Koppen classification 2011

Koppen Climatic Classification System 2011

Friday, June 07, 2013

Submitted Topic: Kooppen Climatic Classification System

Submitted To: Sir.Salman Tariq

Submitted By: Atiqa Ijaz Khan

Roll no.: SS09-03

Date of Submission: 17th

–Nov-2011



1) The Classical Age of Climatic Classification 03

a. Kooppen System 03

b. Thornthwaite System 03

2) The Modified Koopen System 03

a. 1st letter

b. 2nd

letter

c. 3rd

letter

3) Detailed Classification 07

a. Climate and Temperature 07

i. Tropical Moist 07

1. Af

2. Am

3. Aw

ii. Dry Climate 08

1. Bw

2. Bs

iii. Moist_subtropical Mid-latitude Climate 08

1. Cfa

2. Cfb

3. Cs

iv. Moist Continental Mid-latitude Climate 08

1. Dfa

2. Dfb

3. Dfw, Dfc, Dwd, Dwc

v. Polar Climate 09

1. ET

2. EF

b. Climate and Vegetation 09

i. Tropical Climate.

ii. Desert Climate

iii. Mid-latitude Climate

iv. Moist winters

v. Polar Climate

4) High lands 15

5) Short Summary 16

6) References 21



The Classical Age of Climatic Classification:

Because of the relatively short data records and the massive amount of the atmospheric data collected from

individual weather stations, the identification of the true climatic regions is a relatively recent endeavor.

This age has been broadly classified into two major types as:

1. Kooppen Climatic Classification: A widely used classification of world climates based on the annual and

monthly averages of temperature and precipitation was devised by the famous German scientist Waldimir

Köppen (1846– 1940). Initially published in 1918,the original Köppen classification system has since been

modified and refined. Faced with the lack of adequate observing stations throughout the world, Köppen related

the distribution and type of native vegetation to the various climates. In this way, climatic boundaries could be

approximated where no climatological data were available.

2. Thornthwaite Climatic Classification: This was formulated by C. Wrren Thornthwiate in 1931 and completed

in 1948. It represent an alternative to the Kooppen classification system.

The Modified Kooppen Classification System:

The Köppen Climate Classification System is the most widely used system for classifying the

world's climates. Its categories are based on the annual and monthly averages of temperature

and precipitation. The Köppen system recognizes five major climatic types; each type is

designated by a capital letter.

Classical age of climatic

classification

Koopppen Classification

Thornthwaite Classififcation



1st letter:

Code Type Description

A Tropical climate Monthly average temperature > 18°C

No winter season

Strong annual precipitations (higher than evaporation)

B

Dry climate /

Desert

Annual evaporation higher than precipitations

No permanent rivers

C

Hot moderate

climate

The 3 coldest months average a temperature between -3°C and 18°C

Hottest month average temperature > 10°C

The summer and winter seasons are well defined

D

Cold moderate

climate

Coldest month average temperature of the coldest month < -3°C

Hottest month average temperature > 10°C

The seasons summer and winter seasons are well defined

E Polar climate Average temperature of the hottest month > 10°C

The summer season is very little different from the rest of the year

2nd

letter:

Code Description Applies to

S Steppe climate (semi-arid)

Annual precipitations range between 380 and 760 mm B

W Dry (Arid and semi-arid) climates

Annual precipitations < 250 mm B

F Wet climate

Precipitations occur every month of the year

No dry season

A-C-D

W Dry season in winter

A-C-D



Examples:

1. Af: Tropical rain forest climate. Examples : Singapore, Belém, Brazil.

2. Aw: Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate. Examples : Bangalore, India, Veracruz, Mexico, Townsville,

Australia.

3. Am: Tropical monsoon climate. Examples : Conakry, Guinea, Chittagong, Bangladesh.

4. BS: steppe climate

5. BW: desert climate

6. Cf: humid moderate climate without dry seasons

7. CW: humid moderate climate with dry winter

8. Cs: Mediterranean climate : humid moderate climate with dry summer

9. Df: cold continental climate without dry season

10. Dw: cold continental climate with dry winter

11. ET: Tundra climate. Examples : Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada. Provideniya, Russia. Deception Island,

Antarctica. Longyearbyen, Svalbard.

12. EF: Ice cap climate

13. EM: subarctic maritime climate

S Dry season in summer

C

M Monsoon climate:

Annual precipitations > 1500 mm

Precipitations of the driest month < 60 mm

A

T Average temperature of the hottest month between 0 and 10°C

E

F Average temperature of the hottest month < 0°C

E

M Abundant precipitations

Mild winter E



3rd

letter

A third letter allows us to refine the B,C and D climate types. It is related to the temperature variations.

Code Description

Appli

es to

a: hot summer Average temperature of the hottest month > 22°C

C-D

b: moderate summer Average temperature of the hottest month < 22°C

The 4 hottest months average temperatures > 10°C C-D

C: short and cold

summer

Average temperature of the hottest month < 22°C

Monthly average temperatures > 10°C for less than 4 months

Average temperature of the coldest month > -38°C

C-D

D: very cold winter Average temperature of the coldest month < -38°C

D

H: dry and heat Annual average temperature > 18°C

B

K: dry and cold Annual average temperature < 18°C

B

Examples :

1. BWh : Sahara

2. BWh : Yuma, Arizona

3. Cfb : France

4. Dfc : Siberia

5. Etw : Canada's Yukon Territory



Detailed Classification:

This detailed classification has been divided into two types as:

1-Climate and Temperature:

1) Tropical Moist Climates (A) Tropical moist climates extend northward and southward from the equator to about 15 to 25

degrees of latitude. In these climates all months have average temperatures greater than 18

degrees Celsius. Annual precipitation is greater than 1500 mm.

Three minor Köppen climate types exist in the A group and their designation is based on seasonal distribution

of rainfall.

a) Af or tropical wet is a tropical the climate where precipitation occurs all year long. Monthly

temperature variations in this climate are less than 3 degrees Celsius. Because of intense surface

heating and high humidity cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds form early in the afternoons almost

every day. Daily highs are about 32 degrees Celsius while night time temperatures average 22

degrees Celsius.

b) Am is a tropical monsoon climate. Annual rainfall is equal to or greater than

Af, but falls in the 7 to 9 hottest months. During the dry season very little rainfall occurs.

c) Tropical wet and dry or savanna (Aw) has an extended dry season during winter. Precipitation

during the wet season is usually less than 1000 millimeters and only during the summer season.

Baobob and acia in East Africa

Detailed Classification

Climate and temperature

Climate and Vegetation



2) Dry Climates (B) The most obvious climatic feature of these climate is potential evaporation and transpiration

exceed precipitation. These climates extend from 20 - 35 degrees North and South of the equator

and in large continental regions of the mid-latitudes often surrounded by mountains. Minor types

of this climate include:

a) Bw - dry arid (desert) is a true desert climate. It covers 12 % of the earth's land surface

and is dominated by xerophytic vegetation.

b) Bs - dry semiarid (steppe). Is a grassland climate that covers 14% of the earth's land surface. It receives more precipitation than the Bw either from the intertropical

convergence zone or from mid-latitude cyclones.

Cumulus cloud over steep grassland of Western

North America

3) Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates (C) This climate generally has warm and humid summers with mild winters. Its extent is from 30 to 50

degrees of latitude mainly on the eastern and western borders of most continents. During the

winter the main weather feature is the mid-latitude cyclone. Convective thunderstorms dominate

summer months. Three minor types exist:

a) Cfa-humid subtropical: The humid subtropical climate (Cfa) has hot muggy summers and mainly

thunderstorms. Winters are mild and precipitation during this season comes from mid-latitude

cyclones. A good example of a Cfa climate is the southeastern USA.

b) Cfb- marine: climates are found on the western coasts of continents. They have a humid climate with short

dry summer. Heavy precipitation occurs during the mild winters because of continuous presence of

midlatitude cyclones.

c) Mediterranean climates (Cs): receive rain primarily during winter season from the mid-latitude

cyclone. Extreme summer aridity is caused by the sinking air of the subtropical highs and may exist for up to 5

months. Locations in North America are from Portland, Oregon to all of California.

4) Moist Continental Mid-latitude Climates (D) Moist continental mid-latitude climates have warm to cool summers and cold winters. The location

of these climates is pole ward of the C climates. The warmest month is greater than 10 degrees

Celsius, while the coldest month is less than -30 degrees Celsius. Winters are severe with

snowstorms, strong winds, bitter cold from Continental Polar or Arctic air masses. Like the C

climates there are three minor types:

a) Hot summer (Dfa): Distinctive four seasons with marked temperature. US from eastern to Midwest

b) Mild summer (Dfb): Less precipitation,less humid and drier.

c) Subarctic(Dfc, Dfd, Dwd, Dwc): Serve winters with clear sky dominated by high pressure.



Conifers (Dw)

5) Polar Climates (E) Polar climates have year-round cold temperatures with warmest month less than 10 degrees

Celsius. Polar climates are found on the northern coastal areas of North America and Europe,

Asia and on the landmasses of Greenland and Antarctica. Two minor climate types exist as:

a) ET or polar tundra is a climate where the soil is permanently frozen to depths of hundreds of meters, a

condition known as permafrost. Vegetation is dominated by mosses, lichens, dwarf trees and

scattered woody shrubs.

b) EF or polar ice caps has a surface that is permanently covered with

snow and ice.

2-Climate and vegetation Koppen used vegetation groups to aid in climate classification. Koppen used definite temperature

and precipitation criteria to distinguish between climate types.

Tropical (A) Climates

All tropical climates are warm; the subdivisions are based on differences in preicipitation.

Tropical Rainforest (AF) Climate Located in the ITCZ (10-15 N/S).

Diurnal range in temperature is greater than the difference between the warmest and coolest

months (annual range).

Every month has precipitation and no month is deficient in rainfall. This high amount of rainfall

keeps the soil moisture at capacity.

a) Tropical Rainforest (AF) Climate Vegetation Tropical rainforest vegetation is very closely associated with the tropical rainforest

climate.

Representative areas include: Amazon Basin Congo Basin in Africa, parts of the Indo-Malaysian

area of Asia.

The tropical rainforest is densely forested.

Three levels of vegetation are frequently recognized in the typical rainforest as:

Climate and Termperature

Tropical (A)

Af Am Aw

Dry(B)

Bs Bw

Mid-latitude(C)

Cfa Cfb Cs

Moist contenental(D)

Dfa Dfb Dfc, Dfb,

Dwd, Dwc

Polar(E)

ET EF



The high level consists of solitary giant trees that reach heights of 200 feet extending far

above the rest of the forest. The middle layer of trees grow to heights of 100-130 feet and makes a massive canopy

which sunlight has difficulty penetrating.

Beneath the middle layer is the bottom portion of the forest which has little undergrowth because of lack of sunlight. The tree trunks are slender with few branches.The crowns begin at great heights where sunlight is

available.70% of all plant species growing in the tropical rainforest are trees.

There is great divesity of species with no pure stands of trees. A single acre may contain 50 species of trees. A

number of other plants other then trees have adapted themselves to the environment:

Lianas - plants that do not have rigid stems, vine-like. They use trees as support to grow

towards the sunlight. Epiphytes - such as bromeliads and orchids make homes in the trees deriving moisture

from the air. Although the ground in the rainforest is clear from undergrowth it is difficult

to get around. The soil is always wet so tree roots do not go deep into the soil.

Buttresses fan out 10-15 feet on all sides as support.

The soil in tropical rainforests is extremely poor, and is very acid. The luxuriant vegetation grows

in infertile soil.

Nutrients are locked up in the vegetation that falls to the forest floor. Since there are no

temperature or precipitation seasons here leaves fall when they die throughout the year. Thick

layers of plant material collect on the rainforest floor. This material decays quickly in the hot,

humid climate and releases its nutrients immediately. Extensive root systems close to the surface

soak up the nutrients quickly. If the rainforest is not disturbed, growth can go on indefinitely.

As soon as an area is deforested, intense leaching of the soil begins and remaining nutrients can

be depleted in several years. If these fields are abandoned, secondary forest moves in that may

take centuries to return to rainforest.

b) Tropical Monsoon (Am) Climate Always hot, seasonally excessively moist. Similar to tropical rainforest (Af) climate in temperature

conditions.

Distinguish: It is distinguished from Af by its rainfall regime. The winter/summer reversal of airflow brings dry

and wet seasons to the Am climate.

Am vegetation: The forest becomes less dense with individual trees more widely spaced. Ground cover is

heavier because more light penetrates to the ground surface. The forest is semi-deciduous, i.e. some

trees drop their leaves during the dry season and some retain their leaves. The trees that retain

leaves have adaptations to dry weather that include: deep or extensive roots. small leaves thick

cuticles. Many of the trees found in the rainforest are also found in the semi-deciduous forest but

drop their leaves during the dry season. Somewhat pure stands of trees occur including: teak,

ebony, mahogony, cacao, rubber and banana.

c) Tropical Wet & Dry(Aw) Climate North and south of the Af climate are areas where the ITCZ penetrates during the high sun period

bringing convectional precipitation. During the low sun period the trade winds dominate bringing a

distinct dry season. Aw vegetation: Move poleward to tropical climates with less annual rainfall

and longer dry seasons, the vegetation shows xerophytic adaptations. Xerophytic adaptations

include low growing trees to reduce water loss from wind, thick bark, small leaves or thorns.

On the equator side of the Aw climate trees are present and this forest can be very luxurious during

the wet season but life less during the dry season. As trees become more and more scattered

because of the increasing dry period, grasses become dominant. This is Savanna vegetation and

is found in the drier Aw climates and well into the BS climate. The grasses have dense root

systems and can absorb moisture rapidly so very little rain makes it past the roots deep into the

soil. During the dry season the tops of the grasses die but the roots remain viable. The dead



grasses insulate the roots form cold and drought. Trees are found in the Savanna but are widely

separated because of lack of moisture and need for extensive root systems. Root systems are

oriented either vertically (very deep to tap deep soil moisture, typically 10 times height of tree), or

horizontally (close to surface to absorb maximum amount of rainfall, typically 5-7 times height of

tree). Deep-rooted trees have a shortened dormancy period because they can tap deep soil

moisture during dry season.

Examples: Tree/shrub species found on Savanna: Acacia, Eucalyptus.

Chaprral vegetation in North America

Desert Climates (BS, BW)

a) Semi-arid Hot Climate (BSh) or Low-latitude Steppe: This climate is found surrounding the low-latitude deserts. You cannot distinguish between Bsh

and BWh climates by temperature only, but consider precipitation also. Although the precipitation

in the BSh climate is not very much, it is greater than the deserts. The typical steppe has 10"

precipitation per year and always less than 30". Seasonal distribution varies. BSh climates on the

equator side receive 80% of rainfall during the high-sun period when the ITCZ migrates to the

region. The steppes on the poleward side of the low-latitude deserts experience maximum

precipitation during the low-sun period. Precipitation is mainly from cyclonic fronts that

occasionally swing far south. The water balance shows a deficit throughout the year.

b) Low-Latitude Deserts (BWh) These deserts lie approximately between 18-28 in both hemispheres. They coincide with the

equatorward edge of the subtropical high pressure belt and trade winds. Includes the world's

great deserts: Sahara, Sonoran, Thar, Kalahari, Great Australian.

Desert Vegetation: Deserts are regions where PEVT is much higher than annual precipitation.

The name desert was originally a term describing vegetation that was coined in North Africa.

Desert means "plants that are evenly spaced". Western civilization applies the term desert to both

vegetation and climate.

All deserts have some plant life. Even the driest deserts, which appear without plant life most of

the time, contain dormant seeds that come to life after rare showers. The rain showers may be

years apart.



Creosote and cacti in Southwestern America

In the world's deserts there are two major types of plant life:

Species nourished directly be rain and may be dormant for long periods of time. Are

annuals and perannials. Other plants live in protected areas, e.g. valleys and depressions and seek water through

their extensive root systems. Desert plants have to survive extreme dryness and drastic diurnal and annual temperature

ranges.

Example: Location/Temp. Average max. temp. Average min. temp. Range

Lima, Peru 89F 51F 38F Yuma, Ariz. 113 31 89 Reno, Nev. 98 -1 99 Kazalinsk,Russia 103 -21 124 Many desert plants are adapted to use dew for moisture and can take in water through leaves

and stem.

1) Adaptation of Xerophytic Plants: Have extensive root systems oriented either horizontally or vertically.

Above ground plants have compact growth with leaves hugging the ground.

Leaves have thick cuticles.

Leaves are small or absent or have hairs that raise wind off surface. 2) Growth Forms of Desert Plants:

Leafless Evergreen Shrub - e.g. Cactus, which is found in the Americas or Euphorbia

found in Africa. Have shallow, poorly developed root systems but can store a lot of water.

Leaves are absent but trunk is green and can photosynthesize. Deciduous Shrubs - major component of desert vegetation. They leaf out only when

sufficient water is present. Can leaf out more than once a year. Growth is very fast in wet

periods.

Ephemerals - only present when enough water falls to ensure a complete growth cycle.

e.g. grasses annuals - have fragrent, colorful flowers to ensure pollenation. Seeds know

when to sprout because outer covering is abraded or chemical is washed off.



Mid-Latitude Climates ("C"- Cs/Cf/Cm)

These climates (C) are located in the belt of the prevailing westerlies. They are characterized by

seasonality in temperature. Have mild winters. Different "C" climates based on seasonality of

precipitation (f,w,s), and severity of winter (a,b,c). Precipitation regimes depend upon their

position relative to the subtropical high pressure belt and the polar front.

a) Dry Subtropical Climate (Csa) or Mediterranean:

The Mediterranean basin contains the largest area of this climate. This climate is found on the

west coasts of middle latitude continents in for example, California, Central Chili, South Africa,

Western/Central Australia.

Sclerophyll Forest: Largest area of development in Mediterranean Basin. Associated with Cfa

climate. The vegetation of this forest is dominated by an evergreen, leathery, drought-resistant

foliage. Heights range from 18 inches to 10 feet. The woody vegetation varies depending upon the length of the dry season.

In the wettest areas of this climate tree species include cork, pine, oak and olive. These trees

provide an open canopy. In drier areas trees tend to disappear and shrubs form a dense covering

over the ground. In the drier areas the shrub cover is discontinuous and lower, reflecting the lack

of water.

b) Subtropical (Cfa) Climate

Found on the Southeastern side of continents primarily between 30-40. In the U.S. and China, polar air masses

bring cold "spells" in winter.

Mid-Latitude Deciduous Forest: This forest community is generally associated with the Cfa and

Dfa climates, i.e. continental climates with mild winters. This forest is found in eastern

U.S./southern Canada, NW Europe, southern tip South America, East Asia.

Approximately 5000 different species of plants here compared with 50,000 in Tropical Rainforest..

There are 2-3 layers of vegetation present:

canopy layer (100')

understory of bushes not well developed,

thick ground cover in early spring when trees have not leafed out yet.

Leaves of Decidous brust(Cfa & Dfa)

The Mid-latitude Deciduous Forest has great extent both latitudinally and longitudinally. This

forest is not homogeneous but has dominent species in different areas because of the wide range

of temperature and precipitation that is experienced in this forest. The center of the Eastern

Deciduous Forest is located in the Smokies and Cumberland mountains. There are as many as

25 different dominant species in the Eastern Deciduous Forest, all dominent in different areas.

c) Marine West Coast (Cfb) Climate

This climate lies poleward of the dry subtropical climates on the western sides of continents and

can extend quite a distance. The prevailing westerlies constantly bring in moisture from the

oceans and if a warm ocean current is present off-shore the climate is even more moist and mild.

The degree to which this climate extends inland depends on the presence or absence of



mountain barriers. Locations:

The west coast of U.S. from N. California to the panhandle of Alaska.

Southern Chile (narrow band because of mountains).

NW Europe - extends far inland because of lack of North-South trending mountains. This climate (Cfb) is very mild because of the modifying effects of the ocean. This climate does

not have large seasonal extremes of temperature, summers are cool and winters are mild.

Average summer temps are 60-65F. Average winter temps are 30-45F. Freezing temperatures

are more frequent and more severe then in the Humid Subtropics but the growing season is still

quite long (6-8 months) considering the latitude.

Rainfall is adequate throughout the year, the water budget always shows a surplus. Places such

as Europe get 25-30 inches per year. Evaporation rates are low so rainfall is very effective. In

areas with mountain barriers precipitation can be high (40-100"/year) on the windward side.

Moist, Severe Winter (D) Cimates These climates are found poleward of the "C" climates. The "D" climates have longer, colder

winters and greater annual range of temperature as compared with "C" climates. The boundary

between C/D climates is where the coldest month averages below 32F.

Boreal Forest (assoc. with Cfa, Cfb, Dfa, Dfb) / Tiaga: the Boreal Forest occurs under a number

of climatic regimes. The Boreal Forest is associated with climates having cool summers and cold

winters. The trees are evergreen and are conifers. They have special adaptations to the severe

climate. The air is dry here so plants need adaptations for temperature and precipitation

fluctuations. Small leaves have thick cuticles. Trees are conical shaped to allow snow to fall off

branches. The canopy is closed and is low to the ground. There is little ground cover. There are

few species of trees in the Tiaga but you find extensive pure stands. Representative species

include spruce, larch (tamarack), fir birch, pine.

Humid continental (Dfa): land of tall parire grasses

Humid continental(Dfb): More firs, pines and root plant(potatoes), apples, cherries etc.

with shorter growing seasons

Subarctic(Dwd, dfd, dwc, dfw):No agriculture, with open land area normally “taiga

forest”

Tagia forest

Polar (E) Climates a) Tundra (ET) Climate This climate lacks a summer. Its southern boundary is the northern limit of the forest. This

boundary occurs approximately with the July 50F isotherm which means the warmest month, in

the Tundra, averages 50F. The dividing line between the ET and EF climate is 32F for warmest

month. The ET climate has long, cold winters and short summers similar to Alabama in January.

Only 2-4 months have average temperatures above freezing.

Tundra Vegetation:The transition from Boreal Forest to treeless Tundra is very gradual with tree

species thinning out and becoming dwarfed. Although the tundra receives little precipitation

(some call it a frozen desert) it remains as snow and insulates the ground in winter. The tundra is



underlain by permafrost which produces poor drainage in summer.

A Flow Chart:

High lands(H): It is not necessary to visit polar regions to experience. Because tepmperature de reases with

latitude. Climatic change experincewithin 300m in elevatin is equal to horizontal distance of 300km northward for

these changes. Therefore, climbing a mountain makes able to experience different climatic zones within shorter

period of time.

Climate and Vegetation

Tropical (A)

Af

Am

Aw

Desert (B)

Bsh

Bwh

Warm and moist (C)

Cfa

Cba

Csa

Cool and moist (D)

Polar(E)



Koppen Climate Classification Chart in a Short Summary:

A Tropical humid Af Tropical wet No dry season

Am Tropical

monsoonal Short dry season; heavy monsoonal rains in other months

Aw Tropical

savanna Winter dry season

B Dry BWh Subtropical

desert Low-latitude desert

BSh Subtropical

steppe Low-latitude dry

BWk Mid-latitude

desert Mid-latitude desert

BSk Mid-

latitude steppe Mid-latitude dry

C Mild Mid-Latitude Csa Mediterranean Mild with dry, hot summer

Csb Mediterranean Mild with dry, warm summer

Cfa Humid

subtropical Mild with no dry season, hot summer

Cwa Humid

Mild with dry winter, hot summer



subtropical

Cfb Marine west

coast Mild with no dry season, warm summer

Cfc Marine west

coast Mild with no dry season, cool summer

D Severe Mid-Latitude Dfa Humid

continental Humid with severe winter, no dry season, hot summer

Dfb Humid

continental Humid with severe winter, no dry season, warm summer

Dwa Humid

continental Humid with severe, dry winter, hot summer

Dwb Humid

continental Humid with severe, dry winter, warm summer

Dfc Subarctic Severe winter, no dry season, cool summer

Dfd Subarctic Severe, very cold winter, no dry season, cool summer

Dwc Subarctic Severe, dry winter, cool summer

Dwd Subarctic Severe, very cold and dry winter, cool summer

E Polar ET Tundra Polar tundra, no true summer



EF Ice Cap Perennial ice

H Highland



1. www.about.com (28-10-11)

2. www.blueplanetbiomes.com (11-11-11)

3. Climatology by Robert V. Rohli and Anthony J. Vega

4. www.elmhurst.edu (28-10-11)

5. www.foa.org (11-11-11)

6. www.gpcc.dwd.de (28-10-11)

7. www.meterologyclimate.com (28-10-11)

8. Meterology Today by C. Donald Ahrens. 9th Edtion.

9. www.mjksciteachhinngs.ideas.com (28-10-11)

10. www.nationalgeographic.com (28-10-11)

11. www.srh.noaa.gov. (11-11-11)

http://www.about.com/

http://www.blueplanetbiomes.com/

http://www.elmhurst.edu/

http://www.foa.org/

http://www.gpcc.dwd.de/

http://www.meterologyclimate.com/

http://www.mjksciteachhinngs.ideas.com/

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/

http://www.srh.noaa.gov/

Koppen classification 2011

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