GreekGreekSculptureSculpturec. 750 – 80 BCEc. 750 – 80 BCE

Chapter Overview

Name of Period of Greek Art Approximate Date Significant Historical EventsGeometricOrientalizingArchaicSevere (Early Classical)Classical4th Century (Late Classical)Hellenistic

750 BCE650 BCE550 BCE (c. 600-500 BCE)480 BCE (c. 500-480 BCE)450 BCE (c. 480-404 BCE)350 BCE (c. 404-323 BCE)250 BCE (c. 323-80 BCE)

Greeks win Second Persian War 480 BCEPeloponnesian Wars end 404 BCEDeath of Alexander the Great 323 BCERomans make Greece a colony c. 80 BCE

Because of the large size of this chapter, we will approach it in three parts:Sculpture, Architecture, and Pottery

Geographical Context• Climate of Greece is warm with a moderate amount of rainfall.• Terrain is hilly and rocky, with significant access to sea. Grapes and olives grow well, but not grains such as wheat (Egypt becomes “breadbasket of Greece”).• Skilled artisans produced metal and ceramic wares to trade abroad for grain and raw materials.

Religious Context• The Greeks believed in a pantheon of gods.• The Olympian gods (so-called because they were believed to live atop Mt. Olympus) were not the first gods. They were believed to have descended from, and eventually overthrew, another group of gods known as the Titans.• The Olympian gods were believed to be immortal and imbued with supernatural powers.• Although physically idealized, the gods were believed to be subject to weaknesses and emotions, just like humans.• The Greeks built sanctuaries dedicated to specific gods.

Historical Context• Between 900-800 BCE, after Mycenae had fallen from power, autonomous Greek city-states began to develop.• Each city-state was comprised of a region with a major city (Athens, Corinth, Sparta, etc.) as its political, economic, religious, and cultural center.• Each had its own form of government and economy.• Power/wealth of city-state depended on manufacturing, commercial skills, and military might.• By the 500s Athens had developed a representative government, in which all citizens had the right to vote and own property (however, only free Athenian men could be citizens… about 20% of the population in 309 BCE).• Greater emphasis on the individual and independence.

Geometric Period• 900-700 BCE• Characterized by decoration of ceramic vessels with linear motifs, such as spirals, diamonds, and cross-hatching.• Even the figures are stylized as simple shapes• Kraters were large ceramic vessels designed to be grave-markers for those who had been cremated. • This krater shows a funerary ritual of a man on a funeral bier about to be cremated, with onlookers raising their arms to their heads in grief• The Man and Centaur sculpture uses the same simplified geometric forms as the figures on the krater. It depicts a man and centaur fighting.• Most figurines like the one on the right were found in sanctuaries, and thus may have been votive offerings.

Funerary KraterFrom Dipylon Cemetery, Athensc. 750 BCECeramic, 42” tall

Man and CentaurPerhaps from Olympiac. 750 BCEBronze, 4 5/16”

Orientalizing Period• Around 650 BCE, artists began moving away from the linear designs in favor of more open compositions around large motifs that included real and imaginary animals, abstract plant forms, and human figures.• The source of these motifs can be traced to the arts of the Near East, Asia Minor, and Egypt, but instead of simply copying the motifs, the Greeks modified them and invented an entirely new style.• The repeated flower motifs are called rosettes.• The Mantiklos Apollo is a votive offering from an otherwise unknown man named Mantiklos to the god Apollo.• The inscription on his leg reads: “Mantiklos dedicated me as a tithe to the far-shooting Lord of the Silver Bow; you, Phoibos [Apollo], might give some pleasing favor in return.”• It is unclear if the figure is Mantiklos or Apollo (or neither)

Mantiklos ApolloFrom Thebes, Greecec. 650 BCEBronze, 8” high

Olpe (Pitcher)Corinth, Greecec. 650 BCECeramic, 13” tall

Kore and Kouros• This is an example of a kore (Greek for “young woman”). • Male version of the same thing is a kouros (“young man”).• Made of brightly painted (except for the skin)wood, terra cotta, limestone, or marble.• Sometimes bore inscriptions identifying them as having been commissioned by individual men or women for a commemorative purpose.• Korai and kouroi (plural) were often found marking graves (replacing the kraters of the geometric period) and lining the entry ways of sanctuaries.• Korai (always clothed) represented deities, priestesses, or nymphs.• Kouroi (almost always nude) represented deities, warriors, and victorious athletes. Young athletic males were associated with familial continuity, so kouroi may also represent anscestors.

“Lady of Auxerre” korec. 650 BCE. Limestone. 29.5”Probably from Crete

Orientalizing Period• Greeks established a trading colony in Naukratis, Egypt, bringing Greeks into contact with the monumental stone architecture of Egypt.• Example of Daedalic style, after mythical Greek artist Daedalus.• Uncertain if mortal or deity. • Gesture probably one of prayer.• Originally painted with encaustic (pigment mixed with wax)

“Lady of Auxerre” korec. 650 BCE. Limestone. 29.5”Probably from Crete

Archaic Period• “Archaic” means old-fashioned or antiquated. This period is called Archaic because it seems antiquated in comparison to the later Classical period, but really the Archaic period was full of great new achievement for Greece. • Pose heavily influenced by Egypt• Unlike statue of Menkaure, this sculpture is free-standing.• Large eyes and head, hair knotted into tufts. Anatomy less life-like, shown with a few linear ridges.• Example of Daedalic style.• This kouros was a grave-marker.

New York (Metropolitan) KourosFrom Attica, c. 550 BCEMarble, 6” high

Menkaure and QueenFrom Egypt, c. 2500 BCE

Archaic Period• Found in fragments on the Acropolis (Athens)• Dedicated by a man named Rhonbos to Athena in thankfulness for his prosperity.• Depicts Rhonbos giving a sacrifice of a calf to Athena.• Dressed with a robe but no other clothes, which is not how people would have dressed. This enables the “noble perfection” associated with male nudes, while at the same time showing the man in clothing, as any respectable citizen would be in this context.• Beard denotes older age.• Calf’s legs and man’s arms create a bold X on chest, physically and formally uniting the man and calf.• Expression known as an Archaic smile, which probably used to indicate that subject was alive.

The Calf-Bearer (Moschophoros)Acropolis, Athens. Marble. Restored height 5’ 5”

Archaic Period• This kore is named after the peplos (a rectangular cloth draped over the shoulders and belted for a bloused effect) she was originally thought to be wearing.• Missing forearm was carved separately and fitted into the socket that is visible.• Dress (recently determined not to be a peplos) originally was painted animals, identifying her not as a young girl but a goddess (perhaps Athena or Artemis).• This statue, as well as many others (including the Calf-Bearer) were knocked over during the Persian sack of the Acropolis in 480 BCE, after which the Athenians buried the damaged statuary, helping to preserve traces of the paint.• Softer, more natural looking flesh than Lady of Auxerre.

Peplos KoreMarble. 4’Acropolis, Athens

Replica of what the Peplos Kore would look like with original coloring.

Archaic Period• Which of these two statues is the original Anavysos kouros, and which is a forgery? What makes you think so?

Archaic Period• The statue on the LEFT is the original Anavysos Kouros. • The Anavysos Kouros was a grave-marker for a young man named Kroisos who died a hero’s death in battle.• Inscription reads, “stay and mourn at the tomb of dead Kroisos, whom raging Ares destroyed one day as he fought in the foremost ranks.”• Although the posing is the same as the New York Kouros, the shaping is much more realistically proportioned and rounded.• This is not meant to be a specific portrait, but rather a symbolic type.

Anavysos KourosCemetery at Anavysos, near Athens. 6’ 4”Marble

Transition to Severe• The Temple of Aphaia (dedicated to a local nymph named Aphaia) was decorated with two pediments (the triangular area below the roof on either end of the building) full of figural sculptures.• Both pediments were completed at the same time, and depict soldiers from the Trojan war (Athena in the center on both), but the east side was damaged and replaced a decade or two later.• On both sides, the artists were able to keep the scale of the humans (Athena is larger, as she is a deity) consistent by changing their poses to accommodate the decreasing height of the pediment.

Pediments from Temple of AphaiaAegina, Greece, c. 480.Marble.

pediment

Transition to Severe• Comparing the east and west pediments (done by different artists) demonstrates the transition that was happening to the new Severe style.• The dying soldier from the west pediment is done in the Archaic style: frontal torso, direct gaze at viewer, archaic smile (despite being shot by an arrow), no sense of emotion• The dying soldier from the east pediment, by contrast, is posed in a more complex and natural way, twisting his torso and leaning on his shield to rise. He looks downward, concerned with his plight instead of the viewer.• In the 10-20 years separating these two statues, a stylistic revolution had occurred.

Pediment Sculptures from Temple of AphaiaAegina, Greece, c. 480.Marble.

West

East

Early Classical (a.k.a. Severe)• Art historians date the beginning of the Early Classical period from the date of the defeat of the Persian invaders (lead by Xerxes) of Greece by the allied Hellenic city-states.• The war had been brutal, and the Greeks considered the invaders barbarians due to the atrocities committed during the war.• The Greeks’ narrow victory nurtured a sense of Hellenic identity so strong that from then on the history of European and Asian civilizations would be distinct.• Greeks began to value the triumph of reason and law over barbarous crimes, blood feuds, and mad vengeance.• Lead to emphasis on humanism, rationalism, and idealism

Kritios BoyFrom Acropolis, AthensMarble. 3’ 10”c. 480 BCE

Kritios Boy• No more Archaic smile, replaced with serious expression• Softer, more lifelike musculature• Instead of stiff, frontal pose of kouros, artist has used contrapposto – the convention of presenting standing figures with opposing alterations of tension and relaxation around a central axis.• Notice how he appears to be putting his weight on his left leg, letting his right leg relax. This causes his left hip to be slightly higher than his right hip. Also, his head is slightly turned.• Originally (incorrectly) attributed to the artist Kritios

Kritios BoyFrom Acropolis, AthensMarble. 3’ 10”c. 480 BCE

Hollow-Cast Bronze• During this time period, the Greeks developed a technique known as hollow-casting. • The sculpture would originally make a statue of clay, which was then converted into a mold to pour molten bronze into.• The result was a hollow bronze statue, which could be made in parts and assembled after the pieces had been removed from the molds.• The advantage of bronze statues is that they were less prone to breakage, especially on extended appendages such as arms. This enabled artists to attempt much more complex, “action” poses• Unfortunately, because bronze is easily melted down and recycled, many bronze statues have been lost. For some sculptures, all we have are marble copies of bronze originals.

Bronze CharioteerHollow-cast bronzeSactuary of Apollo, Delphi5’11” high

The Bronze Charioteer• This Charioteer survived because it was buried in an earthquake.• The inscription indicates that this statue was made to commemorate the winner of a chariot race during the Pythian Games (similar to the Olympic Games).• According to Roman historian Pliny the Elder, three time winners in Greek competitions had their features memorialized in stone (or in this case, bronze).• The image depicts the charioteer not during the race, but after, calmly holding the reins of his horses while standing in the winners circle.• The folds of his garment emphasize both the verticality and calm of the figure, and also recall the flutes of a Greek column.• Eyes are onyx, lips and eyelashes are copper, and silver is inlaid in his headdress.

Bronze CharioteerHollow-cast bronzeSanctuary of Apollo, Delphi5’11” high

Classical Philosophy• Humanism - philosophies that emphasize the value of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally place more importance on rational thought than on strict faith or adherence to principle.

• Rationalism - Reason & logic = main source of knowledge. Greeks believed that reason and logic were behind natural processes, and dedicated themselves to closely observing and learning about their world.

• Idealism – 1. The cherishing or pursuit of high or noble principles, purposes, goals, etc. 2. A treatment of subject matter in a work of art in which a mental conception of beauty or form is stressed.This painting is called School of Athens, by

Raphael. Its from the Renaissance, so don’t worry about it… yet.

Classical Philosophy• The three following statements were inscribed on the Temple of Apollo: • “Man is the measure of all things” = seek an ideal based on the human form. • “Know thyself” = seek inner significance • “Nothing in excess” = reproduce only essential forms• Apollo himself represents the balance that Greeks valued between body and mind. He was an athlete, healer, and musician.• Greeks believed that reason and logic were behind natural processes, and dedicated themselves to closely observing and learning about their world. (Rationalism)• AFTER close observation, Greeks reduced images to their purest form, attempting to capture their fundamental essence. (Idealism)

The Riace Warriors• Riace Warriors were discovered by a scuba diver 300 meters off the coast of Riace, Italy. They were probably on their way from Greece to Italy when they were, for some reason, thrown overboard (since no evidence of a shipwreck is nearby).• Striking balance between idealized anatomical forms and naturalistic detail• Mature face contrasts with youthful physique• Originally had a shield and spear, and may have been a part of a monument memorializing victory over the Persians• Eyes are bone and colored glass, teeth are silver• Underwent extensive restoration to correct damage of saltwater

Riace Bronze WarriorsFrom sea off of Riace, Italy6’6” high. Bronze.

Zeus (or Poseidon)• Found in a shipwreck off coast of Greece• Could have originally held a thunderbolt (Zeus), trident (Poseidon), or a javelin.• Observe the pose that the use of hollow-cast bronze allowed: arms extended, one heel off the ground. This would not have been attempted with marble.• What does this statue tell us about the values of the Greek culture at the time?

Zeus or PoseidonFound off coast of Cape Artemision, GreeceBronze, 6’ 10”.trident

Diskobolos• This is a marble of the bronze original by Myron• Romans frequently purchased copies of famous Greek statues for their own.• Because this is a marble copy, the craftsman who made this copy had to add a tree-trunk behind to support the heavy, fragile marble. The original bronze would not have the tree trunk.• He faces away from us, concerned with the task at hand• Figure is in “action pose,” his body twisted around like a tense spring, his arm at the apex of its pendulum-like swing, about to unleash his discus.• Formally, Myron utilized the crossing of two arches to create the sense of movement and dynamism.

Diskobolos (Discus Thrower)By MyronMarble copy of original bronze5’ 1”

Diskobolos

Diskobolos (Discus Thrower)By MyronMarble copy of original bronze5’ 1”

• This is a marble of the bronze original by Myron• Romans frequently purchased copies of famous Greek statues for their own.• Because this is a marble copy, the craftsman who made this copy had to add a tree-trunk behind to support the heavy, fragile marble. The original bronze would not have the tree trunk.• He faces away from us, concerned with the task at hand• Figure is in “action pose,” his body twisted around like a tense spring, his arm at the apex of its pendulum-like swing, about to unleash his discus.• Formally, Myron utilized the crossing of two arches to create the sense of movement and dynamism.

Classical• Greek philosopher/mathematician Pythagoras believed that the key to harmony and beauty were to be found in harmonic ratios and proportions. • The sculptor Polykleitos (of Argos) applied Pythagoras’ theories to a sculpture of the human form, the result of which is Doryphoros (he explained his ideas in a treatise called The Canon). • Exaggerated use of contrapposto• Polykleitos attempted to make the sculpture beautiful and perfect through the use of cross-balance. • Figure balances on his right leg and left arm (leaning on spear), with his right arm and left leg resting. • Head turns right, hips turn left.• Proportionately larger head• Straightness of right limbs balance bending of left limbs• Appears in motion though at rest

Doryphoros (Spear Bearer)By PolykleitosRoman copy from the palaestra (gymnasium), Pompeii, Italy, of the original bronze.6’11”

Parthenon• Atop the Acropolis (a hill in Athens) was the Parthenon, a temple dedicated Athena Parthenos (“Athena the Virgin”). • Although badly damaged in the Persian invasion in 480 BCE, it was rebuilt under Athenian leader Pericles under the supervision of head craftsman Phidias.• The rebuilding was paid for by an alliance of Greek city-states called the Delian League, who had given the funds to be used for the continuing war effort against Persia. The misuse of the funds by Pericles to rebuild the Acropolis angered the other cities.• We will get into more detail on the Acropolis during our architecture unit. For now, we will focus on the sculptures decorating the Parthenon, and other buildings of the Acropolis.

ParthenonAcropolis, Athens, Greece

Replica of Athena ParthenosOriginally stood inside the

Parthenon (lost in fire). Chryselephantine. 38’ tall.

Parthenon Pediment• East pediment = birth of Athena, West pediment = contest against Poseidon to become the patron god of Athens.• The Christians removed the center two sculptures (probably of Zeus and Athena) from the east pediment to add an apse.• The remaining sculptures are the gods and goddesses who gave witness to the birth.• Sculptor = Phidias• Fabric alternately reveals and conceals forms and unifies groups of sculptures.

Dione (consort of Zeus)

Helios (Sun) Selene

(moon)

Iris (messenger)

Aphrodite

HestiaHerakles or Dionysos

unknown

Parthenon Metopes• Metopes are square panels of relief imagery located underneath the pediment. The metopes on the Parthenon wrap all the way around the building.• Each metope is separated by three vertical ridges called a triglyph.• Each side of the building depicts a different battle theme: Trojan War, Amazonomachy, gigantomachy, and centauromachy (“machy” = battle), which were all allegories for the war against Persia.• The metopes on the Parthenon are done in very high relief, with some elements coming completely off of the background. Parthenon Metopes (south)

Acropolis, Athens, GreeceMarble, 4’ 8”

Parthenon Ionic Frieze• Most likely depicted the Panathenaic Festival procession that took place every four years in Athens• First time a human event was depicted on a Greek temple (shows Athenian self-importance)• The top stuck out farther than the bottom, to make it easier to see from below.

Marshals and Young WomenEast Ionic Frieze, Parthenon

Acropolis, Athens, GreeceMarble, 43”

HorsemenNorth Ionic Frieze, Parthenon Acropolis, Athens, GreeceMarble, 41 3/4”

Nike Adjusting her Sandal• Another building in the Acropolis complex is the Temple of Athena Nike (Athena as goddess of victory in war) • At one time, the temple had a parapet (low wall) surrounding it, with relief sculptures depicting Athena presiding over her winged attendants called Victories.• The parapet is now gone, but some of the reliefs, such as this one, remain.• The pose of Nike is balanced by her wings behind her.• The dress is rendered in a way that is overtly sensual, falling off of one shoulder and clinging to her form almost as if wet, revealing the shape of the body underneath.

“Nike Adjusting her Sandal”Temple of Athena NikeAcropolis, Athens, GreeceMarble, 42”

Grave Stele of Hegeso• Fifth century commemorative cemetery markers were stone stelai, often depicting domestic scenes or departures.• Hegeso is depicted selecting a necklace from a box held for her by her handmaid.• Note the differences in the clothing styles of the two women.• Both women’s faces are idealized, but they are given some identity through hair and clothing details.• Gaze is inwards

Grave Stele of HegesoDipylon cemetery, AthensMarble, 5’ 9”

4th Century (Late Classical)• Sparta defeated Athens in 404 BCE, but Athenians rebelled and regained autonomy a year later. Still, Athens lost its power over rest of Greece, returning Greece to a collection of divided city-states.• In 387, Plato established a school outside of Athens. Aristotle, his student, also did later, and one of his students was Alexander of Macedon (Alexander the Great).• Greek artists still observed Classical approach to composition and form, but no longer adhered strictly to its conventions.• Artists experimented with new subjects and styles.• Alexander the Great conquered the Persians (lead by Darius III), and created what is known as the Macedonian Empire (since Alexander was from Macedon).• The end of the Late Classical era is marked by the death of Alexander the Great.

Macedonian Empire (under Alexander the Great)

4th Century• First known nude female statue by a well-known Greek sculptor (female nudes had been considered low-character)• Eventual wide acceptance of female nudes may be related to gradual merger of Greeks’ concept of Aphrodite with Phoenician goddess Astarte (Babylonian Ishtar), who was almost always shown nude.• Aphrodite is here depicted preparing for a bath.• Legend was that Aphrodite herself heard how beautiful the sculpture was, and went to see it. Upon seeing it, she exclaimed, “Where did Praxiteles see me naked?”• •

Aphrodite of KnidosComposite of 2 similar Roman copies of original marble by Praxiteles.Marble, 6’ 8”

4th Century• • • • • • Hermes and Infant

Dionysus

4th Century• • • • • • Apollo Belvedere

4th Century• • • • • • Apoxyomenos (Scraper)

4th Century• • • • • • Farnese Herakles

Hellenistic• • • • • •

Dying Gaul

Hellenistic• • • • • •

Nike of Samothrace

Hellenistic• • • • • •

Barberini Faun

Hellenistic• • • • • •

Seated Boxer

Hellenistic• • • • • •

Old Market Woman

Hellenistic• • • • • •

Frieze from Altar of Zeus

Hellenistic• • • • • •

Laocoon and his Sons