a play

Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife boat docked nearECHO Aquarium.

area. Burlingtons Waterfront Park is a revitalized indus-trial area.

6 Public safetyCoast Guard Station Burlington provides Search andRescue, Law Enforcement and Ice Rescue services 24hours a day, 365 days a year.[50] Services are also pro-vided by local, and state, and federal governments bor-dering on the lake, including the US Border Patrol, RoyalCanadianMounted Police, Vermont State Police,[52] NewYork State Police Marine Detail,[53] and Vermont Fishand Wildlife wardens.[54]

7 See also Champlain Sea, post-glacial predecessor to LakeChamplain

le aux Noix

List of New York rivers

8 References[1] Physiographic divisions of the conterminous U. S.. U.S.

Geological Survey. Retrieved December 6, 2007.

[2] Champlain, Lake. The Canadian encyclopedia. Febru-ary 12, 2011.

[3] Veyron, Michel (1989). Dictionnaire canadien des nomspropres (in French). ditions Larousse. p. 142. ISBN2-920318-06-3.

[4] Lake Champlain Lake Level - King St. Ferry Dock(1977-2006)". 2012-05-03.

9[5] Curran, John (August 11, 2010). State seeks dismissalof phosphorus lawsuit. Burlington, Vermont: BurlingtonFree Press. pp. 1B.

[6] Sutkoski, Matt. Lack of ice cover might be aecting theecology of Lake Champlain.

[7] NWS Burlington Lake Champlain Forecast Page.

[8] University of Vermont Professor of Geology, CharlotteMehrtens

[9] Hyde, Bruce (1976). A topographical description of thedominions of the United States of America. Ayer Publish-ing. A topographical description of the dominions of theUnited States of America by Thomas Pownall

[10] Hyde, Bruce &Huden, John Charles (1962). Indian placenames of New England. Museum of the American Indian,Heye Foundation. Indian place names of New England byJohn Charles Huden

[11] Abenaki. Abenakination.org. Retrieved March 2,2011.

[12] Indian Summer | Seven Days. 7dvt.com. RetrievedMarch 2, 2011.

[13] Champlains journal: Entering 'The Lake Between'".Pqasb.pqarchiver.com. July 14, 2009. Retrieved March2, 2011.

[14] Hyde, Bruce (January 3, 2008). My Turn:Get ready tocelebrate the 400th. The Burlington Free Press.

[15] 1909 Champlain Tercentenary Celebration of the Dis-covery of Lake Champlain. Hrmm.org. RetrievedMarch 2, 2011.

[16] Vermont History Timeline. historicvermont.org. Au-gust 26, 2010.

[17] Barton Chronicle, retrieved August 21, 2009

[18] Lake Champlain, The Sixth Great Lake? - Geography- 03/02/98. Geography.about.com (1998-03-06). Re-trieved on 2013-07-12.

[19] Hill, Ralph Nading (1976). Lake Champlain: Key to Lib-erty. Woodstock, Vermont: Countryman Press.

[20] Vermont Lake Monsters Home Page. The Ocial Siteof Minor League Baseball. 2011. Retrieved October 11,2011.

[21] Vermonts Very Own Monster (PDF). Vermont Histor-ical Society. Retrieved October 11, 2011.

[22] Lake Champlain Management Plan.

[23] Watzin, M.C. (2007). Monitoring and Evaluation ofCyanobacteria in Lake Champlain: Summer 2006. LakeChamplain Basin Program. Abstract online

[24] Missisquoi Bay Phosphorus Reduction Agreement, Au-gust 2002 (PDF).

[25] Troy A., Wang D. and Capen D. (2007 http://www.lcbp.org/publication_detail.aspx?id=211). Updating the LakeChamplain Basin Land Use Data to Improve Predictionof Phosphorus Loading. Lake Champlain Basin Program.Check date values in: |date= (help)

[26] Page, Candace (July 9, 2009). "Sewage:Judge sides withCLF, throws out Montpelier permit. Burlington, Ver-mont: Burlington Free Press. pp. 4A.

[27] Page, Candace (June 3, 2008). EPA scolds state on eortsto clean up Lake Champlain. The Burlington Free Press.

[28] Vermont Clean and Clear Action Plan.

[29] Baird, Joel Banner (June 26, 2010). Detergents mustsoon be phosphate free. Burlington, Vermont: Burling-ton Free Press. pp. 1A.

[30] ""Lake Champlain Basin Atlas: Plants and Animals,2004. Lcbp.org. Retrieved March 2, 2011.

[31] Page, Candace (December 14, 2008). Lake Champlaingets another watchdog. Burlington Free Press.

[32] Page, Candace (July 6, 2010). Lake Champlain cleanupeort focuses on Rock Rive6. Burlington Free Press(Burlington, Vermont). pp. 1B.

[33] Page, Candace (January 22, 2009). Lamprey wounds de-crease. Burlington Free Press.

[34] Page, Candace (July 24, 2010). Lake scores $6.5 mil-lion. Burlington, Vermont: Burlington Free Press. pp.1A.

[35] Lake Champlain New York Vermont: Cumberland Headto Four Brothers Island (Map) (23rd ed.). 1:40,000.Washington DC: National Ocean and Atmospheric Ad-ministration. 1992.

[36] State Rail & Policy Plan, 2006 (PDF). Vermont Agencyof Transportation. 2006. p. 20.

[37] Page, Candace (July 11, 2010). Cutting the cormorantpopulation. Burlington, Vermont: Burlington Free Press.pp. 1C, 8C.

[38] wikimapia.org

[39] McKinstry, Lohr (October 17, 2009). Vital bridge atCrown Point closed. The Press Republican. RetrievedOctober 31, 2009.

[40] NYT article of December 12, 2009 (page A12)

[41] Controlled explosions bring down Lake ChamplainBridge, unsafe NY-VT span was closed in Oct.. LATimes. Associated Press. December 28, 2009. RetrievedJanuary 4, 2010.

[42] Bridge is costly, but ferry is more by Nick Reisman, Post-star.com, May 18, 2010.

[43] Ferry At Champlain Bridge Set To Start Running.WPTZ. January 31, 2010.

[44] Meyers, Je (August 10, 2008). Four Brothers Islandsa haven for a variety of birds Local News. Press-Republican. Retrieved March 2, 2011.

10 9 EXTERNAL LINKS

[45] Cormorants on Lake Champlain. Nasw.org. July 3,1996. Retrieved March 2, 2011.

[46]

[47] A Tour of the Historic Lake Champlain Islands by JimMillard. Historiclakes.org. December 5, 2010. Re-trieved March 2, 2011.

[48] Isle La Motte, VT. Lighthousefriends.com. RetrievedMay 25, 2011.

[49] Watchtowers on the Water - NYS Dept. of Environmen-tal Conservation. Dec.ny.gov. March 19, 2003. Re-trieved March 2, 2011.

[50] United States Coast Guard (March 5, 2009). USCG: Sta-tion Burlington, Vermont.

[51] Canadian Coast Guard (December 9, 2009). CanadianCoast Guard - Marinfo.

[52] Vermont State Police (November 12, 2009). RecreationUnit and Education Unit.

[53] New York State, Division of State Police. Marine De-tail. Retrieved December 11, 2009.

[54] Vermont Fish and Wildlife. Retrieved January 4, 2010.

9 External links Bloom: the Plight of Lake Champlain (PBS lm se-ries)

ECHO Lake Aquarium and Science Center - LeahyCenter for Lake Champlain

Lake Champlain Community Sailing Center Lake Champlain Basin Atlas Lake Champlain Basin Program Lake Champlain Maritime Museum Lake Champlain Quadricentennial International ood study Champlain: The Lake Between Documentary pro-duced by Vermont Public Television

Friends of Northern Lake Champlain

11

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses10.1 Text

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10.3 Content license Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

GeologyHydrologyChazy Reef

HistoryColonial America and the Revolutionary WarWar of 1812Modern historyChamp, Lake Champlain monsterEcologyRailroad

Natural historyInfrastructureLake crossingsProvince Point, VermontMainlandFerryRailroad

Waterways

SurroundingsMajor citiesIslandsLighthousesAids to navigationParks

Public safetySee alsoReferences External linksText and image sources, contributors, and licensesTextImagesContent license