lab

1LABORATORY MANUAL

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

BIO 264

Department of Biological SciencesBrigham Young University Idaho

Rexburg, Idaho

BIO 264 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY LABORATORY

COURSE DESCRIPTION: This is the laboratory component of the first semester of Human Anatomy and Physiology (BIO 264). The lab exercises will focus primarily on the application and demonstration of concepts presented in lecture.

Unit 1 - Histology

Histology is the study of the tissues of the body. Moreover, tissues are groups of similar cells along with the extracellular material that surrounds those cells. Based on this definition the 10-100 trillion cells of the human body can be grouped into for major tissue types: epithelial tissues, connective tissues, muscle and nervous tissue. In this unit you will learn to identify each of these tissue types as well as the subclasses within each tissue.

Epithelial Tissue

General Characteristics of Epithelial tissues1. Composed almost entirely of close-packed cells with very little

extracellular material.2. Usually form a barrier therefore, the cells are arranged in a dense and

closely packed fashion.3. Have a free surface (apical surface) which is exposed to the body

exterior (skin) or the cavity of an internal organ (body cavities, blood vessels, heart, digestive and respiratory system passageways, covering of internal organs, etc.)

4 Have a basement membrane (composed of glycoprotein material plus collagen fibers) -- anchors basal surface of epithelium to the underlying connective tissue

5. Do not have blood vessels (avascular): the blood supply is in the underlying loose connective tissue.

6. Cells are held together by specialized contacts including tight junctions and desmosomes.

General Functions of Epithelial tissues1. Protect underlying structures.

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2. Act as a barrier to prevent movement of substances through the epithelial layer.

3. Permit movement of some substances through the epithelial layer such as oxygen and carbon dioxide.

4. Secretion of substances such mucous, sweat, and digestive enzymes.5. Adsorption of substances such as nutrients in the digestive system

Learning objectives1. Be able to identify the various types of epithelial tissues, cell types, and

structures summarized in the list of terms below.2. Be able to specify where each of the different types of epithelial tissues

would be found in the body.List of terms

Simple Squamous epitheliumSimple cuboidal epitheliumSimple columnar epitheliumPseudostratifed columnar

epithelium Keratinized Stratified squamous epithelium

Non- Keratinized Stratified squamous epithelium

Transitional epitheliumApical surfaceBasal surfaceGoblet cell CiliaMicrovilli (Brush Border)Basement membrane

Epithelial Types

Simple Epithelium - single layer

A. Simple Squamous epithelium: This tissue is composed of a single layer of flattened cells with nuclei that resemble flattened ovals. The cells are very thin and the nuclei are often thicker than the rest of the cell and bulge into the free space giving the tissue the appearance of a fried egg. This tissue forms the walls of capillaries in the cardiovascular system and alveoli in the lungs. It lines all blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and the chambers of the heart, and forms Bowman’s capsule in the kidneys. Additionally, the serous membranes you learned about in lecture in chapter 1 are composed of simple squamous epithelium.

B. Simple Cuboidal epithelium : This tissue is composed of a single layer of cells that are have roughly the same height as width. The most distinguishing characteristic of simple cuboidal epithelium is their large round nuclei that are typically located near the center of the cell. This tissue often forms ducts or tubes. When viewed in cross-section, the

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round nuclei are lined up in a single row around the circumference of the tube while in longitudinal section the nuclei resemble a string of beads. Simple cuboidal epithelium is found forming the tubules of the kidneys, forming exocrine glands and their ducts, forming the choroid plexus of the brain and on the surfaces of the ovaries.

C. Simple Columnar epithelium: Simple columnar epithelium is composed of a single layer of cells that are taller than they are wide. As a result, the nuclei reflect this shape by becoming elongated ovals that run perpendicular to the surface of the tissue. Typically the nuclei are located closer to the basal surface than the apical surface, typically in the lower ½ of the cell . Another common feature of simple columnar epithelium is the presence of specialized, mucous-secreting cells known as goblet cells. These are easily identified as the they frequently break the otherwise continuous arrangement of columnar nuclei and are much lighter in color. Under higher magnification, you will be able to see the presence of a microvilli (brush border) on the apical surface of the columnar cells. Microvilli are finger-like projections of the plasma membrane that greatly increase the surface area of the apical surface. In addition, some simple columnar epithelium possess another cell surface modification on their apical surface known as cilia. Cilia are thread like projection capable of wave-like motion and assist in propelling substances over the surface of the cells. Simple columnar epithelium is found throughout the digestive system, lining the chambers of the stomach, small intestines and large intestines. In addition if is found lining the chambers of the uterus, uterine tubes, gall bladder and bile ducts.

D. Pseudostratified Columnar epithelium: Although it looks like it is multi-layered, pseudostratified columnar epithelium, is actually a single layer of cells. Each cell is connected to the basement membrane, however, not all cells project all the way to the free surface. The “shorter”, basal cells are wedge shaped with their nuclei are near the basement membrane while the nuclei of the “taller”, apical cells are located higher in the tissue. The overall all effect is of several layers of nuclei giving it a stratified appearance. Like simple columnar epithelium, pseudostratified columnar epithelium typically contains goblet cells and cilia. This tissue is found lining the nasal cavity, the nasal sinuses, the auditory tubes, the trachea and the bronchi of the lungs.

Stratified Epithelium - multiple layers

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A. Keratinized Stratified Squamous epithelium : The name implies, that this tissue is composed of squamous-type cells that are piled into a multi-layered tissue. However, stratified epithelia are named based on the shape of the cells on the apical surface. As you examine this tissue you will see that at the basal surface the cells are actually columnar shaped and then transition as they move toward the surface to cuboidal and finally to squamous shaped cells. Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium is characterized by the presence of a keratinized layer at the apical surface composed of dead, squamous shaped cells that are filled with the tough protein keratin. Another distinct characteristic of stratified squamous is its wavy basement membrane. The is formed by projections of the underlying dermis called papillae that protrude into the epithelium of the epidermis. Keratinized stratified squamous is found on the skin

B. Non-keratinized Stratified Squamous epithelium: This tissue looks very much like the keratinized stratified squamous with the exception that it lacks the keratinized layer. One key feature of all stratified squamous epithelium is that the lowest layer of cells stains dark purple. Cells that are more superior become gradually lighter toward the apical surface. This tissue is found lining the mouth, the throat, the esophagus, the vagina, the anus and the cornea

C. Transitional epithelium: Although this is a stratified epithelium we do not include the term stratified in the name. Transitional epithelium is found in the urinary bladder and some of the other structures of the urinary system. It can have two different appearances depending on the state of the organ so it is named transitional epithelium. For example, when the urinary bladder is in its empty or relaxed state, the epithelium will appear like stratified cuboidal epithelium. When it is filled or stretched, it will appear more like stratified squamous. All of the images you will see are of the tissue in the relaxed state. In addition to stratification also look for the characteristic Brick cells on the free surface that will cover 2-3 of the cells below them and often bulge into the lumen organ. Transitional epithelium is found lining the urinary bladder, the ureters and the superior urethra.

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Connective Tissue

General Characteristics of connective tissues1. Very few cells compared to other tissues.

2. Large amounts of extracellular (intercellular) substance called matrix (matrix = ground substance plus fibers).

3. Contains various fibers.4. Vascular, meaning blood vessels are present (exceptions are

cartilage and dense connective tissue).

General functions of connective tissues1. Connect and bind other tissues together.2. Support and give structure to the body.3. Protect and cushion organs.4. Defense against disease (inflammation and immunity).5. Storage of energy and minerals.6. Repair of damaged tissue.7. Transport of nutrients, gases and wastes.

Learning objectives1. Be able to identify the various types of connective tissues, cell types, and

structures summarized in the list of terms below.2. Be able to specify where each of the different types of connective tissues

would be found in the body.

List of terms

Loose fibrous (areolar) connective tissueCollagen fiber

FibroblastMast Cell

Dense regularly arranged connective tissue

FibroblastsDense irregularly arranged

connective tissueFibroblasts

Adipose connective tissueHyaline cartilage

ChondrocyteLacunaPerichondrium

Elastic cartilageElastic fibersChondrocyteLacuna

Bone (compact)Osteon (Haversian system)Haversian (central) canal

OsteocyteLacunaCanaliculi

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Volksmann canalConcentric lamella

Interstitial lamella(Periosteum)

Connective Tissue Types

Loose Connective Tissues

A. Loose Fibrous Connective Tissue (Areolar Connective Tissue): This tissue is often lacy in appearance and is found in numerous fluid-filled spaces. It constitutes the loose packing material in many organs. Loose fibrous connective tissue connects the skin to underlying structures and is composed of collagen fibers, elastic fibers and a variety of cells including fibroblasts and mast cells . In can be found directly under all epithelial tissue where its appearance can be quite variable.

B. Adipose Tissue: Adipose tissue is widely distributed throughout the body and has very typical characteristics. Unlike the other connect tissues, adipose tissue has very little extracellular matrix. This tissue is characterized by large round open spaces separated by very thin plasma membranes. Adipose cells (adipocytes) contain a large lipid droplet inside that is dissolved away during preparation of the slides making them appear clear and open. The lipid droplet pushes the nucleus and other organelles of the cell up against the plasma membrane. The nucleus is small and flattened and is usually visible in most of the cells. These nuclei resemble the nuclei of simple squamous epithelium. This tissue is one of the easier tissues to identify in that it looks much like a hair net. Most of our adipose tissue is found in the subcutaneous areas. It can also be found in the mesenteries, the renal pelvis, in the mammary glands, around the kidneys and attached to the surface of the colon.

Dense Connective Tissues

A. Dense Regularly Arranged Fibrous Connective Tissue: This tissue is composed primarily of very large collagen fibers that are tightly packed in parallel bundles. Scattered among the parallel collagen fibers are the elongate, sliver-like nuclei of the fibroblasts that run parallel to the direction of the fibers. This tissue has a very poor blood supply, consequently when it is damaged it takes a long time to heal. Dense regularly arranged fibrous connective tissue is found forming tendons and ligaments.

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B. Dense Irregularly Arranged Fibrous Connective Tissue: Like regularly arranged connective tissue, irregularly arranged connective tissue is also composed of large collagen fibers. In this tissue, however, the fibers are not all parallel but run in several different directions. In addition, nuclei of the fibroblasts are more oval shaped. This tissue is located in the dermis of the skin, the outer coverings of body tubes, and the fibrous capsules of organs and joints.

Cartilage

Although there are three distinct types of cartilage, all posses similar characteristics. Among these characteristics are the presence of small open spaces (lacunae) within the matrix of the cartilage and cartilage cells (chondrocytes) occupying these openings. Like Denser regularly arranged fibrous connective tissue, cartilage has a poor blood supply and thus heals slowly when damaged. We will learn to identify two of the three types, hyaline and elastic cartilage, we will not, however, be learning fibrocartilage.

A. Hyaline Cartilage: The matrix contains roughly equal amounts of collagen fibers and ground substance. Since the collagen fibers are evenly distributed throughout the matrix it generally appears as a homogenous pink or blue material. Lacunae, small open spaces, are present throughout the cartilage matrix. Chondrocytes can be found within the lacunae. Notice along the edge of this tissue the perichondrium. This tissue will contain immature chondrocytes known as chondroblasts and is composed mainly of dense regularly arranged connective tissue. Once the chondroblasts become surrounded by matrix they are called chondrocytes. Hyaline cartilage is found in the growth plates of growing long bones, the rings of the trachea and bronchi, the nose, articulating surfaces of joints and the embryonic skeleton.

B. Elastic Cartilage: This tissue looks much like to the hyaline cartilage. The major identifying feature is that the matrix contains large amounts of elastic fibers which appear dark purple in the micrographs. Elastic cartilage is found in the ears and the epiglottis.

Solid Connective Tissue

Bone is classified as a connective tissue. Like all connective tissue, it has more matrix than cellular component. In this case, the matrix is a calcified solid material surrounding collagen fibers. Under the microscope, you will see many structures and openings within the solid matrix of the bone that are essential to allow the bone tissue to live.

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A. Compact Bone: Compact bone is composed of small units called osteons or Haversian systems. Under the microscope these systems have the appearance of targets with a large bull’s eye in the center. The bull’s eye is formed by the central or Haversian canal. In living bone blood vessels pass through these canals. Surrounding the central canal are a series of concentric rings of matrix called concentric lamellae (lamella, sing.) At the borders between the lamellae are lacuanae (lacuna, sing.) and within the lacunae are the cells that maintain the matrix, the osteocytes. If you look closely under high magnification you can observe small crack-like structures radiating out from the lacunae and interconnecting the lacunae of the different lamellae. These small tubes called canaliculi allow nutrients and wastes to pass between the osteocytes and the blood. If the bone is cut just right you can see structures that connect one Haversian canal to another, these are the Volksmann canals. Compact bone is found in all bones of the body.

Muscle Tissue

General Characteristics of muscle1. Elongated cells in direction of contraction2. Appearance depends on direction of cut (longitudinal or cross section)

General functions of muscle1. Contracts in response to a stimulus to generate movement

a. Movement of one part with respect to anotherb. Movement of materials through the bodyc Movement of the body through space (locomotion)

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Learning objectives1. Be able to identify the three muscle types in cross section or longitudinal

section as well as the other structures in the list of terms below.2. Know where each muscle type can be found in the body.

List of terms

Skeletal muscle - longitudinal section

Skeletal muscle - cross section StriationsSarcomere

A-bandI-bandZ disk

EndomysiumPerimysium

Fasciculi (fasciculus - sing.)

EpimysiumSmooth muscle - longitudinal sectionSmooth muscle - cross sectionCardiac muscle - longitudinal section

Intercalated disksStriations

Cardiac muscle - cross section

Types of Muscles

A. Skeletal Muscle: Skeletal muscle makes up the majority of the tissue that we think of when we think of muscles. It is under voluntary control and is located throughout the body. Skeletal muscle is generally attached to bones by tendons and uses these bones as levers to accomplish work. However, not all skeletal muscle is anchored to bones. Some, like that in the face, is attached to fibrous connective tissue. Skeletal muscle occurs in bundles. Each skeletal muscle cell or fiber is elongated and has multiple nuclei that are located on the periphery the cell. The cells are very large and can be several centimeters long, often running the entire length of the muscle. (Note, when referring to muscles we use the terms cell and fiber interchangeably. This is not to be confused with the fibers found in the matrix of connective tissue). Skeletal muscle is also striated with alternating light and dark bands running the entire length of the cell. These striations are caused by the regular overlapping arrangement of the muscle proteins, actin and myosin. The dark band is called the “A Band” and the light band is the “I Band”. If you look carefully, you will be able to identify a very thin, dark line running down the middle of the “I Band” this represents the backbone of the actin molecule and is called the “Z-disk”.When we look at skeletal muscle in cross section we see that individual skeletal muscle fibers are surrounded by a thin layer of loose fibrous (areolar) connective tissue, the endomysium. Furthermore, we see that

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the muscle fibers not uniformly distributed throughout the muscle but are grouped into bundles called fasciculi with each fasciculus likewise surrounded by “heavier” connective tissue, the perimysium. Finally, the entire muscle is surrounded by a sheath of dense fibrous connective tissue, the epimysium. The large collagen fibers in the epimysium are continuous with those of the tendon that attaches the muscle to bone. Your biceps then is composed of many fasciculi bundled together with each fasciculus being composed of many muscle fibers.

B. Smooth Muscle: Smooth muscle is an involuntary, non-striated muscle that is found in the walls of hollow organs like, arteries and veins, the stomach, the small and large intestines, the uterus, the uterine tubes, the urinary bladder and the gall bladder to name few. Smooth muscle cells are fusiform in shape (football shaped). Each muscle cell contains one centrally located, cigar-shaped, nucleus. The cells are arranged side by side in sheets-like layers. The muscles cells are much smaller than skeletal muscle fibers and are woven together to form the sheet-like layers. Most of the digestive tract with the exception of the stomach has smooth muscle arranged in two layers; an inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer. The stomach has three layers of smooth muscle in its walls.

C. Cardiac Muscle: Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. Like smooth muscle, cardiac muscle is involuntary, however, unlike smooth-muscle, cardiac muscle is striated. The muscle fibers resemble skeletal muscle with the following exceptions: the cells are branched, they have a single, oval, centrally located nucleus and the striations are not as pronounced. Additionally, the muscle fibers are shorter and thus are connected end-to-end. At the points of connection there are specializations called intercalated discs that both hold the cells together with desmosomes and allow communication between the cells via gap junctions. Under the microscope the intercalated discs look like very pronounced striations.

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Nervous Tissue

Characteristics and functions of nervous tissue1. Composed of neurons and neuroglial cells.2. Main function is to transmit and process information.3. Divided into two major components.

a. Central Nervous System composed of the brain and spinal cord.b. Peripheral Nervous System composed of nerves and ganglia.

Learning objectives1. Be able to identify the structures in the list of terms below.2. Know the location of the various components of the nervous system

List of terms

NeuronSoma (Cell Body)AxonDendrite

Spinal chordGray matterWhit matterCentral canalVentral hornDorsal hornLateral hornGray commissureVentral columnDorsal columnLateral columnAnterior median fissurePosterior median sulcusDorsal root ganglion

In the spinal cord smear identifySomaNeuroglial cell nucleiAxons and Dendrites

Peripheral nerve - longitudinal section

Node of RanvierAxonMyeline sheath

Peripheral nerve - cross sectionEndoneuriumPerineuriumEpineurium

Overview of the nervous system

The nervous system is uniquely designed for gathering, transmitting, processing and storing information. It controls voluntary as well as most involuntary functions. The nervous system is divided into two major components. The Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) contains those structures outside of the brain and spinal cord, namely nerves and ganglia. Two classes of cells are found in the nervous system; neurons which

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transmit the nerve impulses and neuroglial cells which carry out support functions in the nervous system. Most neurons have three parts: the soma, the axon and the dendrites. The soma or neuron cell body houses the nucleus of the cell and most of the other organelles. In the CNS soma are usually found in gray matter whereas in the PNS they are located in discrete clusters called ganglia. In addition to the soma neurons possess two types of processes: axons and dendrites. Dendrites are short, branched processes designed to transmit information toward the soma (incoming signals). Typical neurons have many dendrites which are found in the same locations as the soma. Axons are processes that carry information away from the soma (outgoing signals). A neuron typically has a single axon that in some cases can be as long as a meter. Axons in the CNS are located in the white matter and in the PNS are the principle component of nerves. Specialized neuroglial cells in the CNS (oligodendrocytes) and PNS (Schwann cells) wrap themselves around the axon producing a coating called the myeline sheath that can run the entire length of the axon. Each Schwann cell can produce a segment of myeline sheath that will cover about 1 mm of the axon. Between each segment of the myeline sheath is a small un-myelinated gap called a node of Ranvier.

A. Neuron: In the spinal cord smear we can see neuron cell bodies. In these slides gray matter from the spinal cord is literally smeared across the microscope slide disrupting the normal histology of the gray matter. This process, however, allows us to see the large, multi-shaped neuron cell bodies or soma . Axons and dendrites can be observed attached to the cell body but there is really no reliable way to determine which is an axon and which is a dendrite. In the background you will see many small dark nuclei. These are the nuclei of the various neuroglial cells.

B. Spinal cord: Under low magnification the spinal cord looks like a large circle with an “H” or butterfly shaped structure in its center. The H is the gray matter and hence contains neuron cell bodies. The lighter colored tissue around the gray matter is the white matter, containing axons that run up and down the spinal cord. Two grooves divide the spinal cord into right and left sides. These are the anterior median fissure and the posterior median sulcus. In the very center of the spinal cord is a small, fluid filled open space called the central canal. The gray matter around the central canal is the gray commissure which connects the right and left sides. The rest of the gray matter is subdivided into three horns; the right and left ventral, dorsal and lateral horns. The white matter is subdivided into columns, the right and left ventral, dorsal and lateral columns. If you have a good preparation you will be able to see a dorsal root ganglion which is

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actually a cluster of soma in the PNS. It can be seen just lateral to the spinal cord.

Higher magnification of the ventral horn of the gray matter will reveal the large neuron cell bodies of the motor neurons that originate in this tissue. White matter under high magnification reveals tissue composed of small, clear circles with dark dots in the center (kind of like a doughnut). The dark dots are axons and the clear area around the axon is the myeline sheath.

C. Nerve: In longitudinal section a nerve has a unique appearance. At first it may look very nondescript but on closer observation you will be able to see a Node of Ranvier. It will look something like a “+” sign. The horizontal line is an axon and the vertical line is a Node of Ranvier. Once you have located a Node you should be able to make out the myelin sheath on either side of the Node. A nerve is composed entirely of axons surrounded by layers of connective tissue.

In cross section nerves look somewhat like white matter of the spinal cord, that is dark dots with light circles around them. Again the dots are axons and the lighter circles are the myeline sheath. If we observe this tissue under low magnification we see that nerves are arranged somewhat like skeletal muscle, that is groups of axons are bundled into fasciuli and each nerve is composed of many fasciculi. Also like skeletal muscle these structures are surrounded by connective tissue layers. Individual axons are surrounded by the endoneurium, fasciculi are surrounded by perineurium and the entire nerve is surrounded by epineurium.

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Unit 2 - The Skeletal System

The skeletal system can be divided into two parts, the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axil skeleton includes the skull, the vertebrae, the sacrum, the sternum and the ribs. The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the appendages plus the bones of the girdles that attach the appendages, i.e. the scapula and clavicles for the upper limb and the coxal bones for the lower limbs.

In this unit we will spend three weeks learning the names of all of the bones as well as many features of the bones. We will use a team approach to learning the bones. To accomplish this the lab time will be organized as follows: The students at each lab table will be assigned by the instructor to one of for groups, 1-4. Since there are 6 tables in the lab there should be six number ones, six number twos, etc. At the beginning of the lab period all of the ones will meet in one corner of the room, all of the twos will meet in

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another corner of the room, all of the threes in another and the fours in another. Each group will then learn the structures assigned to that group for the day. For example on the first week of this unit the “ones” will learn all of the structures listed under “ Week 1, Group 1" in the lab manual. Students should prepare prior to class by reviewing their assigned structures so that they can help each other within their group master the structures. After 30-40 minutes each student will return to their original tables and take turns teaching the other three members of their team the structures they have learned.

Before coming to the first lab section on this unit you should identify the following general terms that relate to the skeletal system:

Sesamoid boneCompact bonespongy bone (cancellous bone)diploediaphysisepiphysisepiphyseal platemedullary cavity

articular cartilagenutrient foramenperiosteumaxial skeletonappendicular skeleton

Week 1 - Axial Skeleton - Bones of the Skull

Regions of the floor of the cranial cavity

Anterior Cranial Fossa Fig 7.11

Middle Cranial Fossa Fig 7.11

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Posterior Cranial FossaFig 7.11

Sutures

Sagittal Suture Fig 7.2, 7.3 - In sagittal plane

Coronal Suture Fig 7.2, 7.4 - In coronal plane

Squamous Suture Fig 7.4

Lambdoid Suture Fig 7.2, 7.3 - Forms Greek letter Lambda with sagittal suture

Frontal Bone

Supraorbital margin Fig 7.4, 7.6

Supraorbital foramen Fig 7.4, 7.6

Zygomatic process Table 7.7 c - Attaches to Zygomatic bone

Glabella Fig 7.6

Frontal Sinus Fig 7.9 - Only seen if bone is cut or broken

Maxilla

Frontal process Table 7.7 h - Attaches to Frontal bone

Zygomatic process Table 7.7 h - Attaches to Zygomatic bone

Infraorbital foramen Fig 7.6

Anterior nasal spine Fig 7.6

Alveolar process Fig 7.6 - Contains sockets for teeth

Maxillary sinus Fig 7.10 - Only seen if bone is cut or broken

Palatine process Fig 7.12 - With palatine bone forms hard palate

Parietal Bone

Temporal Lines Fig 7.4

Temporal Bone

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Squamous portionFig 7.11

Petrous portion Fig 7.11

Zygomatic process Fig 7.4 - Attaches to Zygomatic bone, part of Zygomatic arch

Mandibular fossa Fig 7.12 - Forms joint with Mandible

External acoustic meatus (auditory)

Fig 7.4

Styloid process Fig 7.4, 7.12 - “Pen-like”

Mastoid process Fig 7.4, 7.12 - “Breast-like”

Stylomastoid foramen Fig 7.12

Carotid canal Fig 7.11. 7.12 -S-shaped canal in petrous portion of bone

Internal acoustic meatus (auditory)

Fig 7.11

Jugular foramen Fig 7.11, 7.12

Zygomatic Bone

Temporal process Fig 7.4 - Attaches to Temporal bone, part of zygomatic arch

Infraorbital margin Fig 7.4, 7.6

Zygomatic arch Fig 7.4 - Formed from zygomatic process of temporal and temporal process of zygomatic bones

Lacrimal Bone Fig 7.4, 7.6

Nasolacrimal canal Fig 7.4 - Drains tears into nose

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Nasal Bone Fig 7.4, 7.6

Sphenoid Bone

Greater wing Fig 7.11

Lesser wing Fig 7.11

Inferior orbital fissure Fig 7.8

Superior orbital fissure Fig 7.6

Sphenoid sinus Fig 7.8 - Only seen if bone is cut or broken

Sella turcica Fig 7.11 “Turkish saddle”

Medial pterygoid plate Fig 7.12

Lateral pterygoid plate Fig 7.12

Optic canal Fig 7.11, 7.16

Foramen spinosum Fig 7.11 These three holes are all in a row

Foramen ovale Fig 7.11 and are kind of a SORry mess, hence

Foramen rotundum Fig 7.11 Spinosum, Ovale, Rotundum.

Foramen lacerum Fig 7.11, 7.12 - Hole in floor of carotid canal

Ethmoid Bone

Perpendicular plate Fig 7.6, 7.9 - With Vomer form nasal septum

Crista galli Fig 7.11 - Name means “Comb” or crest of a rooster

Cribriform plate Fig 7.11

Nasal conchae Fig 7.6, 7.9

Palantine Bone

Palatine foramina Fig 7.12 - Part of hard palate

Horizontal plate Fig 7.12

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Occipital Bone

Foramen magnum Fig 7.11, 7.12 - “Big Hole”

Occipital condyles Fig 7.3, 7.12 - Articulate with atlas vertebra

Hypoglossal canal Fig 7.11

External occipital protuberance

Fig 7.3, 7.12

Nuchal lines Fig 7.3, 7.12 - “Nape” of the neck

Vomer With Perpendicular plate form nasal septum

Mandible

Body Fig 7.4, 7.6, Table 7.7 l

Ramus Fig 7.4, 7.6, Table 7.7 l - “Branch”

Condylar process Fig 7.4, Table 7.7 l

Mandibular condyle Fig 7.4, Table 7.7 l -

Ball on end of condylar process

Mandibular notch Table 7.7 l

Angle Table 7.7 l

Mental foramen Fig 7.4, 7.6, Table 7.7 l

Mandibular foramen Table 7.7 l

Alveolar process Fig 7.6, Table 7.7 l - Contains sockets for teeth

Mandibular symphysis Fig 7.6

Hyoid Bone Table 7.8 - Not attached to any other bones

Bones of The Middle Ear

Malleus Fig 15.24, 15.25, 15.32 -“Hammer”

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IncusFig 15.24, 15.25, 15.32 - “Anvil”

Stapes Fig 15.24, 15.25, 15.32 - “Stirrup”

Bones of The Orbit of The Eye (P FLEMZS)

Fig 7.8

Palatine

Frontal

Lacrimal

Ethmoid

Maxilla

Zygomatic

Sphenoid

Based on various features of the skull it is possible to determine the gender of the skull. In the table below are a list of features that differ between the sexes. Look at several skulls and see if you can determine their gender. For this exercise it is better to use the real skulls rather than the models. Note, it is common for some of the features to appear more “male” and others “female”-if this happens, sex is determined by the greatest number of features. For example, if the skull demonstrates 4 male-like traits and 7 female-like traits, then you would classify the skull as females

Gender Differences in the Skull

Skull Feature Male Characteristic Female Characteristic

General size More robust More gracile/delicate

External Occipital Protuberance and nuchal lines

Well-demarcated nuchal lines and a prominent bump or “hook”

External surface of occipital bone is smooth, with no bony projection

Mastoid Process Large, projects below the external auditory canal

Smaller

Supra-orbital margin (upper orbit rim)

Thick, rounded, blunt border

Thin, sharp border

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Supra-orbital ridge (“brow ridges”) Prominent

Little or no prominence

Mandible (chin) Squarish, greater forward projection

More pointed (versus squarish), little forward projection

Angle of the mandible 125 ̊ or less 125 ̊or more

Ramus of mandible Wide Narrow

Orbit Rectangular Round

Frontal bone Flattened and sharply angled

Rounded both ways

Hard palate Definite “U” shaped “V” shaped

Week 2 - Axial Skeleton and Upper Extremity

Vertebrae - General Features

Table 7.9

Body The bodies are separated by the intervertebral disks

Vertebral arch With body forms vertebral foramen

Pedicle Forms sides (feet) of vertebral arch

Lamina Forms back of vertebral arch (Thin plate... layered)

Vertebral foramen Forms vertebral canal for spinal cord

Spinous process These are the “lumps” you feel in the center of your back

Transverse process

Superior articular process and facet

Facet is the smooth articular surface on the process

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Inferior articular process and facet

Inferior intervertebral notch

Superior intervertebral notch

Intervertebral foramen Formed by inferior intervertebral notch and superior intervertebral notch of 2 vertebra when together

Cervical vertebrae (7) Fig 7.16

Transverse foramen Vertebral arteries pass through theses

Bifid spinous process Bi- = two

Atlas (C1) Articulates with occipital condyles of skull

Axis (C2) The atlas pivots on the “axis” vertebra

Odontoid process (dens) “Tooth”

Thoracic vertebrae (12) Fig 7.17

Costal facet (articular facet on transverse process

Best “seen” with your fingers, smooth dish shaped structure

Lumbar Vertebrae (5) Fig 7.18

Sacrum (5 fused) Fig 7.19

Auricular surface Auricle = outer ear, “ear shaped” surface

Median sacral crest Modified spinous processes

Posterior (dorsal) sacral foramen

Anterior (ventral) sacral foramen

Sacral canal Continuous with vertebral canal

Coccyx (3-5 fused) Fig 7.19

We normally eat at 7:00, 12:00 and 5:00, hence 7 cervical, 12 thoracic and 5 lumbar vertebra.

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SternumFig 7.20

Manubrium Shaped like a handle - In this case the handle of a sword

Body

Xiphoid process

Sternal angle

Jugular notch

Clavicular notch Not labeled in text - Notches on manubrium where clavicles attach

Costal notches Not labeled in text- Notches on body where costal cartilage attaches

Ribs Fib 7.20

Costal cartilage Connects ribs to sternum or other ribs

True ribs (7 pair) Costal cartilage attaches directly to sternum

False ribs (5 pair) Costal cartilage attaches to that of rib above, or

Floating ribs do not attach to other ribs

Costal Groove Not labeled in text - Feel it with your fingers on the inner side of the angle

Head

Tubercle

Neck Between the head and tubercle

Angle

Body

Clavicle Fig 7.23

Sternal (medial) end Larger, blunt end

Acromial (lateral) end Flatter end, the acromial region is the point of the shoulder

Conoid process Not labeled in text - Bump near medial end

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Scapula Fig 7.23

Spine

Supraspinous fossa Above spine

Infraspinous fossa Below spine

Subscapular fossa On inside of scapula

Acromion process Attaches to acromial end of clavicle

Coracoid Process

Glenoid cavity Articulates with Humerus

Vertebral (medial) border

Axillary (lateral) border Axilla - armpit

Superior border

Superior angle

Inferior angle

Scapular notch

Humerus Fig 7.24

Head

Anatomical neck Ring around the head

Surgical neck When bone breaks here it requires surgery to repair - Ring around the shaft

Greater tubercle Easier to differentiate tubercles if you lookat the bone from the proximal end

Lesser tubercle

Intertubercular groove

Deltoid tuberosity Attachment site for Deltoid muscle

Capitulum The word means head - articulates with head of radius

Trochlea The work means pulley or spool - articulates with ulna

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Lateral epicondyles

Medial epicondyles

Coronoid fossa Coronoid process of ulna enters when arm flexed

Olecranon fossa Olecronon process of ulna enters when arm extends

Radial fossa Head of radius enters when arm flexes

Ulna Fig 7.25

Trochlear (semilunar) notch Articulates with trochlea of humerus

Coronoid process Enters coronoid fossa when arm flexes - “Coron” = Raven, refers to Raven’s beak

Olecranon process Enters olecranon fossa when arm extends

Radial notch Notch on proximal end for radius

Head

Styloid process

Ulnar tuberosity

Radius Fig 7.25

Head

Neck

Radial tuberosity

Styloid process

Ulnar notch Notch on distal end for ulna

Carpals Fig 7.26

Scaphoid Some - This mnemonic may help you

Lunate Lawyers remember the order of these bones

Triquetrum Take

Pisiform Profits

26

TrapeziumThat

Trapazoid They

Capitate Can’t

Hamate Have

Metacarpals (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5)

Fig 7.26

Digits Fig 7.26

Proximal phalanx

Middle phalanx Thumb lacks middle phalanx

Distal phalanx

Week 3 - Lower Extremity

Coxal bone (Os Coxae)

Symphysis pubis Fig 7.29, 7.30 - Joins Coxae in front

Acetabulum Fig 7.29, 7.30 - “Vinegar cup”

Ilium Fig 7.29, 7.30

Iliac crest Fib 7.30

Anterior superior iliac spine Fig 7.29, 7.30 - Prominent surface landmark

Anterior inferior iliac spine Fib 7.30

Posterior superior iliac spine

Fib 7.30

Posterior inferior iliac spine Fib 7.30

Greater sciatic (ischiatic) notch

Fib 7.30

Iliac fossa Fib 7.30

Auricular surface Fib 7.30 - “Ear shaped” surface that articulates with auricular surface of the sacrum

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IschiumFig 7.29, 7.30

Ischial spine Fib 7.30

Lesser sciatic (ischiatic) notch

Fib 7.30

Ischial tuberosity Fib 7.30

Obturator foramen Fig 7.29, 7.30

Ischial ramus Fib 7.30

Pubis Fig 7.29, 7.30

Superior pubic ramus Fib 7.30

Inferior pubic ramus Fib 7.30

Pubic crest Fib 7.30

As with the skull there are gender differences with respect to the pelvic girdle. Look at the articulated skeletons and see if you can determine their gender

Gender Differences in the Os Coxae

Os Coxae Feature Male Characteristic Female Characteristic

Pelvic Inlet Heart shaped Spacious, wide and oval

General Size More robust and muscle marked

Less robust

obturator foramen Larger and oval Smaller and triangular

Acetabulum larger, directed mor forward

Smaller, directed more laterally

Greater Sciatic Notch Narrow and deep Wide and shallow

Body of Pubis Short, triangular Longer, more rectangular

Subpubic angle (area underneath the two pubic bones)

Narrow, V-shaped Broader, more convex

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FemurFig 7.33

Head

Fovea capitis Small pit in the head

Neck

Body

Greater trochanter

Lesser trochanter

Intertrochanteric crest

Gluteal tuberosity Attachment site gluteus maximus

Linea aspera

Medial condyle

Lateral condyle

Intercondylar fossa

Patellar groove

Medial epicondyle

Lateral epicondyle

Patella Fig 7.34

Apex Not labeled in text - Pointed end, inferior side

Base Not labeled in text -Rounded end, superior side

Anterior surface “Rough” surface

Posterior surface Side with articular facets

Medial articular facet Smaller and more convex

Lateral articular facet Larger and more concave

Tibia Fig 7.35

Medial condyles

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Lateral condyles

Intercondylar eminence

Tibial tuberosity Bump just below knee

Anterior crest Shin

Medial malleolus Forms large bump on inside of ankle

Fibular notch Not labeled in text - On distal end where fibula touches

Fibula Fig 7.35

Head Articular facet on top of head

Lateral malleolus Articular facet on side of malleolus

Tarsals Fig 7.37

Talus Tall - This mnemonic may help you

Calcaneous Chicks the order of the tarsals

Navicular Never

Medial cuneiform Meet

Intermediate cuneiform In

Lateral cuneiform Log

Cuboid Cabins

Metatarsals (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5)

Fig 7.37

Digits Fig 7.37

Proximal phalanx

Middle phalanx Big toe lacks middle phalanx

Distal phalanx

Articulations and movements

Articulations

Fibrous joints Table 8.1

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SutureFig 8.1, 8.2

Syndesmoses Fig 8.3

Gomphoses Fig 8.4

Cartilaginous joints Table 8.1

Synchondroses Fig 8.5

Symphysis Fig 8.6

Synovial joints Table 8.2, Fig 8.7

Plane (Gliding) Fig 8.8

Saddle Fig 8.9

Hinge Fig 8.10

Pivot Fig 8.11

Ball and Socket Fig 8.12

Ellipsoid (condyloid) Fig 8.13

Movements

Types of Movements

Flexion and Extension Fig 8.14, 8.15, 8.16

Dorsiflexion and Plantar Flexion

Abduction and Adduction Fig 8.18

Rotation Fig 8.19

Supination and Pronation Fig 8.20

Circumduction Fig 8.21

Special Movements

Elevation and Depression Fig 8.22

Protraction and Retraction Fig 8.23

Lateral and Medial Excursion

Fig 8.24

Opposition and Reposition Fig 8.25

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Inversion and EversionFig 8.26

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Unit 3 - MusclesSkeletal muscles are voluntary muscles which we consciously control. In this unit you will be learning the names of the major muscles of the body as well as the origins, insertions and actions of those muscles. In addition to learning the muscles on the models, you will also learn to identify many of the muscles on the cadavers. We will spend three weeks on this unit. As with the bones each days material will be divided into 4 groups which one member of each group (table) will learn and teach to the rest of the group. Once again it is essential that you come to class prepared, having reviewed the muscles for which you are responsible that day.

WEEK 1

Muscles of Face Action

occipotofrontalis

Frontalis Wrinkles forehead and wrinkles eyebrows

Occipitalis Moves scalp backwards

Epicranial (galea) aponeurosis : broad tendon across the top of the scalp

Corrugator Furrows the eyebrows

Orbicularis oculi Closes eye

Nasalis Dilates nostrils

Orbicularis oris Closes and purses lips

Levator labii superioris

Elevates upper lip

Zygomaticus major Elevates corners of mouth

Zygomaticus minor Elevates upper lip

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RisoriusDraws angles of mouth laterally

Depressor anguli oris

Depresses corner of mouth

Depressor labii inferiorus

Depresses lower lip

Mentalis elevates skin over chin and protrudes lower lip

Platysma Depresses lower lip and wrinkles skin of neck

Buccinator Flattens cheek

Muscles of Mastication

Origin Insertion Action

Temporalis Temporal lines of temporal bone

Coronoid process of mandible Elevates and retracts

mandible

Masseter Zygomatic arch

Ramus of mandible

Medial pterygoid Medial pterygoid plate

Mandible Protracts and elevates mandible

Lateral pterygoid Lateral pterygoid plate

Condyler process of mandibible

Protracts and depresses mandible

Muscles of the Neck


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Sternocleidomastoid Manubrium,

clavicle

Mastoid process of temporal

Turns head to side, flexes neck

Digastric (anterior and posterior bellies)

Mastoid Process (Posterior belly)

Mandible (Anterior Belly)

Opens mouth

Mylohyoid Body of Mandible

Hyoid bone Elevates floor of mouth

Stylohyoid Styloid process of temporal bone

Hyoid bone Elevates hyoid

Muscles that act on the Scapula


Serratus anterior upper eight ribs

Vertebral border of scapula

Pulls scapula forward and downward

Pectoralis minor Sternal ends of 3rd 4th and 5th ribs

Coracoid process of scapula

Pulls scapula forward and downward

Trapezius Occipital bone and spines of 7th cervical vertebrae and all thoracic vertebrae

Clavicle, spine of scapula and acromion process

Elevates scapula, draws head back, adducts scapula, braces shoulders

Levator scapulae 1st - 4th cervical vertebrae

Superior angle of scapula

Elevates scapula

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Rhomboideus major Spines of T1 -

T4 vertebrae


Elevates and adducts scapula

Rhomboideus minor

Spines of C7

and T1

vertebrae


Elevates and adducts scapula

Muscles that move the Humerus


Pectoralis major Clavicle, sternum, costal cartilage

Greater tubercle of humerus

Flexes shoulder, adducts arm and rotates arm medially

Latissimus dorsi Spines of lumbar and lower thoracic vertebrae, sacrum

Intertubercular groove of humerus

Extends shoulder, adducts humerus, and rotates humerus medially

Deltoid Clavicle, acromion process and spine of scapula

Deltoid tuberosity of humerus

abducts arm, extends and flexes shoulder

Supraspinatus* Supraspinous fossa of scapula


Abducts arm, holds head of humerus in place

Infraspinatus* infraspinous fossa of scapula


Rotates arm laterally, holds head of humerus in place

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Teres minor*lateral border of scapula

greater tubercle and groove of humerus

rotates arm laterally, holds head of humerus in place

Teres major Lateral border of scapula

Intertubercular groove of humerus

extends shoulder, adducts and rotates arm medially

Subscapularis* Subscapular fossa of scapula

Lesser tubercle of humerus

Rotates arm medially, holds head of humerus in place

Coracobrachialis Coracoid process of scapula

Shaft of humerus Flexes and adducts shoulder

* muscles of the rotator cuff - remember SITS Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, Teres minor, Subscapularis

WEEK 2

Muscles that act on the Forearm


Biceps brachii Coracoid process; supraglenoid fossa of scapula

Radial tuberosity of radius

Flexes and supinates forearm

Brachialis Anterior surface of humerus

Coronoid process of ulna Flexes forearm

Brachioradialis Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus

Styloid process of radius

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Triceps brachiiInfraglenoid fossa of scapula; posterior and lateral humerus

Olecranon porcess of ulna

Extends forearm

Muscles that move the hand


Extensor carpi radialis longus Lateral

epicondyle of humerus

Second metacarpal Extends and abducts wrist

Extensor carpi radialis brevis

5th metacarpal Extends and abducts wrist

Abductor pollicus longus

Posterior radius and ulna

Base of first metacarpal

Abducts thumb

Extensor pollicus brevis

Shaft of Radius

Proximal phalanx of thumb

Extends and abducts thumb

Extensor pollicus longus

Shaft of ulna Distal phalanx of thumb

Extends thumb

Extensor digitorum Lateral epicondyle of humerus

phalanges of 2nd - 5th digits

Extends wrist and digits

Extensor carpi ulnaris

Base of 5th metacarpal

Extends and adducts wrist

Flexor carpi ulnarisMedial epicondyle of humerus

Carpals and metacarpals

Flexes and adducts wrist

Flexor digitorum superficialis

Middle phalanges of digits 2-5

Flexes wrist, hand and digits

Palmaris longus Palmar fascia Flexes wrist

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Flexor carpi radialis

Base of 2nd and 3rd metacarpals Flexes and abducts

hands

Flexor digitorum profundus

Ulna Distal phalanges of digits 2-5

Flexes digits

Flexor pollicus longus

Shaft of radius

Distal phalanx of thumb

Flexes thumb

Pronator teres Medial epicondyle of humerus

Radius Pronates forearm

Supinator Lateral epicondyle of humerus

Radius Supinates forearm

Muscles of the Abdominal Wall


External abdominal oblique

Lower eight ribs

Iliac crest, linea alba, inguinal ligament

Compresses abdomen, lateral rotation of trunk

Inguinal ligament

Ligament connecting between the anterior superior iliac spine and the pubic crest

Linea alba Thick tendon running down the midline of the abdomen

Internal abdominal oblique

Iliac crest inguinal ligament

Linea alba, costal cartilage

Compresses abdomen, lateral rotation of trunk

Transverse abdominus

Xiphoid process, linea alba

Compresses abdomen

Rectus abdominus Pubic crest, symphysis pubis

Costal cartilage of ribs

Flexes vertebral column, compresses abdomen

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Muscles of the Vertebral Column Origin

Insertion Action

Quadratus lumborum

Iliac crest and ileolumbar ligament

12th rib and transverse processes upper lumbar vertebrae

Lateral flexion of vertebral column

Sacrospinalis (erector spinae) - consists of three groups of muscles listed below

Iliocostalis Sacrum, crest of ilium, and ribs

Ribs and vertebrae

Extends spineLongissimus Transverse

processes of thoracic vertebrae

Transverse process of all thoracic vertebrae

Spinalis Spinous processes of upper lumbar and lower thoracic vertebrae

Spinous processes of middle and upper thoracic veretebrae

Muscles of the Hip Origin Insertion Action

Iliopsoas A combination of the iliacus and psoas major after it passes through the inguinal region.

Iliacus Iliac fossa of ilium Lesser trochanter of

femurFlexes thigh, rotates thigh laterally, flexes vertebral column

Psoas major Transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae

Gluteus maximus Iliac crest, sacrum, coccyx

Gluteal tuberosity of femur

Extends hip and rotates thigh laterally

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Gluteus mediusLateral surface of ilium

Greater trochanter of femur

Abducts thigh and rotates thigh medially

Gluteus minimus

Piriformis Sacrum and ilium

Greater trochanter of femur

Laterally rotates extended thigh, abducts flexed thigh

Tensor fascia latae Anterior superior iliac spine

Iliotibial tract to lateral condyle of tibia

Abducts thigh

WEEK 3

Muscles of the Thigh


Sartorius Anterior superior iliac spine

Medial side of tibial tuberosity

Flexes hip and knee, abducts and rotates thigh laterally and rotates leg medially

Quadriceps femoris

A collective group of the next four muscles

Rectus femoris anterior inferior iliac spine Tibial tuberosity via

patellar tendonExtends leg at knee, rectus femoris also flexes hip

Vastus lateralis Greater trochanter and linea aspera

Vastus medialis Linea aspera

Vastus intermedius

Body of femur

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GracilisPubis

Medial epicondyle of tibia

Adducts thigh and flexes knee

PectineusPubis

Femur Adducts thigh

Adductor longus

Linea asperaAdducts thigh, flexes and laterally rotates hip

Adductor brevis

Adductor magnus

Hamstring A collective group of the next three muscles

Biceps femoris Ischial tuberosity and linea aspera

Lateral epicondyle of tibia

Flexes leg at knee, extends thigh at hip

SemitendinosusIschial tuberosity

Medial epicondyle of tibia

Semimembranosus

Muscles of the Leg


Tibialis anterior Lateral tibia 1st metatarsal Dorsiflexion and inversion

Fibularis teritius Anterior fibula 5th metatarsal Dorsiflexion and eversion

Fibularis longus Lateral tibia and shaft of fibula

Tarsals and metatarsal

Plantar flexion and eversion

Fibularis brevis Lower fibula Metatarsal Plantar flexion and eversion

Tendo callcaneous

Large tendon that attaches the calf muscles to the calcaneous

Gastrocnemius Condyles of femur

Plantar flexion and knee flexion

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CalcaneusSoleus

Posterior tibia and fibula

Plantar flexion

Plantaris Lateral epicondyle of femur

Calcaneus Plantar flexion

Popliteus Lateral epicondyle of femur

Posterior tibia Flexes knee

Tibialis posterior Posterior tibia and fibula

Tarsals Plantar flexion and inversion

Flexor digitorum longus

Posterior tibia Distal phalanges Flexes distal phalanges

Flexor hallicus longus

Posterior fibula

Distal phalanx of big toe

Flexes distal phalanx of big toe

Extensor digitorum longus

Lateral condyles tibia and anterior fibula

Middle phalanges Extends digits

Extensor hallucis Anterior fibula Distal phalanx of big toe

Extends big toe

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Unit 4 - The Nervous SystemThe nervous system can be divided into two parts: the central nervous system which includes the brain and spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system which is made up of nerves and ganglia. The nerves in the peripheral nervous system are classified according to their origin. Cranial nerves arise directly from the brain and spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord. In this lab you will learn to identify various components of the nervous system on the models. We will follow the same pattern used on the bone and muscle units.

Coverings of the Brain and Blood supply

Dura mater Dural Sinus

Arachnoid membrane Vertebral arteries

Pia mater Basilar artery

Falx cerebri Internal carotid arteries

Falx cerebelli Arterial Circle (Circle of Willis)

Tentorium cerebelli

Ventricles of the Brain

Lateral ventricles Cerebral aqueduct

Third ventricle Choroid plexus

Fourth ventricle

Review of Spinal Cord

Gray matter Columns

White matter Ventral

Horns Lateral

Ventral Dorsal

Lateral Central canal

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DorsalAnterior median fissure

Posterior median sulcus

Dorsal root ganglion

Structures of the Cerebrum and Cerebellum

Cerebral hemispheres Frontal lobe

Gyrus Precentral gyrus

Sulcus Parietal lobe

Gray matter Postcentral gyrus

White matter Temporal lobe

Longitudinal fissure Occipital lobe

Central sulcus Cerebellum

Lateral Sulcus (or fissure) Vermis

Parietooccipital sulcus Cerebellar hemisphere

Arbor vitae

Review of Neuron

Soma Schwann cell

Axon Myeline sheath

Axon Hillock Node of Ranvier

Dendrite Endoneurium

Diencephalon and Brain Stem

Brain stem Diencephalon (cont)

Medulla oblongata Hypothalamus

Pons Mammillary body

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MidbrainPineal body

Corpora quadrigemina Corpus collosum

Superior colliculus Genu

Inferior colliculus Splenium

Diencephalon Septum pellucidum

Thalamus Fornix

Intermediate mass Pituitary gland

Infundibulum

Cranial Nerves

I. Olfactory bulb VI. Abducens nerve

Olfactory tract VII. Facial nerve

II. Optic nerve VIII. Vestibulocochlear nerve

Optic chiasma IX. Glossopharyngeal nerve

Optic tract X. Vagus nerve

III. Oculomotor nerve XI. Accessory nerve

IV. Trochlear nerve XII. Hypoglossal nerve

V. Trigeminal nerve

Helpful mnemonic for remembering the order or the cranial nerves: On Old Olympus’ Towering Tops A Fine Victorian Gentlemen Viewed A Hawk.

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