Konelio Tone Doctor of Philosophy - QUT...

“TALKING PAST EACH OTHER”: THE IMPACT OF CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION ON

CONSTRUCTION PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN SAMOA

By

Konelio Tone

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

QUEENSLAND UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

2005

School of Urban Development Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering

ii

Mo

Olive, Iosua, Saulelia, Toesulu, Analina

Ma e manatua foi ma le alofa i lenei taumafaiga

ou matua o

Peseta Vaiotualemoso Tone Peteru ma Lina Konrad-Amituanai,

ma lou tuafafine o Taufao

ma lou uso o

Lama,

ua fai i lagi folauga.

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ABSTRACT AND KEY WORDS

Developing effective strategies for international construction projects requires knowledge

and expertise that is technically, socially, politically, economically and culturally based

(Fellows et al., 2002). These strategies all require effective communication to work.

Communication in the international environment is further complicated by the differences

in languages and cultures involved. The importance of effective communication cannot be

overemphasised because it is the ultimate means by which behaviour is modified, change

is effected, knowledge is acquired and shared, and goals are achieved (Howes and Tah,

2003). According to Loosemore and Al Muslmani (1999), communication problems will

emerge as one of the most significant contemporary challenges facing construction project

managers in an increasingly international construction market. However, Dieckmann

(1996) points out that communication is also regarded as one of the most neglected and

overlooked parts of international operations, and lack of communication has been cited as

one of the biggest reasons for the failure of change projects to meet their expectations

(Pardu, 1996). Cross-cultural communication is defined as “the process whereby

individuals from different cultural backgrounds attempt to share meanings and feelings

through the exchange of verbal and non-verbal messages” (Harris and Moran, 2000).

This sequential explanatory mixed methods study investigates the impact of cross-cultural

communication on construction project management systems in Samoa. The first phase

involved an opinion questionnaire survey with predominantly quantitative questions

addressing the impact of human and cultural influences on project management and cross-

cultural communication evaluation processes, as experienced by expatriates and local

managers, who have worked or are working in Samoa across a number of industries.

Qualitative interviews were used in the second phase to probe significant themes and

findings in the first phase by explaining and exploring aspects of the cross-cultural

communication process focusing on construction project managers and supervisors

working in Samoa.

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The quantitative results and qualitative findings generally confirmed the literature on cross-

cultural communication and related project management issues. The findings highlighted

contrasting views between the different nationalities involved in projects in Samoa.

Specific ‘new themes’ to a small island nation such as Samoa were identified. This research

developed a generic conceptual framework for cross-cultural communication evaluation in

an international project environment. An integrated cultural framework was also

formulated to identify central differences in culture. In conclusion, it is clearly evident from

this study that international project management requires an effective process regarding

communication evaluation. The findings indicate there is no single ‘best solution’ to

effectively manage the impact of cross-cultural communication on management systems.

Rather, it requires the application of appropriate strategies by the proactive practitioners

with the necessary cross-cultural skills that best suit the host environment in which the

projects are being carried out.

Keywords: Culture, Cross-cultural, Communication, Human Factors, Project Management,

Samoa.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page iAbstract and Key Words iiiTable of Contents vList of Appendices xList of Figures xiList of Tables xiiAcronyms and Abbreviations xviiGlossary of Samoan Terms xviiiDeclaration xxAcknowledgement xxi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 11.1 Background to the research 11.2 Research Problem, Questions, Aims, Objectives and Contributions 3

1.2.1 Research Questions 31.2.2 Research Aim 51.2.3 Research Objectives 61.2.4 Research Contributions 8

1.3 Justification for the research 81.4 Research Methodology 11

1.4.1 Purpose of the study 111.4.2 Research framework 11

1.5 Outline of thesis and centrality of research questions to structure of chapters 131.6 Delimitation of scope and key assumptions 141.7 Summary 16 CHAPTER 2 CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION 172.1 Introduction 172.2 Culture 18

2.2.1 Introduction 182.2.2 Defining and Exploring Culture 182.2.3 National and Organisational Cultures 262.2.4 Levels of Culture 282.2.5 Dimensions of Organisational Culture 312.2.6 Typologies of Organisational Cultures 312.2.7 Other Constructs of Culture, Sub-culture 332.2.8 Research on Cultural Dimensions 422.2.9 Dimensions Culture 432.2.10 Integrated Framework 46

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2.2.11 Determinants of Culture 47 2.2.12 Intercultural Variation 50 2.2.13 Other Research into Cultural Dimensions 51 2.2.14 Studies: Intercultural Variation and Cultural Mean 53 2.2.15 Summary 54

2.3 Diversity 55 2.3.1 Introduction 55 2.3.2 Cultural Diversity 55 2.3.3 Value Orientation 56

2.3.3.1 Universalism versus Particularism 56 2.3.3.2 Communitarianism versus Individualism 57 2.3.3.3 Neutral versus Affective 57 2.3.3.4 Diffuse versus Specific 58 2.3.3.5 Achievement versus Ascription 58

2.3.4 Theoretical Models of Cultural Differences 59 2.3.5 Group Orientation 60 2.3.6 Individual Orientation 60 2.3.7 Characteristics of “In-groups” 61 2.3.8 Cultural Distance 62 2.3.9 Ethical Distance 63 2.3.10 Cultural Relatedness 65 2.3.11 Cultural Tendencies 66 2.3.12 Diversity and Communication 67 2.3.13 Summary 68

2.4 Cross-cultural Communication 70 2.4.1 Introduction 70 2.4.2 Cultural Variables in the Communication Process 70 2.4.3 Emerging Realities 71 2.4.4 Cross-cultural Communication Styles 76 2.4.5 Cross-Cultural Communication Considerations 76 2.4.5.1 Culture Shock 77 2.4.5.2 Cultural Competency 78 2.4.5.3 Time 80 2.4.5.4 Stereotypes 82 2.4.5.5 Language and Signs 83 2.4.6 Conflict and Management 85 2.4.6.1 Sources of Conflict 87 2.4.6.2 Resolving Conflict 88 2.4.7 Communication Strategies 90

2.4.7.1 Uncertainty 91 2.4.7.2 Anxiety 92

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2.4.8 Intercultural Communication Competence 932.4.9 Summary 95

CHAPTER 3 HUMAN FACTORS 973.1 Introduction 973.2 Human Resources and Project Management 97

3.2.1 International Human Resource Management 983.2.2 HRM Models Applicable to International Construction Projects 101

3.2.2.1 The Situational Model of HRM – Harvard Model of HRM 1013.2.2.2 The Staff Performance Model of HRM – Fombrum Model 1023.2.2.3 The Socio-technical Model of HRM – Warwick Model of HRM 102

3.2.3 International Human Resource Management Functions 1033.2.4 Strategic International Human Resource Management 1053.2.5 Strategic Resources and Competencies 1063.2.6 Acculturation 1073.2.7 Ethical Issues 108

3.2.7.1 Individual/Group/Organisation Effects 1083.2.7.2 Managing Ethical Issues 109

3.2.8 Cross-cultural Training 1103.2.8.1 Expatriates as Agents of Learning 111

3.2.9 Hierarchical Relationships versus Entrepreneurial Orientation 1123.2.10 Diffusion and Integration of HRM Practices and Attitudes 1133.2.11 Summary 115

3.3 Global Managers 1163.3.1 Introduction 1163.3.2 Leadership and Globalisation 1163.3.3 Cultural Influences 118

3.3.3.1 Collectivism 1183.3.4 Human Influences 120

3.3.4.1 Adaptation 1213.3.5 Key Skills 1223.3.6 Summary 124

CHAPTER 4 Characteristics of the South Pacific Islands and Samoa 1264.1 Introduction 1264.2 Pacific Island Region – Polynesia 1264.3 Western Influence in the Pacific 1284.4 Development in the Pacific Islands – Aid and Constraints 1284.5 Cross-cultural Management in the Pacific 1324.6 Social and Cultural Characteristics of Samoa 1344.7 Managing Projects in Samoa 138

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4.8 Summary 139

CHAPTER 5 METHODOLOGY 141 5.1 Introduction 141 5.2 Justification for Pragmatic Knowledge Claims and Mixed Methods 142

5.2.1 Knowledge Claims 143 5.2.1.1 Postpositivism Knowledge Claims 143 5.2.1.2 Socially Constructed Knowledge Claims 143 5.2.1.3 Advocacy/Participatory Knowledge Claims 143 5.2.1.4 Pragmatic Knowledge Claims 144

5.2.2 Strategy of Inquiry or Research Methodology 145 5.2.2.1 Mixed Methods History 146 5.2.2.2 Mixed Methods Strategies 146

5.2.3 Research Methods 147 5.2.4 Summary of Research Approach 147

5.3 Research Plan 148 5.4 Research Design 149

5.4.1 Purpose of the Study 150 5.4.2 Research Questions and Issues 151 5.4.3 Conceptual Framework: Factors Influencing the Context of Communication 151 5.4.4 Essential Elements of the Study 152

5.4.4.1 Type of Investigation 153 5.4.4.2 Study Setting 153 5.4.4.3 Unit of Analysis 153 5.4.4.4 Time Horizon of Study 154 5.4.4.5 Information Required 154 5.4.4.6 Research Instruments 154 5.4.4.7 Selection of Participants 155 5.4.4.8 Extent of Researcher’s Influence 155 5.4.4.9 Research Process and Theory Placement 156 5.4.4.10 Pilot Study 156 5.4.4.11 Threats to Validity 157 5.4.4.12 Reliability and Validity 158 5.4.4.13 Options, Advantages and Limitations of Measuring Instrument 160

5.5 Adopted Research Methodology 160 5.5.1 Literature Review 161 5.5.2 Data Collection Methods 163

5.5.2.1 Phase 1: Questionnaire Data Collection 163 5.5.2.2 Phase 2: Interview Data Collection 167

5.5.3 Data Analysis 168 5.5.3.1 Phase 1: Quantitative Data Analysis 168

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5.5.3.2 Phase 2: Qualitative Data Analysis 1705.5.4 Integration, Interpretation and Discussion of Data for Phases 1 and 2 175

5.6 Ethical Considerations 1765.7 Summary 177

CHAPTER 6 PHASE ONE DATA ANALYSIS – QUESTIONNAIRE 1786.1 Introduction 1786.2 Profile of Respondents and Related Details 1786.3 Respondents Perceptions’ on Usefulness of Questionnaire 1826.4 Results and Test Statistics 182

6.4.1 Part a: Personal Beliefs 1836.4.2 Part b: What Happened In The Projects You Were Involved In? 1936.4.3 Part c: Impact of Communication Barriers 1986.4.4 Part d: The Extent Communication Barriers were Overcome 2026.4.5 Part e: Communication Strategies and Extent They Were Employed 2066.4.6 Parts f and g: Critical Incidences 210

6.5 Summary 213

CHAPTER 7 PHASE TWO DATA ANALYSIS – INTERVIEWS 2157.1 Introduction 2157.2 Profile of Interviewees and Related Details 2167.3 Findings and Research Questions Addressed 218

7.3.1 Core Result: Impact of Cross-cultural Communication on Construction Project Management Systems

219

7.3.2 Key Result 1: Factors Influencing the Context of Communication 2267.3.3 Key Result 2: Barriers to Effective Cross-cultural Communication 2367.3.4 Key Result 3: Strategies for Cross-cultural communication 2467.3.5 Key Result 4: Proactive Measures to Improve Communication 2547.3.6 Key Result 5: Influences of Experiences on Perspectives 264

7.4 Summary 270

CHAPTER 8 INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION PHASE 2728.1 Introduction 2728.2 Synthesising Phases 1 and 2 Data for Interpretation and Discussion 2728.3 Factors Influencing the Context of Cross-cultural Communication 2748.4 Barriers to Effective Cross-cultural Communication 2808.5 Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Communication 2868.6 The Impact of Cross-cultural Communication on Construction Project

Management Systems 293

8.7 Proactive Measures to Improve Cross-cultural Communication 2978.8 Influences of Experiences on Perspectives 301

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8.9 Summary 303

CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 305 9.1 Introduction 305 9.2 Conclusions About Research Questions 307 9.3 Conclusions About the Research Problem 318 9.4 Implications for Theory 321 9.5 Implications for Policy and Practice 326 9.6 Limitations 328 9.7 Implications for Further Research 329 9.8 Summary 331 Bibliography 333 List of Appendices 367

Appendix A: Questionnaire and Interview Schedule 368 A1: Questionnaire 368 A2: Interview Schedule 373

Appendix B Questionnaire data, procedures and other test results 375 B1: Statistical Tests Procedures 375 B2: Other supporting test results 378

Appendix C Interview Data and Findings Not Presented in Chapter 7 386 C1: Brief Descriptions of Categories and Sub-categories 386 C2: Findings Not Presented In Chapter 7 392

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List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Research Process Overview 12 Figure 2.1 Underlying Cultural Assumptions 20Figure 2.2 Levels of Culture 29Figure 2.3 The Cultural Dynamics Model 30Figure 2.4 Interacting Cultural Spheres of Influences 33Figure 2.5 Key Dimensions of Culture 42Figure 2.6 Modes of Communication 72Figure 2.7 A Contextual Model of Intercultural Communication 74Figure 2.8 Maximum/Minimum Thresholds 92 Figure 3.1 Integration of Human Resource Management (HRM) 100Figure 3.2 IHRM Management Outcome Stem 101Figure 3.3 The Situational Model of HRM – Harvard Model of HRM 102Figure 3.4 Staff Performance Model of HRM – Fombrum Model 102Figure 3.5 The Socio-technical Model of HRM – Warwick Model of HRM 103 Figure 4.1 Themes in Polynesian Socialisation 127Figure 4.2 Samoan Society Basic Social Structure and Field of Influence 136 Figure 5.1 Interrelated Levels of Decisions in the Process of Designing This

Research 150

Figure 5.2 Conceptual Framework with Factors Influencing the Context of Communication

152

Figure 5.3 Sequential Explanatory Procedures – Mixed Methods Strategy 160Figure 5.4 Linking Purpose of Literature Review 161Figure 5.5 Overview of Decision-process for Statistical Procedures of This

Study 170

Figure 5.6 Synthesising Phases 1 and 2 for Interpretation and Discussion 176 Figure 6.1 Sample Distributions by Years of Cross-cultural Experiences 180Figure 6.2 Sample Distributions by Types of Projects 181 Figure 9.1 Conceptual Framework: Cross-cultural Communication

Evaluation Process 318

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List of Tables Table 2.1 Common Characteristics of Culture 19Table 2.2 Recognising the Differences – Organisational Culture 31Table 2.3 Professional Culture Features 39Table 2.4 Effect of different types of cultures on project management at

various levels 41

Table 2.5 Consequences Derived from Power Distance 43Table 2.6 Consequences Derived from Uncertainty Avoidance 44Table 2.7 Consequences Derived from Individualistic-Collectivistic

Cultures 44

Table 2.8 Consequences Derived from Masculine-Feminine Cultures 45Table 2.9 Integrated Framework of Cultural Dimensions 47Table 2.10 Recognising the Differences (Universalism-Particularism) 57Table 2.11 Recognising the Differences (Individualism-Communitarianism) 57Table 2.12 Recognising the Differences (Neutral-Affective) 57Table 2.13 Recognising the Differences (Specific-Diffuse) 58Table 2.14 Recognising the Differences (Achievement-Ascription) 58Table 2.15 Cultural Variables in the Communication Process 71Table 2.16 Types of Cross-cultural Communication 76Table 2.17 How Intercultural Communication is Defined by Recent Scholars 79Table 2.18 Business Cultures and World Regions 81Table 2.19 Deal/Relationship-focused Cultures 89 Table 3.1 Different Dimensions of Planning Processes 120 Table 5.1 Alternative Strategies of Inquiry 145Table 5.2 Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods Procedures 147Table 5.3 Summary of Research Approach for This Study 148Table 5.4 Advantages, Disadvantages and Limitations of Measuring

Instruments 160

Table 5.5 Integrated Framework of Cultural Dimensions and Orientations 162Table 5.6 Quantity, Frequency and Length of Utterances by Interviewees 173Table 5.7 Schema for Code Note Headings 175 Table 6.1 Sample Distributions by Professions 179Table 6.2 Sample Distributions by Types of Experiences 179Table 6.3 Sample Distributions by Nationality 180Table 6.4 Sample Distributions by Nationality/Types of projects/Types of

experiences 181

Table 6.5 Personal Beliefs: Variable Codes and Descriptions 184Table 6.6 Personal Beliefs: Kruskal-Wallis Test Statistics and Descriptive Statistics 185

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Table 6.7 Personal Beliefs: Kruskal-Wallis Test and Mean Ranks 186Table 6.8 Personal Beliefs: Significant Different Results – Kruskal-Wallis Test 187Table 6.9 Personal Beliefs: Mann-Whitney Test – Variables with

Significant Values for Gr1 and Gr2 Pairwise Comparison 188

Table 6.10 Personal Beliefs: Mann-Whitney Test – Variables with Significant Values for Gr1 and Gr3 Pairwise Comparison

189

Table 6.11 Personal Beliefs: Mann-Whitney Test – Variables with Significant Values for Gr2 and Gr3 Pairwise Comparison

190

Table 6.12 Personal Beliefs: Descriptive and Test Statistics for Variable A1 Comm. Vital

190

Table 6.13 Personal Beliefs: Variances by Mean Rank for Variable A1 191Table 6.14 Personal Beliefs: Variances by Ranks for Pairwise Comparisons

on Variable A1 191

Table 6.15 Personal Beliefs: Interpretive Summary of Test Results 193Table 6.16 What Happened in Your Project: Variable Codes and

Descriptions 194

Table 6.17 What Happened in Your Project: Kruskal-Wallis Test and Descriptive Statistics

195

Table 6.18 What Happened in Your Project: Kruskal-Wallis Test and Mean Ranks

196

Table 6.19 What Happened in Your Project: Interpretive Summary of Test Results

197

Table 6.20 Impact of Communication Barriers: Kruskal-Wallis Test and Descriptive Statistics

198

Table 6.21 Impact of Communication Barriers: Kruskal-Wallis Test – Variables with Significant Results

199

Table 6.22 Impact of Communication Barriers: Mann-Whitney Test – Significant Values for Gr1 and Gr2 Pairwise Comparison

200

Table 6.23 Impact of Communication Barriers: Mann-Whitney Test – Significant Values for Gr1 and Gr3 Pairwise Comparison

200

Table 6.24 Impact of Communication Barriers: Interpretive Summary of Test Results

202

Table 6.25 Extent Communication Barriers Overcome: Kruskal-Wallis Test – Significant Result

203

Table 6.26 Extent Communication Barriers Overcome: Kruskal-Wallis Test and Descriptive Results

203

Table 6.27 Extent Communication Barriers Overcome: Mann-Whitney Test – Significant Results for Gr1 and Gr2 Pairwise Comparison

204

Table 6.28 Extent Communication Barriers Overcome: Significant Results – Gr1 and Gr3 Pairwise Comparison

204

Table 6.29 Extent Communication Barriers Overcome: Interpretive Summary of Test Results

205

Table 6.30 Communication Strategies Employed: Variable Codes and Descriptions, Descriptive and Test Statistics

207

Table 6.31 Communication Strategies Employed: Kruskal-Wallis Test – Significant Results

207

Table 6.32 Communication Strategies Employed: Mann-Whitney Test – Significant Results for Gr1 and Gr2 Pairwise Comparison

208

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Table 6.33 Communication Strategies Employed: Mann-Whitney Test – Significant Result for Gr1 and Gr3 Pairwise Comparison

208

Table 6.34 Communication Strategies Employed: Mann-Whitney Test – Significant Results for Gr2 and Gr3 Pairwise Comparison

209

Table 6.35 Communication Strategies Employed: Interpretive Summary of Results

209

Table 6.36 Critical Incidences – Other Communication Issues 211Table 6.37 Critical Incidences – Missed Important Issues 212 Table 7.1 Sample Distribution by Profession 216Table 7.2 Sample Distribution by Nationality 217Table 7.3 Sample Distribution by Years of Cross-cultural Experiences 217Table 7.4 Sample distributions by Nationality/Years of cross-cultural

experiences/Profession/Types of experiences 218

Table 7.5a Core Result: Impact of Communication on Management Systems – Summary of Content Analysis

219

Table 7.5b Core Result: Impact of Communication on Management Systems – Distributions as per Nationality Group

220

Table 7.6 Top Four Ranked Interviewees for the Impact of Communication on Planning

221

Table 7.7 Top Four Ranked Interviewees for the Impact of Communication on Controlling

222

Table 7.8 Top Four Ranked Interviewees for the Impact of Communication on Quality

223

Table 7.9 Top Four Ranked Interviewees for the Impact of Communication on Reporting

224

Table 7.10 Top Four Ranked Interviewees for the Impact of Communication on Risk

226

Table 7.11a Key Result 1: Factors Influencing Communication – Summary of Content Analysis

227

Table 7.11b Key Result 1: Factors Influencing Communication – Distributions as per Nationality Group

227

Table 7.12 Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Practitioners Values, Attitudes 229Table 7.13 Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Political Influences 229Table 7.14 Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Cultural Influences 230Table 7.15 Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Local Industry and Business

Practices 231

Table 7.16 Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Practitioners Hard and Soft Skills Influences

232

Table 7.17 Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Nature and Type of Project Influences

233

Table 7.18 Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Economical Influences 234Table 7.19 Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Operational and Strategic

Focus of Host/Home/Donor/Management Organisations 235

Table 7.20a Key Result 2: Barriers to Effective Communication – Summary of Content Analysis

236

Table 7.20b Key Result 2: Barriers to Effective Communication – Distributions as per Nationality Group

237

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Table 7.21 Barriers to Effective Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Poor Work Ethics, Culture and Practices

238

Table 7.22 Barriers to Effective Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Political, Personal Agendas and Varying Priorities

239

Table 7.23 Barriers to Effective Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Cultural Beliefs and Practices

240

Table 7.24 Barriers to Effective Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Concept of Time

241

Table 7.25 Barriers to Effective Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Standards, Quality, Health and Safety Issues

242

Table 7.26 Barriers to Effective Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Top-down Bureaucracy

243

Table 7.27 Barriers to Effective Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Lack of Technical Competence

244

Table 7.28 Barriers to Effective Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Lack of Resources

245

Table 7.29a Key Result 3: Strategies – Summary of Content Analysis 246Table 7.29b Key Result 3: Strategies – Distributions as per Nationality Group 247Table 7.30 Strategies: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Local Liaison 248Table 7.31 Strategies: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Meetings and

Discussion Forums 249

Table 7.32 Strategies: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Situational Approach

250

Table 7.33 Strategies: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Selection, Recruiting and Training

251

Table 7.34 Strategies: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Evaluative, Informative and Problem-solving Approach

251

Table 7.35 Strategies: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Reinforce Procedures and Follow-ups

252

Table 7.36 Strategies: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Respect and Equality

253

Table 7.37 Strategies: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Constant Supervision

254

Table 7.38a Key Result 4: Proactive Measures to Improve Communication – Summary of Content Analysis

255

Table 7.38b Key Result 4: Proactive Measures to Improve Communication – Distributions as per Nationality Group

256

Table 7.39 Proactive Measures to Improve Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Skills Upgrading, Training and Capacity Building

257

Table 7.40 Proactive Measures to Improve Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Culturally Sensitive and Localised Approach

258

Table 7.41 Proactive Measures to Improve Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Promote Ownership of Projects

259

Table 7.42 Proactive Measures to Improve Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Inter-Industry collaboration and Integration

260

Table 7.43 Proactive Measures to Improve Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Educational and Awareness Programs

261

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Table 7.44 Proactive Measures to Improve Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Cultural Training and Initiation

262

Table 7.45 Proactive Measures to Improve Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Be Open-Minded, Tolerant and Understanding

263

Table 7.46 Proactive Measures to Improve Communication: Top Four Ranked Interviewees for Change In Work Culture and Ethics

264

Table 7.47 Key Result 5: Influences of Experiences on Perspectives – Summary of Content Analysis

264

Table 8.1 Factors Influencing the Context of Cross-cultural Communication: Critical Incidences

277

Table 8.2 Barriers to Effective Cross-cultural Communication: Critical Incidences

282

Table 8.3 Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Communication: Critical Incidences

287

Table 8.4 Impact of Cross-cultural Communication on Management Systems: Critical Incidences

294

Table 8.5 Proactive Strategies: Critical Incidences 298

Table 9.1 Categories with ‘New’ Themes and Degree They are Explicitly Addressed by Literature

306

Table 9.2 Conclusions: Research Question 1 – Cultural Dimensions 308Table 9.3 Conclusions: Research Question 1 – Cultural Orientations 310

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Aus Australia

AusAid Australian Government Overseas Aid Program

Consult. Consultant

Constr. Construction Projects

Contr. Contractor

Dist/Sup. Energy Distribution and Supply Projects

Expats Expatriates

Govt. Government

H.R.M Human Resource Management

IHRM International Human Resource Management

Ind. Dev. Industry Development Projects

Inst. Str. Institutional Strengthening Projects

Jap Japan

JICA Japan International Co-operation Agency

NZ New Zealand

O. Ex. Other Expatriate

P.M.B.O.K. Project Management Body of Knowledge

PM Project Manager

Sam Samoa

SPC South Pacific Commission

SPREP South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

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GLOSSARY OF SAMOAN TERMS

Aiga Family

Aiga potopoto Extended family Ali’i Paramount chief – the titular leader and ultimate repository of

decision-making Alofa Love – encompasses principles of mutual support and empathy

Atunuu Country Ava Kava, traditional ceremonial or social drink made from the root of the

‘ava’ tree also known as kava kava or Piper methysticum Fa’aaloalo Aspect of fa’asamoa which involves respect for matai, people of

authority, old people, visitors, and female. Fa’afaletui Gathering or meeting to discuss issues and make decisions Fa’agogo Myths and stories Fa’alavelave Aspect of fa’asamoa that involves the fulfillment of obligations to

family, church and village Fa’amagalo Aspect of fa’asamoa that considers forgiving people for the mistakes

or the wrong that they have done. Fa’amatai Chiefly system where the Matai is the head of the family (extended).

Fa’asamoa Samoan way of life: values, practices, traditions, customs, etc.

Fa’aulufalega The traditional opening of a finished building (house, church, office) Feagaiga Covenant that defines the relationship between male and female

members of a family Fono Meeting or Village council

Gafa Lineage Inisinia Engineer, motor mechanic

To most Samoans, refers to someone who is a motor mechanic I’oimata Refers to women members of a family being the ‘apple’ of the men’s

eyes which entail protection, serving and respect Itumalo District

Lelei Good

Lufilufi Distribution of food, wealth, etc.

Matai A person who has a chiefly title bestowed upon

Mana Power that is endowed upon chiefs

Mealelei Good things which include food and wealth

Nuu Village

Papalagi White person

Pulega Governing body or council

Saofaiga Matai village council or district council

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Soalaupule Consultative decision-making process

Talatuu Legends and folklore

Tapu Demand fear and respect

Tautua To serve the matai and family

Taulasea A traditional healer or medicine person

Tufa To distribute food and wealth

Tufuga Builder or someone who performs the traditional art of tattooing Tulafale Orator – act as executive agent for the ali’i performing numerous

duties Tusiata Architect, draftsman or painter

To most Samoans, refers to someone who draws or paints pictures Umusaga Traditional handing over of a finished work Vafealoai Public relations and mutual understanding and is an aspect of

fa’asamoa that considers the wellbeing of others

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DECLARATION

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or

diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and

belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person

except where due reference is made.

Signed: _________________________________ Date: _________________________

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to express my sincerest appreciation and gratitude to Professor Martin Skitmore for

his wisdom, nurturance, humour, calmness and unwavering support that without, this thesis

may never have been completed on time (given the Pacific attitude toward timeliness) nor

would I have survived it. Professor Skitmore through his mentoring empowered me with a

strong sense of ‘self belief’ that this journey was indeed possible to complete.

My deepest appreciation also to Dr Max Quanchi for his invaluable help in developing

ideas, checking sources and for his immense and meticulous attention to detail and for

willingly sharing his expertise and in-depth knowledge of cultural and social development

in the Pacific.

I wish to also thank my fellow PhD student colleagues Rohana Mahbub, Rozana Zakaria,

Connie Susilawati, Lisa Guan, Frank Lin, Quomin Zhang, Basel Sultan, Gary Greedy and

Tim Rose who have helped to make this journey somewhat easier through their friendship,

constant encouragement, ‘sharing of ideas and food’ and constructive feedback. Special

thanks also to my first room mates on this journey Soon Kam Lim and Dedi Budiawan,

recent arrival Fan Zhang, and research colleague Fiona Cheung for their support and

friendship.

I would also like to make special mention of the following individuals and organisations

for their support, encouragement, guidance and their invaluable contribution to this

research project:

Professor Lau A. Soo External Associate Supervisor Denise Redfern Postgraduate Research Administrator Ian Foote Computing Services Officer Ray Duplock High Performance Computers and Research Support Paul Roach AusAid contact – Canberra Ed Peek Australian High Commission/AusAid contact – Samoa Toho Mitsuhiko JICA contact - NUS Magele M. Magele National University of Samoa Moananu T. Laurenson National University of Samoa Melei Peseta Luaiufi Tone PLT Consultant Tuautu Ross Peters Peters Construction

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Tom Tinai and Bill Gordon Tinai, Gordon and Associates and The School of Urban Development, BEE, QUT

My gratitude and thanks also to all those who generously gave up their time to participate

in this research.

Finally, I wish to acknowledge the support and encouragement received from my wife and

kids, my extended family, church family and friends throughout this course of study.

Faafetai mo le tapuaiga

“Ia i le Atua pea le viiga e faavavau, faavavau lava”

Introduction

“We live in a world of self-governing beliefs which remain largely untested. We adopt

those beliefs because they are based on conclusions, which are inferred from what we

observe, plus our past experience. Our ability to achieve the results we truly desire is

eroded by our feelings that: our beliefs are the truth; the truth is obvious; our beliefs are

based on real data; and the data we select are real data”.

(Ross, 1994)

1.1 Background to the research

The global construction industry is constantly changing in response to new or improved

systems of management, new technologies and methodologies, and the need to expand and

diversify activities to meet corporate aims and objectives (Bon and Crosswaite, 2000).

These changes have also been driven by the need to procure construction work in support of

sustained economic activity and growth (Howes and Tah, 2003). The construction industry

has also been affected greatly by the introduction and consolidation of sustainable principles

and practices (which aimed at encouraging the industry to use resources more efficiently,

limit the environmental impact of its activities, and produce buildings and infrastructure that

benefit everyone) through environmental, economic and social considerations (Mawhinney,

2001; Myers, 2004). The effects of these changes are compounded by the continuous

requirement to be innovative, to take on projects in order to stay competitive and to

maintain turnover and profitability (Howes and Tah, 2003). Thus, the need for project

managers to be able to manage in a dynamic and flexible manner to accommodate

environmental variables and other factors particular to a project to ensure successful project

outcomes has been stressed (Artto et al., 1998).

According to Howes and Tah (2003), the extent and nature of construction undertaken

throughout the world is highly dependent on wealth creation by businesses that operate

nationally and/or internationally. Researchers assert that the proportion of GDP associated

with construction is generally in the range of 8-12%, emanating a direct relationship

between the wealth of a nation and the proportion of construction activities. The relationship

between the elements that make up the process associated with international construction

(design consultancy, contracting, equipment supply, products and materials, and facilities

management) depends on the client requirements and the selected procurement method for

the delivery of the projects, culminating in the importance placed on the selection of

appropriate systems and organisation structures (Mawhinney, 2001). Procurement of large

projects overseas utilising resources from different countries requires a high degree of co-

ordination and effective communication (Langford and Rowland, 1995). Developing

effective strategies for international construction projects requires knowledge and expertise

that is socially, politically, economically and culturally based (Fellows, et al., 2002). These

strategies all require effective communication to work. Communication in the international

environment is further complicated by the differences in languages and cultures (Deresky,

2000). The importance of effective communication cannot be overemphasised because it is

the ultimate means by which behaviour is modified, change is effected, knowledge is

acquired and shared, and goals are achieved (Howes and Tah, 2003). However, apart from

Loosemore and Al Muslmanis’ (1999) study in the Persian Gulf, very little has been done to

date to document the impact of cross-cultural communication on the management of

construction projects.

This sequential explanatory mixed methods study investigates the impact of cross-cultural

communication on the management of construction projects in Samoa. Cross-cultural

communication as defined by Harris and Moran (2000:32) is a process whereby individuals

from different cultural backgrounds attempt to share meanings and feelings through the

exchange of verbal and nonverbal messages. In the first (questionnaire) phase of this study,

the two main culturally different groups identified are Australians and Samoans, with Other

Expatriates comprising practitioners from other nations making up the third group. In the

second (interview) phase, four main culturally different groups were identified: Australians,

Japanese, New Zealanders, and Samoans with Other Expatriates comprising practitioners

from other nations making up the fifth group. These groups are culturally different from

each other in important attributes such as their value orientations, preferred communication

codes, role expectations, and perceived rules of social relationship (Harris and Moran,

2000). The background information on Samoa is provided in chapter 4 with examples from

the Samoan context (culture, communication and the construction industry) interspersed

across chapters 2 and 3 to establish a relationship between the theoretical constructs and the

location and setting of this study.

1.2 Research problem, questions, aims, objectives and contributions

This investigation involved addressing three key issues framed around issues raised in

Edum-Fotwe and McCaffer’s (2000) study on developing project management

competencies with perspectives from the construction industry, but with its focus on

communication and the integration of international elements and cultural dimensions:

1. The particular factors within the categories of culture, human resource management,

leadership and communication skills as well as practical experience that form the

source of personal beliefs;

2. The perceived relative importance for each of the factors in contributing to

performance;

3. The aspects of communication skills and strategies which are employed or evident

within projects.

These three issues which are central to the focus of this investigation are addressed by the

research questions stated in the following sub-section 1.2.1.

1.2.1 Research Questions

This research examines the following six research questions in order to address the issues

raised in section 1.2:

1. What are the key aspects and issues underlying ‘culture’ for international project

management?

Essentially, it is argued that the characteristics of culture must be recognised as an issue for

consideration in the communication evaluation processes of international project

management to ensure culturally appropriate strategies and outcomes.

2. What are the key functions and considerations underpinning ‘human resource’ for

international project management?

Human resource management is a key element of international project management, and in

the communication context has significant implications for the impact of human factors on

international project management.

3. What are the key elements and qualities underlying ‘leadership’ for international

project management?

It is argued that the role of managers as global leaders and as agents of change in relation to

international project management, need to be assessed in the context of communication to

identify appropriate skills and effective strategies for international assignments.

4. What is the context of cross-cultural communication evaluation in international

project management?

The factors influencing the context of communication need to be understood clearly to

facilitate decision-making and the application of appropriate strategies that are suitable for

the environment in which it is practiced to ensure positive outcomes.

5. How does cross-cultural communication impact on international project

management systems?

The extent of impact cross-cultural communication on management systems depends on the

strategies employed, the hard and soft skills of practitioners, and how each stakeholder

feels, behaves and relates to a project.

6. In what ways can these cross-cultural communication and project management

issues be addressed?

It is concluded that there is not one ‘right’ way. The application of the most appropriate

strategies considers the environmental factors specific to a project, the necessary skills to

influence and adapt to the circumstance in which communication is practiced, the specific

objectives of the project and the needs and expectations of various stakeholders.

These research questions encapsulate the aims and objectives of this study as outlined in

sub-sections 1.2.2 and 1.2.3 below:

1.2.2 Research Aim

The aim of this research is to define and consider the key principles and issues of human

and cultural influences on international construction project management and cross-cultural

communication management processes, as addressed by the research questions in sub-

section 1.2.1. It is acknowledged that cross-cultural communication in international

construction projects is undertaken within a ‘foreign’ cultural context. This context is

discussed so that recommendations on the impact of human and cultural factors and cross-

cultural communication processes on construction management systems can be made.

It is proposed to evaluate the impact of human and cultural factors

on cross-cultural communication.

The central focus of this study is to investigate the impact of cross-cultural communication

on construction project management systems, which helped formulate an indicative

proposition, necessary for qualitative data collection from practitioners (Strauss and Corbin,

1990). The following indicative proposition was formed based on literature reviewed, the

conceptual framework, findings and issues that resulted from phase 1, which were further

reviewed after pilot interviews.

‘Cross-cultural communication impacts on project management systems

depending on the environment (social, cultural, political, economical,

technological, legal and physical characteristics); values, attitudes, beliefs,

expectations and aspirations of practitioners; hard and soft skills of

practitioners; client requirements; type and nature of project; operational and

strategic objectives of donor/host/management organisations; and the

prevailing industry and business regulations, standards and practices’

This indicative proposition conceptualised the focus of this study, projecting factors and

themes that underpin effective cross-cultural communication in a project environment.

These factors were isolated and advanced as potential categories that satisfy the research

aim and addressed the research questions which are both inner and outer directed:

• Factors affecting the context of cross-cultural communication in Samoa;

• The extent cross-cultural communication has impacted on construction project

management systems, both positively and negatively;

• Barriers to effective cross-cultural communication;

• Communication strategies employed and their effectiveness;

• Proactive measures to improve communication;

• Whether experience has altered or changed perspectives on communication and

international project management;

• Other cross-cultural communication and related issues that may impinge on

construction management systems.

The objectives to satisfy the aim of this research are presented in sub-section 1.2.3, with

referencing of the specific chapter(s) that examines each objective and research question(s)

addressed.

1.2.3 Research Objectives and research questions addressed

The four main objectives of this research are:

I. To identify and define issues of human and cultural factors in international

construction project management.

This objective addresses research questions 1 to 3 and is examined and investigated

in Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. It does this by:

• Examining concepts of ‘human resources’ and ‘culture’;

• Investigating the impact of human and cultural factors on cross-cultural

communication;

• Exploring expatriate project leadership roles;

• Examining communication processes.

II. To examine communication evaluation processes.

This objective addresses research questions 1 to 4 and is examined and investigated

in chapters 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. It does this by:

• Identifying key aspects and issues underlying ‘human resource’ and

‘culture’ for international project management;

• Examining the context of cross-cultural communication evaluation and

how it impacts on international construction project management systems;

• Developing a framework to explore the perspectives of respondents and the

key factors for effective cross-cultural communications.

III. To identify ways to address key issues of human and cultural factors on cross-

cultural communication processes in Samoa.

This objective addresses research questions 4, 5 and 6. This is covered in chapters 2,

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. It does this by examining and discussing the following issues:

• Initial assumptions;

• Considerations and issues that underpin construction projects management

decisions;

• The political, geographical, social, economical, and cultural environments

in which international projects are undertaken;

• Human and cultural issues arising out of decision-making in a cross-

cultural environment;

• Strategies to evaluate cross-cultural communication in Samoa.

IV. To make recommendations on the impact of human and cultural factors in the cross-

cultural communication process.

This objective addresses research question 6 and is covered in chapters 6, 7, 8 and 9.

It does this by:

• Examining and analysing data from selected research methodologies;

• Discussing and interpreting results and findings of the study;

• Drawing conclusions from accepted practices through literature review and

from the results and findings of this fieldwork in Samoa.

1.2.4 Research Contributions

Addressing the research questions provided contributions that are presented in sections

9.2 to 9.4 of the final chapter. In summary, this research made five general contributions:

Added to the body of knowledge pertaining to communication in international

construction project management, particularly the identification of new themes;

Supported an integrative cultural framework for evaluation of perspectives on cross-

cultural issues;

Provided an iterative guiding framework to approach construction projects in small

island nations such as Samoa. This may also be useful for other small island nations,

developing countries, and rural communities in countries such as Australia;

Supported ascertaining perspectives from both home and host culture practitioners to

evaluate cross-cultural issues; and

Supported the use of pragmatic knowledge claims and mixed methods studies in the

field of construction management.

1.3 Justification for the research

This research considered the perspectives from the Construction Industry on

management development, and the heightened realisation of the need to broaden the

knowledge and experience of managers (especially in the current climate of globalisation

and if considering international ventures) through the manifestation of programs that

include both the hard and soft aspects of management in their training. In addition, the lack

of awareness and understanding of country specific information (cultural, political,

economical, social, technological, legal and environmental) greatly impacts on the

successful delivery of projects internationally.

A number of researchers in the Construction and Business disciplines have stated that:

• The renewed demand for quality, productivity and performance is leading many

organisations, and particularly construction companies, to question traditional

philosophies and principles associated with their management process and

business practices (Haden, 1996).

• Within this changing industry climate, construction project managers

increasingly find themselves responsible for not just the traditional technical

aspects of the project, but equally the need to deal with non-traditional additional

roles (Shenhar et al., 1997).

• These additional roles include the management of relationships, which is

increasingly impacting on successful project delivery (Volckmann, 1997). The

management of relationships can be facilitated by technology and engineering

principles but its very essence is non-technical and therefore often requires

social-oriented skills (Edum-Fotwe and McCaffer, 2000).

• Many behavioural influences impact on industrial practices, on how the

procedures evolve and on how they are manifested. The collective concept of

culture is believed to have a major impact on the industry’s processes through

fundamental influence on people’s behaviour (Fellows and Liu, 1995).

• The determination and achievement of common project objectives requires subtle

negotiation skills, dependent upon sensitivity to the ways in which ‘other people

see things’ plus willingness and ability to accommodate them (Fisher and Ury

1981).

• Cultural literacy is not just attractive and considered necessary – it is a global

business requisite (O’Hara-Devereaux and Johansen, 1994).

• Most technical professionals do not recognise the impact of cultural differences in

their work as they are trained to focus on data, experimental results, and

quantified information, and do not recognise that cross-cultural issues lead to a

significant under utilisation of talent (Laroche, 2003).

Effective communication has been identified as a key factor in the management of

relationships in international projects. The role that communication plays in the

international project arena is examined in more details in chapters 2, 3 and 4. According to

Dieckmann (1996), communication is also regarded as one of the most neglected and

overlooked parts of international operations. As Loosemore and Al Muslmani (1999) point

out, communication problems will emerge as one of the most significant contemporary

challenges facing construction project managers in an increasingly international

construction market. Lack of communication has been cited as one of the biggest reasons

for the failure of change projects to meet their expectations (Pardu, 1996). Effective

communication can help to manage uncertainty (Lanfer et al., 1997), may lead to problems

being identified earlier (Dahle, 1997), and may generate ideas that lead to better solutions

(Dahle, 1997).

In order to understand the nature of cross-cultural communication processes and transitions,

both internal and external reactions to environmental factors must be taken into account

(Furnham and Bochner, 1986; Zaharna, 1989). Also, considerations wider than purely

quantitative factors must be incorporated into the evaluation process. Most research in the

construction field has either used a purely quantitative approach or a qualitative preliminary

phase just to explore a topic before focusing on a quantitative method. Whereas quantitative

methods are beneficial in determining outcome research, qualitative methodology is more

compatible with the need to understand process issues in cross-cultural exchanges

(Merchant and Dupuy, 1996). This research focuses on collecting and analysing both

quantitative and qualitative data in a single study (mixed methods) with the inquiry

assumption that collecting diverse types of data best provides an understanding of a research

problem (Creswell, 2003). Chapter 5 provides a detailed justification and explanation of the

procedures and processes involved in this research’s methodology, with section 1.4 of

chapter 1 giving an introductory overview.

This research’s findings provide an iterative framework useful to approach communication

in a construction project environment as well as in other related fields such as business and

cross-cultural management in Samoa. Potentially, the findings have a useful application to

other small island nations, developing countries, and rural communities in a country such as

Australia where people from outside the local community are involved in managing

projects. Section 9.4 of the last chapter provides a full statement of the usefulness of this

study’s findings.

1.4 Research Methodology

This section provides an overview of the research methodology while in chapter 5, a

more thorough examination and description of research procedures that addressed the issues

relating to this study is presented. Sub-section 1.4.1 defines the purpose of this study to

focus the methodology on the issues being investigated, while sub-section 1.4.2 presents the

research process framework adopted in this study.

1.4.1 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this two-phase, sequential explanatory mixed methods study was to obtain

statistical, quantitative results from a broad sample and then follow up with a few

individuals to probe or explore those results in more depth. The first phase involved

administering a questionnaire survey with predominantly quantitative research questions to

address the impact of human and cultural influences on project management and cross-

cultural communication evaluation processes, experienced by expatriates and local

managers, who have worked or are working in Samoa across a number of industries. It was

imperative in the first phase to study the experiences of persons working across a number of

industries in Samoa rather than focusing on construction, as the issues and challenges of

managing international construction projects within Samoa involve personnel,

communication and interaction across other industries at the local and government levels.

The extensive experiences of expatriate and local managers within multicultural and

multinational work teams in Samoa highlight the diversity and varying impact in relation to

social, political and economic development in Samoa. In the second phase, qualitative

interviews were conducted to probe significant themes and results in phase 1 by explaining

and exploring aspects of the cross-cultural communication process focusing on construction

project managers and supervisors working in Samoa.

1.4.2 Research framework

A research framework helps to structure the research methodology into logical steps and

appropriate stages. The establishment of an effective action plan helps to guide and direct

the research so there is a clear connection between what is stated in the aims, what is

presented through literature review and the findings and conclusions identified in the course

of the analysis. Figure 1.1 provides an overview of the holistic framework that encompasses

the research processes which were applied and satisfied this research. These processes are

described in detail in chapter 5. This study’s framework and indeed the thesis structure itself

were influenced by the works of researchers such as Fellows and Liu (2003), Creswell

(2003), Sekaran (2000), and Perry (1998).

Figure 1.1 Research Process Overview

Phase 1

Start

Identify the

problem

Define the

problem

Establish aims and objective

Substantial Review of Literature

Develop research

plan

Establish resources required

Establish research method

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Identify how to analyse data

Phase 2

Start

Secondary Review of Literature

Study Integration

Re-evaluate the

problem

Re-examine aims and objectives

Develop research

plan

Data Collection Identify data

to be collected

Establish resources required

Establish research method

Identify how to analyse data Data

Analysis

Interpretation and

Discussion of

Entire Analysis

Data Integration

Identify data to be

collected

Sequential Mixed Methods Design Strategy – Linking Stem

Thesis Produced Thesis Disseminated

Pilot Study Questionnaire

R E A P P R A I S A L

BY R E S E A R C H E R ~ A L L

S T A G E S ~ P H A S E S

1-2 *

* Reappraisal carried out through all stages of Phase 1 and Phase 2 due to consultation with

supervisors, review of literature, pilot study, collection and analysis of data, interpretation of

analysis, and interaction with participants

Pilot Interviews

Researcher’s personal and professional

background

Problem already solved or problem cannot be solved

Information to existing knowledge

Information from existing knowledge

Phase 1

Information from existing knowledge

Information to existing knowledge

Phase 2

The elements of this framework are described in detail in section 5.5 of chapter 5 where the

established links between the adopted methodology and the role these elements play in the

research process to investigate the identified issues are stated.

1.5 Outline of thesis and centrality of research questions to the structure of chapters

The chapters in this thesis are structured so each chapter can be read and understood

autonomously. They are presented sequentially as an integral part of the whole thesis with

relevant referencing and linking information to the preceding and proceeding chapters. Each

chapter encapsulates elements of the design process that satisfy the aim and objectives of

this research. The culmination of evidence and procedures contained in these chapters

demonstrates an understanding and appreciation of research processes, techniques, writing-

up, and argument on the basis of evidence and acquired knowledge.

Chapters 2, 3 and 4 Literature Review:

These chapters lay the foundation for advancing and addressing research questions 1 to 6

through reviewing contemporary discourse and discussion on cross-cultural project

management and the context of communication. The review of literature served a number of

purposes which include identifying the knowledge and research gap this research addressed;

helped in the formulation of a conceptual framework of factors that influenced the context

of cross-cultural communication; and assisted in establishing an integrated cultural

framework on which the perspectives of respondents were assessed.

Chapter 5 Methodology:

This chapter outlines and defines the research process by which the elements of inquiry

were established (knowledge claims – pragmatic; strategies of inquiry – sequential

explanatory procedures; and methods - mixed methods), the selection of research approach

(Mixed Methods) and the design process (questions, conceptual framework, data collection,

data analysis, write-up, and validation) to achieve the research aim and objectives that

addressed research questions 1 to 6.

Chapter 6 Data Analysis Phase 1 Quantitative:

This chapter presents the results of the quantitative data analysis in relevance to the research

questions 1 to 6. The analysis employs the SPSS 11.5 program to organise, code and

categorise data from the questionnaire opinion survey and facilitates the presentation of

results with descriptive and inferential statistics. The analysis employs both the Kruskal-

Wallis and the Mann-Whitney statistical tests.

Chapter 7 Data Analysis Phase 2 Qualitative:

This chapter presents the findings of the qualitative data analysis in relevance to the

research questions 1 to 6. The analysis employs the NUD*IST 6 program to organise, code,

categorise, and retrieve data from the in-depth interviews. The analysis of data involved a

constant comparative process, employs grounded theory tactics, and a content analysis also

carried out.

Chapter 8 Interpretation and Discussion Phase – Data Integration:

This chapter integrates the data for the two phases of this study to facilitate the

interpretation and discussion of the quantitative results (chapter 6) and qualitative findings

(chapter 7), highlighting trends and patterns and commenting on their significance in the

context of the literature reviewed in chapters 2, 3 and 4. This chapter addresses research

questions 1 to 6.

Chapter 9 Conclusions and Implications:

This chapter presents the conclusions drawn from the study in relevance to the research

questions 1 to 6 and the research problem. It also highlights implications that were

identified before and during the research in regard to theory, policy and practice,

methodology, further research and limitations. In doing this, this chapter summarises and

ties the whole thesis together.

1.6 Delimitations of scope and key assumptions

This section helps ‘build a fence’ around the research findings which are additional to

the limitations and key assumptions established in the definitions provided throughout the

chapters and the appendices. Delimitations as suggested here refers to the planned, justified

scope of the study beyond which generalisation of the results was not intended.

‘Delimitations’ are within the control of the researcher and ‘limitations’ are not. Limitations

caused by the methodological methods used are identified and explained in chapter 5, and

summarised in section 9.6 of the last chapter along with any other limitations that became

evident throughout the course of the study.

The explicit boundaries of this research as stated in section 1.2.3 of this chapter are:

• To identify and define issues of human and cultural factors in international

construction project management;

• To examine communication evaluation processes;

• To identify ways to address key issues of human and cultural factors on cross-

cultural communication processes in Samoa;

• To make recommendations on the impact of human and cultural factors in the cross-

cultural communication process.

In addition, other delimitations include:

• This research concentrated on personnel from major donor countries who undertake

aid-projects in Samoa;

• Other expatriates working for international subsidiaries and local organisations were

also targeted;

• Local consultants and contractors together with local managers and supervisors

working closely with expatriates completed the target group;

• This study focuses on practitioners who have worked or are currently working on

projects in management and supervisory roles in Samoa;

• Survey sample for phase 1 attempted to draw out responses across a cross-section of

major industries and organisations in Samoa;

• This study aimed at eliciting responses that were representational of key areas of

economic and social development prioritised by the government of Samoa;

• The interviews for phase 2 focused on the construction industry in Samoa;

• Key construction industry practitioners who are considered ‘information rich’ were

targeted as the core group for interviews;

• This study investigates cross-cultural communication issues in civil and building

construction projects in Samoa;

• This study examines environmental and contextual factors that influence cross-

cultural communication on construction projects in Samoa.

1.7 Summary

This introduction draws from related global construction industry issues through

establishing the research problem and then focus on the context of this study by stating the

aim, objectives and research questions. It introduces key aspects of human and cultural

influences on cross-cultural communication and their impact on construction project

management systems. It also provides a ‘preamble of logical progression’ which can be

used as a roadmap for the proceeding chapters that look at specific issues arising from the

body of knowledge developed in previous research in international construction and related

disciplines, as well as methods and processes undertaken that led to the outcomes that

satisfy the research aim and objectives while addressing the research questions. The

researcher hopes that this research contributes to a better understanding of project

management in the Pacific.

Culture and Communication

2.1 Introduction

The review of relevant literature builds on the introduction given in section 1.7 of

chapter 1 by examining previous research undertaken in cross-cultural project management

and related fields which focused on the particular factors within the categories of culture,

human resource management, leadership and communication. The review draws on

similarities and identifies differences between previous work and this study through

discovering research issues from a new theoretical/conceptual framework that are worth

researching in this thesis as addressed in chapters 5-8. Research statements are made

throughout the review as to the relevancy and appropriateness of the salient literature,

strengths and weaknesses of frameworks, concepts, and models and their application to this

study highlighted. These statements are made with the view of addressing research

questions and supporting the research aim and objectives. Summaries are drawn for each of

the categories reviewed. Relevant and related sub-sections of the review are referred to and

stated for convenience and ease of reference.

Previous research literature is grouped and organised to present a clear understanding of: 1)

the structure of research in international project management; 2) the key debates and areas

of varying understandings and conflicting perspectives within cross-cultural management;

and 3) how this study contributes something new to international construction project

management. The review of literature is covered in chapters 2, 3 and 4.

Chapter 2 Outline: Section 2.2 Culture: introduces and defines cultural dimensions and

assumptions with a particular focus on the pertinence of cultural factors which impact on

the management of international construction projects. Section 2.3 Diversity: deals with

the context of cultural diversity and how it impacts on the communication processes in

international construction projects. Section 2.4 Cross-cultural Communication: investigates

effective cross-cultural communication, barriers to effective communication and explores

effective strategies.

2.2 Culture

2.2.1 Introduction

The literature on culture introduces and defines cultural dimensions and assumptions

with a usefulness focus for management of international construction projects. Researchers

have also addressed the relationship between culture and communication. The

characteristics of culture should be recognised as an issue for consideration in the

communication processes of International Project Management.

Researchers (Low and Shi, 2001; Schein, 1985; Hofstede, 1980) assert that to study cultural

influence on societies, one needs typologies or dimensions for analysing the behaviours, the

actions and the values of their members. Ogbor (1990) posits that the frameworks used to

describe the assumptions that a particular society may have about reality, can be grouped

into three categories as cultural dimensions (Hofstede, 1980, 1984), cultural paradigms

(Schein, 1985), and cultural patterns (Geertz, 1973). Geertz’s cultural patterns are similar to

pattern variables presented by Parsons and Shils (1952).

2.2.2 Defining and Exploring Culture

Culture has been described as a total way of life of a people or a design for living.

Culture is also that complex whole which includes rituals, beliefs, values, institutions,

techniques, possessions and any other habits acquired as a member of society. According to

Salacuse (1991), culture has also been defined as socially transmitted beliefs, behaviour

patterns, values and norms of a collection of individuals identifiable by their rules, concepts

and assumptions. Collier (1997:36) defines culture as “a historically transmitted system of

symbols, meaning, and norms”. It is also a distinctive way of a group of people, which

forms their complete design for living (Pheng and Leong, 2000:307).

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) identified over 150 different definitions of culture.

However, almost all definitions refer to culture as a “set of shared beliefs, values and

practices” (Van Oudenhoven, 2001:90). According to Hofstede (1980:25), culture is the

“collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group from

another” and consists of “common characteristics”, that influence a groups’ response to its

environment. Collective programming takes place at the national and organisational levels.

Table 2.1 below outlines the common characteristics of culture and descriptions presented

by Hodgetts and Luthans (2000:108-109) based on Hofstede’s work.

Table 2.1 Common Characteristics of Culture

Characteristic

Description Learned Culture is not inherited or biological; it is acquired by learning and experience

Shared People as members of a group, organisation, or society share culture; it is not specific to single individuals.

Trans-generational Culture is cumulative, passed down from one generation to the next.

Symbolic Culture is based on the human capacity to symbolise or use one thing to represent another

Patterned Culture has structure and is integrated; a change in one part will bring change in another

Adaptive Culture is based on the human capacity to change or adapt, as opposed to the more genetically driven adaptive process of animals

Schneider and Barsoux (2003:24) assert that culture is founded upon basic assumptions that

people make which give rise to different beliefs and values, and manifest themselves in

different behaviours and artifacts such as architecture and interior design, greeting rituals,

dress and codes of address, and contracts. This view supports Schein’s (Schein, 1992:12)

definition of culture as “a set of basic assumption – shared solutions to universal problems

of external adaptation (how to survive) and internal integration (how to stay together) –

which have evolved over time and are handed down from one generation to the next”.

Understanding of core assumptions that are the basic foundations of culture is needed in

order to be properly equipped to diagnose and to discover coherence and meaning of

culture. According to Schneider and Barsoux (2003:22), the appeal of Schein’s definition is

that it directly addresses the key challenges facing managers. This involves developing

strategies to solve problems of external adaptation and in designing organisations and

determining human resource practices for internal integration. These solutions which

include strategies, structures, and HRM practices are thus deeply embedded in culture. But

above all, what is most important for a project manager is to discern which basic

assumptions are possibly operating. Figure 2.1 provides a framework for organising the

relevant cultural assumptions which provides an understanding of the relationship between

the various dimensions of culture as depicted by the definition of culture as shared solutions

to problems of external adaptation and internal integration.

Figure 2.1 Underlying cultural assumptions

Source: Schneider and Barsoux, 2003:35

The key elements of this framework are:

External adaptation

• Relationship with nature – refers to how some cultures believe they can ‘control’

nature, while others including Samoa believe it is destiny, or fate, and is

predetermined – ‘fatalism’. Closely linked to the assumption that people can control

nature is Hofstede’s dimension of “Uncertainty avoidance” which refers to a society’s

discomfort with uncertainty, preference for predictability and control, and avoidance

of risk. This is reflected in planning rituals, the importance placed on schedules, and

belief in taking initiative and responsibility.

• Nature of human activity – refers to how some cultures believe in ‘making things

happen’ and assumed to be the way to survive while others including Samoa take a

more ‘reflective and cautious planning’ approach. When managers assume they can

control nature, they are more likely to take action and therefore, greater importance is

placed on doing versus being. On the other hand, managers who believe they have

little control over nature are likely to take time to reflect and plan, to watch how

events evolve, and to adapt to the emerging situation. In this case, the quality of the

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This figure is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library

thinking and of personal character is more important than what you do. Trompenaars’s

dimension framework referred to this as ‘achievement’ versus ‘ascription.

• Nature of truth and reality – refers to how some cultures view truth as synonymous

with facts and figures while others make business decisions based on analysis not only

on the numbers but also the underlying logic. This can lead to frustration in business

dealings where some prefer to discuss theory, history, and context while others prefer

to go straight to the main points. Still other cultures such as Samoa rely on feelings,

intuition, and spirituality. They appreciate figures and facts but can only be convinced

if it feels right.

Internal integration

• Human nature – refers to how cultures view people as being basically ‘good’ (live and

work to fulfil or maximise their potential – hard work and task mastery), or ‘evil’

(people are expected to sin, to confess, to ask for forgiveness, and to repent).

Assumptions about human nature determine the willingness to delegate, the nature of

control systems, and relate to the nature of relationships. The assumptions of whether

people can be trusted or not are found in artifacts such as time punch clocks, the nature

of reporting systems, and the degree of scrutiny of expense accounts. If people are

assumed to be basically ‘good’, they are more likely to be given greater autonomy,

and to allow them to go off on their own way, to take initiative. This encourages a

more task orientation culture. On the other hand, if considered ‘evil’, people are more

likely to need external controls and supervision. This encourages a more relationship-

oriented culture, and greater emphasis on hierarchy and other forms of social controls,

such as group pressure.

Traditionally, Samoans believe that people are basically good, but they also believe

that people will make mistakes and therefore have a concept in their culture called

fa’amagalo (forgiveness). The family unit (traditionally the smallest entity in Samoan

society) is supposed to be the training ground for all family members. It is the family

name and reputation that is valued the most. It is therefore the responsibility of the

family to teach and train their young ones to know what is right and wrong, and what

is good and bad, so that they can become good role models or ambassadors for the

family. Those who are deemed by the elders to have acquired enough knowledge and

competence in certain areas and are able to advance the family name, are given

responsibilities (such as titles) and therefore do not need to be supervised. Initiative is

encouraged within the common framework of family control where other aspects of

fa’asamoa namely fa’aaloalo (respect) and vafealoai (public relations and mutual

understanding) come into play.

• Relationship with people

Importance of task versus relationship – in relationship based cultures such as

Samoa, people prefer to do business with people they know and would much prefer

to establish a relationship before conducting business. In Samoa, family members

and relations are often employed believing their character and trustworthiness have

been vouched for by employees. This allows a more informal social control to keep

workers in line. Other cultures prefer to focus on tasks and keep personal

relationships aside. Doing business with family and friends are avoided as these can

interfere with sound judgement. They believe people should be hired on merit and

not on connections. Relationships in business are viewed with suspicion, and

dismissed as company politics. This concept is closely related to Trompenaars’s

(1993) cultural dimension of ‘universalism’ versus ‘particularism’ which refers to

the degree of acceptance of rules and regulations that apply to everyone and not just

the select few.

Masculinity/femininity – although sexist terms, the use of Masculinity and

Femininity to describe management cultures still construes in the literature. They

relate to taking care of people versus taking care of business. In masculine cultures

the importance in placed on assertiveness, competitiveness, and materialism in the

form of earnings and advancement, promotions, and big bonuses. In feminine

cultures, the concern for quality of relationships and of work life, nurturing, and

social well-being may translate into initiatives such as Quality of Work Life and

extensive social welfare programs. In the Samoan context, the feminie cultural ethos

is prevalent in the emphasis on the nurturing and quality of relationships, project

outcomes and business decisions reflecting what is good for the community as a

whole. Samoan culture also emphasises inclusivity that stresses the importance of

making people feel welcomed and part of the group. This also extends to involving

people in the decision making process (soalaupule/fa’afaletui) and ensuring that

everyone benefits from the decision, whether perceived or otherwise. This relates to

Trompenaars’s (1993) and Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions of ‘masculinity’

versus ‘femininity’.

Hierarchy: the role of the boss – refers to how relationship between people are

structured particularly the extent to which hierarchy is revered. Some cultures would

accept the boss making all the decisions while others prefer a more consultative

approach with many people involved in the decision-making. Others still (Japan for

instance), hierarchy is more ambiguous. While the employees are involved in the

decision-making process, there is clear distinction of the boss being the boss. The

Japanese situation is similar to that of Samoa, where deference to leaders

(matai/managers) is the norm which stems from the respect (fa’aaloalo) aspect of

fa’asamoa, however in Samoa there is strong emphasis on the value of a consultative

(soalaupule) approach to decision making.

Linking assumptions: space, language, time

• Space – assumptions about space are expressed in many ways, both physical and

personal, and at many different levels, from what can be observed to what must be

inferred. These differences can also be found in physical planning (through

architecture and interior design) as well as how public versus private space is

managed in relationships. Assumptions regarding personal space determine the

nature and degree of involvement with others, what is expected from friendships

and family and from colleagues: relationship building versus getting down to

business. It is expressed in artifacts and behaviour such as the use of formal titles

and address (formal versus informal), what is discussed or not discussed, and how.

It also reflects the degree to which information is embedded or direct, and how

much is left unsaid.

In the Samoan context, the concept of shared space is prevalent in the family

circle, which can be extended to include close friends. This concept of shared

space is founded on everyone knowing what appropriate behaviour is and it

encompasses living quarters, belongings, and food and extends to matters for

discussion. The degree of formality and the amount of sensitive information

divested depends on the situation and who is involved. Tantamount to this is the

respect and trust each member of the family has and is expected to have of one

another.

• Time – assumptions about time influences our relationship with the environment

and with people. While different attitudes to time are easy to detect, their

underlying meaning is difficult to appreciate. Hall (1990) described these

assumptions as ‘monochronic’ versus ‘polychronic’. In some cultures time is seen

as limited: a finite resource which is spent. Time is seen as ‘monochronic’ –

structured in a sequential and linear fashion. Monochronic managers are acutely

concerned with starting meetings on time, and on spending time positively. In

some cultures like Samoa, time is seen as unlimited and simultaneous or

‘polychronic’. Managers from these countries believe that time expands to

accommodate activities, and that several activities can happen concurrently. This

difference in view of time as being limited or expandable influences the

importance attached to being ‘on time’. Cultural attitudes to time also vary in

accordance with importance placed on the past, present, and future.

Samoans consider themselves proud people in that they value the past, present and

future. The past defines their identity and this is reflected in the importance placed

on knowing ones ancestral line (kinship) and lineage (gafa), competence in skills

such as tufuga (builder or tattooist), taulasea (healer) and being well versed with

talatuu or fa’agogo (legends, folk lore and myths) passed down from generation to

generation through oral traditions. If one feels that his or her birth given right is

being threatened or ridiculed, the response could range from verbal abuse to a

physical altercation and at worse may lead to injury or death. The present reflects

how well the family or business is doing and this is manifested in building new

houses, buying new cars and in the exuberant fulfilment of family fa’alavelave

(commitments and obligations) and upholding status building activities. The future

is seen as hope for better things which has resulted in many Samoan families

putting a lot of focus on the education and training of their children. If it is beyond

the means of the parents or guardians is secondary. The families have also been

very receptive of potential opportunities and undertakings that will materialise and

benefit them in the future. The Samoan government has also responded in putting

in place sustainable driven policies and the implementation of projects that attempt

to address future needs.

In the Samoan context, time orientation also influences attitudes to change. While

some cultures view change as being positive (improvement and better ways of

doing things), others see it as threatening long-standing traditions. The traditional

Samoan system is receptive, integrative and resilient to change at the same time. It

has accepted and integrated many beliefs, ideas, technology from the outside world

(Christianity, Westminster political system, education, free enterprise, construction

methods) primarily because it reinforces its own value system. It has also rejected

some ideas that have threatened the existence of long standing traditions such as

customary land and title issues as well as village polity.

• Language – it is through language that people formulate thoughts and experience

the world and others. Language influences our relationship with the environment

and our relationships with other people. Hall (1990) makes the distinction between

‘high context’ and ‘low context’ cultures. Low context cultures have

communication that is expected to be clear and direct, or explicit. High context

cultures such as Samoa have communication that is highly dependent on the

person and the situation. In high context cultures, information is shared among

people, and some people have more privileged access than others. Much is

communicated in what is not said and so being able to read non-verbal signs and

body language is crucial. Language assumptions determine what is said and how it

is said which can be observed in artifacts such as appropriate subjects of

discussion (family, religion, or politics) and the degree of expressiveness. The

Samoan context presents a double layered language with formal oratorical

language that is very structured and deeply metaphorical, with imagery and

symbolism which is used in special occasions such as welcoming of guests and

visitors. There is also an everyday language that is not very structured. In

community projects involving village councils, knowing how to speak the formal

language and addressing the village appropriately as well as adhering to village

protocols is seen as a sign of respect, which is then reciprocated.

Laroche (2003:3) asserts that culture is like an iceberg. The small visible part of tangible or

exterior manifestations of a culture is perceived through our senses. These can be observed

from the workplace and employee interactions. In an international project environment,

these include: Reports, documents, presentations; Procedures, policies; Organisational

structure; Architecture of buildings and layout of offices inside; Dress and appearance;

Communication and language; and Food, arts, games. The large submerged part of culture

consists of values and thought patterns that each culture has created over time which include

many aspects of societal life. These can be inferred from what people say and do. In an

international project environment, these include: Time and time consciousness;

Relationships; Values and norms; Mental processes and learning; and Work habits and

practices, including concepts of teamwork, management, performance, hierarchy, and much

more.

Harris and Moran (2000:22) assert that culture is fundamentally a group problem-solving

tool for daily coping in a particular environment. It enables people to create a distinctive

world around them, to control their own destinies, and to grow in self-actualisation. Culture,

therefore, can be analysed in terms of national groups or within a smaller system, kin, clan,

organisation or project.

2.2.3 National and Organisational Cultures

Research shows a clear distinction between national cultures and organisational cultures.

National cultures refer to profound beliefs, values and practices that are shared by the vast

majority of people belonging to a certain nation. National culture is learnt very early in life

when the individual is still unaware of its influence. National culture distinguishes members

of one nation from another. This is reflected in the ways people behave at school, at work,

in the family and it is reinforced by national laws and government policies with respect to

education, life, and business.

Howes and Tah (2003:140) assert that in order to increase understanding of the issues and

elements that drive different cultures, one need to use cultural mapping as a base to develop

a framework to enable the application of appropriate management practice. Building a

cultural map requires the development of a hierarchy of issues and orientations, starting

with the fundamental issues that are common to all cultures which include perceptions of

what are good and right as opposed to the forces of wrong and evil. Following on from these

will be fairness and justice, pride and guilt and a sense of belonging and loyalty. These are

powerful emotions which, when challenged directly, can cause turmoil and, in the worst

cases, devastation.

According to Hofstede (1980), the prime characteristics of national culture can be grouped

and generated directly from the universal issues and resultant forces which form the

foundation of all cultures. Howes and Tahs’ (2003:141) framework of Generalised National

Cultural Dimensions, which is derived from the works of Hofstede (1980) and Triandis

(1995), is conceptually similar to Schneider and Barsouxs’ (2003) model of Underlying

Cultural Assumptions but perhaps with emphasis on right versus wrong and good versus

evil. The universal issue of ‘right or wrong’ which lies at the heart of culture provides the

foundation for morals and ethics that are interpreted differently by individual cultures.

Moral principles are diverse and moral values are considered absolute in nature but their

interpretation is fundamental for each culture. Theorists assert that human rights stem from

ethics, which are universal, even when there are no established moral grounds. The

Universal Declaration of Human Rights identifies the basic foundation for ethical behaviour

irrespective of culture which states that “all human beings are born free, and equal in dignity

and rights” (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948).

Organisational or corporate culture refers to the deeper level of basic assumptions, values,

beliefs and practices that are shared by most members of an organisation. Schein (1992:12)

defines organisational culture as “a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group

learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration that has

worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as

the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems”. This set of

assumptions and beliefs can stem from a number of sources such as functional, for example

marketing or finance; professional, for example architect or engineer; national, for example

British or Japanese; industrial, such as construction or aerospace; and organisational,

represented by shared values of the members of the organisation (Fellows et al., 2002:16).

Every organisation has its own unique culture, which is not quite the same as others.

Consequently, members of an organisation need to learn their own culture. These values can

undergo forced plus dramatic and disruptive change when top management introduces new

beliefs and attitudes.

Organisational culture, according to research is acquired much later in life at a conscious

level compared to unconsciously inherited and expressed national culture. Therefore, it can

be deduced that national culture is more deeply entrenched in the individual than in

organisational culture. For instance, a national culture in which those in power are highly

respected and deferred to, will lead to a form of organisational communication in which

those lower down in the hierarchy hesitate to express disagreement with their bosses. Thus,

it appears more difficult to change ones national culture than organisational culture.

According to Low and Leong (2000:309), the organisational culture reflects the national

culture in strong forms. It is logical for members of an organisation to resist plans to impose

a culture that does not reflect their national values. When organisational culture is weak and

appears to have little influence, workplace values and behaviour provide a clear reflection of

national cultures and values. On the other hand, when organisational culture is strong, the

manager cannot take for granted that what the employee observes in the workplace is typical

of a wider context (R. Mead, 1998:106).

Schein (1992) further argues the significance of a strong organisational culture, but he also

puts equal emphasis on its fit within the environment as expressed through the espoused

values. The argument being that a strong culture may exist in an organisation but if it is

totally inappropriate then it may have little or no effect, or the wrong effect. An interesting

point raised by Rowlinson’s (2001) survey which measured the commitment of

professionals to their organisation clearly highlights a mismatch between the aspirations of

the professionals and the culture of the organisation in which they worked.

2.2.4 Levels of Culture

Schein (1992) articulates an analysis of cultures within an organisational framework

which recognises three levels of culture that interact within a hierarchy: Artifacts, Espoused

Values, and Basic Underlying Assumptions (see Figure 2.2). Gervase Haimes (2003:3)

notes that writers in the area of Organisational Culture have suggested a link between the

culture of an organisation and the degree of success it enjoys (Peters and Waterman, 1982),

as well as its contribution in remaining competitive in their respective markets without

compromising their values (Collins and Porras, 1998). Haimes points out that for a project,

the organisation design and structure shapes and defines the hierarchy of roles and tasks, the

vertical chain of command and reporting relationships. He further states that this will also

shape the functional relationships and emphasise the control and coordination of tasks.

Figure 2.2 Levels of Culture

Source: Schein, 1992:17

Later research by Hatch (1993) critiques Schein’s model stating that it relies on identifying

the links between the artifacts, values, and assumptions. Hatch incorporates symbols into a

model she calls “The Cultural Dynamics Model” (see Figure 2.3) which is an extension of

Schein’s model. Although cultural theorists have debated whether there is a difference

between artifacts and symbols, Hatch (1993) presents more explicit meanings of processes

that create the assumptions, values, artifacts and symbols. Haimes (2003:5) points out that

the typology used by Hatch’s model assists in the understanding of Schein’s model.

Espoused Values: Strategies, goals, philosophies (espoused justification). Espoused values are the values that perhaps only one person holds initially, often the project manager, about the way to solve a problem. That person then proposes their values as a solution or strategy to solve an organizational problem within the project. When members of the group agree and see that it works, it becomes a shared value. If it continues to work successfully, then it is likely to become an underlying assumption.

Basic Underlying Assumptions: Unconscious, taken-for-granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings (Ultimate source of values and action). These are assumptions that the project team will make about how they should go about managing themselves in their internal and external environment. They are based on proven techniques used in previous projects to complete tasks – the way we do things around here!

Artifacts: Visible organisational structures and processes (hard to decipher) Top or surface level of the project and represent the visible manifestations of the projects organisational culture. Elements such as the office environment, language particular to the project, physical environment, and other visible representations of the project are all artifacts.

Figure 2.3 The Cultural Dynamics Model

Source: Hatch, 1993:660

The key elements of Hatch’s model are:

Manifestation; the process through which a culture reveals itself, usually through a person’s

senses but may also be through that person’s perception of their existence, or their emotions.

Hatch (1993) posits that the manifestation process allows the basic underlying assumptions

of an organisation to be manifested through the perceptions and emotions of project team

members – the underlying assumptions are manifested, or translated, from intangible

assumptions into values.

Realisation; refers to the means by which culture is made tangible. It is the process of

turning imagined or intangible shared values and beliefs of project team members into

something real – for example, stories, physical objects.

Symbolisation; refers to the associations and derived meanings rather than just a

representation of something that artifacts hold for whoever is holding them. This is the

essential difference between Schein and Hatch’s models although Hatch agrees with Schein

that all artifacts can become symbols but disagrees that all symbols are artifacts. The

symbolisation associated with certain artifacts may include, depending upon the values of

the viewer, wealth, comfort, luxury, capitalism, or the feminine, middle class.

Symbolisation is at the core of interpreting culture.

Interpretation; refers to a group process of the culture in which interpretations are a result

of an individual being influenced by other members of the culture although ambiguous since

members of the same culture can have different interpretations of the same thing (Hatch

notes they are socially construed realities).

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2.2.5 Dimensions of Organisational culture

Theorists (Mead, 1998; Hofstede, 1980) assert that organisational cultures are

influenced by not only the national culture but by other environmental factors such as work

place practices. The prevailing business culture of the organisation can influence how

managers and employees behave and conduct themselves at work and in business dealings.

Recognising these differences can assist both the organisation and others on how to make

sensible business adjustments to accommodate situational factors to achieve successful

outcomes. Table 2.2 below provides a comparison of the differences in organisational

cultures which may be encountered in project management.

Table 2.2 Recognising the differences – Organisational culture

Dimensions and Descriptions

Process-oriented: concerned with the way things are done (concerned with means) Vs Results-oriented : concerned with outcomes of

decisions (concerned with goals)

Job-oriented: concerned with getting the job done Vs Employee-oriented: concerned with the well-being

of employees Parochial: characterised by employees who derive their identity largely from the organisation for which they work

Vs Professional: characterised by employees who derive their identity largely from the type of work they perform

Closed system: characterised by an unwillingness to quickly accept new members of the work unit

Vs Open system: characterised by a willingness to quickly accept new members of the work unit

Tight control: characterised by formal policies and rules and close control of both time and money

Vs Loose control: characterised by informality and a lack of bureaucratic procedures

Normative: major attention is given to following rules and procedures to the letter Vs

Pragmatic: practicality and results are given primary attention, even if it means violating rules or procedures

Source: Hofstede 1997 2.2.6 Typologies of Organisational Culture

Handy (1991) posits there are four types of organisational cultures. The key types of

cultures identified by Handy are:

Power culture – a single source of power that influences the whole organisation. Connected

by functional and specialist activities. This is common in small entrepreneurial

organisations. Resource power is the major power base with elements of personal power in

the centre. Faith placed on individual with little on committees.

Role culture – bureaucracy is the organising principles of which are logic and rationality.

Efficiency depends on rational allocation of work and responsibility, not on individual

personalities. Offers security and predictability to the individual – may hinder individual

initiative

Task culture – power is somewhat diffused, based on expertise and not on position or

charisma. This usually develops in organisations which focus on specific jobs or projects

with assigned teams.

Person culture – develops when a group of people work together to achieve individual

goals. The individual is the central point and the organisation exists to serve and assist the

individuals (i.e. individuals plan work allocation, make rules and coordinate activities).

Trompenaars (1993) also asserts there are four types of organisational cultures. The four

types of organisational cultures advocated by Trompenaars are:

Family culture (person-oriented culture) – the leader’s role is like that of the father in a

family, where he/she is supposed to be caring and knows what’s good for his/her

subordinates. This may have difficulty with project group organisation or matrix-type

authority structures where authority is not centralised but divided.

Eiffel Tower culture (role-oriented culture) – bureaucracy is depersonalised, rational-legal

system in which everyone is subordinate to local rules and those rules prescribe a hierarchy

to uphold and enforce them. Each higher level in the hierarchy has a clear and demonstrable

function of holding together the levels beneath it.

Guided missile culture (project-oriented culture) – egalitarian in nature. This is oriented to

tasks typically undertaken by teams and project groups. Activities to fulfil a task are not

clear at the beginning, but will do what is necessary to accomplish the task at hand.

Incubator culture (fulfilment-oriented culture) – organisations are secondary to the

fulfilment of individuals needs. Other people’s roles are crucial to confirm, criticise,

develop, find resources, and help complete the product or service. This type of culture

encourages new initiatives and innovative thinking.

The types of cultures presented by Handy (1991) and Trompenaars (1993) are very similar

and provide a useful comparison of the typologies of organisational culture which clearly

indicate similarities and convergence. Recognising the type of culture that exist in

organisations and project environments is particularly useful to enable managers to

determine the approach and strategies that facilitate interaction and communication, and to

avoid mishaps in business dealings.

2.2.7 Other constructs of culture, sub-culture

Haimes (2003:7) asserts that if success through performance is related to culture and a

project is less successful than it should be, then it follows that the project needs to change its

culture to become successful. In order to facilitate change to achieve success, the project

manager must be familiar with “the way they do things” on his/her project as well as having

an awareness of the environment in which the project is being conducted. Haimes (2003:7)

states that it is important to understand the sub cultures that exist within a project to see how

they influence the project’s organisational culture and how it can be changed.

Figure 2.4 Interacting cultural spheres of influence

Adapted: Schneider and Barsoux, 2003:52

Schneider and Barsoux (2003:52) raised the point that where cultures need to be diagnosed

is clearly relevant in mergers, joint ventures, overseas assignments, where managers from

different countries, industries, and organisations need to cooperate to achieve the benefits of

these strategic alliances. This necessitates the need to explore the multiple cultural spheres

of influence and their relationships to better anticipate the impact of culture on cross-

cultural management (see Figure 2.4). According to Schneider and Barsoux (2003:51), these

cultural spheres interact in complex ways that limit the relevance of simple recipes for doing

business in any particular country. Figure 2.4 illustrates these interacting spheres, where

each sphere of influence has its own set of artifacts and behaviours, beliefs and values, and

Industry

Resources, technology, product market, regulation, competitive advantage

Professional Education, training, selection, socialisation

Functional External environment, nature of task, time horizon

Company/Organisation Founder, leader, administrative heritage, nature of product/industry, stage of development

Business Business goals and objectives, ethics, competition, resources, market, regulations and standards, risks

Project Stand alone or part of programme; client; suppliers; PESTLE; IHRM; aims and objectives; organisation structure and systems; functional support systems; practitioners skills, values, attitudes, aspirations and expectations; operational and strategic focus

National/Regional Geography, history, political and economic forces, climate, religion, language

underlying assumptions. Each sphere has its own way of solving its problems caused by

external adaptation and internal integration and may influence business at hand to different

degrees, more or less obvious ways, and various levels of embeddedness. These solutions

may coincide or clash.

2.2.7.1 Regional Culture and Industry Culture

Low and Alfelor (2000:137) note that regional cultures have evolved due to geography,

history, languages, religion, political and economic forces. They also refer to “differences”

within countries and “similarities” between regions. Accordingly, within countries, strong

regional ties may compete with national identity. Beyond national borders, countries may

cluster around a particular cultural paradigm (concept) because of their unique historical and

cultural heritage (Ronen and Shenkar, 1985). Regional culture can have a strong influence

on corporate or organisational culture (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003:54).

Low and Alfelor (2000:138) assert that industry cultures are clearly evident because of the

differences in the task environment of different industries which affect the nature of

decision-making and the nature of products and services. Cultural differences between

industries can be highlighted through decision-making and the degree of risk involved and

the amount of time it takes to know the consequences of that decision (Schneider and

Barsoux, 2003:58). The industry culture also influences the type and skill level of workforce

it attracts. The Construction industry for instance, has the ability to attract and “absorb the

excluded” (de Souza, 2000 cited in ILO-TMCIT, 2001:12). It provides employment for

those with little education or skills, the young, and those from the lower socio-economic

sections of society (International Labour Office-TMCIT, 2001:12). This is also true in the

Samoan construction industry context. However, many young Samoans have gone on to

become construction industry professionals (architects, engineers, quantity surveyors) in

addition to those with trade related qualifications (builders, plumbers, electricians). The

Samoan construction industry has also attracted many entrepreneurs who have been lured

with the perceived notion and sometimes actual gain of financial reward.

Another characteristic or factor influencing the construction industry culture is that in most

countries, low-level construction jobs are undertaken almost exclusively by men

(International Labour Office-TMCIT, 2001:13), which is also true in the Samoan context.

Traditionally, Samoan men are supposed to do the heavy physical work and are encouraged

to be builders. Women on the other hand are not expected to assist in the physical

construction but are tasked with affairs of the house. There are also social constraints

regarding the fa’asamoa concept of fa’aaloalo (respect) that define the relationship between

men and women which entail feagaiga (literally means covenant) and i’oimata (literally

means apple of the man’s eye). No Samoan father, brother or male cousins would appreciate

seeing their daughters, sisters or cousins doing heavy construction work. However, women,

in countries in Africa and South Asia, play an important role, by performing unskilled

labour tasks for low pay (Wells, 1990 cited in ILO-TMCIT, 2001:13).

In other parts of the world, discriminating behaviours against women include denying

access to training (Shah, 1996 cited in ILO-TMCIT, 2001:13), pay inequality (Vaid, 1999

cited in ILO-TMCIT, 2001:13), disparaging attitudes (Anand, 2000 cited in ILO-TMCIT,

2001:13), and institutionalised barriers discouraging entry and opportunity to hold

management positions (Jennings, 2001 cited in ILO-TMCIT, 2001:13). In the Samoan

context, there are a growing number of professional women who have been encouraged and

embraced by the construction industry as well as the community. Seeing their daughters or

sisters in professional roles is adding prestige and status to the family name and is therefore

appreciated. Traditionally, men are the heads of the Samoan family, but the women run

most of the affairs including giving instructions for most tasks to be performed by family

members. The women in Samoan society are given due respect, and they can also demand

and expect respect from extended family and local community members. This has facilitated

the smooth transition of women into professional roles in the construction industry in

Samoa, which has also translated to productive relationships between female and male

professionals as well as subordinates.

Evidence from various parts of the world has indicated that construction workers do not

view their employment in a very favourable light (ILO, 2001:13). Construction is regarded

almost everywhere as a low status job. In some countries (Malaysia for example) local

youth would rather be unemployed than work in the construction industry with such

behaviour being attributed to the archaic employment practices, outdoor work and

prevalence of temporary and causal labour. In many countries (for example, Singapore and

Malaysia), the construction industry has been forced to rely on foreign (immigrant) labour

from neighbouring countries (many of them are illegal) further deteriorating its status and

image (Abdul-Aziz, 2001 cited in ILO-TMCIT, 2001:13). In the Samoan construction

industry context, workers are not very favourable of their employment conditions primarily

because of insufficient remunerations and low wages. There is a sufficient labour market,

although mostly unskilled in new methods of construction. This has driven the industry

through the influence of the Samoan government and donor agencies to bring in skilled

people from ‘outside’ to do the work and train the locals. However, because of the

constraints (financial, time and quality) faced by many projects, the training and skills

transfer component becomes secondary. Overseas companies with permanent offices in

Samoa as well as local firms have helped increase the level of skills among the locals which

in turn has helped them become more competitive in the local market.

Another characteristic of the construction industry culture is that it has been viewed

traditionally as adversarial, fragmented and rife with disputes. Although efforts have been

made to change this through partnering and alliancing to build up trust and understanding

between management and workers, changes have been slow in coming and the realisation of

mutual benefits far from accomplished. This is significantly influenced by an industry

culture that is largely driven by competition, dominated by the private sector, preference of

tendering process, reliance on specialist subcontracting and outsourcing, the independence

of subcontractors, financial constraints, and emphasis on material outcome and profits

(Hager et al., 2000:4). Accordingly, efforts to diversify business operations may face

stumbling blocks due to cultural differences between industries, the prevailing political and

economic factors, the ability to absorb new ideas and the capacity to implement changes,

and resistance to change from within industries.

The construction industry in Samoa is traditionally not very adversarial, although disputes

do occur. This is attributed to aspects of fa’asamoa that encourages soalaupule

(consultation) and vafealoai (public relations and mutual understanding). All major public

projects (building and civil) go through the Tenders Board who is responsible for the

bidding process as well as approval for any variations. The Samoan government has put in

place control measures to ensure accountability and transparency on all matters pertaining to

the use of public resources, the ethical conduct of those involved in projects and to ensure

that the requirements by aid donors are satisfied. This has resulted in the set up of

interdisciplinary, inter-industry, and inter-departmental collaboration to facilitate the

planning and implementation of projects. The construction industry in Samoa is small in

size and outputs, and it is influenced and affected by external factors such as aid and the

ability of the government of Samoa to fund projects. There is a strong influence on

practices, policies and procedures, standards and specifications exerted on the industry by

donor and funding agencies and overseas companies with subsidiaries in Samoa. Local

professional bodies (such as the Institute of Professional Engineers of Samoa) have also

moved to ensure standard practices and a means of certification among its members are

adhered to across the industry.

Countries such as Japan and China have also had a major influence on the industry culture

and the physical landscape of Samoa. Japan has helped build major infrastructures such as a

seawall for foreshore protection along the Apia township coastline, a new national

university campus, a new wharf, and hospital buildings. China has also provided

contributions that include the building of the seven stories government offices and other

smaller projects. Australia and New Zealand have recently concentrated on financing

institutional strengthening projects as well as other smaller construction projects. The

European Union, the World Bank and the Asia Development Bank have all helped finance

projects in Samoa which include a seven stories Central Bank Building, road and bridge

projects, water supply project, and schools for villages and districts. The United Nations

Development Programme and the South Pacific Regional Programme have funded some

construction projects. Some Non Government Organisations including Rotary and Lion

have also made a contribution to finance smaller construction projects. These projects have

all involved multinational, multicultural and interdisciplinary teams. Some of these projects

have been designed and built by locals, while others involved consultants and contractors

from overseas. There is a healthy competitive environment in Samoa where local firms and

foreign subsidiaries have helped raise the standards and image of the construction industry.

There is another sector of the construction industry in Samoa which is thriving that involves

privately or community funded projects and is grounded in traditional practices. These

projects include the building of residential and meeting houses (both modern and

traditional), churches, small office buildings, small shops, some village schools, water tanks

and a lot of the refurbishments and maintenance work. Most of these projects (except those

for the Latter Day Saints Church who operates on an ‘American’ system) do not need to

satisfy the requirements addressed by major projects, and therefore most of the local firms

operate in this sector of the market. There are also local/traditional builders that are

somewhat ad hoc in their existence in that they will only form a working body if there is a

request and offer from a client (person or community).

Most of these projects do not require a formal contract and specifications. Instead it is based

on trust and the belief that the builder knows what he is doing. Selecting a builder is often

based on reputation and what he has built for someone, irrespective of the fact that he might

have built a traditional house, and the new request is for a two storey brick house to be

constructed. Most of these projects require the client to purchase the materials, feed the

builder and his team, provide transportation or housing if it is at a village far from the

builders own village. There are many alternative forms and means of payment which is

often negotiated between the builder and the client. This may involve a predetermined lump

sum at the end of the works or it may involve a combination of money and traditional fine

mats, pigs, cows which is often organised on the day of umusaga (traditional handing over

of the finished work) or fa’aulufalega (literally means the opening of the doors and entering

the new house or building). The amount of money and the quantity of fine-mats and other

means of remuneration is often reflected on the appreciation felt by the client, community or

family on the quality of the finished product, their relationship with the builder and his team

during the project and the status or financial resources available to the client.

2.2.7.2 Functional Culture

Schneider and Barsoux (2003:65) notes the importance of understanding differences in

functional cultures when cross-functional teams are created to develop new products, design

new policies, or explore new markets. These differences can be caused by the external

environment where stakeholders such as customers’ demands on different organisational

functions can create different cultures due to task requirements, and time frames (Low and

Alfelor, 2000:138). These functional cultures may clash which can lead to friction

commonly expressed in stereotypical attitudes that functional managers have of one another

(say for example, construction managers’ view of finance managers as being obsessed with

controls, and finance managers view of construction managers as ‘gung-ho’ cowboys who

do not care how they get to the end as long as they get there fast).

2.2.7.3 Professional Culture

In addition to national culture, other kinds of cultures such as professional culture may also

have an influence on the process and outcome of international business dealings (Bloor and

Dawson, 1994 cited in Sheer and Chen, 2003:50). Professional culture can be viewed as a

subculture that provides its own meanings, norms of behaviour, and symbols, in addition to

or despite national culture (Sheer and Chen, 2003:52). Theorists (Hofstede, 1989; Mintu-

Wimsatt and Calantone, 2000) assert that professional culture is far from immune to

national cultural influences, but its unique aspect, to a large extent, makes it culture-

independent. Collier (1997) posits that professionals share common ways they conduct

business, communicate with others and learn norms about how to be a member of their

profession.

Table 2.3 Professional Culture Features

Five Features of a Professional Culture

1 Embraces the professional goal which is determined by basic beliefs about a profession and the governing laws and principles

2 Establishes and abides by a sequence of chronologically overlapping stages or standard procedures

3 Implies unique symbol systems of its own that distinguish them from lay people dealing with the same topics – e.g. ‘jargon’

4 Members often form loose instrumental relationships that do not necessarily include personal friendship

5 Characterised by a unique code of ethics and regulations

Source: Sheer and Chen 2003:52

Sheer and Chen (2003:52) suggest a true professional culture displays a transnational

quality relatively independent of the ethnic or national background. However, the two do in

fact overlap to some degree. Researchers assert that professional cultural norms and beliefs

are partly expressed in natural languages that are culture-specific. Moreover, each

profession’s activities are part of everyday life and topics and professional languages can

range from extremely technical to the not so specialised. According to Sheer and Chen

(2003:52), the line between a professional culture and a national culture may be clear-cut

(as illustrated by medicine, law, and engineering) or it may not be so apparent (for example

accounting, business management, advertising, and negotiation). Professional beliefs,

meanings and symbols constitute a stand-alone system in a national culture making it a

possibility that not all members of a national culture will understand and interact in a

professional culture without proper training or practice. This is evident in the construction

industry in Samoa where many communication difficulties occur because of the lack of

technical knowledge and specialised skills amongst the locals. The context of Samoa also

presents another paradigm regarding the distinction between the traditional beliefs and

practices regarding construction methods and the role of the tufuga (builder), and the culture

of professional bodies such as The Institute of Professional Engineers. The two may collide

over issues that may include designs, construction methods and role clarification.

2.2.7.4 Business culture

Business culture stems from national culture where wider cultural codes for conduct are

further specified in business contexts (Terpstra and Yu, 1991:12). It comprises the effective

rules for conducting business, the boundaries between competitive and unethical behaviour

and the codes for conduct in business dealings. Business cultures vary and are influenced by

different cultural priorities and what is acceptable and allowable by society. Business

cultures do collide particularly in a foreign environment where businesses and cultural

priorities are different from ones own way of doing things. In the Samoan context, it is

normal and expected by those involved in business dealings to give and exchange gifts, to

officially welcome and farewell visitors, to hold parties to welcome new staff members or

farewell staff members leaving, and to tip or give money to people for services performed or

expected to be performed (even if it is their job to do so). This may be seen by expatriates as

unnecessary, waste of valuable time, waste of valuable resources, unethical and blatant

bribery and corruption. In community projects, the process of giving gifts (usually money)

and formal village welcomes (which involves drinking ava and having a feast) can happen

every time you visit. This is a necessary part of dealings in Samoa that focuses on

establishing relationships and networking which helps to iron out difficulties and issues that

may arise.

2.2.7.5 Project Culture

Closely related to organisational culture and involves organisational design, structure and

processes in a particular context or environment to achieve specific goals and objectives

within a certain time frame and budget allocation creating a culture that is ‘the way we do

things’ and is unique to that project although influenced by experiences from other similar

projects (Cleland and Ireland, 2002).

Research Statement #1

It is clear from the literature (sub-sections 2.2.2 to 2.2.7) that not one definition, model

or framework can sufficiently explain, categorise and explore culture. So in this study, a

more integrated and interpretive approach is proposed, using the summarising

definition of culture given by Van Odenhoven (2001:90) as “a set of shared beliefs,

values and practices”, Hofstede’s (1980:25) “collective programming of the mind

which distinguishes members of one group from another” and Schein’s (1992:12)

definition of organisational culture as “a pattern of shared assumptions – shared

solutions to universal problems of external adaptation (how to survive) and internal

integration (how to stay together) which have evolved over time and are handed down

from one generation to the next” will be adopted. Schneider and Barsouxs’ (2003:35)

‘Underlying Cultural Assumptions” and Howes and Tahs’ (2003:141) “Generalised

Characteristics of National Culture Model” will also be adopted. The following Sub-

Sections will build on these and further examine research, dimensions, basic

assumptions and models and frameworks on culture and cross-cultural management.

Table 2.4 lists the different types of cultures and the levels of management affected in

international projects, as well as the definitions being tested in this research.

Table 2.4 Effect of different types of cultures on project management at various levels

Types of Culture Levels of management affected Definitions tested Regional culture Strategic, corporate Partly National culture Strategic, corporate, operational Yes Industry culture Strategic, corporate, operational Yes Business culture Strategic, corporate, operational Partly Professional culture Strategic, corporate, operational Partly Project culture Strategic, corporate, operational Yes Organisational culture Strategic, corporate, operational Partly Corporate culture Strategic, corporate, operational Partly Power culture Strategic, corporate, operational Yes Role culture Strategic, corporate, operational Yes Task culture Strategic, corporate, operational Yes Person culture Strategic, corporate, operational Yes Functional culture Strategic, corporate, operational Partly Management culture Strategic, corporate, operational Yes

2.2.8 Research on Cultural Dimensions

Most research on national cultures has been limited to descriptions of individuals from a

few samples of national cultures. Two exceptions are Schwartz’s study (1992) on cultural

values, which was originally carried out in 20 countries and was, then expanded (Smith and

Schwartz, 1997). The other is Hofstede’s research (1980). The survey of values by Schwartz

reinforces and amplifies Hofstede’s conclusions rather than contradicting them (Smith and

Bond, 1998). Writers such as Van Oudenhoven (2001) comment that Hofstede’s research

and Schwartz’s study show considerable convergence. Research into cultural dimensions by

Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars (1994) identified and described seven dimensions of

culture. Three dimensions (individualism/collectivism; equality/hierarchy; orientation

toward time) are conceptually similar to those presented by Hofstede thirteen years earlier

(1980) and Hofstede and Bond (1988).

Schneider and Barsoux (2003:34) present an illustration of the relationship between the

dimensions most commonly used by management scholars with the aim of trying to

organise and synthesise the overlapping but fragmented dimensions of culture considered

most relevant to management (see Figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5 Key dimensions of culture

Source: Schneider and Barsoux, 2003:34

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Some of the dimensions and frameworks in Figure 2.5 above will be defined,

explained and compared in the following sub-sections with the view of establishing an

integrated framework to be used in this study. However, the focus of this study will be

on the two frameworks provided by Hofstede (1980) and Trompenaars (1993).

2.2.9 Dimensions of Culture

Hofstede (1980, 1983, 1997; Hofstede and Bond, 1984) identify four dimensions, the

basis of which national, professional, business, corporate or management cultures can be

characterised – power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism-collectivism and

masculinity-femininity. Additionally, Hofstede and Bonds’ (1988) study of Asians

identified a fifth dimension called Confucian dynamism.

Power distance

Power distance represents the degree to which members of a culture accept the institutions

and organisations having power in decision-making. This dimension resembles Fiske’s

(1992) “Authority Ranking”, which refer to cultural patterns which are dependent on the

degree of rank and hierarchy. This dimension also correlates to Schwartz’s “Hierarchy

value” (Schwartz, 1994). Trompenaars (1997) “equality/hierarchy” dimension is similar. It

describes the degree to which a society accepts an unequal distribution of power. Table 2.5

presents Hofstede’s consequences derived from power distance useful for cross-cultural

management.

Table 2.5 Consequences derived from Power distance

High Power Distance Countries Low Power Distance Countries

• Decision making highly centralised • Large pay and status differentials • Acceptance of authority and deference to the leader • Control of information by organisation heads/leaders

• Decentralisation of decision making • Small pay and status differentials • Expectations of involvement and non-differential

subordinate-superior relations • Open information and communication systems

Source: Hofstede, 1980

Uncertainty avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which societies focus on ways to reduce uncertainty

and deal with ambiguous situations. Writers reflect that this concept is the opposite of

Schwartz’s “Intellectual Autonomy” (Schwartz, 1994). Table 2.6 presents Hofstede’s

consequences derived from uncertainty avoidance useful for cross-cultural management.

Table 2.6 Consequences derived from Uncertainty Avoidance

High Uncertainty Avoidance Low Uncertainty Avoidance

• Greater organisational formality and formalisation • Extensive use of policies, rules, and procedures • More use made of specialists. Organisations value and

strive for homogeneity • Managers more risk-averse in decision-making • Attention to detail emphasised

• Less organisational formality and formalisation • Limited use of policies, rules, and procedures • More use of generalists. Organisations value and

encourage heterogeneity • Managers more willing to take risks in decision-

making Source: Hofstede, 1980

Individualism-collectivism

Individualism-Collectivism deals with the degree to which one’s self identity is defined

according to individual characteristics or by the characteristics of the group to which we

belong to on a permanent basis – for example the freedom for people to adopt their own

approach to their job. Individualistic cultures place higher emphasis on individual goals

versus group goals, than do collectivistic cultures. Individualistic cultures prefer a “loosely

knit social frameworks in which individuals are supposed to take care of themselves and

their immediate families only” (Hofstede, 1993:336). Table 2.7 presents Hofstede’s

consequences derived from individualism versus collectivism useful for cross-cultural

management.

Table 2.7 Consequences derived from Individualistic-Collectivistic cultures

Individualistic cultures Collectivistic cultures

• Organisations are viewed neutrally and there are limited expectations of the organisation in terms of the personal life of members

• Engagement with the organisation is on a calculative basis

• Employees will stay with the organisation only as long as the exchange relationship is relatively positive

• Objective, criteria-driven evaluations • Open, competitive promotions • Impersonal relations • Individual performance and expertise emphasise

• Tendency to view the organisation as a family and to expect to be looked after like a family member

• Engagement with the organisation is on a moral basis • Employees will reciprocate with loyalty and obedience to

the organisations who protect their interests • Holistic evaluation of persons and their performance • Internal promotions • Personalistic relations


Triandis (1994) differentiates individualism from collectivism by referring to people in

individualistic cultures as those who often give priority to their personal goals, even when

they conflict with the goals of important in-groups, such as the work group; conversely,

people in collectivistic cultures give priority to in-group goals. Similarly, Hampden-Turner

and Trompenaars’ (1993:8) dimension of individualism-communitarianism describes the

degree of integration between members of society and the relative value of individual over

collective needs. Triandis (1994) also made a distinction between vertical cultures that

emphasise hierarchy and horizontal cultures that stress equality which can be further

developed to include collectivism and individualism. Vertical collectivism is where some

members of the ingroup are more important and dominate. Horizontal collectivism is where

members of the ingroup are equal. Vertical individualism stipulates hierarchy of individual

superiority. Horizontal individualism is where the individual culture is unique but not

superior. According to Triandis, cultures are not collectively or individually monolithic and

variation can be determined by the frequency of occurrence, while recognising that higher

social classes within a culture are more likely to be individualistic whereas lower classes are

more collectivistic.

Masculinity-femininity

The sexist terms, still in use, masculinity-femininity represent the degree of stress placed on

materialism, harmony, wealth and relationships by members of a culture. Table 2.8 presents

Hofstede’s consequences derived from masculinity versus femininity useful for cross-

cultural management.

Table 2.8 Consequences derived from Masculine-Feminine cultures

Masculine cultures Feminine cultures

• High expectation that men will pursue a career, and will be considered as failures if they do not

• Encouragement and acceptance of intra-organisational competition

• Aggressive and assertive behaviour is valued • Conflict and confrontation are expected

• Acceptance of those who do not value a career – both men and women

• Wary of intra-organisational competition, preference for co-operation

• Supportive and encouraging behaviour is valued • Harmony is sought and confrontation avoided


Confucian dynamism

Confucian dynamism reflects the degree to which a society takes a long term versus a short-

term orientation in life. This dimension may influence the degree to which individuals’

ethical actions comply with their ethical intentions. Individuals with a high degree of

Confucian dynamism are more concerned with social norms, “saving face” and “time”

along a continuum including the past, present and future as compared to their counterparts

with low Confucian dynamism (Schwartz, 1992). This is reiterated in Hampden-Turner and

Trompenaars’ (1993) orientation toward time dimension which highlights the emphasis a

society places on the relative time-frame of events.

Other dimensions

Triandis (1994) puts forward two more cultural dimensions namely universalism and

achievement. Universalism describes norms for regulating behaviour which is similar to

Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars’ (1993) dimension of universalism/particularism that

contrasts a society with rules of wide generality against a society that has consideration of

special exceptions. Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars’ (1993) dimension of

achievement/ascription depicts the relative emphasis a society has on achieved status versus

ascribed status (role, age, and class distinctions). Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars’

(1993) study identified seven dimensions of business/corporate culture:

individual/collectivism; equality/hierarchy; orientation toward time; analysis/integration;

achievement/ascription; universalism/particularism; and, orientation toward the

environment.

2.2.10 Integrated framework

In 2002, Thorne and Saunders (2002:3) presented an integrated framework of nine cultural

dimensions combining the two different models of culture clustering developed by

comparative management teams Hofstede (1980, 1991) and Hampden-Turner and

Trompenaars’ (1993).

According to Thorne and Saunders, both models provide a systematic, empirically founded

basis on which some central differences in culture may be defined. Table 2.9 below presents

Thorne and Saunders integrated framework useful for cross-cultural project management.


This study will make use of this integrated framework (Table 2.9) which focuses on

Hofstede’s (1980) and Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars’ (1993) dimensions. This

study will also explore other frameworks and where appropriate, make use of other

dimensions particularly those presented by Hall (1990) and Kluckholn and Strodtbeck

(1961). These frameworks will assist in the understanding and analysis of issues

pertaining to culture, value orientations and diversity as well as cross-cultural

management and communication.

Table 2.9 Integrated Framework of Cultural dimensions

Cultural Dimensions Definition Power distance (Hofstede 1980); Equality/hierarchy (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars’ 1993) – degree of tolerance for hierarchical or unequal relationships.

High – large degree of tolerance for unequal relationships Low – small degree of tolerance for unequal relationships

Uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede 1980) – degree of acceptance for uncertainty or willingness to take risks

Strong – little acceptance for uncertainty or risk Weak – generally accepting for uncertainty and risk

Individualism (Hofstede 1980; Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars’ 1993) – degree of emphasis placed on individual accomplishment

Individualism – large degree of emphasis on individual accomplishment Collectivist – large degree of emphasis on group accomplishment

Masculinity (Hofstede 1980) – degree of stress placed on materialism

Masculinity – large degree of stress on materialism and wealth Femininity – large degree of stress on harmony and relationships

Confucian dynamism (Hofstede 1980); Orientation toward time (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars’ 1993) – degree to which a society takes long-term versus a short-term orientation in life

High – more concern with social norms, “saving face” and time along a continuum including the past, present and future Low – more task oriented and more likely to view ethical obligations as constraints

Universalism (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars’ 1993; Triandis 1994) – describes norms for regulating behaviour

Universalism – codes of laws exist that apply equally to all Particularize – individuals enjoy special rights or privileges because of their status

Achievement (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars’ 1993; Triandis 1994) – describes how power and status are determined

Achievement – power and status are achieved or earned through competition and hard work Ascription – power and status are ascribed by birthright, age, or gender

Analysis/integration ( Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars’ 1993) – the relative emphasis of society’s members to consider organizations or event in terms of separable parts vs. consideration of the whole

High-integrated individuals – tend to consider factors and implications beyond a specific domain. High-analysis individual – tend to focus on a specific domain or realm.

Orientation toward the environment (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars’ 1993) – the relative emphasis of society’s members on sources of motivation and values stemming internally from the individual versus the external environment

External source – when the source of motivation/values is the external environment, individuals strive to remain in harmony with their environment. Internal source – when the source of motivation/values are internal, individuals attempt to control their environment

Source: Thorne and Saunders 2002:3 2.2.11 Determinants of culture – cultural variables

Deresky (2000:105) advocates that differences in the behaviour of individuals and

groups within an organisation is a result of societal, or socio-cultural, variables of the

culture (such as religion, and language) as well as national variables (such as economic,

legal, and political factors). The context for development and maintenance of cultural

variables is provided by the national and socio-cultural variables. These cultural variables

then establish the basic attitudes toward work, time, materialism, individualism, and change.

The attitudes, in turn, affect the individual’s motivation, expectations, work and group

relations, which ultimately determine the quality of the outcomes. A number of approaches

have been developed categorising interdependent variables found in most societies that

make up the unique clusters and provide a snapshot of the overall character of a specific

group (Helen Deresky, 2000:111). One such approach is the systems approach given by

Harris and Moran (1991) who identify eight categories that form the subsystem of any

society – kinship, education, economy, politics, religion, associations, health and recreation.

Another similar approach is the Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck (1961) framework which identifies

six determinants of culture – social structure, religion, language, education, economic

philosophy, political philosophy.

It is pertinent to draw a comparison between Harris and Morans’ system approach and the

Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck framework with the aim of identifying similarities and differences in

order to formulate an integrated framework based on the two models on cultural variables or

determinants. Harris and Moran (1991) identify eight categories and variables:

Kinship – the system adopted by a given society to guide family relationships (consists of

the nuclear family e.g. US, or the kinship system consists of an extended family with many

members e.g. Arab, Asia.

Education – the formal or informal education of workers in a foreign firm, received from

what ever source, affects the expectations placed on them. This affects choices about

recruitment, training, leadership styles, and staffing practices.

Economy – whatever the economic system, the means of production and distribution in a

society has a powerful influence on organizational processes as sourcing, distribution,

incentives, and repatriation of capital.

Politics – the system of government in a society, whether democratic, communist, or

dictatorial, imposes varying constraints on an organization and its freedom to do business.

Religion – the spiritual beliefs of a society are often so powerful that they transcend other

cultural aspects – commonly underlies both moral and economic norms.

Association – many and various types of associations arise out of the formal and informal

groups that make up society: religious, social, professional, or trade affiliations (may play a

role in business interaction).

Health – the system of healthcare in a country affects employee productivity, expectations,

and attitudes toward physical fitness and its role in the workplace.

Recreation – the way in which people use their leisure time, as well as their attitudes

toward leisure and their choice of whom to socialize with.

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) present a framework which encompasses five

determinants of culture:

Social Structure – refers to the degree to which the basic unit of social organization is the

individual, as opposed to the group, and the degree to which a society is stratified into

classes or castes.

Education – refers to the availability of a pool of skilled and educated people as a

determinant of a country’s potential success – competitive advantage (Porter 1990).

Economic Philosophy – the economy (economic system: market economies, command

economies, and mixed economies) of a country will influence its culture and vice versa.

Political Philosophy – the degree of collectivism and individualism, and the degree to

which they are either democratic or totalitarian.

Religion – religious principles, values, ethics all have influence on a country’s culture and

vice versa.

Language – enables people to communicate and more. Language barriers in cross-cultural

communication: semantics, word connotations, tone difference, and differences among

perceptions

An integrated framework based on the two models on cultural variables and determinants

will reflect a framework on interdependent cultural variables which will provide a more

encompassing, systematic approach of categorising a society that will be useful for project

management.

Research statement #4

This study will integrate the two frameworks presented by Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck and

Harris and Moran which will result in a framework of nine determinants or variables

of culture: kinship, education, economy, politics, religion, language, association,

health, and recreation. The integrated framework will be used to categorise Samoan

culture in contrast to expatriate project managers’ home culture.

2.2.12 Intercultural Variation

To many researchers in international management, cultural differences refer to the

distinction between the typical members of cultures (for example, Hofstede, 1991:12).

Hofstede (1991:15-19) discussed several historical and demographic factors including

colonial inheritance, language, regional customs and ethnicity that may determine

intercultural variations. Similarly, Blau (1977) discusses the effects of race, class and

gender in creating variation. Accordingly, societies which are multi-racial, large in size,

multi-region and rigid in class are likely to display a large diversity. Additionally, England

(1975:40) found that the value systems of Japanese managers were the most homogeneous

compared to those of their Indian, Australian, United States and Korean counterparts.

According to England, these influences reduce individual variation within the culture.

Intercultural variations may also vary more systematically according to cultural value

dimensions (Au, 2000:219).

One cultural dimension is uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 1991) as described earlier is

section 2.2.10. Hofstede (1991:125) asserts that rules and regulations are more preferred in

high than in low uncertainty avoidance cultures. Current research (Chan et al., 1996; Au,

1997) posit it is due to the overarching restriction of rules and social structures that

intercultural variation is smaller in high uncertainty avoidance cultures, and is larger in low

uncertainty avoidance cultures. According to Pelto (1968) a related cultural construct is

tightness and looseness. Loose cultures tend to tolerate deviant behaviour and have norms

that are expressed within a wide range of alternative channels. Values such as regularity,

discipline, formality, solidarity, permanence, regimentation and formality are less

developed. In contrast, tight cultures have sanction systems for punishing deviants, clear

norms and establish order. Chan et al (1996) showed that North Americans (from a loose

culture) demonstrate more individual variation in understanding concepts such as normative

pressure and sanction than Japanese who are from a tight culture. Schwartz (1994) proposes

another potential cultural dimension – egalitarian commitment, which refers to a group of

values that implies the propensity of voluntary commitment to promoting the welfare of

other people such as social justice. Cultures high in this value should be those in which

individuals think similarly of helping others. Differences are consequently smoothed out

through sharing and mutual aid.

2.2.13 Other Research into Cultural Dimensions

Two decades ago Hofstede published his book ‘Culture’s consequences: international

differences in work related values’, which stated that national cultures could be

distinguished on the basis of four dimensions. Van Oudenhoven (2001:92) claimed “that

culture as found in companies within a country should partly reflect the national culture.”

This implies that if Hofstede’s four dimensions really characterise national cultures, then

actual companies from a particular country would reflect the description of that particular

national culture in comparison to companies from other countries. International

corporations, aid projects, joint-ventures and companies, however, comprise many cultural

elements. National cultural characteristics of the site they operate in is only one aspect. Van

Oudenhoven (2001:92) asserts that national cultures may not easily be recognised at the

concrete company level, but do exist in the images respondents have of the overall typical

characteristics of companies in their countries. To test Hofstede’s dimensions, Van

Oudenhoven carried out a research which,

1. Presented statements directly related to Hofstede’s dimensions; and

2. Asked different countries to indicate to which degree these statements applied

to the national companies they knew.

According to Van Oudenhoven (2001:102), respondents appear to be using ‘Hofstedean’

dimensions spontaneously. Moreover, both the results obtained in the perception ratings of

national companies reflect a considerable correspondence with Hofstede’s scores. The study

also aimed to find out whether there was a relationship between the actually perceived and

the desired national culture. Van Oudenhoven (2001:91) observes that Hofstede’s

conclusions are primarily based on data from predominantly male IBM employees.

Consequently, these males are not representative of their nations so there is a selection

problem. Secondly, Van Oudenhoven (2001:91) points out that Hofstede’s data was

collected 25-30 years ago in a world, which has since changed politically and economically.

Van Oudenhoven (2001:91) notes Hofstede did not sufficiently discriminate between the

actual or perceived culture and the desired culture.

According to Hofstede (1991: 27), “from one country to another there is a close relationship

between the reality one perceives and the reality one desires.” Recent observations by Van

Oudenhoven (2001) and M. Redmond (2000), suggest there may well be a discrepancy

between value and practice, for instance, between the desired level of power distance and

the level actually perceived. There is also a focus on whether Hofstede’s dimensions are ‘on

peoples mind’ if they are not made prominent by explicitly referring to the dimensions.

Jaeger (1986) suggests that organisational development is characterised by low-power

distance, low uncertainty avoidance, low masculinity and medium individualism. Jaeger’s

profile is similar to Van Oudenhoven’s findings.

A study carried out by Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck (1961) identified six basic cultural

dimensions of national culture of managers and employees: relationship to the environment,

time orientation, nature of people, activity orientation, focus of responsibility, and

conception of space. Chang (2002) supports Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck’s organisational studies.

He analysed different companies in different countries, and carried out many surveys of

multinational corporation workers who had different cultural backgrounds. The database

eliminated differences that might be attributed to varying practices and policies in different

companies (Chang, 2002:4). However, according to Mead (1998:28), the Kluckhohn-

Strodtbeck model has a number of weaknesses: 1) in that it was not centrally concerned

with management and therefore did not describe the implications for management; 2) the

orientations and variations are imprecisely defined; and 3) interpretations are bound to be

subjective. Mead nevertheless points out the success of Trompenaar’s (1993) work which

was much influenced by the Kluchhohn-Strodtbeck model and demonstrates its usefulness

in comparing cultures, and raising the following points:

• In general terms, cultures can be compared along distinct dimensions;

• Comparative models apply to cross-cultural management;

• Analysis of predominant variations within the national culture does not accurately

predict, in all respects: a) the values of sub-cultural minorities; b) the values

practiced in different industries and organisations; c) values practiced in

exceptional circumstances (such as when operating overseas).

2.2.14 Studies: intercultural variation and cultural mean

Au’s (2000) study focuses on the re-analysation of the World Values Survey data. The

survey according to Au is an international collaboration for collecting data to a broad range

of values, beliefs and attitudes. Au’s research interviewed approximately 1000 people in 42

countries using probability-sampling scheme. The survey questions relate to social aspects

such as family and religion which resulted in more than 300 variables in the survey.

The study found that the relationship between cultural means and intercultural variation is

not constant across variables. According to Au, these observations suggest that intercultural

variation is not only unique with respect to cultural means; it is also the reason for many

cross-cultural differences. However, Au points out that intercultural variation has its

limitations, because it only studies a limited number of variables, and the study did not

investigate how intercultural variation affects important organisational variables such as

intergroup relations. Although speculative, intercultural variation studies do have

implications for international project management. A core skill linked to expatriate training

is to understand cultural distance along cultural dimensions (Kirkman and Shapiro, 1997).

However, Au (2000:235) notes that expatriates are more likely to adapt to cultural

differences more easily in a homogeneous culture than a heterogeneous one. Au further

observes that expatriates should be counselled and advised as to how and why some cultures

have so much variation (beyond how typical members of a culture are different.) This focus

will also help throw new light on the development of training tools (Brislin et al., 1986),

which are presently focused on only stereotypical national differences.

Another implication for international project management is related to the selection of

personnel and investment locations. Many organisations have a preference for workers that

suit their needs and their company culture (Noble, 1992). Intercultural variation is presented

by researchers such as Au (2000) as a complementing construct for international project

management and cross-cultural communication.

2.2.15 Summary

It is clear that the impact of “culture” on international project systems is a critical aspect

in the successful management of change for international projects. The variations and

diversity within each cultural or ethnic group, as well as diversity and influence between

national, regional, organisational or corporate, industry, business, functional and

professional cultures need to be addressed when planning for international projects. It is

necessary that project managers have a sound understanding of cultural influences as well as

an understanding of the economic, political and social variations within and among groups

in countries where projects are managed.

International projects are likely to be more successful when project objectives and

deliverables are culturally sensitive and met the needs of key stakeholders. Culturally

competent projects can be described as those that recognise and respect different cultural

beliefs, interpersonal and intrapersonal styles, attitudes and behaviours. Developing cross-

cultural skills is a basic step in international project management.

Most research on ‘culture’ has focused on describing how one culture compares and

contrasts to another. Hofstede’s study (1980) according to researchers has made a major

contribution to contemporary cross-cultural discussion and discourse. However, cross-

validation studies by Redmond (2000) and Van Oudenhoven (2001), note that Hofstede

does not elaborate on the impact of cultural dimensions in his discussions of intercultural

encounters. Other more recent studies have supported Hofstede’s conclusions, (for example:

Hoppe, 1990; Sondergaard, 1994) while other studies fail to find the patterns as predicted by

Hofstede (Fernandez et al., 1997). Brock et al. (2000:691) note that despite recent

quantitative “dimensionlisation” of culture (for example, Schwartz, 1992; Trompenaars,

1993), perhaps the most straight forward formula to describe cultural variations is that

presented by Hofstede (1980).

An interesting question raised by studies such as those discussed in this section is whether

differences in national cultures remain unaffected over time or tend to converge. The

Hofstede culture framework represents only one approach to culture. Its summarising

approach largely ignores cultures’ experiential and processual aspects and dimensions fail to

capture the role that language plays in holding and transmitting culture (Brock et al.,

2000:696). However, Hofstede’s study does provide a research platform for studies on the

relationship between culture, behaviour, and communication. Equally important for

managers is the ability to understand the cultural complexities and the conditions under

which projects are managed in an international context. Cleland and Ireland (2002:34) claim

“Projects are like building blocks in the design and execution of organisational strategies”.

2.3 DIVERSITY

2.3.1 Introduction

The literature on diversity deals with the context of cultural diversity and how it impacts

on the communication processes in international project management. Managers, educators

and writers usually assume that diversity is a barrier and impedes communication and

interaction. Researchers have shown that differences between home and host cultures need

to be discussed in order to initiate awareness and understanding and to show how

differences can become resources. Researchers have also shown that diversity needs to be

understood clearly in order to properly evaluate the process of cross-cultural communication

and its impact on international construction project management.

2.3.2 Cultural Diversity

Global operations require high level co-ordination (Johansson and Yip, 1994). As

organisations globalise, they must learn to co-ordinate efforts between an increasingly

culturally diverse work force and environment (MacDuffie, 1995; Reich, 1991). Other

researchers note that the emergence of international corporations makes it necessary for

people from diverse cultural background to work together (Adler, 1997; Boyacigiller and

Adler, 1991).

For cross-cultural communication to function effectively between groups from different

cultures, Smith and Noakes (1996) observe that it becomes important to understand how

cultural diversity influences social interactions in these groups. An individual’s beliefs,

values, and behaviours are echoes of the habits and practices of the cultural group from

which he/she hails. Because cultural groups hold divergent values and these value

orientations in turn determine societal-level, and individual-level negotiating behaviours

(Drake, 1994) cultural values are thought to determine persuading behaviours and conflict

behaviours (Ting-Toomey, 1988; Harris and Moran, 2000; Samovar et al., 1981).

Values reflect the standards of behaviour and outcomes that are seen as desirable by a group

of people. Presumably, what are considered moral or ethical behaviours are predicated on a

culture’s values. Kluckhohn (1951:395) defines a value as “a conception …… of the

desirable which influences the selection from available modes, means and ends of actions”.

Rokeach (1972:159) also defines a value as “an enduring belief that a specific mode of

conduct or end-state of existence is personally socially preferable to alternative modes of

conduct or end-states of existence.” Carroll and Gannon (1997) and Pratt (1991) suggest

that different cultures tend to follow variants of the ethical traditions. Hofstede’s work

(1980, 1991) according to Morley et al. (1997), allows us to understand the relative

difference in values and structure of organisational members from different cultures.

Although one among many such frameworks (c.f. Smith et al., 1996) and criticised by

Harris and Moran (1991), and Mead (1998), Hofstede’s influential formulation stands.

2.3.3 Value Orientation

Recent research by Trompenaars (1993) identifies five value orientations that are similar

to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions namely: universalism-particularism, communitarianism-

individualism, neutral-affective, diffuse-specific, achievement-ascription.

2.3.3.1 Universalism versus particularism

Universalism is associated with modernisation and is a characteristic of more complex and

developed societies. Particularism on the other hand is an aspect of smaller, predominantly

rural communities where people know each other personally. Table 2.10 presents a

comparison of the value orientations that would be useful for project management.

Table 2.10 Recognising the differences (Universalism-Particularism)

Universalism Particularism

• Focus is more on rules than relationship • Legal contracts are readily drawn • A trustworthy person is one who honours their word or

contract • There is only one truth or reality, that which has been

agreed to • A deal is a deal

• Focus is more on relationships than on rules • Legal contracts are readily modified • A trustworthy person is the one who honours changing

mutualities • There are several perspectives on reality relative to

each participant • Relationships evolve

Source: Trompenaars, 1993

2.3.3.2 Communitarianism versus Individualism

Communitarianism is associated with traditional societies where members work for the

good of the group. Individualism is a feature of modern, developed societies where the

individual is encouraged to work for his/her own benefit. Table 2.11 presents a comparison

of the value orientations that would be useful for project management.

Table 2.11 Recognising the differences (Individualism-Communitarianism)

Individualism Communitarianism

• More frequent use of the “I” form • Decisions are made on the spot by representatives • People ideally achieve alone and assume personal

responsibility • Vacations taken in pairs, even alone

• More frequent use of “We” form • Decision referred back by delegate to organisation • People ideally achieve in groups which assume joint

responsibility • Vacations in organised groups or with extended family

Source: Trompenaars, 1993 2.3.3.3 Neutral versus Affective

In Neutral cultures people believe that emotions should be held in check so as not to cloud

issues or give the appearance of being out of control. In Affective cultures people express

emotions immediately and openly either by laughing, smiling, grimacing, scowling and

gesturing. Table 2.12 presents a comparison of the value orientations useful for project

management.

Table 2.12 Recognising the differences (Neutral-Affective)

Neutral Affective

• Do not reveal what they are thinking or feeling • May (accidentally) reveal tension in face and posture • Emotions often dammed up will occasionally explode • Cool and self-possessed conduct is admired • Physical contact, gesturing or strong facial

expressions often taboo • Statements often read out in monotone

• Reveal thoughts and feelings verbally and non-verbally • Transparency and expressiveness release tensions • Emotions flow easily, effusively, vehemently and

without inhibition • Heated, vital, animated expressions admired • Touching, gesturing and strong facial expressions

common • Statements read fluently and dramatically

Source: Trompenaars 1993

2.3.3.4 Diffuse versus Specific

Specificity is the degree to which we engage others in specific areas of life and single levels

of personality. Diffuseness on the other hand is the degree we engage others in multiple

areas of our lives and at several levels of personality at the same time. These are closely

related to whether we show emotions in dealing with people or not. Table 2.13 presents a

comparison of the value orientations useful for project management.

Table 2.13 Recognising the differences (Specific-Diffuse)

Specificity Diffuseness

• Direct, to the point, purposeful in relating • Precise, blunt, definitive and transparent • Principles and consistent moral standards

independent of the person being addressed

• Indirect, circuitous, seemingly “aimless” forms of relating • Evasive, tactful, ambiguous, even opaque • Highly situational morality depending upon the person

and context encountered Source: Trompenaars, 1993

2.3.3.5 Achievement versus Ascription

Societies accord status to people on the basis of either achievements (hard work,

competition – status refers to doing) or ascribe to them by virtue of age, class, gender,

education, and so on (status refers to being). Table 2.14 presents a comparison of the value

orientations useful for project management.

Table 2.14 Recognising the differences (Achievement-Ascription)

Achievement Ascription

• Use of titles only when relevant to the competence you bring to the task

• Respect for superior in hierarchy is based on how effectively his or her job is performed and how adequate their knowledge

• Most senior managers are of varying age and gender and have shown proficiency in specific jobs

• Extensive use of titles, especially when these clarify status in the organisation

• Respect for superior in hierarchy is seen as a measure of your commitment to the organisation and its mission

• Most senior managers are male, middle-aged and qualified by their background

Source: Trompenaars, 1993

According to Mead (1998:47), the strength of Trompenaars approach is that it draws

together and applies ideas contributed by other scholars such as Hofstede, Kluckhohn and

Strodtbeck, Laurent, and Hall. The disadvantage is that informants were vaguely defined

and lacked homogeneity. And as a result, only imprecise comparisons can be made between

cultures. Mead (1998:45) also points out that there is no one best way of managing cultural

differences. However, Trompenaars ‘value orientations’ assists in our understanding of

cultural differences and its influence on the way we manage business as well as our

response to moral issues.


In this study, Trompenaars set of parameters will be used for analysing cultural

differences on issues pertaining to managing projects in Samoa. This model draws on

other models and frameworks, which exemplifies the main theme advocated in this

study for an integrated approach to analysing cultural influence on cross-cultural

management and communication.

2.3.4 Theoretical Models of Cultural Differences

Kluckhohn and Strodtbecks’ (1961) organisational study of different companies in

different countries including multinational corporations utilises the Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck

framework to analyse cultural diversity comprehensively. The study presents a model called

“value orientation”. An important finding in their research was that managers and

employees vary on six dimensions of national culture: (1) relationship to the environment;

(2) time orientation; (3) nature of people; (4) activity orientation; (5) focus of responsibility;

and (6) conception of space. This framework was instrumental in the formulation of

Schneider and Barsouxs’ model on Underlying Cultural Assumptions.

Hofstede’s (1980) response was that this model (and also Pelto’s and Hall’s) does not meet

the necessary criteria of replacing the vague concept of cultural differences with variables

that are operationalised (measurable or observable). As mentioned earlier, this model has

been influential in other scholars work including Trompenaars (both strengths and

weaknesses for this model have been highlighted in Sub-Section 2.2.13). Mead (1998:28)

made one qualification regarding this model and other comparative models stating a

dimension carried different associations when used to describe different cultures, and hence

there can be no exact point of comparison because the total contexts differ.


This study will use the Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck model (Table 2.16) in conjunction with

Trompenaars’s model in comparing cultures (home and host) and their influence on

project management.

2.3.5 Group Orientation

A common theme in studies that have attempted to identify the differences between

cultures is that group orientation is an important aspect of national culture. In collectivistic

cultures, behaviours are considered to be appropriate if they are accepted by the group as a

whole. Decisions therefore are greatly influenced by group dynamics. Collectivism as

described earlier refers to the strong link that exists in many cultures between a person and

the groups with which he or she is most tightly associated.

In collectivistic cultures, it is of paramount importance to maintain harmonious relationships

in direct conversation with other group members. The extended family or member of a

mutually dependent group thinks much more in terms of “we” than of “I” and senses that his

or her identity is “inextricably interwoven with that of the group as a whole” (Grove,

Howell et al., 1999:4). Saleh and Gufwoli (1982: 327) states “…because of the emphasis on

collectivity harmony and co-operation among the group tend to be emphasised more than

individual function and responsibility”. According to Hue and Triandis (1986), collectivistic

cultures emphasise interconnection, conformity to group norms, relational harmony, and

protection of in-group interests. Collectivistic cultures such as Samoa require that

individuals fit into the group.

2.3.6 Individual Orientation

In contrast to group orientation, individualistic cultures stress the impact of behaviours

on the individual rather than the group. Decisions are therefore often made without

reference to the impact on the group. For example, Japanese management practices often

stress co-operation and social harmony as an important goal (Ouchi and Jaeger, 1978). In

contrast, U.S. managers often rank high on the individualist dimension (Hofstede and Bond,

1988) and tend to evaluate and reward individual performance (Grossman and Schoenfedlt,

2001).

Individualistic cultures, observes Waterman (1984:4-5) promote ‘self-realisation’.

Individualistic cultures place high value on speaking their minds and “telling it like it is”.

They value accuracy over face-saving politeness whereas the collectivists reverse that value

choice. Gudykunst (1991:38) notes that negative feedback is given directly in individualistic

cultures while in collectivistic cultures; negative feedback is conveyed indirectly via an

intermediary.

Hofstede and Bond (1984:419) assert that in individualistic cultures “people are supposed to

look after themselves and their immediate family only.” The ‘I’ identity has precedence in

individualistic cultures over the ‘we’ identity, which as described earlier has precedence in

collectivistic cultures.


This study looks at the differences between management approaches on issues relating

to cross-cultural communication practiced by collectivistic individuals (Samoans,

Japanese) and individualistic individuals (Australians, New Zealanders) in a

collectivistic culture (Samoa). Having an understanding of individualistic and

collectivistic orientations as explained above will assist in analysing cultural

differences between the managers.

2.3.7 Characteristics of “In-groups”

Henry Triandis (1994) argues that collectivistic cultures emphasise the goals, needs, and

views of the group over those of the individual; the social norms of the group, rather than

individual pleasure; shared group beliefs rather than the unique individual beliefs; and a

value on co-operation with group members, rather than maximising individual outcomes.

Researchers (Triandis 1994; Nakane 1970) note that because individualistic cultures have

many specific “in-groups” (smaller cohorts within a cultural group, for example: family,

religion, social clubs) they exert less influence on individuals than in collectivistic cultures,

in which there are a few general in-groups (for example: work group, university, family).

While the in-group may be the same in individualistic and collectivistic cultures, the sphere

of its influence is different. The sphere of influence in an individualistic culture is very

specific (for example: the in-group affects behaviour in very specific circumstances) while

the sphere of influence in a collectivistic culture is very general (for example: the in-group

affects behaviour in many different aspects of a person’s life).

Triandis (1994) explored the premise that in-groups have different rank-orders of

importance in collectivistic cultures; some for example, put family while others put their

companies ahead of other in-groups. An example can be seen in Japan where the company

is often considered the primary in-group (Nakane, 1970), while the family is considered the

primary in-group in many other collectivistic cultures (for example in some Asian cultures,

Latin and South America cultures and South Pacific Island cultures). Collectivistic cultures

draw clearer distinctions between in-group and out-group (groups that we may or may not

engage and interact with from time to time but we do not belong to), and place greater

emphasis on status and role authority (Gudykunst, 1991).

A study by Adler et al. (1992) found that cultures often are portrayed as having a

predominant value orientation; for example, the United States is viewed typically as

individualistic whereas China’s culture is viewed as collectivistic. Therefore an emphasis on

these contrasting orientations could produce differing approaches to management and

communication across cultures.

2.3.8 Cultural Distance

Some research (for example: Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey, 1988; Furnham and

Bochner, 1982) supports the potential impact of cultural distance (difference between home

culture versus host culture) on stress and intercultural interactions. Gudykunst and Ting-

Toomey (1988) claim there is a strong impact of cultural variability on social relationships.

For instance, they state, “high uncertainty avoidance cultures (little acceptance for

uncertainty and risk) perceive their relationships to be more personal than members of low

uncertainty cultures (generally accepting of uncertainty and risk)” (page 188). Such a

difference would have an impact on the interpersonal interactions of individuals from these

two cultural extreme. Someone from a culture that stresses harmony, relationships might be

expected to have difficulty with someone from a culture that stresses materialism and

wealth. The greater the difference, the more one might expect problems in developing and

maintaining relationships, meeting social needs and in general adapting to the culture.

Furnham and Bochner (1982), in a review of research, identified cultural differences as one

of the primary factors contributing to culture shock (refer to Sub-Section 2.5.4.1 for more

information on Culture shock). They report that the amount of social difficulty encountered

related to the difference between the home and host cultures. Gudykunst and Hammer

(1988) developed a number of assumptions to describe a theory relating uncertainty-

reduction to intercultural adaptation. Among the variables they examined was similarity

between home and host cultures. They found that cultural similarities produce more

accuracy in an expatriate’s ability to predict and explain host behaviour. Gudykunst and

Hammer (1988) assert that such similarity is expected to reduce the amount of anxiety

experienced by international visitors. According to researchers such as Redmond

(2000:158), socially empathic individuals are probably more likely to recognise differences

between the home culture and the host culture, thus intensifying culture shock. Those who

are more egocentric (less empathic) notes Redmond (2000:158) are more likely to be less

aware of the cultural difference.


This study looks at the interaction between expatriate managers and supervisors

who are from home cultures that are said to stress materialism and wealth, and

Samoan managers and workers who are from the host culture that stresses

harmony and relationships. Developing an understanding and awareness of

cultural differences and similarities enhances interaction.

2.3.9 Ethical Distance

Ethical distance is defined as the difference in the way cultures assess the ethical

ramifications of a decision. Grossman and Schoenfeldt (2001:59) assert that values can be

thought of as standards of behaviour or outcomes deemed desirable by a group of people.

Hodgetts and Luthans (2000:111) define values as “basic convictions that people have

regarding what is right and wrong, good and bad, important and unimportant”. Presumably

what are considered moral or ethical are predicated on a culture’s values.

Japanese management practices include such conventions as egalitarian compensation

schemes, seniority-based promotion, and lifetime employment norms (Lincoln and

Kalleberg, 1990). Highly democratic compensation and seniority-based promotion system

can be viewed as a re-allocation of rewards from high performers to low performers in the

interest of social harmony, which is consistent with the utilitarian principles. In contrast, pay

and performance or incentive promotion systems may be viewed as unethical in more

collectivistic societies, which tend to focus on outcomes that benefit a collective.

Grossman and Schoenfeldt (2001:59) proposed that in collectivistic cultures, organisations

that implement human resource policies that evaluate performance and administer rewards

based on group outcomes will be viewed as more ethical than those that tend to evaluate and

reward individual outcomes. However, in more individualistic cultures where individual

performance is rewarded, such practices may be viewed as unfair and potentially unethical.

In individualistic societies, social norms emphasising individual performance may establish

expectations of the right to be rewarded or promoted based on that performance. Given their

emphasis on individual rights, ethical decision processes in more individualistic cultures

may follow a rights-based perspective (Carroll and Gannon, 1997). Therefore, more

individualistic societies may value modes of conduct rather than group goals or outcomes.

According to Grossman and Schoenfeldt (2001:60), a culture’s ethos (culture’s ethical

orientation), can be classified by the extent to which ethical decisions are based upon

achieving an outcome, valued by a social collective or whether certain fundamental rights

are respected of processes followed. Differences in ethics between national cultures may be

a significant source of friction between expatriate organisations and their host cultures.

Organisations conducting business in a host country may find themselves faced with ethical

dilemmas when operating in cultures with values different from their own (Carroll and

Gannon, 1997). Clugston et al. (2000) suggest that cultural perceptions vary both between

and within cultures. Triandis (1995) argues that the more basic cultural syndromes such as

beliefs, norms and values, which manifest themselves as macro cultural dimensions also,

have an individual parallel. Clugston et al (2000) contend that cultural beliefs are likely to

influence different types of organisational commitment. In International Construction

Projects for example in Samoa, local cultural practices and beliefs have a significant effect

on project processes and outcomes. Individuals in collectivistic societies may make

commitments based on morals and duty while those from individualistic cultures may form

commitments for calculative reasons (Hofstede, 1980). Ethical dilemmas faced by expatriate

managers will impact on human resource management. Decisions that are perceived as

ethical may be susceptible to ethical breaches.


This study examines ethical issues with respect to human resource practices and

cross-cultural communication between expatriate managers and supervisors and

Samoan managers and workers, and its impact on management systems.

2.3.10 Cultural Relatedness

The literature on cultural diversity has generally focused on domestic models and ignored

the effects of an organisation’s exposure to multiple host cultures. Rumelt’s (1974:29)

concept of ‘relatedness’ can be used in relation to a company’s international business more

efficiently when those businesses are established in countries that are ‘related’ in terms of

national culture (i.e. when the cultural diversity among the company’s international

divisions is manageable). According to Palich and Gomez-Mejia (1999:590), gains from

cultural relatedness may arise from several functions in an organisation, but the most critical

direct benefits are those associated with markets, productions and technologies. Palich and

Gormez-Mejia (1999:598) assert that cultural diversity is much more than a micro-level

concern. As organisations pursue global strategies, the issue takes on strategic dimensions.

‘Relatedness’ is used to argue that global companies enjoy direct benefits from culturally

related international partners based on marketing, production and research and development

activities that are efficiently shared. Current research such as Adler’s (1997) advocates that

international expansion may allow an organisation to understand local cultures and

opportunities, in a gradual and cautious manner, and the degree of success in managing

cultural diversity may vary according to the process by which globalisation takes place.

Adler (1997:106-129) argues that, as managers recognise and acknowledge cultural

diversity and become sensitive to national differences, they can avoid the pitfalls of cultural

blindness (ignorance).

Harris and Moran (2000:113) suggest that such differences can actually be managed to

provide ‘cultural synergies’ (building upon the very differences in the world’s people for

mutual growth and accomplishment by cooperation). As Adler (1997:172) reports,

“culturally synergistic organisations create new forms of management that transcend the

individual cultures of their members”. Morrison et al. (1991) note that only a few

organisations are able to do this well. Some might argue that increasing cultural diversity

does indeed impede organisational performance; however, these hurdles can be overcome

by learning from exposure to dissimilar cultural views, leading to superior performance in

the long-run by stimulating creativity, abrogating parochialism, and providing unique

alternatives for decision making (Adler, 1997).

2.3.11 Cultural Tendencies

Individualistic and collectivistic tendencies exist in all cultures and according to research

(Hofstede, 1980) one tends to dominate. Cross-cultural theorists (Hofstede and Bond, 1984)

assert that everyone has individualistic and collectivistic thoughts. It is possible then to have

collectively oriented people in individualistic cultures and individualistically oriented

people in collectivistic cultures (Gudykunst and Kim, 1997:65). Triandis et al. (1985) refer

to people who have more individualistic than collectivistic thoughts as “idiocentrics” and

people who have more collectivistic thoughts as “allocentrics.” Triandis et al. (1988:325)

assert idiocentric individuals in individualistic cultures see it as natural to “do their own

thing” and disregard needs of their ingroups, while allocentric individuals in individualistic

cultures are concerned about their ingroups. Allocentric individuals in collectivistic cultures

“feel positive about accepting ingroup norms and do not even raise the question of whether

or not to accept them,” while idiocentric individuals in collectivistic cultures “feel

ambivalent and even bitter about acceptance of ingroup norms”. Triandis and his associates

found that allocentric tendencies involved three factors: subordinating individual goals to

group goals, viewing the in-group as an extension of the self, and having a strong in-group

identity.

Shalom Schwartz (1990:143) argues that individualistic and collectivistic values do not

necessarily conflict. Cultures and individuals, Schwartz asserts, can have both

individualistic and collectivistic tendencies. Enjoyment, achievement, self-direction, social

power, and stimulation values all serve the self-interest of the individual but not necessarily

at the expense of any collectivity. Schwartz argues that collectivistic tendencies reflect pro-

social, restrictive security and traditional values, which focus on promoting the interests of

others, but not necessarily at the expense of the individual.


The concepts of ‘cultural relatedness’ and ‘cultural tendencies’ suggest that cultures

have differences as well as similarities and although all cultural orientations exist in

all cultures, some predominate over the others. In Samoa for instance, collectivistic

values predominate.

2.3.12 Diversity and Communication

Although communication processes and its impact on international project management will

be discussed in more depth in later sections (Section 2.5), it is also pertinent to mention a

few aspects of the relationship between diversity and communication. Edward T. Hall

(1976) differentiated between cultures on the basis of their communication. According to

researchers such as Hall (1976:79) a ‘high context’ communication or message is one in

which “most of the information is either in the physical context of internalised in the

person”. ‘Low context’ communication or message is one which “the mass of information is

vested in the explicit code’ (p.70). For example, in Australia, Japan and other countries

placed toward the lower end of the continuum, promptness is valued. Schedules are

generally made use of and evaluation of each others behaviour is made in these terms. Other

countries like Samoa are placed toward the higher end of the continuum, to arrive late is the

norm rather than the exception and it has a different meaning depending on how late one is,

the circumstances of the meeting and how well you know the person. These differences are

often communicated in negative ways to people whose values are different to your own.

Gudykunst (1991:51) suggests that members of low context and individualistic cultures tend

to communicate in a direct fashion while members of high-context collectivistic cultures

tend to communicate in an indirect fashion.

Eugene Roosens (1989:17-18) points out that asserting our ethnic identity helps define who

we are. Our ethnicity offers commonality in language, a series of customs and symbols, a

style, rituals and appearance that can penetrate life in many ways. Grove and Hallowell

(1994:7) surmise that one of the key differences among cultures is the extent to which

people evaluate each others worth primarily on the basis of individual achievements or on

the basis of ascribed characteristics (demographic traits such as gender, ethnicity, age, place

of origin, and family or clan background). Different groups view people’s ascribed traits as

being a proper basis for assigning them to an economic role or social status.

Another difference among cultures that can undermine mutual understanding concerns the

extent to which one’s feelings and emotions are openly revealed in the course of managerial

work. Culture is to society as personality is to an individual (Hofstede, 1980). Cultures have

tendencies too, when it comes to emotional display. In some cultures, the norm is for people

to communicate and express their emotions quickly, openly and animatedly, whereas in

others the reverse is true.

2.3.13 Summary

The 21st century has presented organisations with important challenges; one challenge for

international managers is effectively managing cultural diversity. Differences in customs,

behaviour and values result in problems that can only be managed through effective cross-

cultural communication and interaction. Research suggests that project managers, situated in

host cultures of dissimilar backgrounds usually require more time than those of the same

culture to become familiar with each other, to be willing to speak openly, to share in

common ideas and to understand one another. People who have misunderstandings or

commit ‘mistakes’ when working with persons from different cultures are often unaware of

any problem. Cross-cultural faux pas result, when we fail to recognise that persons of other

cultural backgrounds have different goals, customs, thought patterns and values from our

own.

The broad cultural diversity represented by international projects has implications for

management practice. Many researchers such as Tsui et al. (1992) argue that greater cultural

diversity offers substantial benefits such as improved decision-making, increased creativity

and innovation, and more successful marketing efforts. However, according to other writers,

this perspective tends to overlook the potential drawbacks to transnational cultural diversity,

including “conflict, a lack of cohesion, misunderstanding between diverse groups,

parochialism, negative political activity, and poor organisational performance” (Glick et al.,

1993: 177).

Global operations increase the cultural diversity of an organisation’s workforce and the

complexity of the social environment within which the organisation operates. Parker (1996)

indicates that as global organisations become structurally flatter, more interactive,

increasingly knowledge based, geographically scattered, and more culturally diverse,

traditional methods of communication will miss the mark. According to Parker (1996), the

time has come to reconsider the “organisation”. Writers such as Grove and Hallowell

(1994:7) have discovered that it is “risky to assume that human resource policies that work

well in cultures such as the U.S.A. will also work well in cultures abroad”. Boddewyn

(1997:54-57) reminds us that “international” means the crossing of national borders – he

suggests that international business occurs in an environment that has an economic

dimension, a socio-cultural dimension and a political dimension. That is, the environment in

which business is conducted varies across cultures and these variations greatly influence

managerial activity.

Project planners need to be aware that management theories developed in one culture are

not universal. Application differs when introduced in another culture. According to Harris

and Moran (1981), project managers need to think globally and act locally. The discussion

in this section has raised a number of issues for future research on critical links between

cultural diversity and organisational efficiencies of international project management. This

thesis argues that cultural diversity can be a resource and not necessarily a handicap.

2.4 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

2.4.1 Introduction

The literature on cross-cultural communication investigates effective cross-cultural

communication, barriers to effective communication and explores effective inter-cultural

communication strategies. There is a strong relationship between culture and

communication and international project management. The development of human culture

is made possible through communication, as it is through communication that culture is

transmitted from one generation to another. Culture and communication are so closely

intertwined that Hall (1959 cited in Gudykunst and Kim, 1997:4) maintains that ‘culture is

communication, and communication is culture’. According to Hall we communicate the

way we do because we are raised in a particular culture and learn rules, language and norms.

Gudykunst and Kim (1997:4) note that because we learn the language, rules and norms of

our culture by a very early age, we generally are unaware of how culture influences our

behaviour in general and our communication in particular.

2.4.2 Cultural Variables in the Communication Process

Researchers such as Samovar and Porter (1981) identify a number of cultural variables

that can affect the communication process. Perceptions may be influenced by attitudes,

social organisation, thought patterns, roles, language (spoken or written), non-verbal

communication (including kinesic behaviour, proxemics, para-language, and object

language), and time. According to Deresky (2000:142) the effect of these variables are

interdependent and inseparable. Table 2.15 below presents these cultural variables useful for

a project manager in understanding why different people respond and communicate certain

ways.


In this study, these interrelated cultural variables (see Table 2.15) will be used to develop an understanding of how Expatriate Managers and Samoan Managers/Counterparts communicate.

Table 2.15 Cultural Variables in the Communication Process

Cultural Variable Description

Attitudes

Our attitudes underlie the way we behave and communicate, and the way we interpret messages from other people. Ethnocentric attitudes are a particular problem in cross-cultural communication. Stereotyping assumes that every member of a society or subculture has the same characteristics or traits

Social Organisation

Our perceptions can be influenced by differences in values, approach, or priorities relative to the kinds of social organizations to which we belong – nation, tribe, religious sect, or profession.

Thought Patterns The logical progression of reasoning varies widely around the world and greatly affects the communication process.

Roles Societies differ considerably in their perception of a manager’s role – of who should make the decisions and who has responsibility for what.

Language Miscommunication often stems from a person’s inability to speak the local language, a poor or too literal translation, a speaker’s failure to explain idioms

Non-verbal communication

Behaviour that is communicated without word – although it often is accompanied by words. The media for such non-verbal communication can be categorized into four types: (1) kinesic behaviour – body movements, (2) proxemics – influence of proximity and space on communication, (3) para-language – how something is said rather than the content, and (4) object language or material culture – how we communicate through material artifacts.

Time The way people regard and use time.

2.4.3 Emerging Realities

Many of the emerging realities for business (for example continual innovation, global

markets, strategic planning and technological change) have become inter-related (Ulijin et

al., 2000). Maintaining a competitive edge in a global, innovative, and dynamically

evolving environment produces pressure to re-define how business is conducted. According

to Monge and Fulk (1999), new patterns of communicating emerge as organisations re-

engineer their structures to become more pro-active and accessible.

Samovar and Porter (2001:23) define communication as a dynamic process where-by

human behaviour, both verbal and non-verbal is perceived and responded to. Cross-cultural

communication as defined by Harris and Moran (2000:32) is a process whereby individuals

from different cultural backgrounds attempt to share meanings and feelings. Effective

communication is necessary for the successful management of international projects,

ranging from increased cultural understanding to eliminating waste and motivating those

involved. Successful communication needs to be personalised and task specific rather than

“broad-brush” (Feiner and Howard, 1992) and timing is of crucial importance (Meredith

and Mantel, 1995). However, Dieckmann (1996) notes that communication is also regarded

as one of the most neglected and overlooked parts of international operations. Lack of

communication has been cited as one of the biggest reasons for the failure of change

projects to meet their expectations (Pardu, 1996). Effective communication can help to

manage uncertainty (Lanfer et al., 1997), may lead to problems being identified sooner

(Dahle, 1997), and may generate ideas that lead to better solutions (Dahle, 1997).

According to Dieckmann (1996), having a better understanding of the benefits and

limitations of each of the main methods of communication, (see Fig 2.6) is a step towards

more effective communication. These modes of communication are particularly useful when

appropriately applied with considerations for the project environment and people involved.

In the traditional Samoan context, preference is for face to face discussions, demonstrations

and examples with the use of oral traditions with very little written documentation.

Figure 2.6 Modes of Communication

Source: Dieckmann, 1996


This study will attempt to identify the most common modes of communication used by

project managers and supervisors at different levels in construction project

management in Samoa.

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Effective communication will encourage teamwork, increase motivation and ensure the

involvement of all key stakeholders (Gannon, 1994). According to other writers such as

Deresky (2000:140) we need to understand how cultural variables cause ‘noise’ in the

communication process in order to have effective cross-cultural communication. “Noise” is

anything that serves to undermine the communication of the intended meaning. The sender

and the receiver each exist in a unique, private world called his or her life space. According

to Deresky, this context of the private world, based largely on culture, experience, relations

and values, determines the interpretation of meaning in communication. People filter, or

selectively understand messages according to what is consistent with their own expectations

and perceptions of reality and their values and norms of behaviour. In the context of Samoa,

the fa’asamoa influences how locals in the construction industry behave in communication

with expatriates and people of authority, which include being very polite and

accommodating with unquestioning attitudes. This type of behaviour affects communication

and can lead to frustration in that even if the instructions are unclear or the task is beyond

the capacity and means of the individual, the answer is likely to be a yes with no questions

asked.


This research will attempt to identify the extent to which cultural variables such as

‘noise’ affect communication in project management in Samoa. There may be positive

or negative implications depending on how the Expatriates and Samoans manage the

communication process and will be reflected in their responses.

Neuliep (2000:19) contends that because intercultural communication is contextual it occurs

in a variety of contexts, including cultural, micro-cultural, environmental, perceptual, and

socio-relational contexts. A model of contextual intercultural communication is presented

by Neuliep (Figure 2.7).

Figure 2.7 A Contextual Model of Intercultural Communication

Source: Neuliep, 2000:19

The key elements of the Contextual Model are:

The cultural context; focuses on five dimensions of cultural variability that affect how

people communicate: 1) Individualism/collectivism, 2) High/low context, 3) Value

orientation, 4) Power distance, and 5) Uncertainty avoidance. Culture provides the overall

framework in which humans learn to organise their thoughts, emotions, and behaviours in

relation to their environment (Neuliep, 2000:30). Culture influences our every thought,

feeling, action and culture hides more than it reveals, particularly from its own members

(Hall, 1959:39).

The Micro-cultural context; refers to those identifiable groups of people who share a set of

values, beliefs, and behaviours and who possess a common history and verbal and

nonverbal symbol system that is similar to the dominant culture but which varies in some

way, perhaps subtly (Neuliep, 2000:74). Schaefer (1998, cited in Neuliep, 2000) identified

five characteristics that distinguish micro-cultural groups from the dominant culture – 1)

physical and cultural traits (these include skin colour, sex, language, dress habits), 2)

involuntary membership (people cannot choose to be a certain race, ethnicity, gender, and

sometimes born into a religion and find it hard to leave if they wanted to), 3) endogamy

(marrying within the in-group believing that it strengthens family ties, preserves family

property through inheritance, and upholds cultural and group traditions), 4) awareness of

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subordinate status (because they know they are less powerful within a particular culture,

they tend to be very cohesive), and 5) unequal treatment by the dominant group (often

experience unequal treatment from the dominant group in the form of segregation and

discrimination).

The environmental context; as all human interaction and communication occurs within the

physical and perceptual environment, these environments have a pervasive influence on the

nature on communication (Neuliep, 2000:100). Stein (1987:15, cited in Neuliep, 2000)

notes that far from being a passive component of culture, the environment is an active

ingredient of the human experience. The physical environment has a considerable impact on

our communication and as we move from one physical location to another, our verbal and

non-verbal messages adapt accordingly.

The perceptual context; this refers to the higher mental processes required for human

communication which include the gathering, storing, and retrieval of information. This

process, although a universal phenomenon, is influenced by culture and therefore affects

how individuals communicate.

The socio-relational context; regardless of culture, all human beings belong to groups as

our survival depends on our interdependency and cooperation. The nature of group

membership and group behaviour, especially group communication, differs considerably

across cultures. The number of social groups to which a person belongs, the length of

association with those groups, whether group membership is determined by birth or

eligibility, and the purpose of the groups varies from one culture to the next (Neuliep,

2000:174)


This study will utilise this contextual model to analyse and explain cross-cultural

communication and its impact on project management in Samoa. This model explicitly

projects the relationship between culture, communication and project management.

2.4.4 Cross-cultural communication styles

Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey (1988) assert that cultures have a predominant manner,

fashion, or style in which they use their language such as communicating through shades of

tonal qualities. Understanding the different communication styles predominant in a society

or organisation can assist in minimising possible stumbling blocks that are commonly

associated with business interactions. The four communication styles identified are

presented in Table 2.16.

Table 2.16 Types of Cross-cultural Communication

Communication Styles Definition

Direct and indirect styles

Direct style of communication employs overt expressions of intention, clearly articulating the speaker’s desires and needs. Often associated with low- context, individualistic cultures.

Indirect style of communication is the opposite of direct, where the speaker’s intention are hidden or only hinted at during the exchange. Often associated with high-context, collectivistic cultures.

Elaborate, Exacting, and Succinct styles

Deals with the quantity and/or volume of talk that is preferred across cultural groups. Three levels – 1) Elaborate style that emphasises flashy and embellish language; 2) Exacting style where a person says no more than is needed; and 3) Succinct style where a person uses concise statements, understatements, and even silence.

Personal and Contextual styles

The personal communication style stresses and underscores personhood in that the identity of the speaker is amplified. Often associated with individualistic cultures.

A contextual communication style stresses and highlights one’s role identity and status. Relies on the context rather than the words.

Instrument and Affective styles

An instrument style communication is outcome and goal based, focusing on achieving the sender’s goals through persuasion and influence, hence saving face.

An affective communication style focuses on the receiver and is process oriented rather than outcome-achieved.

Source: Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey, 1998


This study will attempt to identify contrasting communication styles practiced in

construction projects in Samoa between Expatriates and locals. It will use Table 2.16

to identify what styles predominate and whether there is convergence between

perceived and reality.

2.4.5 Cross-cultural communication considerations

While certain forms of communication are acceptable in one country, these may be

considered taboo in another. Hence, while direct physical contact (for example, a kiss on the

cheek) may be practiced by North Americans, these are not accepted in Asian cultures.

Cultural values, as well as situational variables determine the norms for communication.

Recent studies have focused on Thailand. Sriussadaporn–Charoenngam and Jablin (1999)

conducted a study to determine the effects of cultural values (high uncertainty, high power

distance, low individualism, low masculinity), on the communication practices of Thai

business professionals and found coherence between culture and communication. The study

found that Thai business professionals reflect their cultural values by communicating in

reserved, respectful, deferential and intimate ways.

Krone et al. (1997) found in their study of Chinese manager’s relationship with

subordinates, that cultural values and political grounding were reflected in the way that

managers used influence tactics, with subordinates. Another study found that Chinese make

extensive use of intermediaries in delicate communication transactions, whereas Westerners

do not (Bond et al., 1985). Terpstra and Yu (1991) argue that multiplicity of language use

and the diversity of cultures have a constraining influence on management communication

in cross-cultural situations. Although the failure of expatriate managers, especially North

Americans, has been extremely high (Tung, 1987; 1988), the expatriate experience has

included individuals who have been able to overcome cultural and language constraints and

to develop effective and efficient communication strategies.

2.4.5.1 Culture Shock

Culture shock has been described as a disease, which cannot be prevented and can be caught

over and over again (Weaver 1986). Over forty years ago, Oberg (1960) identified 6 aspects

of culture shock.

• Strain due to effort to make necessary psychological adjustments.

• Sense of loss and feelings of deprivation in regard to friends, status, profession and

possessions.

• Being rejected by and/or rejecting member of the new culture.

• Confusion in role, role expectations, values, feelings and self-identity.

• Surprise, anxiety, even disgust and indignation after becoming aware of cultural

differences.

• Feelings of impotence due to not being able to cope with the new environment.

Juffer (1986) notes that culture shock is caused by confronting a new environment or

situation; by ineffectiveness of inter-cultural and inter-personal communication; by a threat

to the emotional or intra-psychic well being of expatriates; by the need to adequately modify

behaviour to regain positive re-inforcement from the new environment; and by growth

experience. Adler (1987) describes culture shock as a profound learning experience that can

have a positive outcome through an increase in self-awareness and personal growth. It is at

the heart of the cross-cultural learning experience in self-understanding and change.

Researchers prescribe programs of preparation, orientation, and acquisition of culturally

appropriate skills to deal with the anticipated impact of culture shock (Black and

Mendenhall, 1991). Most companies working in international projects now run preparatory

program for staff prior to departure. In the Samoan context lack of privacy and personal

space is reflected in traditional designs of homes and villages and also in everyday social

interactions. Expatriate managers may experience discomfort and anxiety even shock at the

collective and ‘shared’ traditions and practices of Samoan society.


This research will attempt to consolidate the relationship between ineffective cross-

cultural communication and culture shock and its impact on project management in

Samoa. Culture shock is a very important phenomenon to understand in international

developmental projects.

2.4.5.2 Cultural Competency

Cooley and Roach (1984), assert that communication behaviours are the reflection of an

individual’s competence and are culturally specific and, hence, bound by the culture in

which they are acted out. As a result, behaviours that are understood as a reflection of

competence in one culture are not necessarily understood as competent in another. In the

Samoan context, competence may reflect ones ability to follow political and cultural

protocols; who to contact and network with; and knowing when and where to apply

particular strategies. Table 2.17 below presents how recent scholars defined inter-cultural

communication competence which may be useful for project managers.

Table 2.17 How inter-cultural communication is defined by recent scholars

Source: Ulijin, O’Hair, and Weggenan, 2000

What can be concluded from the research on intercultural communication is that

‘competence’ may largely depend on: 1-The unique characteristics of home and host

cultures; 2-In-company training programs; 3-Exit staff briefings prior to departure; 4-The

experience/qualification of staff selected for overseas service; and 5-Certain types of

organisations within the same culture may require different types of competency.


In this study, intercultural communication competence as defined by recent scholars

(Table 2.17) will be used to evaluate how project managers adapt and communicate in

Samoa, and whether in congruence with the literature or any new emerging

competence identified.

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This table is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library

2.4.5.3 Time

People view time and time schedules differently depending on the culture they are brought

up in. Time appears to be a deceptively easy concept to understand (Harvey et al;

2000:649). On closer inspection, time is a multidimensional construct that becomes difficult

to assess because of the variance in its impact on individuals, organisations, and society as

well as on the global community. Jayanth et al, (1999) refers to clock or real time as a

resource of efficiency (‘time is money’).

Gross (1984) discussed “social time” and concluded that ‘time’ becomes a socially

constructed variable that gives meaning within the context of the entities, which are making

time. According to Anand and Khanna (2000), both the national and organisational culture

can influence the concept of time. Conflict can occur when organisational time has different

meanings to those involved in a personal or cultural relationship. This perspective supports

Almaney and Alwans’ (1982) view that in different cultures, people regard and use time in

different ways. In rigid-time societies, punctuality is critical, schedules are set in concrete,

agendas are fixed, and business meetings rarely interrupted. Edward T. Hall (1990) invented

the term ‘monochronic’ to describe these clock-obsessed cultures.

Harris and Moran (2000) in their study note that North Americans and North Europeans are

relatively ‘linear’ in their communication. Grove and Hallowell (1999) assert that the

cultural inheritance of North Americans, along with Canadians, and many Northern

Europeans (including Australian and New-Zealanders) view time as moving – one moment

inexorably following another. “Saving time” is also of the essence in the business culture of

these societies. Grove and Hallowell (1999) assert that business cultures in these societies

emphasize time and motion studies, assembly lines, penalty clauses for late delivery, and

“fast bucks” – a high profit relationship between product-delivery-time. In direct contrast to

‘monochronic’ cultures are ‘polychronic’ cultures (Hall and Hall, 1990; refer to Table 2.18).

People in these cultures (including Samoa) place less emphasis on strict punctuality and are

not obsessed with deadlines. Grove and Hallowell (1999) refer to this alternative view of

time as ‘casual’. This idea of time is people oriented. Time reflects the deep and durable

mutual involvements of people in many regions of the world. They relegate the completion

of tasks, even business tasks – to lesser importance or priority.

Hall and Hall (1990) also note that ‘polychronic’ cultures value loose scheduling. They hold

meetings where several meetings–within–meetings may take place simultaneously.

Trompenaars (1993) asserts that in relationship orientated cultures like Mexico the

technological qualities of business are superseded by relationships. According to Hall and

Hall (1990), the Indonesians refer to polychronic time as ‘jam karet’ or rubber time –

flexible, stretchable meeting times, schedules and agendas. Gesteland (1999) notes that in

Singapore, business meetings usually start within 5-10 minutes of scheduled time but

weddings and other social gatherings can start at least two hours after scheduled time.

In polychronic cultures such as Samoa punctuality may vary according to the occasion.

Although, Japan was classified as polychronic by Hall in the 1960s studies carried out by

Grove and Hallowell (1999) note that Japanese are now as schedule and clock-conscious as

the European industrial superpowers like Germany. Grove and Hallowell (1999) assert that

it can be a mistake to set rigid deadlines and try to enforce them. Instead, Grove and

Hallowell suggest that managers must be patient as ‘time’ is not the same in every part of

the world.

Table 2.18 Business Cultures and World Regions

Business Culture Country and World Region Monochronic Nordic and Germanic Europe, North America, Japan

Moderately Monochronic Australia, New Zealand, Russia, Most of East Central Europe, Southern Europe, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, China, South Korea, South Africa

Polychronic The Arab World, Most of Africa, Latin America, South and Southeast Asia, South Pacific

Source: Hall and Hall, 1990


This study will look at how expatriate managers view and use time in contrast to

Samoans and to check for convergence with the literature. Hall’s model is useful in

understanding how members of different cultures develop business relationships,

negotiate with insiders and outsiders, and implement contracts. Mead (1998:30)

however points out that Hall’s model is built on qualitative insights rather than

quantitative data, and does not rank different countries.

2.4.5.4 Stereotypes

Lippman (1992) refers to stereotypes as the tendency to categorise others into distinct social

groups and to generalise about characteristics which distinguish members of those groups

from each other. Hogg and Abrams (1988) note stereotypes are uncertainty-reducing

devices, which serve to structure the potentially infinite variability of stimuli into a more

manageable number of distinct categories. Stereotyping allows people to simplify and

reduce the unpredictability of their social world by placing themselves and others into

distinct social categories. Seymour and Rooke (1995), note that there is likely to be a

tendency to do this in people who are guided by scientific values. Stereotypes in project

management have been described as a set of enduring, socially shared beliefs, which have

been the result of centuries of tradition (Loosemore, 1997). These stereotypes harm

communication by isolating behavioural traits and limiting communication. Brewster-Smith

(1972) and Manis et al. (1996) argue that stereotypes are grounded in people’s belief

systems which shape their attitudes, and in turn, their behaviour, towards each other in a

social setting. Stereotypes are held in the form of mental pictures that over time become

deeply embedded into a person’s belief system (Ashmore and Del Boca, 1981). This

subconscious process of ‘selective perception’ is viewed by Langdon and Marshall (1998),

as a threat to the quality of decision-making, communication, and inter-personal

relationships in organisations.

Munns (1996) argues that the problems of communication and decision-making which

result from widely held stereotypes are likely to contribute to a relatively high level of

conflict in international construction projects. Azar (1997) states, that the most worrying

thing about stereotypes is that they are ‘contagious’. They tend to influence the behaviour of

people who do not initially believe in them. Azar (1997) revealed that even people who

score low on the Modern Racism Scale (a widely used test of prejudice), tend to show bias

when interacting with certain ethnic groups – avoiding eye contact, physical closeness and

acting in a less friendly manner. Devine (1997) states that beliefs about certain cultural

groups’ influences behaviour in a spontaneous, subconscious, subtle and covert way. De

Bono (1991) explains that the rigidity of stereotypes causes a person to see things in black-

and-white terms, rather than the ‘tone-of-grey’, which is needed to move people from an

argumentative mode to an explorative one where positive solutions can be explored.

Stereotypes represent the characteristic traits we attribute to particular social entities and

attitudes. They represent positive or negative evaluations of others (Fishbein and Ajzen

1975). In the context of Samoa avoiding eye contact, physical closeness with those in

authority is deemed a mark of respect (fa’aaloalo). However, expatriate managers may

perceive this behaviour as being ‘devious’ and that there is something to hide.


This study will examine the extent stereotypes influence communication and their

impact on project management in Samoa.

2.4.5.5 Language and signs

In the context of international project management, the best attitudinal research combines a

variety of methods, which are able to focus upon different dimensions and perspectives of a

phenomenon, which may result in effective communication processes being established

(Das 1983). Research has also revealed how even routine conversations can be affected by

cultural norms regarding the expression of emotions. Grove and Hallowell (1994) point out

that people in many parts of Asia tend to speak in even tones and with pauses of silence

between speakers. People in many parts of Latin America, on the other hand, tend to speak

excitedly, with tone changes and inflections, and to overlap each other’s speech frequently.

Grove and Hallowell (1994) observe that outsiders to these cultural regions may have

negative interpretations of these tendencies. Daft (1989) provides evidence to show that

subtle messages transmitted through silent communication accounts for up to 65% of

everything interpreted.

Silent communication takes place through kinesics, proxemics, paralanguage and object-

language (Victor, 1992). Kinesics refers to body movements, postures, gestures, while

proxemics refers to the influence of proximity in the act of communication. According to

Loosemore (1997), face-to-face contact gives an advantage in communication and is

important in ‘high contact’ cultures where people value high sensory involvement (stand

close and touch a great deal) in the communications process. Examples of high contact

cultures provided by Deresky (2000) include South Americans, Southern and Eastern

Europeans, Indonesians and Arabs. In contrast, North Americans, North Europeans and

Asians are regarded as ‘low contact’ cultures where people value less sensory involvement

in the communication process.

Para-language refers to how something is said rather than what is said in terms of content.

Hoecklin (1994) notes the importance of the ability to transmit para-language particularly in

high-context cultures such as Asia, the Middle East, Africa and the Mediterranean. In such

cultures, Loosemore (1997) asserts feelings and thoughts are less openly expressed and it is

necessary to read between the lines. Those who are from different cultural backgrounds may

often misread the controlled, reserved style of some Asians and their conversational

silences. However, as Grove and Hallowell (1994) point out, insiders know implicitly if not

explicitly, that nothing is amiss. In contrast, in ‘low context’ cultures, such as North

America, Germany, Switzerland, Scandinavia, and Northern Europe, feelings and thoughts

are made more explicit and para-language becomes less important (Hoeckin, 1994).

Object language refers to how people communicate through material artifacts such as

clothing and office layout. Rosenfeld and Plax (1977) have observed a direct association

between a person’s mode of dress and the way others evaluate them. Loosemore (1997)

asserts that the danger across cultural boundaries is that people may misinterpret the manner

of dress as a personal statement rather than merely being a characteristic of an individual’s

cultural identity.

As Harvey and Allard (1995) point out, people behave and communicate in ways, which are

characteristic of both their organisational and personal cultural backgrounds. Healthy

curiosity about the meanings of emotional heatedness or coolness on the part of counterparts

from other cultures better enables us to avoid judging others behaviour on the basis of our

cultural norms (Grove and Hallowell, 1994). This is also true of the Samoan context.

Conversations and discussions are lengthy and take time so that all participants may feel

that their voice has been heard even if they are repeating what someone else has expressed.

Interruptions are frowned upon and seen as a sign of disrespect in fa’asamoa. Being aware

and appreciative of the double layering of the Samoan language with its oratorical formal

language as well as the everyday language is a considerable aid to cross-cultural

understanding. Embedded in the Samoan language is their cultural logic and rules of social

interaction which encompasses language conventions as the ‘respect’, speech and oratory.

Within the construction industry in Samoa lengthy discussions may be frustrating for

expatriate managers who see things in black and white (time is money), and may construe

this process as time wasting. Differences in language as well as different cultural rules,

values, attitudes and behaviours all contribute to feelings of frustration, annoyance,

uncertainty and anxiety felt by expatriate managers. If left unchecked, it will become a

barrier to effective cross-cultural communication.


This study will examine how and what communication characteristics and behaviours

are prevalent in project management in Samoa. A comparison will also be drawn

between the expatriate managers and locals with reference to existing literature.

2.4.6 Conflict Management

One important factor that can influence group effectiveness is how disagreement is

managed. According to Leung and Wu (1990), if handled improperly, interpersonal

disagreement may develop into full-blown conflicts, and in severe cases lead to complete

disruption. Much evidence has been gathered to show how people from different cultural

backgrounds prefer different ways of handling conflicts (Leung and Fan, 1996). However,

there is little research on disagreement in a cross-cultural setting. Cross-cultural differences

in how disagreements are resolved may pose a serious problem for international project

management if not handled effectively.

Although Hofstede (1991) found individualism–collectivism and power distance strongly

related, the predictions which can be made from these two dimensions as to the frequency

and handling of disagreements are by no means the same (Smith and Duggan, 1998). It can

therefore be proposed, that all conflicts entail disagreement but not all disagreements entail

conflict. According to Leung and Bond (1984), and Triandis (1990), in-group harmony is

valued more highly in collectivistic than in individualistic societies. Other studies have

shown that people from collectivistic societies tend to prefer mediation and non-

confrontational strategies in conflict management (Leung and Wu, 1990). In Samoa,

mediation is perceived as the preferred strategy for conflict management.

Researchers such as Smith and Bond (1998) found that members of collectivistic cultures

differentiate between in-group and out-group more sharply than do members of

individualistic cultures. However, Smith and Bond (1998) also found that the boundaries

between what is in-group and what is out-group might be drawn in different ways in

different collectivistic cultures. Kashima and Callan (1993), for example, found, that

Japanese employees are said to more often identify with their organisation as a whole while

Chinese employees identify with smaller groupings (Hui and Tan, 1996). A simple

assumption that can be made is that in all societies, there is some degree of gradient

between those seen as definitely “in”, and those seen as definitely “out”. Researchers such

as Graham (1985) have found that collectivistic cultures vary markedly in their attitudes

towards conflict. Graham (1985) found very large differences in the robustness and

directness of negotiations among Brazilians when compared to negotiations among

Japanese.

Smith and Bond (1993) found there is greater disagreement with out-groups in high power

distance cultures. Studies by Smith et al. (1998) showed that collectivism was associated

with stronger reliance on the use of formal rules and procedures. Collectivistic cultures tend

to rely on impersonal strategies to preserve in-group harmony. Studies, like Triandis (1990)

in contrast, reveal that individualists tend to rely more on their own experience and training

in the handling of disagreement, and this reflects their emphasis on self-sufficiency.

Peterson et al. (1995) found that managers in high power distance (high degree of

acceptance of unequal distribution of power) societies had the most influence on how

disagreements were handled. Kelly and Shenkar (1993), point out that problems arise when

expatriate managers operating in local host contexts utilise conflict management strategies

which are interpreted by local staff as aggravating the problem. Managers, on the other hand

interpret local behaviour as an example of passiveness and non-commitment when they

attempt to openly discuss possible solutions with local staff. Juralewicz (1974) asserts that

misperception and misunderstanding is highly disruptive to group effectiveness. Smith and

Noakes (1996) state that management in cross-cultural situations requires attention to

resultant group processes and issues, such as differing assumptions as how to conduct

business, how to communicate with others most effectively and how and when to reach

agreement. Mediation in the Samoan context involves a process that can take hours, days

even weeks depending on the issue. Participants continue dialogue and discussion until a

decision has been reached (consensus). These processes are often perceived by expatriate

managers as presenting serious barriers for effective timelines of project deadlines and

financial constraints.

2.4.6.1 Sources of Conflict

Kezsbom (1992) presents a comprehensive list of 13 sources of conflict including

disagreements resulting in poor information flow among staff, the misunderstanding of

project-related goals and the strategic mission of the organisation and the flow of

communication from local technical staff to senior expatriate management. These problems,

states Low (1995), arise because managers from developed countries tend to assume the

responses and behaviour of their clients/partners/counterparts without really understanding

what they want or what they can offer. Source of leadership conflict says Kezsbom (1992)

results from poor direction. In Samoa, disagreements arise because of a lack of clarification

from senior management on project-related goals and strategic mission of the organisation,

or from a lack of decision-making regarding project goals.

In international projects in Samoa, interpersonal differences, rather than ‘technical’ issues,

are usually caused by conflicts that are ego-centred, based on differences in personality, or

caused by prejudice or stereotyping. Interpersonal conflict has been described as a symbolic

product of human communication, and as an interaction between two or more independent

parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and interference in achieving

their goals (Donohue and Kolt, 1992; Folger and Poole, 1984). The case of Samoa’s

construction industry reveals disagreements arising from a lack of goals or poorly defined

project goals, disagreements regarding the project mission and related tasks and differing

views of project participants over the importance of activities and tasks. Kezsbom (1992)

points to the shifting of priorities by superiors and other stakeholders as a cause of goal

conflict. Ross (1993) stresses that treating conflict in a cultural context can help explain

why disputes over similar issues, can be handled so dissimilarly in different cultures.

2.4.6.2 Resolving Conflict

The resolution of cross-cultural conflict in Samoa relies on a level of tolerance, localised

strategies for resolving conflicts and perception of the extent of appropriate intervention by

a superior. Forty years ago, Blake and Mouton (1964) identified five main methods for

resolving and handling conflict.

• Withdrawal (denial/avoidance) to ignore or deny an actual disagreement

• Suppression – to emphasize strong points and to de-emphasize or suppress

differences.

• Forcing (power) to exert one’s point of view at the expense of another, which often

leads to a win/lose situation.

• Compromise (negotiation) to determine ‘acceptable’ solutions in which conflicting

parties have some degree of satisfaction with a ‘give and take’ attitude.

• Confrontation (integration) – collaboration or problem solving to face or confront

conflict directly with a problem-solving attitude and generate the ‘best’ solution.

Dinsmore (1984) asserts that conflict, which if properly managed, can be a valuable tool, if

situations are resolved in their early stages. Thambain and Wilemon (1974) looked at

management techniques for dealing with different hierarchical levels based on the work of

Blake and Moulton found that:

• When dealing with project personnel, compromise and smoothing tend to produce

better results whereas withdrawal and forcing tend to increase conflict.

• When dealing with superiors, compromise works better whilst confrontational

tends to increase conflict.

• When dealing with support departments, withdrawal is preferred while forcing and

confrontational increase conflict.

These studies remind international project managers including those working in Samoa that

one needs to be aware of the cultural differences as well as being mindful of the level

(political, organisational, village) at which one is dealing to avoid conflicts.

Gesteland (1999) found that deal-oriented negotiators tend to value direct, frank,

straightforward language when dealing with business conflict situations, while relationship-

oriented counterparts favour a more indirect, subtle, round about style. Relationship-

focused people have subtle ways of avoiding insulting others, either through body language

or by answering indirectly. Relationship-focused cultures, says Gesteland (1999), will use

this indirect response to avoid conflict and confrontation. The polite communication of

Asians, Arabs, Africans, and Latin’s, help maintain harmony. Pruitt (1981) asserts that

depersonalisation is an effective way of reducing the negative feelings commonly observed

in overt conflict situations. Hall and Hall (1990) coined the term ‘high context’ to refer to

relationship focused cultures. Hall and Hall (1990) identified, at the high

context/relationship-focused end of the culture continuums countries such as Japan, while

Sweden and Germany are at the low-context/deal-focused extreme (refer to Table 2.19) of a

four-part summary (see also Table 2.18).

Table 2.19 Deal/Relationship-focused Cultures

Deal-focused Cultures

Nordic and Germanic Europe, North America, Australia, New Zealand

Moderately Deal-focused Cultures

Great Britain, South Africa, Latin Europe, Central and Eastern Europe, Chile, Southern Brazil, Northern Mexico, Hong Kong, Singapore

Relationship-focused Cultures

The Arab World, Most of Africa, Latin America, Asia, South Pacific

Source: Gesteland, 1999

When dealing with relationship-focused cultures such as Samoa an indirect approach is

advisable. On the other hand, with deal-focused cultures, a direct approach may work just as

well. Conflict resolution in project management therefore requires sensitivity and awareness

of how different cultures respond to situations that are deemed to be ‘conflicting’. The two

sub-categories of communication, which include direct and indirect strategies, reflect the

diversity of international business contexts. Triandis (1995) argues that effectiveness of

communicating involves making isomorphic attributions (that is we put ourselves “in the

other person’s shoes” to try to understand) about each other’s behaviours. Communication,

says Gudykunst (1993) is effective to the extent that we are able to minimise

misunderstandings. Gesteland (1999) emphasises that in relationship-focused cultures a

manager must first make a friend before they make a decision. Developing a climate of trust

before talking business is therefore necessary in managing projects in relationship-focused

cultures such as Samoa.


In this study, conflicts are viewed as products of ineffective communication that can

be addressed through effective communication. Methods for resolving conflicts

evident in projects in Samoa will be identified and comparison drawn with the

literature.

2.4.7 Communication Strategies

Effectiveness of communication is a function of an individual’s ability to cope with

uncertainties and anxieties (Gudykunst and Nishida, 2001). As research literature has shown

in earlier sections, our culture and ethnicity provide guidelines for appropriate behaviour

and the expectations we use in judging competent communication. Research illustrates that

anticipated interaction with a member of a different ethnic group may lead to anxiety.

Stephan and Stephan (1985) argue that we fear four types of negative consequences:

• We worry about feeling incompetent and confused.

• We do not feel in control.

• We anticipate frustration, discomfort and irritation due to the awkwardness of

inter-group interactions.

• We may also fear the loss of self-esteem.

Herman and Schield (1961) point out the immediate psychological result of being in a new

situation is a lack of security. Ignorance of the potentialities inherent in the situation and of

the probable outcomes of an intended action causes insecurity. Ball-Rokeach (1973) asserts

that attempts to deal with the ambiguity of new situations involve information seeking

(uncertainty reduction) and tension (anxiety) reduction. Gudykunst (1995) posits that

managing our anxiety and uncertainty requires that we are mindful of what is happening

when we communicate with others. Our ability to manage anxiety and uncertainty

influences the effectiveness of our communication.

2.4.7.1 Uncertainty

According to Berger and Calabrese, (1975) uncertainty refers to our inability to predict

attitudes, feelings, beliefs, values and behaviours. Gudykunst and Shapiro (1996), argue that

some degree of uncertainty exists in all relationships, but more so when we communicate

with members of different groups than when we communicate with members of our own

group. Gudykunst (1993) describes maximum and minimum thresholds for uncertainty.

Gudykunst (1993) asserts that if our uncertainty is above our maximum thresholds or below

our minimum thresholds, then we will have difficulty communicating effectively.

Communicating effectively, therefore, requires that our uncertainty be between our

minimum and maximum thresholds (refer Figure 2.8). Hubbert et al. (1999), state that

generally, as we get to know others, our uncertainty regarding their behaviour tends to

decrease. However, uncertainty does not always decrease over time. According to Planalp et

al. (1988) it can also increase. Gudykunst and Hammer (1988) suggest that uncertainty

reduction processes are important influences on communication behaviours that exist cross-

culturally. Black et al. (1991) argue that the degree of cross-cultural adjustment should be

treated as a multi-dimensional concept, which comprises the following,

• Proposed international adjustment to work.

• Adjustment to interacting with local host nationals.

• Adjusting to the general no-work environment.

Post-arrival cross-cultural training has been promoted as an especially effective tool to

facilitate international adjustment of expatriate managers (Selmer et al., 1998).

2.4.7.2 Anxiety

Anxiety is the emotional equivalent of uncertainty. According to Turner (1988) anxiety is a

generalised sense of disequilibrium that stems from feeling uneasy, tense or worried about

what might happen. Lazarus (1991) describes anxiety as a problem with which all humans

must cope with, but Gudykunst and Shapiro (1996) note that anxiety tends to be higher in

inter-group than in inter-personal encounters. Researchers like Stephan and Stephan (1985)

argue that the anxiety we experience is usually based on negative expectations and

avoidance is a way, which allows us to manage our anxiety.

Figure 2.8 Maximum/Minimum Thresholds

Source: Gudykunst et al., 1986

Gudykunst (1993) in his research notes that there are maximum and minimum thresholds

for anxiety. When anxiety is above our maximum thresholds or below our minimum

thresholds, Gudykunst (1993) emphasises we are unable to communicate effectively. He

further points out that to be motivated and to communicate with others our anxiety has to be

below our maximum thresholds. Hubbert et al (1999) note that generally, as we get to know

others, the anxiety we experience in interacting with them tends to decrease. However it

does imply that it will eventually decrease. Management of anxiety and uncertainty

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according to Gudykunst et al. (1986) directly influences the effectiveness of communication

(refer to Figure 2.8).


This research will identify causes of adjustment difficulties and communication

barriers for project managers in Samoa and how they were able to deal with them.

2.4.8 Intercultural Communication Competence

Redmond (2000) identified the following skills as constituting inter-cultural

communication competence; social empathy, knowledge of the host culture, language

competence, adaptation, communication effectiveness, and social integration.

In Samoa, social empathy represents an empathic–like ability to take into consideration

other people’s perspectives, feelings or thoughts. Knowledge and awareness of the

fa’asamoa represents familiarity and understanding with a culture’s history, traditions and

values. Understanding ‘face’ according to Grove and Hallowell (1999) is a key to

understanding culture and establishing good relationships with business counterparts in

much of the world. Face-saving takes on great significance for societies like Samoa that

emphasises harmonious relationships and avoiding conflict. Face-saving in Samoa

underpins the language convention of respect which is embedded in the traditions and social

fabric of Samoan society. In Samoa, harmonious relationships are encouraged and public

displays of dissension and confrontation are deliberately avoided through mediation and

consultation. Expatriate managers who value direct and frank interactions may be perceived

as aggressive and rude by local Samoan counterparts who interpret their behaviour in a

negative light. Expatriate managers become frustrated when dealing with local Samoan

officials as often ‘small talk’ supersedes what expatriate managers perceive as important

business. Spending lengthy time on ‘irrelevant small talk’ and enquiries about family

present challenges for both expatriate managers and local Samoans who are seemingly

unable to place themselves ‘in the other persons shoes’.

Language competence refers to the ability to speak, read, listen and understand a host

culture’s language. This empirical study of Samoa supports Rogers and Kincaid (1981) who

assert that two-way communication over time is crucial for convergence to take place.

Leavitt and Bahrami (1988) also found that one-way communication led to frustration and

anxiety because each party was uncertain about their counterpart’s intention and were

unable to clarify their goals. In Samoa, deference in public to those in authority and

acquiescent behaviour, while among peers and family in-groups, locals behave in a more

open, direct and sometimes aggressive manner. This may be perceived by expatriate

managers as suspicious or deceitful and may result in misunderstanding between

counterparts.

Adaptation deals with the ability to function and adapt to the lifestyle and customs of a

culture. In cross-cultural situations, managers must determine the integration of new

knowledge and inter-cultural communication experiences into the development of new

communications (Harvey et al., 2000). Communication effectiveness deals with the ability

to successfully interact to resolve communication problems and empathize with members of

the host culture. Harvey et al., (2000) assert that the effectiveness of a communication plan

requires feedback mechanisms to modify communication strategies in subsequent

communication. Social integration deals with the establishment and maintenance of inter-

personal relationships with host culture members. This ‘familiarity’ of communication can

develop into communication economies of scale (Smith et al., 1991).

Redmond’s study (2000) found that cultural distance seems to affect what skills play a role

in handling anxiety. Adaptation, according to research is the most prevalent skill related to

both the amount of stress and handling of stress. According to Redmond (2000) the measure

of adaptation is made up of items which include how well international personnel living and

working in ‘foreign’ cultures were able to: 1-Adapt to different points of view; 2-Suspend

judgment when confronted by cultural differences; and 3-Solve problems created by cultural

differences.


This study will determine the level of communication competence of project managers

working in Samoa on the basis of their approach to communication, the barriers they

encountered and the strategies they employed and their success. This basis is founded

on the skills mentioned above as constituting intercultural competence: social

empathy, knowledge of the host culture, language competence, adaptation,

communication effectiveness and social integration.

2.6.9 Summary

The communication process has been conceived as a linear one, characterised by a

spontaneous, one-way flow of information (Loosemore, 1997) but other research suggests

communication is a two-way process based on relationships rather than individuals (Leavitt

and Bahrami, 1988).

Within international settings such as Samoa, effective communication relies on transferring

knowledge beyond organisational and cultural boundaries and understanding temporality,

absorption and value of knowledge (Harvey et al., 2000). Cultural and language studies

provide the basis for theorising on the nature of cross-cultural communication in

international project management. This connection is possible because such studies

establish the link between culture, language and communication practices and processes

(Triandis and Albert, 1987). The identified cultural variables include contextuality power

distance, individualism–collectivism, uncertainty, avoidance, masculinity, femininity, and

long-term or short-term orientation (Hofstede 1980, 1991).

Research into effective cross-cultural communication identifies a need for cultural

sensitivity in international project management. Loosemore (1997) stressed that culturally

appropriate and sensitive communication approaches will contribute to successful

management and implementation of projects across cultures. An organisation must envision

communication in a global relationship over the length of the relationship and to modify

communication strategies relative to the life cycle of the relationships (Harvey et al., 2000).

The empirical study on the construction industry in Samoa will show that barriers to

communication are the levels of diversity in the dual cultural settings. Others have argued

that the barriers to effective communication, regardless of the oral, written or non-verbal

methods used, are filtering, selective perception, emotions, language and non-verbal cues

(Peel, 1993; Schermerhorn, 1996). These barriers can be minimised through adopting

several measures such as the use of feedback, the simplification of the language used,

listening attentively, eliminating emotions, watching one’s non-verbal cues and use of the

grapevine. The study on Samoa identifies how specific knowledge of how to most

effectively manage time becomes a critical issue when attempting to effectively manage

global and cultural relationships. The cultural strategy, the business strategy and the

communication strategy are inter-related. Together they formulate an inter-cultural business

communication strategy that presents a new construct in global management.

D’Aveni (1997) argues that time is the competitive tool of the 21st Century. Having an inter-

organisational communication strategy which allows effective and efficient communication

helps to reduce communication errors and enhances quality and speed of strategic action

could be the hallmark of successful global competitors and international managers of the

future. Open communication throughout the life cycle of a project is necessary to ensure

project decisions are channelled to appropriate areas and key players are kept informed

(Christine Shaw, 2001).

HUMAN FACTORS AND INTERNATIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT

3.1 Introduction

A key element of international project management is human resource management. The

maintenance of quality and the creation of an effective working environment is a prime task

of management. Communication is identified as the crucial human ingredient. If the

communication processes and language is inaccurate, or misinterpreted, the relevancy,

adequacy and effectiveness of that communication may be compromised and outcomes

could be unsatisfactory. This in turn impacts on the credibility and integrity of management

and the success of the project.

This chapter has two main sections: Section 3.2 Human Factors: explores and discusses

human resource management frameworks, models and behaviours applicable to

international construction project management within the context of communication.

Section 3.3 Global Managers: addresses the role of managers as global leaders and as

agents of change in relation to international construction project management.

3.2 Human resources and project management

Historically, projects have been managed as technical systems instead of behavioural

systems. Little attention has been paid to the human resource factors. However, the Project

Management Institute in its official definition of Project Management Body of Knowledge

(P.M.B.O.K., 1996) includes human resource management as one of the nine fundamental

basic functions of project management.

According to Murdick and Schuster (1976), historically, project focus was concentrated on

the results with a mechanistic approach. The main objective was to attain target dates, to

achieve financial plans and to control the quality of the final products (McCollum and

Sherman, 1993). Success, effectiveness and performance were related to these three criteria

according to Gobeli and Larson (1987), who in their study on the effectiveness of different

project structures, stress these criteria were each rated by respondents as the most important

for assessing effectiveness. Undoubtedly, effectiveness is the central aim of every

organisation. To be effective in today’s highly competitive environment, project

management activities need to devote a significant amount of skill, knowledge and attention

to human resources. Hubbard (1990 cited in Belout, 1998:23) asserts major project failures

are usually sociological; these issues include unqualified staff, inadequate training and

inexperienced management. Todryck (1990 cited in Belout, 1998:23) asserts project

manager training is a key factor for increasing effectiveness because he/she could be a team

builder and create an effective team. Other writers such as Goldstein et al. (1989 cited in

Belout, 1998:23) claim, “Success in an organisation can never be reached without qualified

and motivated personnel”.

3.2.1 International human resource management

The world has become more competitive, dynamic, uncertain and volatile than ever

before, assert Dowling et al. (1999 cited in Schuler, 2000:251). To be successful, firms

compete on the global field. The likelihood of organisations operating in diverse

environments has increased. There is a need now to both manage globally, as if the world

were one big market and to simultaneously manage locally, as if the world were “a large

number of loosely connected and separate markets” (Bartlett & Ghoshall, 1991 cited in

Schuler, 2000:251). Based on their research in managing businesses across borders, Bartlett

and Ghoshall (1991, cited in Schuler, 2000:251) posit “knowledge of human resource

conditions in a variety of host cultures and knowledge of how to manage both within and

across them is therefore necessary for international human resource management”. Howes

and Tah (2003:160) argue that human resource management policies operated by the home

organisation may need to be modified according to the host culture in which business is

being conducted. Writers point out that local employment legislation will also have a

profound influence on practice and procedure, especially where the intention is to employ a

large number of expatriate employees imported specifically for the purpose of conducting

business. This customisation of policies requires consideration of the empowerment of

employees, accelerated resource development, employee welfare, performance appraisal,

and encouragement of innovative and creative thinking.

A venture into foreign business needs to address the influence of economic, political and

cultural forces originating from the contextual environment (see Figure 3.1). Clegg and

Gray (2002:598) assert that “the role of human resource policies is of key concern in

ensuring the right people are chosen to represent companies in overseas locations”. The

decision-making process for a global construction firm emanates from three levels, namely

(Howes and Tah, 2003):

(1) Corporate level – where the fundamental direction of the organisation is

determined,

(2) National business level – where strategic policies are determined and localised

factors are taken into consideration in the establishment of business aims and

objectives,

(3) Functional level – where functional decisions to realise stated business aims will

be necessary involving the prime operating components of the organisation.

In order to implement human resource management policies which enable processes and

practice in line with corporate policies, there is a need to develop close working

relationships with managers and other internal and external stakeholders. Writers assert that

IHRM systems must be developed to meet the needs of the host culture and circumstances

under which the project is undertaken. According to Clegg and Gray (2002:618), “culture is

inextricably interwoven with international commerce; however there is a definitive bias in

the selection of expatriate managers toward technical skills with most having little or no

knowledge of culture or local language prior to undertaking assignments”. Gregersen (1999,

cited in Clegg and Gray, 2002:600) asserts that “having a workforce that is fluent in the

ways of the world isn’t a luxury, it’s a competitive necessity”. In Samoa, having some

understanding of the language is a considerable aid to effective cross-cultural

communication. The Samoan language has in-built conventions to talk to people of different

social statuses. Expatriate managers in Samoa who explore the local culture informally and

who are willing to learn some of the language and social interaction skills find that there is a

positive effect and better understanding of business communication when participating in

negotiations with village councils and local contractors. Expatriate managers can find

communication difficult in Samoa even in relatively simple but important areas such as

shopping and getting around town. It can be frustrating for expatriate personnel to try and

ask for something in a store, and to try and tell the taxi driver where you want to go.

Sometimes, expatriate managers may feel that locals do understand but are pretending that

they don’t and this leads to feelings of resentment and stress. Learning the language of the

host culture can often be the most concrete way of overcoming cultural disorientation and

enables expatriate personnel to feel a sense of self-empowerment and less stressed.

Figure 3.1 Integration of HRM

Source: Howes and Tah, 2003:162

Howes and Tah (2003:161) state that International Human Resource Management (IHRM)

is required to fit with modern management concepts and it is therefore important to create a

means whereby policies can be linked to management systems, processes and techniques.

This can be illustrated through a communication stem linking management ideologies,

supply chain policies and techniques such as Just in Time (JIT) and Total Quality Control

(TQC) as shown in Figure 3.2. The rationale behind this concept is to ensure flexibility,

high efficiency and quality, while at the same time minimising wastes.

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Figure 3.2 IHRM Management Outcome Stem

Source: Howes and Tah, 2003:162

3.2.2 HRM Models applicable to International Construction

According to Howes and Tah (2003), adopting an approach to IHRM that suits the

nature and scale of the organisation, together with the operational environment

considerations and the profile of the staff employed is necessary to achieve business aims

and objectives. A number of HRM models are available. In international construction

project management, the following models are considered useful: situational, staff

performance and the socio-technical.

3.2.2.1 The situational HRM model

This model takes a strategic view of human resource management with a focus on achieving

long-term organisational objectives and satisfying stakeholder interests through policy

development and implementation. The international context and the circumstances in a

particular environment will determine the situational factors. This creates a dynamic process

of continuous interaction requiring a feedback loop between policy, long-term consequences

and situational factors that need constant observation and consequent actions as shown in

Figure 3.3. The success of HRM policy outcomes are determined through evaluating against

stakeholder interests and situational factors.

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Figure 3.3 The Situational Model of HRM – Harvard Model of HRM

Cited in Howes and Tah, 2003:164

3.2.2.2 The Staff Performance Model of HRM

The Staff Performance Model focuses on the selection and appraisal of workers in relation

to performance, staff development and rewards. It guides the professional and personal

development of staff through appropriate training and in optimisation of expected

performance through motivation. This model is more functional than strategic, and it also

emphasises the training and development of host country employees (see Figure 3.4).

Figure 3.4 Staff Performance Model of HRM – Fombrum Model


3.2.2.3 The Socio-technical Model of HRM

This model is strategic as well as functional in that it combines the cultural strategy with the

business strategy and organisational strategy facilitated by HRM systems. It is particularly

relevant to the international business environment as it focuses on the socio-technical

context related to business culture.

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Figure 3.5 The Socio-technical Model of HRM – Warwick Model of HRM



In this study, the human resource management models in Figures 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5

above will be used to provide a theoretical framework to evaluate issues and practices

associated with the deployment and utilisation of international manpower on projects

in Samoa, focusing on their impact on communication and management systems. The

following sub-section 3.2.3 outlines the functions of international human resource

management of which to build this theoretical base on. Other sub-sections 3.2.4 to

3.2.9 provide brief explanations of important elements of international human

resource management that need to be considered and dealt with appropriately in

project management.

3.2.3 International Human Resource Management Functions

According to Howes and Tah nine interrelated functions characterise International

Human Resource Management. International Human Resource Management functions

include:

• Human Resource Planning: The successful implementation of an international

business strategy depends heavily on retaining and acquiring appropriately

qualified and skilled staff, and the availability of labour supply both in numbers

and time. This can be done through forecasting future demands on resources and

project activities which must take into account the business plans, future projects

and projected sales. From this, the selection of the most cost effective procurement

option can be decided (either in-house or outsourced).

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• Recruitment and selection: This process can be achieved through utilising

existing personnel from within the organisation or through advertising for new

employees from home, host or third countries. Existing personnel will be screened

for suitability to undertake international assignment at the specific environment.

Recruiting new personnel requires going through the process of advertising, short

listing, interviewing, tests, and selection.

• Redundancy and dismissal: The retraining of personnel if time permits before

redeployment and early retirement must be considered as this normally involves

compensation where statutory regulations apply to ensure fair treatment of

employees. On top of that, the possibility of skills lost may be costly to the

organisation. Dismissal of employees either associated with poor performance,

malpractice or gross misconduct, require the manager or organisation to follow

procedures and practice covered by employment legislation which ensure the

rights of the individual concerned to be represented by a union or otherwise.

• Repatriation: Repatriation is the process of inducting employees back into the

home country organisation structure after assignments overseas. This process

involves many considerations, activities and adjustments involving the individual

and his family, as well as the organisation, which may include financial, social,

structural, informality-formality, and so on. All these require care and counselling

to facilitate smooth transition.

• Staff appraisal: An appropriate staff appraisal system for the project environment

ensures optimum performance, maintains morale and encourages commitment and

motivation to meet deliverables and targets. This may involve reviewing and

adapting the home country appraisal system to incorporate working conditions and

cultures in the new environment.

• Staff development: This involves training or retraining to upgrade knowledge and

skills to ensure effective performance. This process is linked to the staff appraisal

system which identifies and determines staff training needs. Some of the

programmes involved in this are environmental briefing, language training,

cultural orientation and assimilation, self-reliance, attitudinal flexibility, and prior

field experience.

• Job evaluation: This process involves factual judgments with some degree of

subjectivity to ensure internal equity pay and rewards. A number of methods can

be utilized to assess and determine the correct value of the jobs which include

ranking, job grading, factor analysis, and the point method.

• Reward system and management including allowances: The primary objective is

to achieve the best value to support the need to control costs and improve profits.

This process constitutes a number of components which include determining the

basic salary, benefits, allowances, and taxation.

• Industrial relations: This involves the mechanism to control processes associated

with employment, the organisation and management and the relations between

employer and employee. Socio-political factors influence industrial relations

which may determine the position taken by employers and the representative of the

employee. International policies need to take into account national differences in

labour relation systems, culture, and economic environment, political and legal

systems.

3.2.4 Strategic international human resource management

Strategic international human resource management is defined as “the pattern of planned

human resource deployments and activities intended to enable an organisation to achieve its

goals” (Wright and McMahan, 1992:296). Schuler’s definition included “human resource

management issues, functions, and policies and practices that result from the strategic

activities of organisations that impact on the international concerns and goals of those

organisations” (Schuler et al; 1993, cited in Schuler, 2000:252). Schuler and others discuss

the stakeholders that impact on and are impacted on by organisations. These stakeholders

include customers, suppliers, society, employers and investors. The goals, objectives,

expectations and obligations of all stakeholders need to be accounted for in project

management.

According to Poole (1999 cited in Schuler, 2000:258), “what is happening today in the field

of human resource management is nothing short of revolutionary”. The organisational

function of human resource management is becoming more important which reflects the

more intense levels of national, regional and global competition. Line managers are getting

involved in human resource management, and human resource managers are becoming

members of the management team. Translated through the major changes in organisational

strategy, structure and technology, these forces require speed, quality, innovation and

globalisation for organisations to survive. These factors have given rise to the need for

understanding and utilising knowledge in both strategic human resource management and

international human resource management.

3.2.5 Strategic resources and competencies

Strategic resources include land, facilities, equipment, money, patents and labour-in

the sense of people whose routine tasks are to create goods or perform services. Such things

are strategic because they can be transferred between applications. That is they can be

withdrawn from an existing use and re-applied to emerging use. Strategic competencies

include management acumen, cross-cultural skills and technological capabilities.

According to Grove and Hallowell (1999:1), “competencies are information based invisible

assets residing within the minds of employees.” They are ‘strategic’ because they can be

withdrawn from one use and re-applied to another. As ‘competencies’ however, they are

intangible and hard to account for. When organisations hire and select technical,

professional and managerial employees on overseas projects, they take into account the

competencies of those individuals. For example, if the decision makers are seeking a project

manager to co-ordinate the construction of a nuclear facility, they would insist on someone

who has nuclear engineering know-how or competency. Grove and Hallowell (1999:1)

assert, in doing this, they are viewing that person’s set of competencies as “fixed” that is, an

asset that remains constant.

Researchers such as Grove et al. (1999:1), describe competencies as “organic”. Because

competencies are properties of the human mind, they are capable of expanding, adapting

and multiplying. This organic quality of competencies potentially provides long-term

strategic advantage to the firm that employs appropriate personnel. Furthermore, Grove et

al. posit that the organic property of human competencies can be actively developed through

training as well as through deliberate efforts to leverage the learning that accumulates as a

result of day-by day work.

3.2.6 Acculturation

Acculturation refers to “the process by which group members from one cultural

background adapt to the culture of a different group” (Rieger and Wong-Rieger, 1991 cited

in Tung, 1998:126). Berry and Kailin (1995 cited in Tung, 1998:126) identify two

dimensions of acculturation – cultural preservation on the extent to which members of a

cultural sub-group need to preserve their own cultural norms; and partner attractiveness on

the extent to which members of a cultural sub-group are attracted to the norms of the larger

society in which they operate.

Berry and Kailin (1995 cited in Tung, 1998:126) describe four basic orientations to cultural

group relations based on these two dimensions.

• Integration (attraction to partner’s culture and preservation of own cultural norms.)

• Assimilation (attraction to partner’s culture but non-preservation of own cultural

norms.)

• Separation/segregation (preservation of own cultural norms but non-attraction to

partner’s culture.)

• Marginalisation (non-preservation of own cultural norms and non-attraction to

partner’s culture.)

Research on these four basic orientations found the patterns of interaction between peoples

of two different cultures ranged from “highly functional” to “highly dysfunctional” (Tung,

1998:126). Berry and Kailin (1995) showed that integration is the most optimal form of

interaction between peoples from two cultures while marginalisation on the other hand is

the most dysfunctional mode. Between these two modes lie assimilation and separation; this

typology can be applied to the process of interaction/acculturation between expatriates and

host country nationals in an international context. Under integration, the better elements of

the host and home country cultures are preserved, combined, and expanded upon to create a

whole (Tung, 1993:126).


In this study, project managers’ mode of acculturation will be assessed and

determined on a comparative basis as a factor of their ability to interact and

communicate effectively in Samoa. Their reactions to situations and how they deal

with issues that do arise and their selection of strategies to deal with barriers to

communication will be used as an indicator of their mode of acculturation.

3.2.7 Ethical issues

The management of human resources in international organisations raises the question

of ethical issues. In human resource activities, the possibility of unethical actions increases

when the manager or employee is not sure what “stance is an ethical one, when he or she

has a clear opportunity to engage in unethical actions, and when he\she experiences pressure

to behave unethically” (Miceli and Near, 2001:3). According to O’Leary-Kelly and Bowes-

Sperry (2001:76), individuals who do not recognise that a decision or situation involves a

moral issue are less likely to behave in ethical ways. In short, the norms need to be known

before unethical actions can be recognised.

3.2.7.1 Individual/Group/Organisation effects

Contemporary research (Buckley et al., 2001; Weaver and Trevino, 2001) reveals that

employees may react negatively to ethical problems through their attitudes and behaviours.

Some attitudinal reactions include increased disillusionment, reduced organisational

commitment and poor acceptance of ethical standards (Buckley et al; 2001). Behavioural

responses may include workplace violence, or external whistle blowing rather than use of

internal channels to report wrong-doing (Weaver and Trevino, 2001). Other writers assert

that other behavioural responses could include a dysfunctionally high number of grievances

and poor use of time on the job, leading to lower overall productivity (Cropanzano and

Byrne, 2001). Miceli and Near (1992) reflect that negative consequences of unethical

actions can be seen when group member sacrifice the good of the group to protect the rights

of one individual. For example, when one group member engages in unethical behaviour

and other members collude to hide the unethical behaviours, because of loyalty to the group.

The effects at the organisational level tend to be more difficult to quantify. For example, if

the organisation selects only members with similar ethical view, decreased cultural diversity

may result (Buckley et al., 2001), and if managers engage in behaviours perceived to be

unethical, lower trust among employees might result (Cropanzano and Byrne, 2001). It is

noted by writers such as Grossman and Schoenfeldt (2001), that accountability to society at

large may be viewed as unacceptable by that society, which may reduce long-term

organisational survival.

3.2.7.2 Managing ethical issues

Ethical issues are an important contingency to consider when construction projects occur in

foreign countries. Ethical considerations assert researchers will influence how human

resources are deployed. The areas of selection of ethical employees and training to develop

ethical behaviours is an approach for international organisations to enhance ethical

international human resource management practices. O’Leary-Kelly and Bowes-Sperry

(2001:88-89) identify three types of training to develop ethical behaviour:

1. Training to recognise ethical dilemmas.

2. Training to know how to use ethical frameworks to resolve problems.

3. Training to implement human resource functions in an ethical way.

According to O’Leary-Kelly and Bowes-Sperry, the probability of “ethical breaches” is

reduced when managers take into account the ethical values of the host culture. For

example, in collectivistic cultures, pay systems that reward individual outcomes will be

viewed as less ethical than those that reward group outcomes (Grossman and Schoenfedlt,

2001).


In this study, ethical issues involving decision-making in project management that

impact on communication and management systems will be examined. The differences

in ethical stance between expatriate managers and local counterparts and the

operating environment in Samoa will be identified.

3.2.8 Cross-cultural training

Companies use cross-cultural training programs in an attempt to successfully transfer

their personnel across cultures (Bhagat et al., 2002). According to Rhinesmith (1992), the

training needs to be tailored to the goals and needs of individual companies and to the

relocating personnel. McEnery and DesHarnais (1990) associate success from the

organisational standpoint as having the right people in the right places at the right times.

Selecting and preparing those people and their accompanying family members to adjust to

the local environment, to achieve a satisfactory lifestyle, and to accomplish the specific

objectives of the assignment should be considered in training. In seeking to define and

measure assignment success, it is necessary to determine whether the assignments are

purely tactical (get the job done) or they have a long-term strategic objective of developing

global organisational capability (Rhinesmith, 1992).

According to research, expatriate managers such as those from Australia, are often

inadequately prepared, and adjustment to new standards of business behaviour overseas is

frequently strained (Karpin, 1995 cited in Clegg and Gray, 2002:600). Some expatriate

managers in Samoa note that the most valuable learning experiences during their time in

Samoa included improved awareness and ability to manage cultural differences and more

versatility in problem-solving methods, through use of traditional mediation processes with

regards to issues of land acquisition. Most of the expatriate personnel who have been

assigned to Samoa are selected because of their technical expertise, however many of these

personnel are ‘culturally illiterate’, and are unable to manage the differences encountered

(differences in language, food, religion and social customs). Understanding and awareness

of simple subtle cultural differences significantly enhance working and social relationships.

In Samoa, it is highly offensive to stand while talking or eating whilst others are seated

especially the elderly and those with social status such as matai. Interrupting people while

eating is also considered bad manners. For those expatriate personnel who are made aware

of these differences and are prepared to adhere to local social customs, they will find

themselves more socially acceptable by locals and in-groups.

The more global the company, the more it will aim to achieve both the short-term objectives

and the long-term developmental goals (Lancaster, 1998). In order to maximise return on

investment in costly overseas assignments and to support the globalisation process,

Lancaster (1988) asserts that expatriates are meant to be ‘agents of change’. They are

expected to be not just responsible for transferring skills and knowledge to the host nation

but also to be acquirers of cultural skills and knowledge.

3.2.8.1 Expatriates as agents of learning

Child and Rodrigues (1996) argue that national cultural differences may foster feelings of

distancing and conflict between expatriate and local staff and may hinder the transfer of

knowledge between the two groups of people. The preparation of personnel for cross-

cultural encounters will help shorten the cultural distance and develop sensitivity and

awareness as well as respect for cultural differences. Besides transferring knowledge from

headquarters to host cultures, expatriates also learn from their involvement in managing

these operations.

Research (Cyr and Schneider, 1996) has found that expatriates from developed countries are

ready to teach local staff in developing countries, but seldom do they realize that they can

learn something from locals, who are knowledgeable about the host country environment.

According to Cyr and Schneider (1996), expatriates should be more open to learning about

local practices that worked well in the past. In China, one obvious area in which expatriates

can benefit from locals is in cultivating ‘guanxi’ (connections), which is an important asset

in Chinese business communities’ worldwide (Tsang, 1998). Here, the direction of

knowledge flow is from host culture back to home culture. In order that expatriates treat

their duty of learning seriously, it can be formally incorporated as one of the criteria for

assessing their performance (Pucik, 1988).


In this study, expatriate and local views on the importance of training and

transfer of knowledge with regards to communicating and operating in a cross-

cultural environment will be determined.

3.2.9 Hierarchical Relationships versus Entrepreneurial Orientation

Projects are people centred and project management is behavioural more than

quantitative. According to Gray (2001), if organisational culture is expressed by the notion

of “the way we do things round here”, then this will exert a major influence on both

expectations and behaviour of employees.

Lee and Peterson (2000) assert that hierarchical cultures characterised as valuing harmony,

co-operation, status quo, and consensus in decision-making has resulted in work forces that

do not perform tasks that risk failure. Hierarchical relationships are expected and few

workers practice individual initiative or undertake workplace behaviours unless dictated by

or expected by superiors. Lee and Peterson used Japan as an example of a hierarchical

culture and highlighted its success in manufacturing excellence that exemplifies dedication

to speed and quality. Entrepreneurial cultures which engenders an ideology that support and

encourage individuals to behave with a strong entrepreneurial orientation reflects values

embedded in freedom, independence, self-sufficiency, individualism, achievement, and

materialism (Grove et al., 1999). Grove et al. used North America as an example of an

entrepreneurial culture with its approach to deal making and contracts as quite different

from that prevailing in many other cultures, preferring long, legalistic contracts that attempt

to spell out all foreseeable eventualities and provide for their resolution. Other cultures

(Grove et al. used Asia as an example) prefer short, generally worded contracts that may be

viewed by entrepreneurial oriented cultures as seem ambiguous. According to Grove et al.

this difference might seem peculiar but actually is part of the cross-cultural differences in

human resource management that may impact on communication. American-style contracts

attempt to create a set of rules and standards that apply equally to all parties, over a long

period of time, and that are intended to be literally interpreted and enforced. Asian-style

contracts act only as guidelines preferring to establish a relationship and working things out

as they go.

Universalism in action may have negative responses abroad. The assumption that overseas

customers, clients and colleagues are governed by the same habits, norms and standards as

the country of origin of the project, can place obstacles in the way international project

managers confront the challenges of globalisation (Grove et al., 1999).


The contrasting entrepreneurial and hierarchical orientations used in this study

differentiate between expatriates and locals’ behaviour and expectations toward

taking initiatives, decision making, communicating and performance of tasks.

3.2.10 Diffusion and integration of HRM practices and attitudes

“The increased presence of Western based companies promotes the diffusion of Western

management techniques, including Human Resource Management to local industries” (Bae

et al., 2003:1312). In the context of Samoa, the collectivistic and hierarchical nature of its

traditional culture are catalysts for potential conflict, as Samoan workers are uncomfortable

about questioning managers’ decisions or raising questions which may lead to ‘loss of face’

for fellow workers. The Samoan government continues to press for reforms in corporate

management and governance to encourage higher levels of employee performance and

employment flexibility. Within the construction industry in Samoa which is labour intensive

(recent transition to labour-based and machinery-capital based on some projects),

recruitment of blue collar workers has been traditionally ad hoc and often done through

personal references. The new government reforms in Samoa involve encouraging more

employee empowerment and linking staff decisions to an employee’s ability and potential

rather than through personal connections. This may lead to resentment and conflict amongst

blue collar workers, since the labour force operates in essence as an extended family with

‘gangs of workers’ including close friends, villagers, and relatives. According to Bae et al.

(2003:1314), ‘successful implementation of government reforms is related to understanding

of local culture and social nuances’. Expatriate managers in Samoa who actively engage in

intercultural interactions with locals outside of the ‘work context’ (either in sports teams, or

sharing a drink or meal) report on an increased sense of camaraderie and improved working

relationships.

The government of Samoa reforms in institutional and management areas has led to the

privatisation of many functions that were formerly carried out by government departments.

Some expatriate managers who have been seconded to Samoa to assist this transition have

felt that they have not been adequately prepared to cope with the situation in Samoa and

they struggle to come to terms with the extent to which traditional Samoan values influence

and encroach into professional circles and communication processes. Within the

construction industry expatriate managers express concern and frustration at what they

perceive as ambivalent behaviour of the local labour force with regards to frequent absences

from work due to attendances to family and cultural obligations.

Yan (2003:490) states that ‘Western business culture places a strong emphasis on the

achievement of financial results and businesses are managed for the maximisation of profits

and for the satisfaction of shareholders’. In the context of Samoa traditional HRM practices

has focused on the operations area where Samoans place emphasis on trust rather than

contract. Less reliance is placed on formal contracts than on personal trust both in

employment relationships and in external relations with suppliers and financial institutions.

In Samoa, relationships are the key to business and economic systems. According to Yan

(2003:493), strategic orientation becomes critical in situations when partners perceive

differences in beliefs, values, financial and strategic targets. In Samoa, the application of the

strategic role in HRM by expatriate managers relies heavily on control emanating from

formalised rules rather than from personal supervision. Formalised rules are perceived by

locals as ‘suspicious’ and ‘untrusting’ and may cause conflict and resentment.

Selmer (2002:22) surmises that Western managers would have to undertake significant

adjustments to cope with expatriate assignments. In the context of Samoa, expatriate

personnel who refrain from adapting their managerial style to local expectations, and insist

(often in vain) that subordinates adopt parent-country standards, practices and behaviours,

will find themselves frustrated and detached from fellow local workers. Expatriate

personnel in Samoa who avoid socialising with locals reflect what Selmer (2002) asserts as

the worst experiences of expatriate managers. Avoidance of socialising with locals may

result in impatient or resentful reactions from locals. However, for those expatriate

personnel who attempt to engage actively through social activities within the community,

they experience a sense of acceptance and reduced anxiety.

3.2.11 Summary

Effective human resource management is identified as a key component of international

project management. Given the complexity of human variables, business behaviour and

cross-cultural adjustment, the research literature suggests that if an organisation wants to

make appropriate decisions regarding personnel it wants to ‘export’, it needs clear and

effective processes within which to make such decisions. Because human factors impact on

communication across cultures in project management abroad, an appropriate human

resource management process should reflect effective decision-making and recognise the

processes and considerations of communication.

An important aspect of this human resource management process may be the early and

thorough identification of human resource management objectives and goals. As such,

organisations operating internationally need to promote the human element through

effectively implementing employee involvement, evaluating and revising policies in some

cases or simplifying them to encourage the assumption of greater personal responsibility by

employees (Cropazano and Byrne, 2001).

Management needs to evaluate not only its own priorities, but also those of stakeholders,

and develop human resource management processes that address priorities and

requirements, as well as clear communication links between all stakeholders. In addition,

emphasis on partnering with the ‘right personnel’ may contribute to minimising cross-

cultural misunderstanding of local business and cultural practices. Success in international

markets depends on an organisation’s ability to learn by actively seeking knowledge about

international markets, potential customers and competitors and issues of human resource

management and communication in distant and unfamiliar environments (Craig and

Douglas, 1996:75). It is important to adopt a ‘learning to learn’ approach as it teaches all

involved to continue their learning beyond their training program (Senge, 1992). Further

research is needed to understand the causes and consequences of human behaviour in

organisations within cross-cultural settings before we are fully able to understand the causes

and consequences of human behaviour particular in the management of human resources of

international project organisations.

3.3 GLOBAL MANAGERS

3.3.1 Introduction

This section addresses the role of managers as global leaders and as agents of change in

relation to international project management. It will discuss the skills and strategies needed

for effective management of human and cultural factors within a cross-cultural context. It

explores the interconnection of culture, behaviour and communication and identifies ways

in which global managers can prepare themselves for entry into ‘foreign’ contexts or

environments.

As leaders, the ability to learn from experience and to institute change to minimise re-

occurrence of failure is crucial in the development of global managers. Development of a

more systematic worldview and discussions on current reality will help to positively

enhance abilities as leaders – “to continually focus and re-focus on visions and to keep

distress from swamping the ability to think and hope” (Senge, P., 1999:149).

3.3.2 Leadership and Global operations

Global operations are a phenomenon that has had an impact on manager’s approaches to

leadership. Cross-cultural management literature asserts that global leadership is quite

different from domestic leadership. As global operations become the normative strategy for

organisations, one of the critical success factors centres on amassing an adequate number of

competent global managers to implement global strategies (Gregerson et al., 1998).

Researchers over a thirteen year period (Katz and Kahn, 1978; Steers 1991) agreed that

leadership is needed because it fills many of the gaps left by conventional organisation

design, allows for greater responsiveness to environmental changes, provides a way to co-

ordinate the efforts of diverse groups within the organisation, and facilitates organisational

membership and personal need satisfaction. A successful global manager, argue researchers

like Bartlett and Ghoshall (1994), needs to possess a complex amalgamation of technical,

functional, cultural, social and political skills. Today’s global manager is envisioned to act

as a cross-cultural link between the home and host country organisation, and at the same

time, between the global organisational networks’ needed for consistency and the contextual

market requirements of the host country’s local market place (Ghoshall and Bartlett: 1997).

The role culture plays on norms and values are an important aspect, which differentiates

global leadership from domestic leadership. In matters as diverse as the offering and receipt

of gifts and gratuities, employment, security, diversity in the workplace and delegation of

decision-making, cultural norms and expectations have been shown to vary widely (Nyaw,

Ng, 1994; England, 1978). From their study, Yeung and Ready (1995) found that flexibility

and adaptiveness were critical competencies of effective leaders; Australian and North

Americans generally did not agree with this. Other researchers such as Cox, Lobel and

McLeod (1991), also found similar cross-cultural leadership differences.

Researchers (Kluckholn and Strodtbeck, 1961; Boyacigiller and Adler, 1991) state that

leadership models differ, because the importance of variables such as relationships, short-

term profits, hierarchies, ethics and risk differ from culture to culture. Effective leaders

assert Conger (1989) are those who will help establish direction, align people’s efforts, and

then, motivate, inspire and empower them to achieve desirable outcomes. Conger (1989)

observed that recognising individual achievement in a visible and personal manner is an

effective way to empower employees. However, in a highly collectivistic culture like Japan,

where the group is emphasised, this may generate resentment amongst co-workers. In Japan

“the nail that stands up gets pounded back down” reflects a prevailing cultural value.

Hayashi (1988) argued that Japanese groups do not even need leaders, as group members

know how to behave without a leader.

3.3.3 Cultural influences

For global operations, organisations and their leaders need to develop competencies that

go beyond what is familiar in the culture of the home country (Yamaguchi, 1988). Global

operations management, whether at the level of the industry, business or individual

leadership is about overcoming home country cultural differences and adapting the best

practices from around the world. The efficiency and effectiveness with which projects are

completed is affected by their success in handling cross-cultural challenges. Grove et al.

(1999) assert that international project managers need to become educated about what is

known from research and experience. But learning to think about project management in a

culturally sophisticated way, cannot, by itself, reduce risks. Grove and Hallowell (1999)

state that the international project manager and the company need to commit time, funding,

and human resources to the handling of cross-cultural challenges. Culture can be managed,

but not merely through educated thinking.

3.3.3.1 Collectivism

Since an important responsibility of leaders is to co-ordinate and direct people’s efforts in

the pursuit of organisational goals, the level of collectivism may be a critical factor.

Hofstede’s (1980) definition of collectivism states that collectivism helps determine the

amount of decision-making power shared by the leaders with the followers or the amount of

involvement solicited by a manager in exercising his/her leadership.

Ouchi and Jaeger (1978) suggest that in Japan, management may be traced to the highly

valued ‘wa’ in Japanese culture, which means group harmony and social cohesion. Alston

(1989) points out that Japanese tend to evaluate activities in light of how they will affect the

long-term development of the group’s ‘wa’. In a collectivistic society, organisational

members are less likely to tolerate autocracy. Leaders are expected to generate participation

and to share their views with others, encourage input, and sort out disagreements and

created commonly acceptable solutions, for problems that may arise. In individualistic

cultures, competent leaders are expected to exercise their authorities and discretions

carefully so that they can help individuals to realise their full potential (Harris and Moran,

2000).

Cross-cultural differences in terms of egalitarianism and equality have been observed by

researchers such as Harris and Moran (2000), and Schneider and Barsoux (2003). The effect

of egalitarianism on leadership may be manifested in differing expectations of leaders’

behaviours in different cultures. Fairness might be emphasised by organisations in all

cultures, but it could carry very different meanings. Harris and Moran (2000) posit that in

North America (towards the lower end of the egalitarianism continuum), leaders ought to

dispense rewards and punishments based on some objective measures of individual

performance while in Japan (more toward the higher end of the continuum), leaders should

treat group members equally without favouritism.

In their search to retain local flexibility while achieving global integration, host and

international managers have found that the question “who says what’s right?” demands

much of their time and attention (Bartlett and Ghoshall, 1988:66). Asking the “what’s

right?” question is closely linked to cultural differences, particularly, if we view culture as

those values, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours that are shared by a society and that

determines how its members perceive and react to their environment. These cultural

differences are likely to impact on project planning. However, Brock et al. (2000:688) notes

that cultural influences receive relatively little attention from those strategy writers who

explicitly argue that ‘right is might’. These writers assert that organisational success arises

from employing the right resources to do the right thing in the right place at the right time.

Brock and Thomas (1998) identify the following dimensions as significant in planning

processes; complexity, comprehensiveness, time horizon, internal/external orientation,

planning staff, top management commitment, direction programming, flexibility and

implementation–oriented. Table 3.1 outlines these dimensions.

The most relevant aspect of culture for formalised planning found by Triandis (1995) is the

notion that cultures vary systematically in their tolerance of uncertainty. Managers from

individualistic cultures such as the U.S.A. and Great Britain tend to believe that policies and

practices should allow for individual initiative, that these policies apply to all, and that the

manager should stay up to date with managerial trends. The challenge for international

managers in planning across cultures is to take heed of conflicting styles. In this way,

according to cross-cultural theorists, the potential for synergies may be realised while

possible clashes are avoided (Brock et al., 2000:699).

Table 3.1 Different dimensions of planning processes

Summary of Planning Dimensions

Complexity Planning may be quite simple or it may involve many complex activities – due to multi-levels of authority

Comprehensiveness Exhaustive and inclusiveness in strategic decision-making Degree of functional coverage

Time horizontal (and futurity) Planning may be short, medium or long-term

1 year – short-term; 2 years – medium; 3 years – long-term ‘Long term planning modes’

Internal vs. External orientation Traditional budgeting; environmental scanning; contemporary strategic planning modes

Planning staff Line management input; planning staff specialists; planning department

Top Management commitment Adequacy of resources; resistance to planning

Direction Top-down approach; bottom-up approach

Programming Extent to which outcome or plan are in a predetermined format e.g. programme budgeting

Flexibility vs. Formality Extent to which the planning process can vary Extent to which predetermined systems, styles and timing are always used

Implementation-orientation Formality; discipline; managerial involvement

Source: Brock and Thomas, 1998


In this study, preferred leadership styles employed by the Expatriates and Samoans

will be discussed. Their effectiveness and acceptance within the project environment

and by the wider community will also be assessed.

3.3.4 Human influences

Both tangible and intangible dimensions of human resources are needed, in developing a

global competitive personnel profile that is unique, valuable, and difficult to reproduce and

provides the organisation with a sustainable competitive advantage. Tangible human

resource dimensions relate to the process, procedures, and systems established to identify,

select, train, motivate and retain competent personnel in the organisation. When

international projects are set up in a host culture, the extent of knowledge transfer from

home culture to host culture depends partly on its degree of ethnocentric attitude. Perlmutter

(1969 cited in Tsang, 1999:593) classifies the state of mind of expatriate personnel into

three main types, namely ethnocentric (or home culture oriented), polycentric (or host

culture oriented), and geocentric (or world oriented).

The ethnocentric attitude can be characterised, as “we, the home country nationals, are

superior to, more trustworthy than any foreigners in headquarters or host country” (Robock

and Simmonds, 1983:301). In such organisations, evaluation and performance criteria are

generally based on home-country standards, and decision is highly centralised in

headquarters. Welch and others (1994) argue that the use of expatriate managers with an

ethnocentric staffing approach in the early stages of internationalisation is a common

practice. Researchers warn that if an ethnocentric attitude is carried to extremes, then it may

become a barrier to knowledge transfer and learning.

3.3.4.1 Adaptation

International managers face numerous adaptation problems when they are assigned to a

country with a different cultural context, in particular, because of culture shock (Adler,

1975; 1987). Difficulties in adjustment are related to not only cultural differences, but also

to ‘homesickness’. Staying abroad may involve few adjustment problems provided that first

there is cultural compatibility between the home culture and host culture. Secondly, the

expatriate personnel need to have a certain level of communication skills, language abilities,

and intercultural relationship competence (Dunbar and Katcher, 1990).

Studies of international adaptation or adjustment argue the importance of socio-cultural

adjustment (Black et al., 1991). Research shows that socio-cultural adjustment in three areas

is important for a manager’s success: adjusting to work demands; adjusting to interaction

with host country nationals; and adjustment to the non-work environment. According to

Black and his associates, achievement is achieved through uncertainty reduction and

change. The expatriate manager can change his/her management style once the situation is

understood. Black et al. (1991) focused on sociological adjustment and suggested that pre-

departure training; previous international experience, relational and perceptional skills,

social support, organisational socialisation processes, culture novelty and family and spouse

adjustment, all play a role. Family life according to Black et al. cannot be separated from

professional life. Japanese expatriates for instance, generally stay abroad without their

families if the assignment is less than a year. Family life is still influential in the adjustment

process.

The ability to adapt to new and ambiguous situations with minimal discomfort has long

been thought of as important to adjusting to a new culture (Rueben and Kealey, 1979). One

area of Samoan culture that expatriate managers have a hard time adjusting to is privacy. In

some areas of Samoan society there is sometimes none or very little of it. Samoa is an oral

culture where people pass the time of day or night recounting stories about people, places,

events, things and ideas encountered during the day. In Samoa, everybody knows a lot about

many other peoples’ ‘comings and goings’. This notion of spatial and social claustrophobia

may be felt by expatriate personnel who may perceive locals as ‘gossips’. However, in

Samoa, sitting around the kava bowl and discussing ‘seemingly trivial matters’ with local

business operators can be far more instrumental in securing contracts and business deals

than sitting around an official conference table in an office.


In this study, the relationship between adaptation, adjustment, effective project

management and communication will be highlighted. The Expatriates ability and

willingness to adapt and adjust, the locals accommodating behaviours facilitate

effective communication and improve project management.

3.3.5 Key skills

According to current thinking, today’s leaders are challenged to create new models of

management systems and organisations that may better suit the development of the 21st

century. It is important, that the more we know about others, the more accurately we can

predict their behaviour (Honeycutt et al., 1983). Managers aware of cultural difference,

cross-cultural communication and ethical difference alter not only their images of their role

but their managerial style and activities. Harris and Moran (2000) assert that we operate in a

world market that demands a more culturally sensitive management, and tomorrow’s

managers need to possess a broad understanding of history, of culture, of technology and of

human relations. According to Harris and Moran, managers must be comfortable with cash

management, as with history, sociology, natural sciences and communication. In Samoa,

managers with this perspective may seek to integrate sensitively into the new environment

while advancing the corporate good, through respect of local heritage and custom -

‘fa’asamoa’. This integration has been confirmed by those with experience (Arnett, 1986;

Langer, 1989), as making good sense for both managers and business.

The literature suggests a list of key leadership factors (Harris and Moran, 2000) can be

compiled underpinning excellence for leadership and excellence in human and international

affairs. This may be incorporated into the development of a job profile for global managers

(Gudykunst, 1991). These ideas reoccur in the literature, and are regarded and accepted as

useful managerial attributes.

• Cosmopolitainess – Good project managers are sensitive, innovative, and

participative leaders, capable of operating comfortably in a global environment.

• Intercultural communication – Good project managers recognise what is involved

in self-image and role, personal needs, values, standard and expectations. These

are culturally conditioned.

• Cultural sensitivity – Good project managers acquire knowledge about cultural

influences on behaviour; cultural patterns, themes or universals, diversity of

macro-cultures and micro-cultures (Peck, 1987).

• Acculturation – Good project managers adjust and adapt to a specific culture and

recognise how culture and ethnicity affect the way we think and behave.

• Cultural management influences – Good project managers appreciate the

influences of cultural conditioning on the management of information and human

resources.

• Effective intercultural performance – Good project managers apply cultural theory

and insights to specific cross-cultural situations that affect people’s performance

on the job. They consult others on issues that affect them and are open to their

ideas (Fisher and Brown, 1988).

• Changing international business – Good managers are concerned with the

appreciation of the effect of cultural differences on standard business practice,

organisational loyalties and common activities such as reward/punishment of

employees.

• Cultural synergy – Good managers collaborate and integrate differences to

enhance human activities and systems. Good managers can keep control when two

or more culturally different groups come to the mutual conclusion that they must

unite their efforts to achieve their respective goals (Ouichi and Jaeger, 1978).

• Work culture – Good managers apply the general characteristics of culture to the

specifics of how people work at a point in time and place.

• World culture – Good managers understand that while some characteristics of

human culture are universal, a unique world culture is emerging.


In this study, these key leadership skills will be used to evaluate the performance of

Expatriates and Local Managers on cross-cultural project issues focusing on

communication and its impact on management systems

3.3.6 Summary

Global management is about people. It is built around the concept of “we”, rather than

“us” and “them”. According to theorists, development builds the capacity of organisations

and strengthens people’s initiatives, therefore global managers, as agents of change, need to

manage human resources and work to promote sustainable human development. A

heightened awareness of cultural values by managers enables the development of

management strategies and plans to minimise potential conflicts and stress (Wederspahn,

1992). This may counter-balance entrenched attitudes that may perpetuate racial and

cultural intolerance, and may hinder the rights of others to be active in economic and social

development. Global managers are in a position to provide solutions to contemporary forms

of cross-cultural misunderstandings. International co-operation through effective

communication processes can be harnessed to help promote and enhance cultural synergy

which may be a key tool in sustainable development. Global managers may be key ‘players’

in this development.

Characteristics of the South Pacific Islands and Samoa

4.1 Introduction

This chapter explores the extent to which human and cultural influences impact on

communication and international project management in Samoa. It will discuss western

influence in the Pacific region, particularly Polynesia, of which Samoa is part. It will also

highlight key elements of ‘fa`asamoa’ (Samoan traditions) and its influence on the social,

political and economic fabric of Samoan society. Other information on culture,

communication, human resources, and the construction industry in Samoa is also

interspersed across chapters 2 and 3 to provide examples to illustrate the points raised in the

discussion of the theoretical constructs.

This chapter has eight sections: 4,2 Pacific Island region – Polynesia, 4.3 Western influence

in the Pacific, 4.4 Development in the Pacific Island – Aid and constraints, 4.5 Cross-

cultural management in the Pacific, 4.6 Social and cultural characteristics of Samoa, 4.7

Managing projects in Samoa, and 4.8 Summary.

4.2 Pacific Island Region - Polynesia

The Pacific region known as Polynesia is a major world region that has been influenced

by other world regions over time. Despite all these influences, the Pacific has its own

identity, with its people having to live through many changes, in political, economic and

religious facets. They have incorporated these changes creatively into the rhythms of their

lives (Strathern et al., 2002). Polynesia is a group of islands of varying sizes and

topography, situated in the South eastern Pacific Ocean. This group of islands includes a

number of island nations including New Zealand, Hawaii, Tonga, Rarotonga, Tuvalu,

Tahiti, Niue, Tokelau, Samoa and American Samoa. According to Crocombe (2001),

Polynesia contains a diversity of political entities which include a monarch, independent

states, self-governing nations in free associations with their former colonial powers,

overseas territories, colonies, and provinces.

Strathern et al. (2002) assert that despite the diversity in geography and ecology, the region

shows remarkable linguistic and cultural homogeneity. Hooper (1998) posits that a salient

feature of the island countries of the Pacific is the large part that culture and traditions play

in national life. Some of the common characteristics which stem from central themes of

Polynesian culture include (Strathern et al., 2002):

• A hierarchical system of social and political relations (respect);

• To varying degrees, communities tend to exhibit political centralisation;

• Rank is associated with religion, and often with genealogical seniority (honour);

• Chiefs are endowed with awesome power (mana), demand fear and respect (tapu);

• The community is conceptualised as a group of kin (descent);

• Principle of mutual support and empathy (alofa);

• Systems of maintaining order and of dealing with misbehaviour.

According to Churney (cited in Shuster et al., 1998:115), traditional political cultures in the

Pacific Islands have many democratic elements such as considerable consultation and

consensus-building by chiefs, councils and clans, and hereditary chiefs must be responsive

to the needs of their people. Le Tagaloa’s (1992) assertion regarding Samoan traditional

society’s cultural aspects of ‘soalaupule’, inclusive rights of heirs to the titles, and holistic

view of life support the points raised by Churney.

Other theorists (Ritchie and Ritchie cited in Howard and Borofsky (Eds), 1989) present a

heuristic way of summarising the basic model of socialisation linking the cultural themes or

targets that are common amongst Polynesian societies. See Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Themes in Polynesian socialisation

Source: Ritchie and Ritchie cited in Howard and Borofsky (Eds), 1989

halla


4.3 Western influence in the Pacific

Ron Crocombe (2001) posits that contact with cultures from Europe and Asia brought

substantial changes to Pacific cultures. One of the most important was the greater

effectiveness of European military technology, which enabled Europeans to dominate local

people. According to Crocombe, when one human group is, for whatever reason,

dominating over another, they become not only very confident, but also very arrogant.

Researchers talk about the tremendous changes occurring in the Pacific today, but they are

much less than the changes that went on in most of the eastern Pacific last century, when the

whole indigenous religion was overthrown, the indigenous economic systems was

destroyed, the indigenous technology superseded and new systems of government were

imposed (Crocombe, 2001). However, Campbell (1989) argues that Pacific societies have

experienced greater change since independence than before it. Campbell asserts further that

the cultural change that has taken place over the past two centuries has been a phenomenon

of adaptation rather than a case of loss and replacement where the Pacific Islanders have

adopted some aspects of western culture and rejected others (for example, representative

politics in Samoa).

Pacific cultures today are still very much alive. Each is a unique adaptation within the

common framework of world culture (Hooper, 2000). There is assimilation of elements of

culture by smaller societies from larger more powerful societies. There is some integration,

particularly of related cultures, wherein their differences diminish. The major reality is

pluralism, of different cultures maintaining much of their uniqueness, but living in constant

interaction with people of other cultures. Campbell (1989) asserts that the cultural and

economic independence of the Pacific Islands is at an end as irrevocably as is their isolation.

Campbell notes, acculturation in all aspects of private and public life is a morally neutral,

natural process which is the inevitable and unavoidable consequence of contact between

peoples everywhere.

4.4 Development in the Pacific Islands – Aid and Constraints

Aspirations by Pacific Island governments to improve living standards through raising

national income levels, more self-reliance, better income distribution and preservation of

their natural environment are confronted by powerful constraints to development which

include geographic, economic, and socio-cultural pressures (Fairbairn, 1991). These

constraints can impede and frustrate potential development.

Most Pacific Island nations are small in physical size and population and therefore have a

narrow resource base which in effect restricts development options. Their smallness in size

means possible environmental fragility which requires caution in development efforts. Most

are remote from metropolitan centres and markets and require importation and

transportation of materials and commodities for development. However, according to

Fairbairn (1991), smallness and remoteness is not all bad and does not place absolute limits

on economic development if ideas to facilitate the meeting of basic needs at reasonable

costs and the development of specialised income generating activities are encouraged.

According to Fairbairn (1991), the shortage of development capital is a common constraint

which stems from low domestic savings, low per capita incomes, weak personal savings

habits and undeveloped capital markets. Consequently, there is a heavy reliance on foreign

aid and private foreign investment. A constraining factor closely linked to the shortage of

capital is the shortage of skilled human resources which reduces the Islands overall capacity

to absorb and apply modern technical knowledge and ideas. The skills gap has been a result

of skills loss through emigration, inadequate or inappropriate training in the past and the

inefficient and ineffective knowledge transfer through the recruitment of expatriates.

Highly prone to natural disasters and other causes of environmental degradation, most

Pacific Island nations including Samoa are heavily reliant on foreign aid from Australia,

New Zealand, Japan, and multilateral organizations. Foreign aid to Pacific Island nations

such as Samoa, while still embodying a high degree of continuity with past approaches is at

the same time signalling change in a number of areas. This change of policy, according to

foreign ministers such as Australia’s Alexander Downer (1998) is to ensure that aid is

aligned with the regions current needs and priorities articulated by Pacific Island

governments in bilateral dialogue and through the regional agencies such as SPREP, SPEC,

SPC and the Pacific Forum. Although much aid in the form of finance and expertise has

been channelled into Samoa, the extent to which this transfer of knowledge has been

successfully achieved and the process in which it has been communicated is relatively

unknown. Interviews with locals reveal a sense of ambivalence whilst interviews with

expatriate managers reveal their focus on getting ‘the job done’. For bilateral donors, the

primary concern is the achievement of their self-interests. Pacific Island countries have a

better chance of obtaining funding if their philosophy of development is congruent with that

of the donor (Crocombe et al., 1994).

The focus of Australia’s aid in the Pacific changed in 2003 to advance Australia’s national

interest under three priorities – combating terrorism, strengthening governance and improve

rates of economic growth in member states of the Pacific Forum. Effective partnerships with

Samoa through the government agency AusAid have been established to help the

Government of Samoa implement key elements of its economic strategy outlined in the

Samoa government’s Strategy for the Development of Samoa (2002-2004). In 2001-02

Australia’s bilateral aid was about $11.0 million while in 2002-03 it was $11.5 million

(AusAid, 2004 Program Objective and Policy Framework). New Zealand’s aid also

highlights its aid program to the Pacific as ‘promoting assistance that better enables

developing countries to meet their economic and social needs…which also contributes to

the achievement of New Zealand’s own external relations and trade policies by

strengthening international economic prosperity, maintaining peace, security and stability

and protecting the global environment (New Zealand Ministry of External Relations and

Trade: MERT, 1989:1). The concentration of New Zealand and Australian aid in the Asia

Pacific region highlights their strategic, commercial and political interests.

Samoa’s ‘Vision’ for sustained economic growth was initially outlined in its second

Statement of Economic Strategy: 1996-98. Wendt (2000) outlines the five strategic areas

under this strategy– agriculture, education, health, the private sector and public sector

reform. The challenge, asserts Wendt, which faces the Government of Samoa is to come up

with the resources required to pursue these objectives. Overseas aid contributions have been

instrumental in the pursuit of the ‘Vision’ in Samoa. Bilateral aid is the most dominant type

of aid and amounts for the bulk of total Pacific external resource flows. Australia, China,

Japan and New Zealand are Samoa’s major bilateral donors. Aid can provide a needed

complement to local resources, knowledge and effort but it must be accompanied by

supporting policies. Burnside and Dollar (1997, cited in Wendt, 2000:49) found aid to be a

much more effective investment when a recipient country’s economic policies were ‘sound’

before the aid was provided. According to Burnside and Dollar, ‘sound policies’ are

measures that have been shown to promote growth according to the World Bank’s definition

of growth.

Fifty-four percent of all aid currently coming into Samoa goes to education and health.

There were 177 aid related experts, consultants, volunteers and advisors on assignment in

Samoa in 2000 (Wendt, 2000:154). The large number of donors actively involved in Samoa

is a clear indication of the support they have given to the ‘Vision’. However, the training of

local counterparts is crucial to continue project outcomes once project related personnel

have departed. In Samoa, aid programs need to be tailored to Samoa’s ability to absorb and

manage. Moreover, local ownership of an aid project is imperative to its sustainability.

Local stakeholders still feel a ‘sense of isolation’ due to the external funding nature of

projects. As Wendt (2000) posits, in Samoa project success and sustainability requires

strong initiative, commitment and participation by local stakeholders.

Aid has had a direct influence on the direction of development in the South Pacific region.

Crocombe and Meleisea (1994) note that this assertion is based on a number of

observations:

• As most development is financed by aid, donors can refuse funds for any project

that they are not comfortable with;

• Expatriates working in ministries in Pacific Island countries tend to promote their

government’s views of development and to deem them as appropriate for Pacific

Island countries. Locals trained overseas tend to be sympathetic to the ideas and

policies of the country where they were trained;

• Some donors assume a greater role in project identification due to the lack of

rigour in planning by Pacific Island countries

Pacific Island nations such as Samoa face many challenges not only from its natural

physical environment but also from what theorists (Goldsmith cited in Huffer and Soo,

2000) assert as factors of governance which are characteristics of modern Island nations;

• Doomsday scenario – overpopulation, the growth of urban slums, declining rates

of education, huge un(der)employment, infrastructure crisis;

• Inability to provide basic needs (services and goods) for its citizens;

• Ascendancy of neo-liberalism in policy making;

• The growth of corruption.

A major challenge facing Pacific Islands which is highly pertinent to this research is

managing outside influences impacting on traditional domains both economical and

political. This challenge has accelerated since 1945 and will no doubt continue to exert its

influence on Pacific Island society in the future. As Macpherson (cited in Strathern et al.,

2002) asserts, change is not new to the Pacific, but in the past, leaders (chiefs) were in a

position to govern the pace and direction of change to a much greater degree than is now

possible.

4.5 Cross-cultural management in the Pacific

From the recorded seafaring times of the Pacific Islanders to the arrival of whalers,

explorers, missionaries, traders, merchants, and colonial powers, cross-cultural exchanges

and relationships have been part of Pacific Island life. The extent and degree of influence

exerted by these interactions on Pacific Island cultures have been variously defined and

commented on (Crocombe, 2001). The introduction of commercial activities such as

creating a market for land and labour and presenting alternatives to traditional forms of

social organisations altered Pacific social life (Macpherson, 2000), and continue to affect

projects and development in Samoa.

When Samoa gained independence in 1962, the government that was formed had already

realised the need for major infrastructure development. This increased the demand for

experienced builders and designers, many of whom came from developed countries (Low,

1995). The scope for international construction in developing countries was also boosted

considerably following the emergence of international funding institutions such as the

World Bank and the Asian Development Bank. Many managers from the developed world

were involved with construction works funded by these agencies in developing countries.

International project managers consequently had to deal increasingly with Samoans in

government, private enterprise and at the village level and to develop skills to interact with

individuals whose behavioural attributes were influenced by other cultural priorities.

Pederson (1991) argues that the need for rapid understanding and demonstration of

appropriate role behaviour in the host culture may be the source of considerable stress,

resulting in role conflict and identity diffusion, both of which have been linked to culture

shock.

For over two decades, researchers such as Hofstede (1980) and Trompenaars (1993) have

shown that management practices are embedded in national cultures. Traditional enterprise

in Samoa has been defined by Hooper (1998:13) as “economic activities undertaken in

support of the material well being, reputation and social standing of the extended families,

churches, villages and chiefs”. Fairbain (1991) argues that from the development

perspective, cultural constraints seriously restrain economic growth by restricting economic

efficiency and capital accumulation, as they are still powerful forces in contemporary

Pacific Island society. Accordingly, Fairbain asserts that certain cultural institutions and

practices have weakened the modernisation process. These include customary land tenure

which can reduce incentives for agricultural development without a clear title to land, and

communal attitudes and related customary influences which often clash with requirements

for capitalist and individualistic-oriented economy. This research supports Hooper (1998)

who argues that although traditional activities are well known throughout the Pacific, they

are often portrayed in negative terms and seen as obstacles to economic development. This

research will show how these negative attitudes have contributed to the impediment of

effective communication in cross-cultural situations, as the resources of initiative, drive and

organisational capacity which underpin many traditional enterprises are overlooked by

expatriate managers.

A Tongan saying ‘Taumulivalea’ (Kavaliku, 2000) roughly translates as if you do not know

where you came from, how can you know where you are going? This highlights the reason

why culture is important in any discussion of Pacific development. Managers need to

consider culture not only to achieve their project objectives but also to achieve a quality of

life befitting the integrity of each and all Pacific islanders. Campbell (1989) asserts that how

Pacific Islanders fare in the future, as in the past, will depend very much on the wisdom,

benevolence and restraint of others. This is reinforced by the Director General, UNESCO

(1993), who stated that cultural development was an instrument and an objective of

sustainable development.

The key to development is to adapt to traditional values rather than attempt to change them

to fit the Western model of development. The Western culture of individuality contrasts

dramatically to Pacific society. A co-ordinated approach to development that is compatible

with Pacific lifestyles is more likely to promote development than the Western models

temporarily applied for the duration of a project. The key is to foster a positive, creative

approach to the cash economy that develops Pacific skills and ingenuity and which would

result in improved rural living standards while preserving the unique qualities of life in the

Pacific.

While models of culture shock (for example; Lysgaard, 1995) hold heuristic value for

exploring transitions, researchers such as Arthur (1997), stress that they fail to incorporate

the varying levels of adjustment that are needed when the expatriate enters the host culture

and the differential nature of experiences over time. The experience of cross-cultural

transition, asserts Ward and Kennedy (1996), involves a challenge to personal meanings and

beliefs. The process of cross-cultural transition into cultures such as Samoa is of interest to

researchers who try to uncover factors that lead to expatriate adjustment and cross-cultural

effectiveness.

4.6 Social and cultural characteristics of Samoa

Meleisea (2000) observes that values about governance are rooted in culture and that

not all cultures value the kind of openness and acceptance of individualism that Western

thinkers have argued to be the basis of human development. Meleisea’s (2000) perspective

is based on the contrast between the rational/legal authority underlying the constitution and

government, and the traditional chiefly authority that is the basis of Samoan culture.

Huntington (1997) argues that the world is in the early stages of new global conflict over

different pathways with ‘development’ values competing between cultural regions. Hooper

(1987) asserts that in trying to understand living cultures, we must also understand their

legacies from the past. Culture according to Hooper (2000) is both an instrument for

decision-making and implementation as well as the end result of those policies and of the

decisions implemented. The assumption can therefore be made that culture is a dynamic

reality, which changes with each new idea, new development and new interactions with

other cultures and/or other peoples. Fa’asamoa supports the assertion that culture is not a

steady-state phenomenon and as Kierkegaard wrote (cited in Hooper 2000), ‘life can only be

understood backwards, but it must be lived forwards’.

The traditional domain is the foundation of modern Samoan social and political life – it

shows much continuity with the past and is regarded by most Samoans as a vital source of

national stability (Hooper, 2000). Some traditional aspects and practices of Samoan social

organisation have changed due to interaction with the outside world (historical and colonial

experience), but kinship remained the central organising principle of social, political, and

economic life. The traditional land tenure principles remained intact. The traditional title

holders, despite some changes to the process of title bestowal, still control the local family,

village, and district and national government, and this role of the matai was enshrined in the

electoral process at the time of independence in 1962. Traditionally communication within a

Samoan context was from the top-down (hierarchical).

The adoption of Christianity as a vital element of the Samoan social organisation was

further ratified in its constitution. The preamble to the constitution of Samoa is “In the Holy

Name of God, the Almighty, the Ever Loving” and the declaration that the independent state

of Samoa is based “on Christian principles and Samoan custom and tradition” indicates that

Samoan ethos (ethical orientation) derives from a mixture of institutions that emphasise

rank and the aggressive defence of ancient privileges, with Christianity and its ethic of

mutual love and forgiveness.

Modern Samoan society reflects overlapping socio-political “domains”, in which socio-

economic status, especially formal education and employment, cuts across political,

administrative, private and traditional. According to Lawson (1997:6), it is evident that in

Samoa ‘power and authority claimed by chiefly leaders is linked explicitly with normative

concepts about divinely sanctioned authority’. Traditional enterprises in Samoa invariably

are undertaken to serve traditional rather commercial ends, however, as Hooper (1987:13)

points out it often involves large amounts of money and increasingly economically rational

calculation. Construction projects in Samoa need to carefully consider the role that

traditional enterprises and institutions play within the national, political and modern social

life.

The basic contemporary social structure of Samoan society consisting of the individual,

family, village, district, and nation as well as factors influencing culture is outlined in

Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 Samoan Society Basic Social Structure and Field of Influence

According to anthropologists, historians and political scientists (Strathern et al., 2002;

Meleisea, 1987; Lawson, 1997; Hooper, 1998), the district (itumalo) was the largest unit of

Samoan society before contact with the outside world. There were 20 districts in total with a

number of villages making up each district. Each village ran their own affairs with the matai

(chief or leader) of each family living there making up the village council (fono – pulega)

that govern it. The village council is responsible for maintaining order, enhancing village

reputation and image, co-ordinate and plan work activities, retaliatory measures, and

intervened where necessary in family disputes. Kinship is an important concept in Samoan

society that links and traces ones connections to many aiga (extended family lineage),

hence, ensuring ones right to family land, title(s), protection, and other means of livelihood.

In return for these rights, individuals bound themselves to serve (tautua) the matai and

family. Men and women in a family have different social obligations which are all essential

roles in maintaining and enhancing family status and honour.

Country - Atunuu

District – Itumalo

Village – Nuu

Family – Aiga Matai and extended family members – family and

individual member affairs are dealt with. The traditional authority lies with the Matai.

Village council ‘Fono’– consist of Matais from each family, traditional authority to deal with village affairs;

Aumaga – untitled men’s group, Aualuma – unmarried women’s group, Faletua ma Tausi – married women’s’

group, other committees

Matai representatives from each village – ‘Fono’ or ‘Soafaiga’. Deals with matters concerning the whole

district

Government, Elected Matais of districts to parliament, government departments and corporations

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The person and his/her wants and needs. Traditionally, the needs of the individual are secondary to the

collective needs of the family

According to Ala’ilima and Ala’ilima (1968:13; cited in Maiava, 2001), the smallest

political unit in Samoan society is the family which is regarded not as a plurality of

individual opinions, but as a single political organism. This underlies the assertion by

Maiava (2001) that to understand Samoan culture is to understand that the family (aiga)

motivates all behaviour, including behaviour involving rank and status. The immediate

family may include adult siblings, their spouses, children and parents. It may also extend to

include parents’ siblings, first cousins and their children.

Faàmatai, (chiefly system) is the overarching and dominant institution of the traditional

domain. Le Tagaloa (1992) asserts that ‘faàmatai’ reflects:

• The importance of and the inclusive rights of the human being as an heir of a

‘matai’ title.

• The insistence of the culture on the unity or holistic view of life

• The inclusive decision-making process of ‘soalaupule’, and

• The ability of the Samoan culture to handle change and new ideas.

Faàmatai is a social organisation of matai titles and heirs of matai titles, both male and

female. Every Samoan (man, woman, or child) is a member of the ‘aiga potopoto’

(extended family) of one or other matai title. The matai title can have the rank of “ali’i’

(paramount chief), or ‘tulafale’ (orator). The ali’i is the titular leader and ultimate repository

of decision-making whereas the tulafale is the executive agent performing numerous duties

for the ali’i. All sons, daughters or descendants of a matai are heirs who have equal

opportunity to the title because primogeniture does not apply in the fa’amatai culture of the

Samoan. Traditional authority is vested in the ‘matai’ who are selected by the extended

family through a consensus process (Bunge and Cooke, 1984; Le Tagaloa, 1992).

The matai’s traditional authority encompasses exercising control over customary land,

distribution of wealth, and family and community affairs (both individually and as a

collective). Collectivistic values in Samoan culture reflects the tenets of culture and

tradition which emphasise the ‘matai lufilufi mealelei or tufa lelei’, that is, the matai who

distributes food and wealth with all the members of the aiga potopoto leaving little or

nothing for self. In the matai system, the matai is responsive to the needs of the aiga hence

creating a strong sense of respect among the members. The aiga has the power to choose

and dismiss the matai, hence creating a strong sense of responsibility by the matai to the

needs of the extended family (Churney, cited in Shuster et al., 1998). There is an

assumption that there are no commoners in Samoan social organisation. According to Le

Tagaloa (1992), this belief lies behind the often heard admonishment, ‘e te tufanua i lau

amio, ae le o lou gafa’ which, translates that a Samoan is a commoner only in behaviour

and speech. Le Tagaloa (1992) and Meleisea (2000) posit the aiga potopoto (extended

family) reflects ideal social organisation of the fa’amatai, which is the nuu (local

community) or the atunuu (whole country) in microcosm. ‘Soalaupule’, states Le Tagaloa

(1992) refers to the inclusive decision-making process pertinent to the fa’amatai. This

process insists on a consultative basis for making decisions, which includes and involves all

the relevant people. Le Tagaloa points out that the Samoan culture firmly believes in the

efficiency of the consultative approach in the making of long-term decisions. As stated

earlier, fa’amatai lies at the core of the Samoan sense of national identity. Because people

outside the rural village take matai titles, the system extends to the government and

administrative domains as well as to business and the profession and diaspora Samoan

communities (World Bank Report, 1998).

4.7 Managing Projects in Samoa

Historically, it can be said, Samoa has been involved in intercultural communication

with Europeans since 1770s and other Pacific Islands for centuries. Using oral traditions and

recorded historical accounts, contemporary observers (Davidson, 1967) noted that because

of political alliances established between islands in Polynesia as well as trade and economic

reasons, there was a necessity for Samoa to develop strong intercultural links with its island

neighbours. Hau`ofa (1993) argues that migration and development in the Pacific is not a

modern phenomenon but a cultural characteristic that can be traced back thousands of years.

Later, the advent of early explorers, whalers, missionaries, traders, and merchants, further

honed the cross-cultural skills already developed by Samoans. It can be argued that it has

been a case of natural progression over time for Samoans to continue to adapt and develop

skills required to communicate effectively with those who come to Samoa and the Pacific

from other cultures.

In Samoa the indigenous culture and tradition are the fundamental parameters which guide

everyday life. The traditions, while modified by historical and colonial experience, exert

significant control and influence over natural resources and national policies. The cultural

context exerts a dominating influence on the approach to achieving objectives of any major

project. Some of the identified constraints to development that may impinge on the

management and delivery of project outcomes include (Source: World Bank Report, 2000):

small internal market; distant external markets; narrow production base; high unit costs of

infrastructure from low utilisation rates; vulnerability to external economic shocks and

natural disasters; heavily dependent on foreign aid flows and remittances from expatriate

Samoans. Other factors which may have an impact on projects in Samoa include: “matai’

controls of local government and extending into high political office; over 80% of land is

under ‘matai’ control; ‘matai’ titles are ranked, often superseding ranks in the business and

political domains; all disputes over land and ‘matai’ titles are handled by The Lands and

Titles Court, which could take a few weeks up to a few years to resolve; the village ‘fono’

has jurisdiction over the use of customary land and the majority of general village life and

some functions; ‘fono’ is the key to disputes over land acquisitions.

It is clearly evident that in the case of Samoa, the success of achieving project deliverables

and project sustainability depends crucially on the consultative process and participation of

local stakeholders. In Samoa, fully participatory approaches are essential in project

management because of the complexities of the overlapping socio-political ‘domains’, in

which socio-economic status cuts across political, private and traditional domains.

4.8 Summary

Pacific peoples are both modern and traditional at the same time. As Hooper (2000:3) states,

‘culture plays a much more significant role in national economies and national life of

Pacific countries then in most other regions of the world’. Even though Pacific nations such

as Samoa may be fully immersed in modern sectors such as employment, they are still

involved in traditional life and networks of obligations that link them closely with their kin.

This thesis advocates a Pacific approach to development that builds on the strengths of

Pacific culture to strengthen development. Hooper (1998) has argued that although

traditional activities are well known throughout the Pacific, they are often portrayed in

negative terms and seen as obstacles to economic development. This thesis highlights how

these negative attitudes have contributed to the impediment of effective communication in

cross-cultural situations, as the resources of initiative, drive and organisational capacity

which underpin many traditional enterprises are overlooked by expatriate managers.

Since Samoa’s resources are controlled by traditional factors, economic development

policies rely on cooperative strategies and effective communication as the matai system

remains ‘a unified system of dispersed power’ (Meleisea, 1987:1). Anthony Hooper

(1998:45) presents the ‘official view that Samoan customary practices handle the employer-

employee relationship better than any formal foreign arrangement’. The emphasis on

tradition and customary practices is a feature of local Pacific business operations and

impacts on successful completion of large-scale construction projects in Samoa.

The role played by aid in sustaining development in Samoa has been crucial in supporting,

encouraging and strengthening Samoa’s capacity to maintain economic growth. However, a

number of communication issues pertaining to project effectiveness and management need

to be considered if large scale construction projects in Samoa are to make an impact in

sustaining development. Managers need to recognise the influence of their own culture on

shaping their behaviour. Project managers bring their own values, behaviours and

experiences to projects; however, the ability to effectively adapt the knowledge, skills and

behaviours of the host nation to a cross-cultural environment is necessary to the

development process of culturally appropriate projects.

Methodology

5.1 Introduction

This chapter outlines the steps undertaken to design, plan and implement this research. It

will cover the methodological approach and methods used to: identify the sample population

and participants; select and design research instruments; collect and analyse data. The

methodology was chosen as relevant to the tasks of carrying out opinion surveys in the form

of postal questionnaires (results from analysis covered in chapter 6) and conducting in-depth

interviews (findings from analysis covered in chapter 7); critically analysing and integrating

the two data sets through interpretation and discussion (chapter 8); and making a

contribution to knowledge in the construction management field (covered in chapter 9).

A mixed methods approach (focuses on collecting and analysing both quantitative and

qualitative data in a single study) is used, making pragmatic assumptions (knowledge

claims) and collecting both quantitative and qualitative data sequentially. The inquiry is

based on the assumption that collecting diverse types of data best provides an understanding

of a research problem (Creswell, 2003:21). This research began with a quantitative phase

(questionnaire survey) with both standardised checklist of predetermined items and open-

ended questions nested in them. Therefore a major literature review was undertaken initially

to help establish a rationale for the research questions and to ascertain the extent and depth

of existing knowledge on cross-cultural communication and international project

management. The literature was used deductively as a basis for advancing research

questions (Creswell, 2003:32). The qualitative phase followed which involved conducting

explanatory in-depth interviews with participants.

Both primary data collection procedures (questionnaires and interviews) were implemented

with specific objectives in mind. The questionnaire survey was initiated with the aim of

gaining perspectives from a variety of industries in Samoa on cross-cultural communication

and related international project management issues. The interviews were conducted in the

Construction Industry in Samoa with the aim of using the qualitative findings to assist in

explaining and interpreting the results of the primary quantitative phase. The techniques and

methods used to design, plan and implement this study are detailed in Section 5.2

Justification for Pragmatic Knowledge Claims and Mixed Methods; Section 5.3 Research

Plan; Section 5.4 Research Design; Section 5.5 Adopted Research Methodologies; and

Section 3.6 Ethical considerations.

5.2 Justification for Pragmatic Knowledge Claims and Mixed Methods

Chau et al. (1998) suggested that since construction management was a practical

subject the choice of research approach should be a ‘pragmatic one’. This view is shared by

other researchers such as Fortune and Lees (2004) who adopted this stance in their study of

Professional Judgement and the Mapping of the Building Project Price Forecasting Process.

According to Simister (1994), within the field of construction management, there appears to

be a limited number of strategies and techniques in current use for ‘soft’ management

research. The approach taken in this study is a pragmatic one. The following sections

provide a discussion of the pragmatic approach and mixed methods strategies.

Creswell (2003:5) conceptualised Crotty’s (1998) model to address three questions central

to the design of this research: 1-What knowledge claims are being made by the researcher

(including a theoretical perspective)? 2-What strategies of inquiry will inform the

procedures? 3-What methods of data collection and analysis will be used? According to

Creswell, in stating knowledge claims, a researcher starts a study with certain assumptions

about how he/she will learn and what he/she will learn during the inquiry. Knowledge

claims may be termed a paradigm (Lincoln and Guba, 2000); or philosophical assumptions,

epistemologies and ontologies (Crotty, 1998); or thirdly as broadly conceived research

methodologies (Newman, 2000). Creswell (1994, cited in Creswell, 2003:6) states

philosophically, researchers make claims about what is knowledge (ontology), how we

know it (epistemology), what values go into it (axiology), how we write about it (rhetoric),

and the processes for studying it (methodology).

5.2.1 Knowledge Claims

The four schools of thoughts about knowledge identified and discussed by Creswell

(2003:6-12) are postpositivism, constructivism, advocacy/participatory, and pragmatism.

These schools of thoughts are now briefly discussed here. Having an understanding and

awareness of these different schools of thoughts helps a researcher make an informed choice

of what assumptions to adopt that best satisfy the aim and objectives as well as addressing

the research questions of this investigation.

5.2.1.1 Postpositivism Knowledge Claims

Postpositivism refers to the thinking after positivism, challenging the traditional notion of

the absolute truth of knowledge and recognising that we cannot be “positive” about our

claims of knowledge when studying the behaviour and actions of humans. It reflects a

deterministic philosophy in which causes probably determine effects or outcomes. A

postpositivism stance is sometimes called scientific research, or quantitative research, or

positivism/postpositivism research, or empirical science. The accepted postpositivism

research approach is to start with a theory (deductively), then collect data to either support

or refute the theory, and finally make necessary revisions before additional tests are carried

out.

5.2.1.2 Socially Constructed Knowledge Claims

Researchers in this position address the processes of interaction among individuals and also

focus on the specific contexts in which people live and work in order to understand the

historical and cultural settings of the participants. The goal is to rely as much as possible on

the participants’ views of the situation being studied. Researchers in this position recognise

that their own background shapes their interpretation and therefore acknowledge their own

personal, cultural, and historical experiences. Social constructivism researchers look to

generate or inductively develop a theory or pattern of meaning.

5.2.1.3 Advocacy/Participatory Knowledge Claims

Researchers in this position believe that inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and a

political agenda stipulating actions for reform that may change the lives of the participants,

the institutions in which individuals work or live, and the researcher’s life. Research with

this orientation is often focused on specific important social issues of the day such as

empowerment, inequality, oppression, domination, suppression, alienation, and assumes that

the inquirer will proceed collaboratively so as to not further marginalised the participants as

a result of the inquiry. Participants may have an input in the design of questions, collecting

data, analyse information, or receive rewards for participation. Theoretical perspectives may

be integrated with the philosophical assumptions that construct a picture of the issues being

examined, the people to be studied, and the changes that are needed.

5.2.1.4 Pragmatic Knowledge Claims

According to Creswell (2003), pragmatism derives from the work of Peirce, James, Mead,

and Dewey (Cherryholmes, 1992) and recently advanced by writers such as Rorty (1990),

Murphy (1990), Patton (1990), and Cherryholmes (1992). There are many forms of

pragmatism with knowledge claims that arise out of actions, situations, and consequences

rather than antecedent conditions (as in postpositivism). The focus is with applications –

“what works” – and solutions to problems (Patton, 1990). The problem is most important

than the method in this stance, and researchers use all approaches to understand the problem

(see Rossman and Wilson, 1985). As a philosophical underpinning for mixed methods

studies, Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998) and Patton (1990) convey the importance for

focusing attention on the research problem in social science research and then using

pluralistic approaches to derive knowledge about the problem. According to Cherryholmes

(1992), Murphy (1990), and Creswell’s own interpretations, pragmatism provides a basis for

the following knowledge claims (Creswell, 2003:11-12):

1. Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of philosophy and reality. This

applies to mixed methods research in that inquirers draw liberally from both

quantitative and qualitative assumptions when they engage in their research.

2. Individual researchers have freedom of choice. They are “free” to choose the

methods, techniques, and procedures of research that best meet their needs and

purposes.

3. Pragmatists do not see the world as an absolute unity. In a similar way, mixed

methods researchers look to many approaches to collecting and analysing data

rather than subscribing to only one way (e.g., quantitative or qualitative).

4. Truth is what works at the time; it is not based in a strict dualism between the mind

and a reality completely independent of the mind. Thus, in mixed methods

research, investigators use both quantitative and qualitative data because they work

to provide the best understanding of a research problem.

5. Pragmatist researchers look to the “what” and “how”. Their research is based on

its intended consequences – where they want to go with it. Mixed methods

researchers need to establish a purpose for their “mixing”, a rationale for the

reasons why quantitative and qualitative data need to be mixed in the first place.

6. Pragmatists agree that research always occurs in social, historical, political, and

other contexts. In this way, mixed methods studies may include a post-modern

turn, a theoretical lens that is reflexive of social justice and political aims.

7. Pragmatists believe (Cherryholmes, 1992) that we need to stop asking questions

about reality and the laws of nature. “They would simply like to change the

subject” (Rorty, 1983, p.xiv)

Accordingly, for this mixed methods study, pragmatism opens the door to multiple methods,

different worldviews, and different assumptions, as well as to different forms of data

collection and analysis.

5.2.2 Strategy of Inquiry or Research Methodology

According to Creswell (2003), strategies have multiplied over the years as new and

advanced computer technologies for complex data analysis emerged and as new procedures

have been articulated for conducting research. Table 5.1 illustrate an overview of the

common strategies associated with the quantitative approach, the qualitative approach, and

the mixed methods approach.

Table 5.1 Alternative Strategies of Inquiry

Source: Creswell, 2003:13

The definitions of these alternatives can be found in most research texts. This thesis applies

a mixed methods approach.

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5.2.2.1 Mixed methods history

Campbell and Fiske used multiple methods to study validity of psychological traits in 1959

– probably the origin of the concept of mixing different methods (Creswell, 2003:15). In

1973, Sieber combined traditional surveys (quantitative data) with field methods such as

observations and interviews (qualitative data). Recognising that all methods have

limitations, Jick in 1979 introduced triangulation of data sources as a means for seeking

convergence across qualitative and quantitative methods – biases inherent in any single

method could neutralise or cancel biases of other methods. Green, Caracelli, and Graham in

1989 see the mixing of different types of data as having the results from one method help

develop or inform the other. Tashakkori and Teddie in 1998 introduced nesting of one

method within another to provide insight into different levels or units of analysis. Mertens

in 2003 puts forward a case for transformative procedures where it serves a larger purpose

to change and advocate for marginalised groups, such as women, ethnic/racial minorities,

members of gay and lesbian communities, people with disabilities, and those who are poor.

Creswell in 1994 (cited in Creswell, 2003:6) developed procedures for mixed methods

strategies of inquiry. In 2003, Tashakkori and Teddie compiled and edited a handbook for

mixed methods procedures.

5.2.2.2 Mixed method strategies

The mixed methods strategies of inquiry identified are:

• Sequential procedures – the researcher seeks to elaborate on or expand the findings

of one method with another. It may begin with a qualitative method for exploratory

purposes and followed by the quantitative method with a large sample to allow for

generalisation to the population. The priority in this case is typically given to the

qualitative data. It may also begin with the quantitative method where theories and

concepts are tested, followed by a qualitative method of explanation with a few

cases or individuals as applied in this study. Here, the priority is typically given to

the quantitative data.

• Concurrent procedures – the researcher converges quantitative and qualitative data

in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem. Both forms of

data are collected simultaneously during the study, and then integrate the

information in the interpretation of the overall results. The researcher may also nest

one form of data within another larger data collection procedure so that different

levels or units of analysis can be analysed.

• Transformative procedures – the researcher uses a theoretical lens as an overarching

perspective within a design that contains both quantitative and qualitative data. The

theoretical lens offers a framework for topics of interest, methods for data collection

(which could involve a sequential or a concurrent approach), and outcomes or

changes anticipated by the study.

5.2.3 Research Methods

The choice of methods for data collection and analysis is the third element that goes

into designing a research approach together with the knowledge claims and strategies of

inquiry (Creswell, 2003). Table 5.2 presents the different methods as applied to a

quantitative research, a qualitative research, and a mixed methods research. As this study

employed the mixed methods strategy of inquiry that required the collection of data

sequentially, a number of methods were utilised: both predetermined and emerging

methods, both open- and close-ended questions, multiple forms of data, statistical and text

analysis.

Table 5.2 Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods Procedures

Source: Creswell, 2003:17

5.2.4 Summary of Research Approach

Table 5.3 presents the summary or framework of the research approach taken in this study

indicating the philosophical assumptions, the strategies of inquiry, the methods employed,

and the practices of research used.

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Table 5.3 Summary of Research Approach for this Study

Characteristics Mixed Methods Approach Philosophical assumptions Pragmatic knowledge claims Strategies of inquiry Sequential strategy: Phase 1 – Quantitative; Phase 2 - Qualitative

Methods employed Both open- and closed-ended questions, both emerging and predetermined approaches, and both quantitative and qualitative data and analysis

Use these practices of research as the researcher

Collects both quantitative and qualitative data; Develops a rational for mixing; Integrates the data at the interpretation phase; Presents visual pictures/diagrams of the procedures in the study, Employs the practices of both quantitative and qualitative approaches

5.3 Research Plan

Together with the three considerations (the research problem, personal experience of

the researcher, and the intended audience) stated by Creswell (2003:21) to be involved in

deciding what approach to take, a number of steps were taken into consideration when

planning for the design of this research which include:

1. The Design Process: Having a framework for design brings together claims being

made about what constitutes knowledge, a strategy of inquiry, and specific methods

to be used. After reviewing these interrelated elements, a Mixed Methods Approach

was chosen. A mixed methods approach is one which the researcher tends to base

knowledge claims on pragmatic grounds (e.g., consequence-oriented, problem-

centred, pluralistic, and real world practice oriented). In deciding which mixed

methods strategy of inquiry to be used, four criteria needed to be satisfied in the

selection process including the implementation sequence of qualitative and

quantitative data collection, the priority given to the qualitative and quantitative data

collection and analysis, the stage within the research project where the quantitative

and qualitative data and findings will be integrated, and whether an overall

theoretical perspective will be used (Creswell, et al., 2003; cited in Creswell,

2003:210-211). This study employed the strategy of inquiry that involved collecting

data sequentially to best understand research problems. The data collection also

involves both numeric information (e.g., on instruments) as well as text information

(e.g., on interviews) so that the final database represents both quantitative and

qualitative information (Creswell, 2003:18). This process is defined in more detail in

section 5.5 of this chapter.

2. Review of the Literature: Reviewing relevant literature on cross-cultural

communication and international project management helped limit the scope of the

inquiry, and identified theories, frameworks, models and findings by other

researchers and writers on cross-cultural management and communication (review

as discussed in detail in chapters 2, 3 and 4).

3. The Writing Strategies and Ethical Considerations: Developing the overall

writing structure which includes topics that convey the best argument for the need

and quality of the study, and anticipation of ethical considerations that may arise

during the research is essential. Incorporating best practices into the research design

process helped reduce the risks associated with ethical issues which may arise

throughout the study, from the research problem statement to the writing and

disseminating of the final research thesis (refer also to section 5.6 of this chapter).

This study followed the research guidelines by the University Research Committee

as well as similar approaches and procedures used by other researchers in

construction management and related fields (Fellows and Liu, 2003; Creswell, 2003;

Perry, 1998), under the guidance of the principal research supervisor.

5.4 Research Design

The research design establishes a framework that contains aspects which assist the

study to make an informed choice of approach, ranging from broad assumptions to the more

practical decisions made about how to collect and analyse data. Figure 5.1 illustrates the

decision process involved in designing this research. The elements of this research design

that supported the research process include the purpose of the study, the type of

investigation, the researcher’s influence, the study setting, the unit of analysis, time horizon

of the study, the sample population, the data collection, the measurement, and the data

analysis. The research design provides direction and purpose for which the logic of the

study can be clarified, and in ensuring the empirical evidence relates to the research

questions.

Figure 5.1 Interrelated levels of decisions in the process of designing this research

The following sub-sections discuss these aspects and other related activities of the research

design framework to provide a better understanding of the overall considerations and

decisions that applied and satisfied this study.

5.4.1 Purpose of the Study

Restating the purpose of this study here helps focus the inquiry and the methodological

procedures on the topic under investigation. The purpose of this two-phase, sequential

mixed methods study was to obtain statistical, quantitative results from a broad sample and

then follow up with a few individuals to probe or explore those results in more depth. In the

first phase, a questionnaire survey with predominantly quantitative research questions

addressed the impact of human and cultural influences on project management and cross-

cultural communication evaluation processes, experienced by expatriates and local

managers, who have worked or are working in Samoa across a number of industries. Nested

in this phase were qualitative research questions (open-ended) utilising the critical

incidence methodology to uncover participants’ outstanding learning experience (Neville et

al., 1996). The main rationale for using critical incidence is linked to the need to further

understand the process of cross-cultural transition (Heppner and O’Brien, 1994; Arthur,

1997b). In the second phase, qualitative interviews were used to probe significant themes

and findings in phase 1 by helping explain and extend aspects of the cross-cultural

communication process focusing on construction project managers and supervisors working

in Samoa.

Elements of Inquiry for this Research

Knowledge Claim: Pragmatic Assumptions Strategy of Inquiry: Sequential Explanatory Procedures

Method: Mixed Methods

Approach to this Research

Sequential Explanatory Mixed Methods

Conceptualised

by the researcher

Design Processes of Research Questions and propositions Conceptual framework Data collection Data analysis Write-up Validation

Translated into

practice

5.4.2 Research questions and issues

Posing the research questions here helped define the intent and direction for the collection

and treatment of data as well as focusing the inquiry and intervention on the topic under

study. Research questions that addressed research issues identified:

1. What are the key aspects and issues underlying ‘culture’ for international

project management?

2. What are the key functions and considerations underpinning ‘human resource’

for international project management?

3. What are the key elements and qualities underlying ‘leadership’ for international

project management?

4. What are the factors that influence the context of cross-cultural communication

evaluation in international project management?

6. How does cross-cultural communication impact on international project

management systems?

6. In what ways can cross-cultural communication in international project

management be improved?

These issues which were identified by Edum-Fotwe and McCaffers’ (2000) study on

developing project management competencies with perspectives from the construction

industry. This thesis adds a central focus on cross-cultural communication and the

integration of international elements and cultural dimensions

5.4.3 Conceptual Framework with Factors influencing the context of communication

A conceptual framework (Figure 5.2) is a creative way of looking at the research problem

which in turn helps the formulation and development of the research questions leading to

either supporting or disproving a theory (Sekaran, 2000). This framework is by no means

exhaustive although it aims to be inclusive of all the factors that influence the context of

communication. The development of this framework involves an iterative process hence a

continuous improvement approach was adopted in its formulation. The most influential

concepts in its formulation are those presented by Nieulip (2000). He argues that

communication is contextual in that it has a cultural context, a micro-cultural context, an

environmental context, a socio-relational context, and a perceptual context. Howes and Tah

(2003) also offer a conceptualisation of an international construction organisation. Their

conceptualisation of an international construction project environment broadly grouped

considerations under five main headings namely: clients, suppliers, physical environment,

socio-econo-political, and the project unit.

The circular arrow illustrate the relationship the elements of the research framework have

with one another which may or may not affect the project, whilst the double ended arrows

represent the influences they have on the project unit and communication in particular.

Figure 5.2 Conceptual Framework with Factors Influencing the Context of Communication

The elements of this framework are defined in chapters 2, 3, 4 and in Appendix C. The

conceptual framework is presented here to focus the investigation on contextual factors that

influence communication in a cross-cultural project environment and to place the

methodological approach into perspective:

5.4.4 Essential elements of the study

These essential elements of the study process need to be considered as a prerequisite to data

collection and are in fact sometimes treated as integral components of the data collection

process. These are reported here as part of the design procedures carried out in

implementing this study.

COMMUNICATION

Strategic

Management Project

Unit Operational

Industry and Business Practices

Social

Ordnance and regulation

Political

Technology

Legal

Economical

Home and Host Cultures

Hard and Soft skills of practitioners

Operational and Strategic focus of Host/Donor/Management organisation

Practitioners’ values, beliefs, attitudes, aspirations and expectations

Type and Nature of Projects

Client requirements

Physical Environment

5.4.4.1 Type of investigation

The central aim of this study is to investigate the impact of cross-cultural communication on

construction project management. Therefore a correlational study (non-causal) that

delineates the key factors that are associated with this phenomenon is preferred over a

causal (cause-effect relationship) study. According to Sekaran (2000), the fact that most of

the time there are multiple factors that influence one another and the problem in a chainlike

fashion, the researcher might be more interested in identifying the multiple, contextual

crucial factors that are associated with the problem, rather than establishing a singular

cause-effect relationship.

5.4.4.2 Study Setting

This study was carried out in a non-contrived setting (natural environment where events

normally occurred) with minimal researcher interference, hence a field study. Sekaran

(2000:133-135) differentiates between field study (conducted in a non-contrived setting

with minimal researcher interference), field experiment (conducted in a non-contrived

setting but with researcher interference to a moderate extent), and lab experiment

(conducted in a contrived setting with researcher interference to the maximum extent).

5.4.4.3 Unit of analysis

Aggregation of the data occurs during subsequent analysis. The unit of analysis should be

determined even as the research questions are formulated because the data collection

methods, sample size, and even the variables included in the framework may sometimes be

determined or guided by the level at which the data will be aggregated at the time of

analysis (Sekaran, 2000:135-138). The research questions determine whether the unit of

analysis is individuals, dyads, groups, organisations, divisions, industries, cultures or

nations. For this study, two primary data collection methods (questionnaire and interviews)

were employed where individual construction practitioner’s opinions and personal

reflections were sought regarding cross-cultural communication and its impact on

construction management systems. Respondents were also grouped according to their

nationalities to identify any particular trends amongst the groups. The unit of analysis

therefore is construction project organisation.

5.4.4.4 Time Horizon of Study

This study took ‘snapshots’ of the construction industry environment and culture at a

specific point and time, hence a cross-sectional intervention on construction practitioners

under the same industry conditions with regards to social, political, economical and

technological influences. Studies that are carried out over a period of time have come to be

known as longitudinal studies (Sekaran, 2000:138-140).

5.4.4.5 Information required

The personal profiles of respondents and interviewees, their professional backgrounds and

project types, and their opinions are reflected in respondents/interviewees perceptions and

personal beliefs. Adapting a transactional model of communication processes and beliefs

(Slavin et al., 1999), this research and investigation is interested in aspects of the foreign

experience that managers appraised as barriers to effective communication, their selection

of communication strategies, and in particular the extent to which these strategies were

effective for management in a cross-cultural environment. Consistent with previous

perspectives on transition (Ishiyama, 1995; Zaharna, 1989), this research also attempted to

elicit ‘respondents/interviewees’ perceptions of the ways in which their self-identity,

personal beliefs, and worldview regarding international project management changed as a

result of their cross-cultural experiences.

5.4.4.6 Research instruments

According to Sproull (1995), selecting an instrument must be based on six factors: (1) the

content will measure the variable(s) of interest; (2) evidence of acceptable kinds and

degrees of validity and reliability; (3) interpretation manuals are provided; (4) the levels of

instrument are appropriate; (5) clear directions and administration procedures are provided;

and (6) costs are within the allocated budget.

This mixed methods study utilised a questionnaire with predetermined items, predominantly

quantitative questions with qualitative ones nested in it, and an ordinal rating scale for phase

1. For phase 2, an interview schedule was used. Sub-section 5.5.2 of this chapter described

in detail both the questionnaire and interview schedule as data collection instruments and

copies of each are provided in the appendices. These research instruments were produced

based on intensive literature review, consultation with supervisors, consultation with project

managers in Australia and Samoa, and also through discussions with fellow researchers and

professional colleagues.

5.4.4.7 Selection of participants

This research concentrated on personnel from major donor countries who undertake aid-

projects in Samoa such as Australia, New Zealand, and Japan. In addition, other expatriates

working for international subsidiaries and local contractors were also targeted. Local

Samoan managers and supervisors working closely with expatriate counterparts completed

the main target group. For phase 1, the survey sample engendered to draw out responses

across a cross-section of the major industries and organisations in Samoa. This research

aimed at eliciting responses that were representational of key areas of economic and social

development, which had been prioritised by the government of Samoa in their Statement of

Economic Strategy: 2000-2002. The survey sample reflects the areas of the main thrust of

the international aid program projects in Samoa. The sample was both randomly and

conveniently selected. This was done due to restricting factors (time, cost, distance,

scheduled projects, and willingness to participate) that prevented random selection. For

phase 2, the selection of key construction industry participants who are considered

‘information rich’ who could provide the most useful insights into cross-cultural

communication practices was the main aim (Patten, 1987). Construction industry

respondents in phase 1 were targeted as the core group, although not all were available as

some have moved on after project completion.

5.4.4.8 Extent of Researcher’s Influence

The research process including data collection and analysis is shaped by the researcher’s

personal history, biography, gender, social class, race and ethnicity and those of the people

in the setting (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994). This does imply that research is value-laden, and

that attempts should be made to expose value-orientations and control bias. The personal

characteristics and professional experience of the researcher and the relationship between

the researchers’ background, topic to be investigated, the concepts identified, and the site of

the study are important considerations particularly for Phase 2 where qualitative data were

sought and acquired through personal contact. For Phase 2 of this study, the researcher is

concerned with meanings based on understanding and interpretation of evidence obtained

through interviews. The greater the familiarity, understanding, and appreciation of the

research environment (context) and the construction industry that the respondents practice

in, on the part of the researcher, the more affluent the interpretation of the phenomenon

under study. The researcher was born in Samoa (research site); had primary and secondary

schooling in Samoa; had tertiary education in New Zealand and Australia; worked in the

construction industry in New Zealand from 1985 to 1991, and the construction industry in

Samoa from 1992 to 1999 and 2002. The researcher has had first hand experience with the

environment and the industry, has had cross-cultural interaction on construction projects in

New Zealand and Samoa, and a priori relationship with about half of the sample group.

5.4.4.9 Research process and theory placement

The two research processes identified are inductive and deductive (Creswell, 2003). An

inductive approach is where theory appears as at the end point of a qualitative study, a

generated theory, a pattern, or a generalisation that emerges inductively from data collection

and analysis. This is particularly useful when the phenomenon being researched is a new

situation created and is intrinsically context-bound. In a deductive approach, theory appears

at the beginning of the study in the literature review (as in quantitative study), or with the

research questions/hypothesis, or in a separate section. The objective is to test or verify the

theory through data collection and analysis. A deductive approach is where variables of

interest are identified and questions or hypotheses on the relationship between key variables

are stated in advance (a priori).

For a mixed method approach as in this study, the theory could be used inductively (as in

qualitative research) or deductively (as in quantitative research) depending on whether the

emphasis is placed on either quantitative or qualitative (Creswell, 2003:30-33). This study

emphasised the quantitative approach (Phase 1) therefore the theory is placed in the

literature review chapter in the beginning. A deductive approach is useful in this study

where specific issues with regards to cross-cultural communication are required to be

investigated within the existing situations and where the specific site(s) that data could be

collected from has been identified.

5.4.4.10 Pilot Study

Instruments should be initially piloted to a small number of respondents to test whether the

questions are easy to understand, appropriate to the research topic, unambiguous, and to

have some idea of the time to administer the questionnaire and conduct interviews (Fellows

and Liu, 2003:151). Also it is important to get feedback and input on other important issues

that may be worthy of consideration, that the initial instrument has missed. This also gives

the researcher an indication of whether the instrument is measuring the right concept and it

is consistently measuring the concept being measured, hence its validity and reliability. For

this study, pilot questionnaires were administered to four project managers who have

worked in Samoa (2 Australians, 2 Samoans) to establish the wider industry context in

phase 1. These individuals have had many years of work experience in Australia, New

Zealand, other Pacific Island nations and Samoa. Their experiences involved working with

multinational, multicultural and interdisciplinary teams within and across industries. They

have also been involved at different levels in government, local firms and institutions, and

have worked on aid funded, public and privately financed projects. For Phase 2, four pilot

interviews were also conducted in Samoa, prior to the main sample interviews with project

managers currently working in Samoa (1-Australian, 1-Samoan, 1-Japanese, and 1-

American) to establish the construction industry context. These individuals have had many

years of work experience in the construction industry in many countries including other

Pacific Islands and Samoa. They have worked with multinational, multicultural and

interdisciplinary teams at various levels in Samoa. These experiences include being

advisors, consultants, contractors, project managers and supervisors.

5.4.4.11 Threats to Validity

According to Creswell (2003:171), there are several threats to validity that may raise

possible issues about a researcher’s ability to conclude that the intervention affects an

outcome. For this study, the external validity threat where the researcher may generalise

beyond the groups in the study to other groups not under study is prevalent more so than the

internal validity threat where procedures, treatments, or experiences of the participants that

threaten the researcher’s ability to draw correct inferences from the data (Creswell,

2003:171). Sommer and Sommer (1991:5) argued that research in natural settings often

provides higher external validity than do research from the laboratory. According to

Sekaran (2000:153) there should be a trade-off between internal and external validity

depending on the researcher’s choice. Other threats to validity include construct validity

(use inaccurate definitions and measures of variables) and statistical conclusion validity

threat (draw inaccurate inferences from the data because of inadequate statistical power or

the violation of statistical assumptions) and construct validity threat (use inaccurate

definitions and measures of variables).

5.4.4.12 Reliability and Validity

The question of reliability and validity played a policing role throughout the whole research

process to ensure that all the elements of the design amount to what is being investigated;

and that the most appropriate methods, instruments, techniques and procedures have been

selected and implemented. Sekaran (2000:209) states that ‘goodness of measures’ is

established through the different kinds of validity and reliability and that results of any

research can only be as good as the measures that tap the concepts in the theoretical

framework. According to Sekaran, validity tests how well a developed instrument measures

the particular concept it intended to measure, while reliability tests how consistently a

measuring instrument measures the concept it is supposed to measure. Creswell (2003:195)

notes that validity is seen as a strength of qualitative research, but it is used to suggest

determining whether the findings are accurate from the standpoint of the researcher, the

participant, or the readers of an account. Reliability and generalisability on the other hand

play a minor role in qualitative research. For a mixed methods approach, reliability and

validity measures apply just the same as for both qualitative and quantitative data (Creswell,

2003:220).

For this research, the following steps were taken to ensure reliability and validity throughout

the research design and implementation as indicated for key areas of the process below:

• Research problem, topic and questions – establish the state of the global construction

industry through literature review and the construction industry in Samoa through

personal and professional background of researcher.

• Variables of the study – carrying out extensive literature review on similar studies to

isolate significant variables and to formulate a conceptual framework. This

addressed construct validity threat (use inaccurate definitions and measures of

variables).

• Research approach – stating similar research carried out using this approach and

others who advocate and substantiate its reliability and validity. This addressed

internal validity threats.

• The use of delimitations to narrow the scope of the study (construction project

practitioners who have worked or are working in Samoa) and limitations to identify

potential weaknesses of the study (the findings could be subject to other

interpretations). This addressed the external validity threat.

• Sampling design – the use of both random sampling for Phase 1 and judgement

sampling for Phase 2. The use of probability and non-probability sampling helped

address internal validity threats.

• The selection of participants – for the quantitative phase, a random sample selection

so that the results could be generalised to the population; for interviews, information

rich practitioners were targeted to provide the most useful information. This helped

address the external validity threat.

• Measuring Instruments – the use of similar instruments that have been consistently

used by other researchers and have found to be valid and reliable. This helped

address the internal validity threat.

• Content measures the right concept – the use of pilot studies and carrying out

content validity and criterion-related validity checks. This addressed construct

validity threat (use inaccurate definitions and measures of variables)

• Data collection and treatment – having a process in place to manage, organise, code

and categorise data. This addressed construct validity threat (use inaccurate

definitions and measures of variables).

• Data analysis – applying the appropriate statistical tests for quantitative data and an

indexing and text searching tool for qualitative data, and carrying out constant

comparative and content analyses. This addressed the statistical conclusion validity

threat (draw inaccurate inferences from the data because of inadequate statistical

power or the violation of statistical assumptions) and construct validity threat (use

inaccurate definitions and measures of variables).

• Results and findings – by the use of qualitative findings to help explain and extend

the quantitative results (triangulation) as well as peer reviews, published results, rich

and thick descriptions to convey the findings, and an independent assessor/auditor.

• Interpretation – the use of delimitations to focus the scope of the study and

limitations to highlight potential weaknesses of the study, biases and influences.

5.4.4.13 Options, Advantages and Limitations of measuring instrument

Knowing the advantages and disadvantages of the instruments used in this research helped

in making an informed choice regarding the kinds to use, its design and the method of

implementation. Table 5.4 highlight the advantages and limitations of the measuring

instruments used in this mixed methods research.

Table 5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Measuring Instruments

Instrument Advantages Limitations Mail Questionnaire

Anonymity is high; wide geographical regions can reached; token gifts can be enclosed to seek compliance; respondent can take more time to respond at convenience; can be administered electronically, if desired

Response rate is almost always low. A 30 % rate is quite acceptable. Cannot clarify questions. Follow-up procedures for non-responses are necessary

In-depth Interview

Can establish rapport and motivate respondents. Can clarify the questions, clear doubts, add new questions. Can read nonverbal cues. Can use visual aids to clarify points. Rich data can be obtained. Computer aided personal interviews (CAPI) can be used and responses entered in a portable computer.

Takes personal time. Costs more when a wide geographical region is covered. Respondents may be concerned about confidentiality of information given. Interviews need to be trained. Can introduce interviewer biases. Respondents can terminate the interview at any time.

Source: Sekaran, 2000:250

5.5 Adopted Research Methodology

Figure 3.3 presents the process that links the two phases of this study as its overall strategy.

An overview of the research process or framework is presented in Figure 1.1, section 1.4 of

chapter 1.

Figure 5.3 Sequential Explanatory Procedures – Mixed Method Strategy

Literature Review

Theory and literature (Previous research)

Secondary Literature Review

Recent Research

Concurrent Nested Strategy

Predominantly Quantitative

Data Collection

Concurrent Nested Strategy

Predominantly Quantitative

Data Analysis

Qualitative

Data

Collection

Qualitative

Data

Analysis

Interpretation of

Entire Analysis

Data Integration

SEQUENTIAL MIXED METHODS DESIGN STRATEGY – LINKING STEM

PHASE 2: INTERVIEWS

INTERPRETATION

And DISCUSSION

PHASE

Study Integration

Formulation of Overall Strategy

PHASE 1: QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY

The elements of the research framework are described here, with figure 5.3 focusing on the

main components of the research process such as literature review, data collection and

analysis, the integration of data, and the link between the two phases of this study.

5.5.1 Literature review

Figure 5.4 illustrate the main aim of the literature review that looks at linking the research

problem to the theoretical or conceptual framework, and the issues, questions and

propositions developed from this framework as well as its relationship to the immediate and

parent disciplines. The literature review was carried out using texts, journal papers,

conference papers, government documents, aid-project papers, and aid research

investigations and reports.

Figure 5.4 Linking Purpose of Literature Review

Main outcomes of literature reviewed include:

1. Knowledge and research gaps identified: few studies have looked at the impact of

cross-cultural communication issues on construction project management; few have

looked at cross-cultural issues from the perspectives of both home and host culture

managers and supervisors; none have looked at cross-cultural issues in construction

project management in small island nations such as Samoa.

Research ProblemThe impact of cross-cultural communication on construction project management

Parent Discipline 2Human Resource

Management

Parent Discipline 1 Cross-cultural Management

Research Issues, Questions and PropositionsDeveloped from the theoretical/conceptual framework to focus data collection

Immediate DisciplineConstruction Management

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework Established

Parent Discipline 3Business

Management

Parent Discipline 4Project

Management

Parent Discipline 5International Management

2. Formulation of a Conceptual Framework isolating factors that influence the context

of cross-cultural communication in construction projects as illustrated in figure 5.3,

sub-section 5.4.3 of this chapter; and

3. Establishing an Integrative Cultural Framework for which the perspectives of the

practitioners were assessed as Table 5.5 presents. Other frameworks were also

utilised as highlighted and discussed in chapters 2, 3 and 4.

Table 5.5 Integrated framework of cultural dimensions and cultural orientations

Cultural Dimensions Definition Power distance (Hofstede 1980); Equality/hierarchy (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1993) – degree of tolerance for hierarchical or unequal relationships.




Individualism (Hofstede 1980; Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1993) – degree of emphasis placed on individual accomplishment


Materialism and Harmony in relationships (Hofstede, 1980)


Confucian dynamism (Hofstede 1980); Orientation toward time (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1993) – degree to which a society takes long-term versus a short-term orientation in life


Universalism (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1997; Triandis 1994) – describes norms for regulating behaviour

Universalism – codes of laws exist that apply equally to all Particularize – individuals enjoy special rights or privileges because of their status

Achievement (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1993; Triandis 1994) – describes how power and status are determined


Analysis/integration (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1993) – the relative emphasis of society’s members to consider organizations or event in terms of separable parts vs. consideration of the whole


Orientation toward the environment (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1993) – the relative emphasis of society’s members on sources of motivation and values stemming internally from the individual versus the external environment


Cultural orientations Low context cultures (Hall and Hall, 1990) – communicate with the mass of the information vested in the explicit code. Associated with deal oriented cultures.

High context cultures (Hall and Hall, 1990) – communicate most of the information in the physical context or internalised in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message. Associated with relationship oriented cultures.

Deal oriented cultures (Hall and Hall, 1990; Gesterland, 1999) – prefer to go straight down to business and value direct, frank, straight forward language when dealing with business situations

Relationship oriented cultures (Hall and Hall, 1990; Gesterland, 1999) – prefer to get to know the people before business and favour a more indirect, subtle and round about way of dealing with business situations

Monochronic cultures (Hall and Hall, 1990) – see time as linear and moving and therefore are very strict on schedules, punctuality and place monetary value on time

Polychromic cultures (Hall and Hall, 1990) – see time as flexible and stretchable and are not so obsessed with time schedules and punctuality

Hierarchical relationship (Lee and Peterson, 2000) – values harmony, co-operation, status quo, and consensus in decision-making

Entrepreneurial orientation (Lee and Peterson, 2000) – values freedom, independence, self-sufficiency, taking initiative, individualism, achievement and materialism

5.5.2 Data Collection Methods

Both primary data collection procedures (questionnaires and interviews) were implemented

with specific objectives in mind. The questionnaire survey was initiated with the aim of

gaining a broad spectrum of perspectives from a variety of industries in Samoa on cross-

cultural communication and related international project management issues. The interviews

were conducted focusing specifically on the Construction Industry in Samoa with the aim of

using the qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings of the

primary quantitative study.

5.5.2.1 Phase 1: Questionnaire Data Collection

For phase 1, data were collected by postal questionnaire. The questionnaire questions,

which concern the skills that are required to manage everyday situations in a new cultural

context, were loosely based on Furnham and Bochner (1982). Statements that comprised

each part of the questionnaire were taken from the literature and organised into a test.

Respondents were asked to rate on 5-point scales (ordinal level of measurement) developed

for various sojourner groups, and which have consistently proved to be reliable and valid

(Ward and Kennedy, 1996). The questionnaire comprised seven parts:

Part a): Their personal beliefs (endpoints: strongly disagree/strongly agree). This section

asks the respondents to think about cross-cultural project management and cross-cultural

communication in particular, indicating their agreement with the 27 statements by ticking

the value that best illustrate their beliefs.

Rate of Agreement Item #

Your Personal Beliefs: In a cross-cultural project environment 1 2 3 4 5

1 Communication is vital 2 A communication plan is necessary 3 High levels of interpersonal and intrapersonal skills are needed ~ 27 Effective strategies are needed to ensure successful technology transfer

Part b): The extent of implementation in their work experience (endpoints: never/always).

This section asks the respondents to indicate how their beliefs were evident or practiced in

the projects they were involved in by ticking the value on the scale that best illustrate the

extent this was so for the 27 predetermined statements.

What extent rating Item #

Evidence of Personal Beliefs: What happened in the projects you were involved in? 1 2 3 4 5

1 Effective communication 2 A communication plan 3 High levels of interpersonal and intrapersonal skills ~ 27 Effective communication strategies ensuring successful technology transfer

Part c): The impact of barriers to communication (endpoints: insignificant/catastrophic).

This section asks the respondents to rate the impact of 35 predetermined communication

barriers by ticking the value on the scale that best illustrate what happened in their projects.

Rate of Impact Item #

Communication Barriers 1 2 3 4 5

1 Political/community interference 2 Lack of or inappropriate technology 3 Varying perception and interpretation ~ 35 Lack of trust

Part e): The extent communication strategies were employed (endpoints: never/mandatory).

This section asks the respondents to rate the extent that 17 predetermined communication

strategies were employed in their projects by ticking the value on the scale that best

illustrate this.

Extent employed Item

#

Communication Strategies 1 2 3 4 5

1 Comprehensive communication plan 2 Clear communication channels 3 Delegating responsibilities ~ 17 Problem solving

A 3-point ordinal rating scale (after Zung, 1965) was also used for responses to part d) of

the questionnaire to rate the extent to which 35 predetermined communication barriers were

overcome (endpoints: not at all/totally).

Extent overcome Item #

Communication Barriers 1 2 3

1 Political/community interference

2 Lack of or inappropriate technology

3 Varying perception and interpretation

~

35 Lack of trust

Consistent with previous perspectives on transition (for example; Zaharna, 1989), the

questionnaire also elicited perceptions of the ways in which respondents’ self-identity,

personal beliefs, and worldview regarding international project management had changed as

a result of their cross-cultural experiences. Several behaviour questions were also included,

such as:

• “To what extent did you employ communication strategies?”, and

• “How did you overcome barriers to communication?”

In addition, the critical incidents methodology was used to encourage individual reflection

regarding unique experiences, with open-ended prompts such as:

Part f): “Are there any other issues concerning cross-cultural communication not covered in

the questionnaire?”, and

Part g): “Has the questionnaire missed any important related issues?”

Sample Characteristics

After piloting, questionnaires comprising both standardized measures of checklists of

predetermined items and critical incident questions were distributed to 90 selected project

managers in Samoa for completion in mid-March 2001. The selection and identification of

participants was important. The research concentrated on personnel from international

donor agencies such as the World Bank, European Economic Union and from governments

such as New Zealand, Australia, and Japan. Selection of appropriate respondents was

conducted with the assistance of AusAID, New Zealand High Commission in Samoa, Japan

International Co-operation Agency (JICA) representatives, and Samoan government

personnel.

The research population or cohort was defined as project managers who had worked or were

currently working in Samoa. To gain a broad spectrum of perspectives a variety of

industries were targeted, with respondents currently working or having worked within:

Construction, Institutional Strengthening, Industry Development, and Energy Supply and

Distribution. This was necessary to ensure a holistic account of cross-cultural

communication issues in Samoa and to synthesise the diversity of experiences of project

participants across industries. Although every industry has their own culture and practices,

and has to deal with unique challenges, no industry exists as an “island”. There is

interdependency, interaction, collaboration and communication between all industries

particularly in projects involving multiple stakeholders. The random sampling was aimed at

encompassing a wide range of experience and project size. To ensure consistent and

authentic data collection the research sample was limited to those with experience in

working in Samoa. This ensured that the sample population experienced working in the

same environment in relation to social, political and economic impact. The researcher

established cooperation with a number of organisations and agencies such as AUSAID,

JICA, government departments and organisations, and private enterprises to ensure an

adequate number of satisfactory responses. The purpose of the research was explained in a

letter requesting voluntary participation, which accompanied the questionnaire. Telephone

calls, e-mails and personal contacts were used to follow-up the survey form.

The survey sample was adequate and relevant as it engendered responses across a cross-

section of the major industries and organisations in Samoa. The research aimed at eliciting

responses that were representational of key areas of economic and social development that

had been prioritised by the government of Samoa in their Statement of Economic Strategy:

2000-2002. The survey sample reflects the areas of the main thrust of the international aid

program projects in Samoa. Of particular note concerning the survey sample was that: The

respondents were from geographical and culturally diverse backgrounds; there was a

diversity of management experience; and there was a diverse range of projects identified.

While a pre-condition of the survey was experience working and living in Samoa, there was

considerable variation in the cross-cultural experiences of the group. In this phase of the

study, three culturally different groups were identified Australians, Samoans and Other

Expatriates. These groups are culturally different from each other on important attributes as

their value orientations, preferred communication codes, role expectations, and perceived

rules of social relationship. From the selected sample of 90, 41(46%) responses were

received of which 38(40%) were deemed useable. This response rate of 40% was quite high

compared to other unsolicited mail surveys reported in the literature where a 30% rate is

considered reasonable (Sekaran, 2000:250). However, this does not place absolute

justification that the sample size was appropriate as addressed in section 9.7 of the last

chapter that looks at implications and the degree of generalisability of this study.

5.5.2.2 Phase 2: Interview Data Collection

Phase 2 involved conducting in-depth interviews in August 2003 on a one-to-one basis in

Samoa. The selection of the sample of interviewees was integral to the rigorous process that

is essential for qualitative data collection that supports the rationale behind the topic being

addressed (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). This was done purposefully, with the selection of key

construction industry participants who are considered ‘information rich’ who could provide

the most useful insights into cross-cultural communication practices (Patten, 1987).

Construction industry respondents in phase 1 were targeted as the core group, but as with

the nature of international projects, not all were available for interviews as some,

particularly overseas personnel, have moved on after project completion. Four pilot

interviews were carried out targeting Samoan, Australian, Japanese and American

managers, all with years of experience in the construction industry in Samoa, with the aim

of verifying the content, structure, and language used in the main questions and the related

prompts, hence gaining a measure of its reliability. A total of 32 construction industry

practitioners and key stakeholders (project managers, consultants, contractors, construction

supervisors, technical advisors, planners and local counterparts) with a diverse range of

experiences were interviewed.

An interview schedule was used which provided a structure for the interviewer, whilst

allowing the respondent to raise, and talk at length, about issues and experiences they

perceived to be of importance. This approach also allowed the interviewer to ask other

related questions to follow up some of the answers given by the interviewees. Permission

was asked and was granted by each participant to be recorded. In addition, an optional

consent form for the content of the interviews to be used for the sole purpose of this

research was signed. All were willing participants and were supportive of this study. The

average length of interviews was over one hour. The interviews were transcribed with the

salient and relevant points extracted from the data (data reduction) resulting in a reasonably

condensed text to be organised and analysed. In this phase of the study, five culturally

different groups were identified: Australians, Samoans, New Zealanders, and Japanese, with

Other Expatriates consisting of practitioners from other nations making up the fifth group.

5.5.3 Data analysis

According to Creswell (2003), data analysis in the mixed methods research relates to the

type of research strategy chosen for the procedures. For this sequential explanatory mixed

method strategy, analysis occurs both within the quantitative (descriptive and inferential

numeric analysis) approach and the qualitative (description and thematic text) approach.

The introduction to the analyses of data for the two phases of this study was provided in

sub-section 1. of chapter 1, and here detail explanations of the procedures involved are

given, with the results and findings presented in chapter 6 (Quantitative) and chapter 7

(Qualitative) with the aim of having the findings of phase 2 elaborate on and extend the

results of phase 1 as discussed and interpreted in chapter 8.

5.5.3.1 Phase 1 Quantitative Data Analysis

After data was collected from the questionnaire survey, the data was analysed. Prior to

analysis, data was screened, edited and entered, blank or incomplete responses were deemed

unusable for analysis, and data was coded, categorised and programmed. The SPSS 11.5

(Statistical Package for Social Science) software program was used to facilitate data

analysis. SPSS 6 is a comprehensive user friendly system that can take data from almost any

type of file and use them to generate tabulated reports, charts, and plots of distributions and

trends, descriptive statistics, and complex statistical analyses. A descriptive classification

was developed, representative of participant experiences, yet consistent with categories

represented in the literature. The constant comparison method of analysis was used to code

individual responses to ensure consistency of data (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994). This

involved a three-step process prior to analysis: 1) defining data; 2) editing and coding data;

and 3) entering raw data (Babbie et al., 2003:423). The analysis involved the use of both

descriptive and inferential statistics, and employs both the Kruskal-Wallis and the Mann-

Whitney Statistical tests.

Statistical tests

The questionnaire opinion survey used an ordinal level of measurement (distances between

the variables are arbitrary) to rank items which allows for gross order interpretation of

responses along the scale. The ordinal level of measurement as well as the fact that three

groups (in this phase of the study, Samoans, Australians, and Other Expatriates) were being

measured influenced the type of statistical test used to analyse the data (Babbie et al.,

2003:319; Fellows and Liu, 2003:172).

This study utilised the Kruskal-Wallis Test as the main statistical tool which is a

nonparametric test that makes no assumptions about the parameters (such as the mean and

variance) of a distribution, nor does it assume that any distribution is used. The Kruskal-

Wallis test is a one-way analysis of variance by ranks of the original values and not the

values themselves. It tests the null hypothesis that multiple independent samples come from

the same population and the Kruskal-Wallis K-statistic measures how much the group ranks

differ from the average rank of all the groups. Unlike standard ANOVA, it does not assume

normality, and it can be used to test ordinal variables with similar distribution in all groups.

The exact test method was also used to calculate significance levels as a means of obtaining

accurate results which is always reliable, regardless of the size, distribution, sparseness, or

balance of the data (Norusis, 2000). This supports the asymptotic method should its

assumptions not be met.

In addition, the Two-Independent-Samples procedure for pair-wise group comparison

available on the Mann-Whitney U test was chosen as a complementing option because the

Kruskal-Wallis test, like the ANOVA F test, only indicate that some difference exist, not

how the groups differ (Norusis, 2000). The Two-Independent-Sample procedure tests the

null hypothesis that two or more independent samples come from the same population. It

does not assume normality and can be used to test ordinal variables with similar distribution

in both groups. The Mann-Whitney U-statistic is a measure of the difference between the

ranked observations of the two samples.

Figure 5.5 presents a diagrammatic overview of the decision-making process involved in

statistical procedures carried out for this study as explained here and covered in more details

in Appendix B, with results presented in chapter 4. The level of significance used to test the

hypotheses for this research is 0.05, which is the most common level used. Levin and Rubin

(1994:382) indicated there is no single standard or universal level of significance for testing

hypotheses. The confidence level refers to the probability that the estimations are correct

(Sekaran, 2000) which in this case is 95%; p≤ 0.05.

Figure 5.5 Overview of decision-process for statistical procedures of this study

5.5.3.2 Phase 2 Qualitative Data Analysis

The analysis of qualitative data in phase 2 was facilitated by the use of the NUD*IST 6

(Non-numerical Unstructured Data Indexing Searching and Theorising) program which

manages and codes text by means of a document system and a node system. The Document

system holds all the documentary data and research notes, as well as memos about these.

The node system represents all the topics and categories that matter to the research project,

and memos of the researchers’ ideas about these. NUD*IST 6 works with textual

What level of measurement?

Nominal or Ordinal

Interval or Ratio

Kruskal-Wallis Test Employed

Tests the null hypothesis that multiple independent samples

come from the same population

Tests if significant difference between groups on variables

STOP

Statistical and Test Results

Is there significant difference

between the groups?

PARAMETRIC TEST

How many samples or

groups being compared?

Two groups

Ordinal Scale used in this study

NON-

PARAMETRIC TEST

Mann-Whitney Test Employed

Tests the null hypothesis that

two or more independent samples come from the same

population Two-Independent-Samples procedure for pair-wise group comparison

Determine which groups differ

No

Yes

Three or more groups

Double check the results and carry out two-independent-pair-wise group comparison

documents, and facilitates the indexing of components of these documents; is able to search

for words and phrases very quickly; and claims to support theorising through enabling the

retrieval of indexed text segments, related memos, and text and index searches; and through

the construction of a hierarchically structured tree to order index categories (Richards and

Richards, 1994). The program provides a systematic way of organising, keeping and

modifying all data, topics, categories, results, and research notes (Richards, 2000). It should

be noted that in this study, NUD*IST 6 is used only as an indexing and a searching tool.

The analysis of data followed a similar process used by Buston’s (1997) study which was

facilitated by the NUD*IST 4 program that involved a three stage process identified as:

1. Introducing documents to NUD*IST. Interviews were conducted, then transcribed

onto Microsoft Word and saved as ‘plain text’ file before being introduced into

NUD*IST . Formatting the transcription had to be made based on the size of the text

units (paragraph in this case), the content of the header (demographics), and the use

and format of sub-headers (interviewee responses). Each document (for this study,

each interview amounted to a separate document) was headed by information useful

for its identification such as the interviewee number, profession, years of cross-

cultural experience, and type of experience. The responses given by the interviewees

were used as subheadings as the answers could be understood very clearly on their

own and also NUD*IST 6 allows for recontextualisation of any retrievals made. The

constant comparative method (Silverman, 2000; Strauss and Corbin, 1990) carried

out by the researcher and an independent observer was used to test the transcriptions

against the audio-recordings of interviews for convergence.

2. The Indexing Process. This process started before introducing the documents to

NUD*IST 6 utilising the interview schedule, concepts from the reviewed literature,

and the findings and issues raised in Phase 1 to formulate nodal titles that addressed

the research questions. This enabled a preliminary nodal tree (nodes created to store

data relevant to these areas) to be drawn-up as a useful starting point from which to

consider the interviews. However, this did not constraint the consideration given to

the responses where new ideas and emergent concepts were evident. This iterative

process resulted in an expanded tree structure that attempted to be as exhaustive as

possible to include and code every idea or concept that is integral to cross-cultural

communication and project management. The search text function of the program

was used to facilitate retrospective coding of these new concepts and ideas. During

the initial coding process, a record was kept of those responses deemed saturated,

irrelevant or superfluous to the research focus in accordance with the principles on

data reduction laid down by Glaser and Strauss (1967:111). Having considered that

and in retrospect to the main focus of this study, commonality and high frequency of

occurrence of particular concepts amongst respondents of a particular group

(nationality), is a phenomenon worth noting.

Both ‘open coding’ (concepts or themes) which involved the process explained

above in line with Strauss and Corbin (1990:61-73) as well as ‘axial coding’

(concepts to concepts) which involved intensive coding around particular concepts

or categories where sub-categories are linked and connections made between

codings were used (Strauss, 1987:64-69). ‘Base data’ containing key characteristics

(demographics) of each interview were indexed (having their own node). Three

broad types of coding were identified which included descriptive, conceptual and

base data. Descriptive nodes contain full records of respondents’ answers and

conceptual nodes contain textual segments that the researcher interpreted as having

some common meaning that was not obvious in the answers. Simple ‘free standing

memos’ were also created where responses raised important issues that may require

emphasis and elaboration particularly helpful for the interpretation and write-up

stages. The transcribed data underwent data reduction through the coding and

grouping process that resulted in an intelligent account of the data to be analysed

(Dey, 1993). The In Vivo function was also used to code selected texts as free nodes.

Data were compared and similar categories were merged and revised, resulting in a

small number of categories that allowed for the complexity of particular

issues/factors to be captured and examined. The coding process was checked by the

research supervisor and an independent observer on reports for each code for

consistency and to increase its reliability.

3. Writing-Up: Retrieving Indexed Data and Assimilating Ideas for dissemination.

According to Kelle (1997), the process of coding the data is the preliminary for the

actual analysis in which the analyst tries to make sense of the data which involved

looking for structures in the data and try to explain these. This involved studying

what the respondents had to say, discerning a pattern of relationships between

categories or themes, making comparisons and noting similarities whilst observing

differences and accounting for these. The nodal categories (descriptive, conceptual,

and base data) were used in conjunction with each other to facilitate the cutting

across of nodes on the basis of important characteristics such as nationality, factors

influencing the context of cross-cultural communication, barriers to communication,

communication strategies, change in perspectives, and proactive measures to

improve communication. Interesting findings on salient themes and categories that

either enhance or impede effective cross-cultural communication in a project

environment, which emanate from interaction and immersion in the data set, were

highlighted and given special emphasis in the discussion.

4. Content Analysis: In addition to the three steps outlined above, a forth step

involving a ‘content analysis’ was carried out to establish the pattern of participation

amongst the practitioners involved, and the extent or emphasis placed by each

participant and group (nationality) on each concept or factor as reflected in the

amount of information divested and the frequency of occurrences within the

documents (see Table 5.6). Content analysis is a quantitatively oriented technique by

which standardised measurements are applied to metrically defined units and these

are used to characterise and compare documents (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000).

Table 5.6 Quantity, Frequency and Length of Utterances by Interviewees

Interviewee #

1-10 words

11-25 words

26-40 words

41-65 words

66-90 words

> 91 words TOTAL Cumulative

Total Percentage

Coding categories and memoranda

The first step in the procedures for analysis involved developing categories and coding of

individual responses that relate to those categories. Contingent to this is the development of

memoranda relating to each category that justify its existence, defining its parameters,

having an overview of its contents, drawing comparisons and identifying differences with

other categories. As expected with the overarching nature and intertwined elements of this

study on communication in a cross-cultural project environment, most of the categories

demonstrated varying degrees of relatedness with each other; despite the fact each category

addressed a particular concept exclusively. This meant that some messages were coded into

several categories, while others were deemed to be relevant to only a single category. Prior

to the development of memoranda, the data for each category was reviewed under the

following schema of code note headings (Table 5.7) for which a relevant skeletal

memorandum was formulated based on recommended coding procedures outlined in Strauss

and Corbin (1990). It must be noted however, that Strauss and Corbins’ procedures have a

focus on grounded theory research, although equally applicable (application of grounded

theory tactics) with some adjustments to this study.

The categories that emanate from these note headings make up the skeletal framework that

constitutes core materials for answering this study’s research questions. The core material

for analysis is formed by the comments and notes made under these headings (Table 5.7)

that were found useful in explaining and interpreting the findings as briefly covered in

section 5.5.4, and discussed in Chapter 8 with more details provided in Appendix C. The

core and key categories for this phase were driven by the research questions whereas the

sub-categories although mostly identified during the conceptual formulation stage and Phase

1 of this study, their ‘resultant make-up’ mainly emerged from the data set. Definitions for

the categories and sub-categories were determined in advance and are briefly described in

Appendix C. The overarching Core Category refers to the main aim of this study that looks

at the impact of cross-cultural communication on construction project management in

Samoa. The Key Categories in this analysis refer to the five main areas that conceptualise

the aim of this research while at the same time synthesising the need to address the research

questions. The core category together with the key categories form the backbone of this

study, while the sub-categories and subsidiaries make up the skeletal framework that as a

whole constitute the answers to the research questions. The juxtaposition of answers and

explanations within these categories, sub-categories and subsidiaries, make it necessary to

frame the addressing of research questions and presenting results and the subsequent

discussion in chapter 8 based on them

Table 5.7 Schema for Code Note Headings

Code Note Headings Nodal Categories

Interview number

Nationality

Profession

Years of cross-cultural experience

Type of experience

Base Data

Node number

Heading for Category

General comments

Conceptual labels

Relationships

Factors influencing the Context

Impact on management systems

Barriers to cross-cultural communication

Strategies employed and their effectiveness

Proactive measures to improve communication

Influence of experiences on perspectives

Descriptive

and

Conceptual

5.5.4 Integration, Interpretation and Discussion of data for the two phases

This phase of the study integrated the two data sets and uses the findings of phase 2 to

elaborate on and extend the results in phase 1. The literature is used in the discussion and

interpretation of results and findings to ascertain if there is convergence between the two.

Chapter 8 covers this phase of the study in more details with figure 5.6 outlining the

synthesising process that is necessary for interpretation and discussion of the two phases.

This phase of the study comments on any trends and patterns identified in the context of the

literature reviewed in chapters 2, 3 and 4, and in relevance to research issues and questions.

It must be noted that the interpretation of the data is based on the researcher’s own

subjective if not objective views, experience and background, although the treatment of data

was as objective and scientific as the systematic procedures allowed them to be.

Figure 5.6 Synthesising phases 1 and 2 for interpretation and discussion

5.6 Ethical considerations

The ethical considerations of this study involved protecting the rights and welfare of

participants as well as facilitating the research process to achieve outcomes that are

beneficial to construction practitioners and the various stakeholders on international projects

in Samoa. In doing this, the research aimed to preserve the integrity of scholarship and

research, the integrity of the individual researcher, the promotions of institutions and

organisations responsible for research, and the accountability of the researcher to both the

general community and to specific groups who have an interest in this research.

This research project followed guidelines provided by the QUT Research Ethics Committee

in-line with requirements by the Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering and the

School of Construction Management and Property. This involved the ascertaining of

approval and clearance for the research topic, the data collection methods, the instruments,

the site and location, the sample population, information required, materials used, treatment

of data, the methods of analysis, confidentiality issues, dissemination of information and

results, and intellectual property and copy right issues. Covering letters were attached to the

Phase 1 Questionnaire a) Personal beliefs on

the value of communication in an international project environment;

b) Evidence of personal beliefs in projects;

c) Impact of barriers on communication;

d) Extent barriers were overcome;

e) Strategies employed; f) Other cross-cultural

communication issues;

g) Missed relevant issues.

Quantitative data Statistical results Qualitative data

Chapter 6

Phase 2 Interviews 1. Factors influencing

the context of cross-cultural communication;

2. Barriers to effective cross-cultural communication;

3. Communication strategies employed;

4. Proactive measures to improve communication;

5. Impact of cross-cultural communication on construction project management systems

6. Influences of experiences on perspectives

Qualitative data

Descriptive findings Quantitative results

Chapter 7

Interpretation and Discussion Phase

Interprets and discusses the results and findings in the context of the literature reviewed and in relevance to the research questions and research issues

Chapter 8

Literature review

Covered in detail in Chapters 2, 3, 4

Research questions and research issues

Introduced and justified in chapter 1

questionnaires explaining the purpose, giving assurance for confidentiality, outlining the

benefits of the study and soliciting voluntary participation by the sample population. In

addition, optional consent forms for voluntary participation were also provided for

interviews (see Appendix A). Approvals were also sought and received from the

organisations the individuals involved worked for to ensure support and commitment.

Compliance with other requirements was assured in consultation with the individual

participants, and with the advice and guidance of the principal research supervisor.

5.7 Summary

This chapter outlines and describes the research process taken in this study, from the

problem formulation to the interpretation of the data and dissemination of information. The

development of the design framework provided a roadmap for the procedures of this

research to be informative and directive at the same time. The formulation of a conceptual

framework helped isolate and enhance potential contextual factors that are integral to cross-

cultural communication and project management. This was very useful in designing the

instruments as well as data analysis particularly for phase 2. The development of an

integrative cultural framework helped synthesise the fragmented cultural management

models and frameworks on which the respondents’ perspectives were assessed. The

literature review in particular helped identify the research and knowledge gaps this study

addressed.

Results from the study show that the research design, the strategy of inquiry, and the choice

of methods were appropriate. Chapter 6 and chapter 7 present the results and findings of the

analyses process for phase 1: quantitative and phase 2: qualitative respectively. The data for

both phases were integrated in the interpretation and discussion phase as presented in

chapter 8. Conclusions drawn from the results and findings of this study in the context of

the literature reviewed in chapters 2, 3, and 4 are presented in chapter 9.

Phase 1 Data Analysis – Questionnaire Survey

6.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the results of phase 1 of this sequential explanatory mixed methods

strategy that analysed predominantly quantitative data. Phase 1 involved the administration

of a questionnaire survey as a means of intervention to gain a broad spectrum of opinions

from project managers working or have worked across different industries in Samoa. The

results are presented systematically to address research aims and objectives and to answer

the research questions. The analysis results of phase 1 (questionnaire data) is integrated with

the analysis findings of phase 2 interview data (chapter 7) in the interpretation and

discussion phase (chapter 8) which notes trends, patterns and their significance in relevance

to the research questions. The chapter has five sections: Section 6.2 Profile of respondents

and related details; Section 6.3 Respondents perception on usefulness of questionnaire; 6.4

Results and Test Statistics; and 6.5 Conclusions.

The analysis of quantitative data involved the use of the SPSS 11.5 program that facilitated

the screening, editing and entering, coding and categorising, as well as generating both

descriptive and inferential statistics of results from the data.

6.2 Profile of Respondents and Related Details

Research projects take place in numerous contexts that impact on the research and

results which include the sample group characteristics (Fellows and Liu, 2003). Having an

understanding and an awareness of the characteristics of the sample population helps focus

the analysis and put the results into perspective. The profile of the respondents is illustrated

in the following tables 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3 and figures 6.3 and 6.5, indicating their profession,

type of experience, nationality, years of cross-cultural experience, and types of projects

involved in. An integrated presentation of the profile of the respondents is presented in

Table 6.4.

Table 6.1 presents a diverse range of professionals with the Engineers being by far the most

common profession with 12 (about 30% of the sample) out of 38 respondents. The diverse

range of respondents satisfied one of the aims of the questionnaire survey in gaining a broad

spectrum of perspectives from across the different industries in Samoa.

Table 6.1 Sample Distribution by Professions

Type of Profession Number of Respondents Engineer 12 Accountant 3 Architect 2 Administration Manager 2 Economist 2 Fisheries Specialist 2 Health Services Manager 2 Project Manager 2 Air Traffic Controller 1 Architectural Draftsman 1 Biologist 1 Construction Manager 1 Environmentalist 1 Forest Scientist 1 Human Resource Manager 1 Plumber/Gas Fitter 1 Psychologist 1 Town Planner 1 University Registrar 1

TOTAL 38

Table 6.2 presents the type of experiences the respondents have with project manager,

project manager/consultant, functional and activities manager, consultant, and project

manager/consultant/contractor having 10, 9, 8, 7 and 4 respectively. Again this is in line

with the salient literature on current focused areas of development in Samoa.

Table 6.2 Sample Distributions by Types of Experiences

Type of Experience Number of Respondents Project Manager 10 PM/Consultant 9 Functional and Activities Managers 8 Consultant 7 PM/Cons/Contractor 4

TOTAL 38

Table 6.3 shows that 36.8% (14), 39.5% (15) of respondents were Samoan and Australian

nationalities respectively, with Other Expatriates making up the remainder 23.7% (9). The

high response rate by Australian and Samoan managers is attributed to the high level of

assistance and cooperation from AusAID officials in Canberra and Apia as well as local

Samoan connections. The lower response rate by other expatriate managers in Samoa may

be attributed to busy schedules, lack of time and unavailability to complete questionnaires.

In addition, the researcher found that geographical and time constraints contributed to some

difficulties in following up some individuals initially selected for the survey.

Table 6.3 Sample Distributions by Nationality

Nationality Number of Respondents Samoan 14 Australian 15 Other Expatriate 9

TOTAL 38

Figure 6.1 shows that 47.4%, 13.2%, 10.5%, 15.8% and 13.2% of the respondents had less

than 6, 6-10, 11-15, 16-20 and over 20 years of cross-cultural experience respectively,

indicating a diversity of cross-cultural experience and thus of project management

knowledge and skills (Edum-Fotwe and McCaffer, 2000). Some project managers have

experienced more than 20 years of cross-cultural experience (13.2%). A greater proportion

of the respondents had less than 6 years experience in cross-cultural environments. Their

responses provide insightful information as to what relatively less experienced managers in

cross-cultural environments perceive as crucial areas of communication in foreign contexts.

Figure 6.1 Sample Distributions by Years of Cross-cultural Experience

13.2%

15.8%

10.5%

13.2%

47.4%

Over 20 Years

16 - 20 Years

11 - 15 Years

6 - 10 Years

0 - 5 Years

The types of projects managed by the respondents in Samoa are typical and correlate with

the Government of Samoa’s ‘Statement of Economic Strategy: 2000-2002’ as well as ‘aid’

policies in the Pacific (World Bank, 2000), with projects in the areas of Construction

16(42.1%), Institutional Strengthening (36.8%), Industry Development (13.2%), and Energy

Supply and Distribution (7.9%). Figure 6.2 illustrate this correlation between types of

projects managed by respondents and areas of developmental focus by the Samoan

government and aid agencies.

Figure 6.2 Sample Distributions by Types of Projects

7.9%

13.2%

36.8%

42.1%

Energy Supply and Di

Industry Development

Institutional Streng

Construction

Table 6.4 presents an integrated profile of the respondents, relating their nationalities with

years of cross-cultural experiences, types of projects and types of experiences.

Table 6.4 Sample Distributions by Nationality/Types of Projects/Types of Experiences

Years of Cross-cultural Experiences Types of Projects Types of Experiences

Nationality

0-5

6-10

11-1

5

16-2

0

>20

Con

stru

ctio

n

Inst

. Str

engt

heni

ng

Indu

stry

Dev

elop

Ener

gy S

uppl

y

Proj

ect M

anag

er

Pr0j

. Mgr

/Con

sult.

Func

tiona

l Mgr

.

Con

trac

tor

P.M

gr/C

onsu

lt/C

ontr

Australian 7 2 2 2 2 2 10 3 4 5 5 1 Samoan 4 2 2 3 3 8 4 2 4 3 2 3 2 Other Expats 7 1 1 6 3 3 2 2 2

TOTAL 18 5 4 5 6 16 14 5 3 11 8 4 10 5

6.3 Respondents’ perceptions on usefulness of questionnaire

A section of the questionnaire survey was devoted to ascertaining the perceptions of

the respondents regarding the appropriateness, relevancy and usefulness of this study, hence

gaining a perspective on its validity. Questions such as ‘Do you think that this is a useful

exercise?’, ‘Are the right questions being asked?’, ‘Are the questions clear, well defined,

and easily understood?’, and ‘Have I missed anything important?’ were included with the

choice of answers being either “Yes”, “No” or “Not sure”. The results from the data

received on this section of the questionnaire indicated that the majority agreed that this is a

useful exercise, appropriate questions have been asked, and that questions were clear and

concise. The “Yes” responses to the ‘Have I missed anything important?’ question will be

discussed later in the analysis.

The sample distribution of respondents on the usefulness of this study resulted in 30(78.9%)

respondents answering “Yes” with the remaining 8(21.1%) unsure. This indicated that the

majority of respondents do agree that this is a useful exercise. The responses to whether the

right questions were being asked in the questionnaire resulted in 27(71.1%), 9(23.7%), and

2(5.3%) of respondents answering “Yes”, “Not sure” and “No” respectively. The fact that

the majority of respondents answered “Yes” indicated that the questionnaire is measuring

the right concept and hence its validity. The responses to “Are the questions clear, well

defined and easily understood?” question resulted in 35(92.1%), 2(5.3%) and 1(2.6%) of

respondents answering “Yes”, “No” and “Not sure” respectively indicating a majority in

agreement that the questions were clear and concise. 20(52.6%), 12(31.6%) and 6(15.8%) of

respondents answered “No”, “Not sure” and “Yes” respectively to “Have I missed anything

important?” The “Not sure” respondents on this question and in the preceding ones can be

attributed to the high number of respondents with less than six years of cross-cultural

experience (47.4%) and also the time span of engagement on their assignments. The

comments by the “Yes” responses will be discussed later in the analysis.

6.4 Results and Test Statistics

Sub-section 5.5.3.1 of chapter 5 describes in detail the two statistical tests (Kruskal-Wallis

and Mann-Whitney) utilised in this research, particularly the rationale for their use. The

procedures involved in their application are presented in Appendix B. Here, the results from

their application to the analysis process are presented.

The administered questionnaire opinion survey comprised of seven parts (part a – part g),

each with its specific purpose and utilising a particular ordinal scale. Hence, the approach to

analysing the results is divided into the aforementioned parts. The overall interpretation and

discussion of these results is carried out in chapter 8, where the data of the two phases of

this study is integrated. However, the results from the analysis of the questionnaire survey

are briefly highlighted in this section in addressing research questions, with special attention

given to those that yielded significant values.

6.4.1 Part a) Personal beliefs

This part of the survey focused on the knowledge, beliefs and skill factors associated with

human resources and culture that project managers believed to be necessary to effectively

manage communication within a cross-cultural environment. This part addressed research

questions 1 to 4. The responses were to indicate the extent of agreement or disagreement

with the statements made on a five-point rating scale. The variables (questionnaire

statements) and their respective codes are presented in Table 6.5 Variable Codes and

Descriptions.

The resulting statistics from the Kruskal-Wallis test are presented in Tables 6.6 and 6.7. The

descriptive statistics and the test statistics are combined in Table 6.6 for ease of reference

and to facilitate interpretation. To avoid information ‘congestion’ and creating space

‘invaders’ from having many large tables in the main text, the proceeding sections will

contain only the salient information, whereas the rest of the test statistics will be provided in

Appendix B.

Table 6.5 Personal Beliefs: Variable Codes and Descriptions

Code Variable Description – Questionnaire Statement A1 = Comm. Vital Communication is vital A2 = Comm. Plan A communication plan is necessary A3 = Inter. Comm. High levels of interpersonal and intrapersonal skills are needed A4 = Cultural sense Culturally sensitive and appropriate communication is necessary A5 = 2-Way Comm. Two way communication must be encouraged A6 = Meet overcome Meetings help overcome communication barriers and increase performance level A7 = Org-culture Organisational culture and objectives dictate communication process A8 = Nat-culture National culture determines acceptable means of communication A9 = Achieve obj. Communication help achieve organisational and national objectives A10 = Proj-Type Project type and duration has a bearing on communication strategy and structure A11 = Comm. Skills Project managers must have excellent communication skills A12 = Proj-Fund Project funding influences tools and techniques of communication A13 = Proj-Pro Comm. Project proponents and stakeholders need to communicate throughout the project A14 = U-stand Culture Understanding and appreciating the different cultures involved in a project is vital A15 = Plan Outset Communication plans and strategies must be determined/established at the outset A16 = Plan review Communication plans must be reviewed regularly, and adjusted if need be A17 = Comm. Media Appropriate communication media for specific purposes/audiences are necessary A18 = Timing vital Timing is vital for effective communication A19 = Clarify roles Clear communication is needed to help clarify the roles of project stakeholders

A20 = Cultural dif Effective communication strategies are needed to demand openness and tolerance of cultural differences

A21 = Min. dispute Effective communication strategies are needed to minimise potential disputes and misunderstandings

A22 = Form ‘n’ style Situations determine form and style of communication employed by Project Managers A23 = Endorsement Communication is necessary for endorsement by the stakeholders A24 = Open Comm. Open communication is required to provide management with some control A25 = Cast Vote Communication gives project stakeholders the opportunity to comment or cast a vote A26 = U-stand language Understanding the language(s) and practices of local culture enhances communication A27 = Tech-transfer Effective communication strategies are needed to ensure successful technology transfer

An interesting result as shown in Table 6.6 and supported by Table 6.7 is the combined

means for the variable by the three groups range from 4.95(A1) to 3.47(A12) indicating

general belief in the value of communication in a cross-cultural environment.

Table 6.6 Personal Beliefs: Kruskal-Wallis Test Statistics and Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive Statistics Test Statistics a, b.

Variable N Mean Rank Std. Dev. Min Max Chi-

Square df Asymp. Sig.

Exact Sig.

A1 Comm. Vital 38 4.95 1 .226 4 5 1.416 2 .493 .701

A11 Comm. Skills 38 4.63 2 .489 4 5 1.080 2 .583 .635

A4 Cultural sense 38 4.61 3 .495 4 5 2.017 2 .365 .337

A5 Two-Way Comm. 38 4.58 4 .500 4 5 2.858 2 .240 .241

A14 U-stand Cult 38 4.55 5 .504 4 5 .042 2 .979 1.000

A3 Inter. Comm. 38 4.47 6 .647 2 5 11.351 2 .003 .002

A21 Min. dispute 38 4.42 7 .552 3 5 3.584 2 .167 .175

A13 Proj-Pro Comm. 38 4.32 8 .739 2 5 4.269 2 .118 .122

A9 Achieve obj. 38 4.29 9 .460 4 5 4.741 2 .093 .115

A26 U-stand lang 38 4.29 10 .694 2 5 .205 2 .903 .921

A19 Clarify roles 38 4.26 11 .685 3 5 1.739 2 .419 .441

A27 Tech-transfer 38 4.26 12 .554 3 5 7.296 2 .026 .021

A23 Endorsement 38 4.24 13 .590 3 5 4.572 2 .102 .091

A25 Cast vote 38 4.16 14 .495 3 5 1.171 2 .557 .589

A2 Comm. Plan 38 4.13 15 .844 2 5 9.154 2 .010 .008

A17 Comm. Media 38 4.11 16 .606 3 5 4.010 2 .135 .137

A16 Plan review 38 4.08 17 .784 2 5 6.749 2 .034 .032

A20 Cultural dif 38 4.08 18 .712 2 5 6.353 2 .042 .033

A22 Form ‘n’ style 38 4.03 19 .753 2 5 3.074 2 .215 .212

A10 Proj-type 38 4.00 20 .697 2 5 6.428 2 .040 .032

A15 Plan Outset 38 4.00 21 .805 3 5 9.267 2 .010 .006

A6 Meet overcome 38 3.97 22 .788 2 5 15.852 2 .000 .000

A18 Timing vital 38 3.95 23 .804 2 5 7.473 2 .024 .021

A24 Open Comm. 38 3.95 24 .613 3 5 1.232 2 .540 .549

A7 Org-culture 38 3.74 25 .724 2 5 10.227 2 .006 .004

A8 Nat-culture 38 3.68 26 .809 2 5 4.568 2 .102 .100

A12 Proj-fund 38 3.47 27 1.084 1 5 4.706 2 .095 .091 a. Kruskal-Wallis test;

b. Grouping variable: Nationality

Table 6.7 Personal Beliefs: Kruskal-Wallis Test and Mean Ranks

The Kruskal-Wallis test found ten variables that were significantly different (with

significance levels less than 0.05) among the three groups. These variables were A2, A3,

A6, A7, A10, A15, A16, A18, A20, and A27. Table 6.8 summarises these significant results

Var. Nat. N Mean Rank Var. Nat. N Mean Rank Var. Nat. N Mean

Rank Sam 14 20.50 Sam 14 16.21 Sam 14 20.75

Aus 15 19.23 Aus 15 24.13 Aus 15 20.67

O. Exp. 9 18.39 O. Exp. 9 16.89 O. Exp. 9 15.61

A1

Com

m.

Vita

l

Total 38

A10

Pro

j-ty

pe

Total 38 A19

Cla

rify

role

s

Total 38

Sam 14 26.07 Sam 14 18.36 Sam 14 24.50

Aus 15 14.70 Aus 15 18.90 Aus 15 17.83

O. Exp. 9 17.28 O. Exp. 9 22.28 O. Exp. 9 14.50

A2 C

omm

. Pl

an

Total 38 A11

Com

m.

skills

Total 38 A

20 C

ultu

ral

dif

Total 38

Sam 14 21.89 Sam 14 18.96 Sam 14 23.39

Aus 15 22.97 Aus 15 23.47 Aus 15 16.97

O. Exp. 9 10.00 O. Exp. 9 13.72 O Exp. 9 17.67 A3

Inte

r. C

omm

.

Total 38

A12

Pro

j-fu

ndin

g

Total 38

A21

Min

. di

sput

e

Total 38

Sam 14 18.86 Sam 14 21.50 Sam 14 20.46

Aus 15 21.93 Aus 15 21.27 Aus 15 21.53

O. Exp. 9 16.44 O. Exp. 9 13.44 O. Exp. 9 14.61

A4

Cul

tura

l se

nse

Total 38 A13

Pro

-pro

C

omm

.

Total 38 A

22 F

orm

‘n

’ sty

le

Total 38

Sam 14 20.71 Sam 14 19.86 Sam 14 22.82

Aus 15 21.17 Aus 15 19.13 Aus 15 19.67

O. Exp. 9 14.83 O. Exp. 9 19.56 O. Exp. 9 14.06

A5

2-W

ay

com

m.

Total 38 A14

U-s

tand

cu

lt

Total 38

A23

En

dors

e

Total 38

Sam 14 27.50 Sam 14 26.00 Sam 14 21.43

Aus 15 17.43 Aus 15 14.30 Aus 15 19.23

O. Exp. 9 10.50 O. Exp. 9 18.06 O. Exp. 9 16.94 A6 M

eet

over

com

e

Total 38

A15

Pla

n ou

tset

Total 38

A24

Ope

n co

mm

.

Total 38

Sam 14 23.07 Sam 14 25.00 Sam 14 20.57

Aus 15 21.63 Aus 15 17.33 Aus 15 20.10

O. Exp. 9 10.39 O. Exp. 9 14.56 O. Exp. 9 16.83 A7

Org

-cu

lture

Total 38

A16

Pla

n re

view

Total 38

A25

Cas

t vo

te

Total 38

Sam 14 20.36 Sam 14 22.36 Sam 14 20.11

Aus 15 22.40 Aus 15 19.97 Aus 15 18.60

O. Exp. 9 13.33 O. Exp. 9 14.28 O. Exp. 9 20.06 A8

Nat

-cu

lture

Total 38 A17

Com

m.

med

ia

Total 38 A26

U-s

tand

la

ngua

ge

Total 38

Sam 14 20.79 Sam 14 22.75 Sam 14 24.79

Aus 15 21.60 Aus 15 21.27 Aus 15 17.23

O. Exp. 9 14.00 O. Exp. 9 11.50 O. Exp. 9 15.06

A9

Achi

eve

obj.

Total 38 A18

Tim

ing

vita

l

Total 38

A27

Tec

h-tra

nsfe

r

Total 38

for discussion, with the complete set of results presented in Appendix A. For convenience,

both the descriptive and test statistics are combined and presented in Table 6.8. However,

only the most salient and relevant statistics will be highlighted here, and discussed in detail

in chapter 8. This approach will be adopted throughout the chapter to facilitate and aid the

interpretation of results.

Table 6.8 Personal Beliefs: Significantly different results – Kruskal-Wallis test

The results from Table 6.8 indicate that for the ten variables with K values (approximated

by the chi-square values) greater than or equal 6.353 (lowest value for the ten variables) for

the three groups, the probability of occurrence under the null hypothesis of no difference

among the groups are levels less than 0.05 (corresponding to a larger discrepancy among

rank sums). Both the asymptotic significance and the exact significance yielded very similar

values for the ten variables that are less than the critical value of 0.05. Thus, the null

hypothesis is rejected as there is corroborating evidence that differences do exist between

the groups.

To find out how the groups differ, the Two-Independent-Samples procedure for pair-wise

comparison on the Mann-Whitney test is applied. This test is applied to the entire 27


Variable N Mean Std. Dev. Min Max Chi-


Exact Sig.

A3 Inter. Comm. 38 4.47 .647 2 5 11.351 2 .003 .002

A27 Tech-transfer 38 4.26 .554 3 5 7.296 2 .026 .021

A2 Comm. Plan 38 4.13 .844 2 5 9.154 2 .010 .008

A16 Plan review 38 4.08 .784 2 5 6.749 2 .034 .032

A20 Cultural dif 38 4.08 .712 2 5 6.353 2 .042 .033

A10 Proj-type 38 4.00 .697 2 5 6.428 2 .040 .032

A15 Plan outset 38 4.00 .805 3 5 9.267 2 .010 .006

A6 Meet overcome 38 3.97 .788 2 5 15.852 2 .000 .000

A18 Timing vital 38 3.95 .804 2 5 7.473 2 .024 .021

A7 Org-culture 38 3.74 .724 2 5 10.227 2 .006 .004 a. Kruskal-Wallis test;

b. Grouping variable: Nationality

variables instead of the ten with significance values obtained from the Kruskal-Wallis test.

This test can perform an independent check on the results from the Kruskal-Wallis test. The

three nationality groups are: Gr1-Samoans, Gr2-Australians, and Gr3-Other Expatriates.

Firstly, G1 and G2 were tested, then G1 and G3, followed by G2 and G3.

Table 6.9 summarises the significant results for the first pair-wise comparison (Gr1&Gr2),

with six variables (A2, A6, A10, A15, A16 and A27) obtaining values that are less than the

adopted 0.05 critical significance level. The Mann-Whitney U statistic and the Wilcoxon W

statistic are the equivalent in that they add up to a constant and they both have the same Z

value. The negative Z values indicated that both the U and W statistics have values that are

lower than expected. Again, both the asymptotic and the exact two-tailed significant values

are very close. For variable A16, the asymptotic significance is 0.047 and the exact

significance is 0.065, the later will be adopted as it is the precise value therefore, variable

A16 is not considered significant as it has a higher value than the critical value of 0.05. This

resulted in having just five variables with significant values for the first pair-wise

comparison (A2, A6, A10, A15, and A27).

Table 6.9 Personal Beliefs: Mann-Whitney test –

Variables with significant values for Group 1 and Group 2 Pair-wise Comparison

Table 6.10 summarises the significant results for the second pair-wise comparison

(Gr1&G3) with ten variables (A2, A3, A6, A7, A9, A16, A17, A18, A20, and A27) having

values that are less than the critical value of 0.05. All the Z values are negative indicating U

statistic and W statistic values less than expected. For variable A9, the asymptotic two-tailed

Variable Mann-Whitney U Wilcoxon W Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

Exact Sig. (2-tailed)

A2 Comm. plan 44.500 164.500 -2.827 .005 .005 A6 Meet overcome 47.000 167.000 -2.795 .005 .006 A10 Proj-type 62.500 167.500 -2.146 .032 .027 A15 Plan outset 42.000 162.000 -2.916 .004 .005 A16 Plan review 63.000 183.000 -1.987 .047 .065 A27 Tech-transfer 63.000 183.000 -2.124 .034 .047

significance is 0.047 and the exact two-tailed significance is 0.116. Similarly for A17, the

asymptotic value is 0.044 and the exact value is 0.051, just over the critical level. Therefore,

the exact values will be adopted resulting in variable A9 and A17 not considered significant.

Hence, the second grouping yielded eight significant results (A2, A3, A6, A7, A16, A18,

A20 and A27).


Variables with significant values for Gr1 and Gr3 Pair-wise comparison

Table 6.11 summarises the significant results for G2 and G3 pair-wise comparison with

seven variables (A3, A7, A8, A9, A10, A12, and A18) having values less than the critical

significance level of 0.05. All the Z values are negative indicating values for U and W are

less than expected. The asymptotic and exact two-tailed significance values are very similar

except for A8 and A9 having 0.042/0.053 and 0.032/0.052 respectively. Both A8 and A9

have exact values that are larger than the critical level and therefore, the precise exact values

will be adopted resulting in only five variables with significant levels less than 0.05 (A3,

A7, A10, A12 and A18).

Variable

Mann-Whitney U

Wilcoxon W

Z

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)


A2 Comm. plan 31.500 76.500 -2.198 .028 .029 A3 Inter. Comm. 22.500 67.500 -3.015 .003 .003 A6 Meet overcome 9.000 54.000 -3.622 .000 .000 A7 Org-culture 20.000 65.000 -2.997 .003 .003 A9 Achieve obj. 40.500 85.500 -1.982 .047 .116 A16 Plan review 28.000 73.000 -2.440 .015 .020 A17 Comm. media 36.000 81.000 -2.016 .044 .051 A18 Timing vital 26.000 71.000 -2.507 .012 .014 A20 Cultural dif 31.000 76.000 -2.189 .029 .021 A27 Tech-transfer 31.000 76.000 -2.311 .021 .026


Variables with significant values for G2 and G3 Pair-wise comparison

Combining the three pair-wise comparisons resulted in a list of eleven variables that are

significantly different amongst the groups containing A2, A3, A6, A7, A10, A12, A15, A16,

A18, A20, and A27. This list contains one more variable (A12) than the ten obtained from

the Kruskal-Wallis test, which identified the same results. This further supports the

hypothesis that the groups are different although sampled from the same population.

To interpret the results, the descriptive statistics, the K-test mean ranks and the M-test pair-

wise comparison sum of ranks will be used. The descriptive statistics indicate the mean

rating and the combined spread across the groups on each variable. The mean rank indicate

the variances between the groups and the pair-wise sum of ranks show how groups differ

from each other. For example, the results obtained for variable A1 can be interpreted as

follows:

Table 6.12 Personal Beliefs: Descriptive and Test Statistics for Variable A1

Variable

Mann-Whitney U

Wilcoxon W

Z



A3 Inter. Comm. 22.500 67.500 -3.038 .002 .002 A7 Org-culture 28.500 73.500 -2.540 .011 .013 A8 Nat-culture 36.000 81.000 -2.029 .042 .053 A9 Achieve obj. 40.500 85.500 -2.145 .032 .052 A10 Proj-type 40.500 85.500 -1.940 .052 .043 A12 Proj-fund 31.000 76.000 -2.272 .023 .021 A18 Timing vital 32.500 77.500 -2.293 .022 .024


Variable N Mean Rank Std. Dev. M

in

Max

Chi-Square df Asymp.

Sig. Exact Sig.

A1 Comm. vital 38 4.95 1 .226 4 5 1.416 2 .493 .701

Table 6.12 shows the combined mean value for variable A1 (Communication is vital) is

4.95, and it has been accorded the ranking of 1. It has a minimum value of 4 and a

maximum value of 5 with a standard deviation of 0.226 on a five point rating scale. The chi-

square value of 1.416 corresponding to a significance level (p) of 0.493 (asymptotic) and

0.701 (exact) which are well above the critical level of 0.05 (95% confidence level) at a

degree of freedom of two, indicate that the groups are not significantly different on this

variable.

Table 6.13 Personal Beliefs: Variance by Mean Rank for Variable A1

Variable Nationality N Mean Rank

A1 Comm. vital Sam 14 20.50 Aus 15 19.23

O. Exp. 9 18.39 Total 38

Table 6.13 displays the mean ranks for each of the three nationalities on variable A1. The

mean ranks are very close together, with Samoans (20.50), Australian (19.23), and Other

Expatriates (18.39). The average mean variance between the groups is 1.42 with a standard

deviation of 0.226. This is small for the size of the groups. This indicates the tendency for

the three groups to be strongly in agreement with statement A1 (communication is vital).

Table 6.14 Personal Beliefs: Variances by Ranks for Pair-wise comparisons on Variable A1

Group 1 & 2

1-Samoan; 2-Australian Group 1& 3

1-Samoan; 3-Other Expatriate Group 2 & 3

2-Australian; 3-Other Expatriate

Var.

Nat.

N

Mean Rank

Sum of Ranks

Nat.

N

Mean Rank

Sum of Ranks

Nat.

N

Mean Rank

Sum of Ranks

Sam 14 15.50 217.00 Sam 14 12.50 175.00 Aus 15 12.70 190.50

Aus 15 14.53 218.00 O. Exp. 9 11.22 101.00 O. Exp. 9 12.17 109.50 A1

Com

m.

vita

l

Total 29 Total 23 Total 24

Table 6.14 shows the pair-wise group comparisons for variable A1, indicating both the

mean ranks and the sum of ranks. The mean ranks for all the groups in each pair-wise

comparison are very close together. The sum of ranks for Samoans and Australians are very

close (217/218), and the differences in both the Samoan-Other Expatriate and Australian-

Other Expatriate pair-wise comparison are also relatively close. This indicates that not one

group is significantly different from the others on this variable and all rate it highly.

Table 6.15 presents an interpretive summary that encapsulate the results from the tests,

highlighting the overall mean rating, the descending order of ranking, the standard

deviation, and the group(s) that rate each variable high or low relative to each other based

on mean rank and the sum of ranks. The summary in Table 6.15 show that for variable A2

(A communication plan is necessary), the Samoans (S) rate it high while the Other

Expatriates (O) rate it low with the Australians (A) in between. For the other results, SAO

stands for Samoans as well as Australians and Other Expatriates having the same or similar

rating; SA stands for Samoans and Australians only; and SO for Samoans and Other

Expatriates. The Samoans (S) dominate the higher rating, followed by the Australians (A)

with the Other Expatriates mostly the lowest of the three. Overall, all the variables have

means of over three (ranged from 3.47 for A12 (Pro-fund comm.) to 4.94 for A1 (Comm.

Vital), indicating a general agreement on the need for effective communication in a cross-

cultural environment with the higher rated variables suggesting support for emphasizing the

soft ‘side’ of management.

One interesting result is the relatively low rating for A18 (Timing is vital for effective

communication) by the Other Expatriates and the absence of the need for a communication

plan (A2) from the Australians and Other Expatriates’ higher rated items. The impression

overall is that, relatively speaking, Samoans favour meetings and planning (though not

necessarily for the same reasons); while Other Expatriates have less regard for meetings,

timing and other possible influences. Australians, though generally closer to Samoans, seem

to favour a more reactive approach to management.

Table 6.15 Personal Beliefs: Interpretive Summary of Test Results

6.4.2 Part b) What happened in the projects that you worked on?

This section questioned respondents on what happened in the projects they were involved

in, and whether their personal beliefs had changed or were affected as a result. This part

addressed research questions 4, 5 and 6. The responses were to indicate the extent of

evidence for the statements made on a five-point rating scale. The variables (questionnaire

statements) and their respective codes are presented in Table 6.16 What happened in your

project: Variable Codes and Descriptions.

Variable N Mean Rank Std. Dev. High Rating Low Rating

A1 Comm. vital 38 4.95 1 .226 SAO

A11 Comm. skills 38 4.63 2 .489 O SA

A4 Cultural sense 38 4.61 3 .495 A O

A5 2-way comm. 38 4.58 4 .500 SA O

A14 U-stand culture 38 4.55 5 .504 SAO

A3 Inter. Comm. 38 4.47 6 .647 SA O

A21 Min. dispute 38 4.42 7 .552 S A

A13 Proj-pro comm. 38 4.32 8 .739 SA O

A9 Achieve obj. 38 4.29 9 .460 SA O

A26 U-stand language 38 4.29 10 .694 SO A

A19 Clarify roles 38 4.26 11 .685 SA O

A27 Tech-transfer 38 4.26 12 .554 S O

A23 Endorsement 38 4.24 13 .590 S O

A25 Cast vote 38 4.16 14 .495 SA O

A2 Comm. plan 38 4.13 15 .844 S A

A17 Comm. media 38 4.11 16 .606 S O

A16 Plan review 38 4.08 17 .784 S O

A20 Cultural dif 38 4.08 18 .712 S O

A22 Form ‘n’ style 38 4.03 19 .753 SA O

A10 Proj-type 38 4.00 20 .697 A SO

A15 Plan outset 38 4.00 21 .805 S A

A6 Meeting 38 3.97 22 .788 S O

A18 Timing vital 38 3.95 23 .804 SA O

A24 Open comm. 38 3.95 24 .613 SA O

A7 Org-culture 38 3.74 25 .724 SA O

A8 Nat-culture 38 3.68 26 .809 SA O

A12 Proj-fund 38 3.47 27 1.084 A O

Table 6.16 What happened in your project: Variable Codes and Descriptions

The Kruskal-Wallis test found no significant differences between the groups on these

variables as shown in Table 6.17 with both the asymptotic and exact values well above the

critical significance level of 0.05. The Kruskal-Wallis statistics as approximated by the chi-

squares are less than the critical value corresponding to the significance level at the degree

of freedom of two. The null hypothesis that there is no difference between the groups on

these variables is true. The overall mean for the variables range from 3.84 (highest)

accorded to B10 (Project Managers with excellent communication skills) to 2.95 (lowest)

for B2 (A communication plan).

Code To what extent did the following happen during the projects you worked on?

B1 Effect comm. Effective communication

B2 Comm. plan A communication plan

B3 Inter-Skilled mgmt High levels personal/intrapersonal skilled management

B4 Cultural sense Culturally sensitive and appropriate communication

B5 Two-way comm. Two way communication

B6 Meeting Ongoing meetings between management/staff/stakeholders

B7 Org-culture Well established organisational culture and objectives

B8 Nat-culture Awareness of national culture

B9 Clear comm. Clear communication of organisational and national objectives

B10 PM comm. skills Project managers with excellent communication skills

B11 Proj-fund influ. Project funding influencing tools and techniques of communication

B12 Proj-type influ. Project type and duration influences communication strategy and structure

B13 Proj-pro comm. Ongoing communication between project proponents and stakeholders

B14 U-stand cultural dif Understanding and appreciation of cultural difference involved

B15 Outset plans Determination/establishment of communication plans and strategies at the outset

B16 Review plan Regular review and adjustments of communication plans

B17 Comm. media Selective use of communication media for specific purposes/audiences

B18 Timeliness Effective timeliness

B19 Clarify roles Clear communication clarifying roles of stakeholders

B20 Comm. Cultural dif Effective communication reflecting openness and tolerance of cultural differences

B21 Min. disputes Communication strategies to help minimise potential disputes and misunderstandings

B22 Flexi form-style Flexibility of form and style of communication

B23 Endorsement Essential communication to stakeholders for endorsement

B24 Open comm. Some control by management through open communication

B25 Cast vote Clear communication giving stakeholders opportunity to comment/cast a vote

B26 U-stand language Understanding of language(s) and cultural practices of local community

B27 Tech-transfer Effective communication strategies ensuring successful technology transfer

Table 6.17 What happened in your project: Kruskal-Wallis Test and Descriptive Statistics


Variable N Mean Rank Std. Deviation Min Max Chi-


Exact Sig.

B10 PM comm. skills 38 3.84 1 .855 1 5 .489 2 .783 .784 B23 Endorsement 38 3.82 2 .801 2 5 2.714 2 .257 .263 B14 U-stand cultural dif 38 3.76 3 .786 2 5 1.108 2 .575 .578 B1 Effect comm. 38 3.74 4 .685 2 5 1.850 2 .397 .404 B6 Meeting 38 3.74 5 .891 2 5 1.542 2 .462 .476 B8 Nat-culture 38 3.74 6 .921 1 5 1.662 2 .436 .450 B20 Comm. Cultural dif 38 3.74 7 .724 2 5 4.039 2 .133 .128 B3 Inter-skilled mgmt 38 3.71 8 .835 2 5 1.084 2 .582 .593 B5 Two-way comm. 38 3.71 9 .802 2 5 .963 2 .618 .628 B19 Clarify roles 38 3.71 10 .802 2 5 .145 2 .930 .930 B21 Min. disputes 38 3.71 11 .867 2 5 2.563 2 .278 .284 B4 Cultural sense 38 3.68 12 .873 1 5 .245 2 .885 .891 B9 Clear comm. 38 3.66 13 .815 2 5 3.061 2 .216 .219 B24 Open comm. 38 3.66 14 .815 2 5 .210 2 .900 .907 B22 Flexi form-style 38 3.61 15 .855 2 5 3.459 2 .177 .177 B25 Cast vote 38 3.58 16 .826 2 5 4.309 2 .116 .116 B13 Proj-pro comm. 38 3.55 17 .828 2 5 4.272 2 .118 .115 B26 U-stand language 38 3.53 18 1.033 1 5 .500 2 .779 .789 B18 Timeliness 38 3.50 19 .952 1 5 .379 2 .827 .834 B27 Tech-transfer 38 3.45 20 .860 1 5 1.039 2 .595 .598 B7 Org-culture 38 3.37 21 .852 1 5 2.662 2 .264 .272 B15 Outset plans 38 3.37 22 1.172 1 5 4.042 2 .133 .133 B17 Comm. media 38 3.37 23 .998 1 5 2.617 2 .270 .273 B12 Proj-type influ 38 3.32 24 .842 1 5 1.992 2 .369 .372 B11 Proj-fund influ 38 3.21 25 1.119 1 5 .845 2 .656 .667 B16 Review plans 38 3.18 26 1.111 1 5 2.619 2 .270 .277 B2 Comm. plan 38 2.95 27 1.184 1 5 3.592 2 .166 .167

a. Kruskal-Wallis Test b. Grouping Variable: Nationality

Table 6.18 shows the mean ranks for each of the variables by the three groups (Samoans,

Australians, and Other Expatriates). Although there are no significant differences between

the groups on these variables, some disparity in rating still exists. As Siegel and Castellan

(1988:210) point out, failure to reject OH does not imply that OH may be accepted and that

there are no differences between the groups, particularly when the sample sizes are small,

where it is difficult to distinguished between outcomes reflecting merely chance deviations

(when OH is true) and true differences (when AH is true). These differences will be

highlighted in the summary table that encapsulates the results of the Kruskal-Wallis test

(Table 6.19).

Table 6.18 What happened in your project: Kruskal-Wallis Test and Mean Ranks

The interpretive summary of the test results for Part b is shown in Table 6.19. The overall

results for this section reflects the extent to which effective communication is evident

particularly in projects where cultural values and attitudes influence the way project

participants behave and communicate. The overall figures suggest that relatively effective

communication processes are in place, as none fall below 2.95 MR, but that they are not

regularly achieved or fully met, as none come above 3.84 MR.

Var. Nat. N Mean Rank Var. Nat. N Mean

Rank Var. Nat. N Mean Rank

Sam 14 21.29 Sam 14 19.61 Sam 14 18.79 Aus 15 16.90 Aus 15 18.30 Aus 15 20.17 O. Exp. 9 21.06 O. Exp. 9 21.33 O. Exp. 9 19.50

B1

Effe

ct

com

m.

Total 38

B10

PM

co

mm

. sk

ill

Total 38

B19

C

larif

y ro

les

Total 38 Sam 14 23.82 Sam 14 20.64 Sam 14 15.36 Aus 15 16.73 Aus 15 20.13 Aus 15 21.37 O. Exp. 9 17.39 O. Exp. 9 16.67 O. Exp. 9 22.83 B

2 C

omm

. pl

an

Total 38 B11

Pro

j-fu

nd in

flu

Total 38

B20

C

omm

. C

ult-d

if

Total 38 Sam 14 21.79 Sam 14 17.39 Sam 14 20.71 Aus 15 18.20 Aus 15 22.37 Aus 15 16.30 O. Exp. 9 18.11 O. Exp. 9 18.00 O Exp. 9 22.94

B3 In

ter-

skille

d m

gmt

Total 38 B12

Pro

j-ty

pe in

flu

Total 38 B21

Min

. di

sput

es


4 C

ultu

ral

sens

e

Total 38 B13

Pro

j-pr

o co

mm

.

Total 38 B22

Flex

i fo

rm-s

tyle

Total 38 Sam 14 20.79 Sam 14 17.68 Sam 14 20.21 Aus 15 17.50 Aus 15 21.50 Aus 15 21.70 O. Exp. 9 20.83 O. Exp. 9 19.00 O. Exp. 9 14.72

B5 2

-way

co

mm

.

Total 38

B14

U-

stan

d cu

lture

Total 38 B

23

Endo

rse

men

t Total 38

Sam 14 20.32 Sam 14 23.93 Sam 14 20.36 Aus 15 20.97 Aus 15 16.33 Aus 15 19.40 O. Exp. 9 15.78 O. Exp. 9 17.89 O. Exp. 9 18.33 B6

M

eetin

g

Total 38

B15

Out

set

plan

s

Total 38

B24

Ope

n co

mm

.

Total 38 Sam 14 20.25 Sam 14 23.18 Sam 14 16.00 Aus 15 21.67 Aus 15 17.23 Aus 15 23.70 O. Exp. 9 14.72 O. Exp. 9 17.56 O. Exp. 9 17.94 B7

Org

-cu

lture

Total 38

B16

Rev

iew

pl

an

Total 38 B25

Cas

t vo

te


8 N

at-

cultu

re

Total 38

B17

C

omm

. m

edia

Total 38

B26

U-

stan

d la

ngua

ge

Total 38 Sam 14 20.25 Sam 14 18.50 Sam 14 19.25 Aus 15 16.27 Aus 15 19.40 Aus 15 21.30 O. Exp. 9 23.72 O. Exp. 9 21.22 O. Exp. 9 16.89

B9

Cle

ar

com

m.

Total 38

B18

Ti

mel

ines

s

Total 38

B27

Te

ch-

trans

fer

Total 38

The most evident differences between the three nationality groups although not statistically

significant, show the Samoans recording relatively lower ratings against the other two for

B14 (Understanding and appreciation of cultural difference involved), B20 (Effective

communication reflecting openness and tolerance of cultural differences), B23 (Essential

communication to stakeholders for endorsement) and B25 (Clear communication giving

stakeholders opportunity to comment/cast a vote). Australians, on the other hand, are high

against the other two for B12 (Project type and duration influences communication strategy

and structure) and B13 (Ongoing communication between project proponents and

stakeholders), B22 (Flexibility of form and style of communication), and B25 (Clear

communication giving stakeholders opportunity to comment/cast a vote). Other Expatriates

were high against the other two on B8 (Awareness of national culture) and B9 (Clear

communication of organisational and national objectives).

Table 6.19 What happened in your project: Interpretive Summary of Test Results

Variable N Mean Rank Std. Dev. High Rating Low Rating B10 PM Comm. skills 38 3.84 1 .855 SAO B23 Endorsement 38 3.82 2 .801 SA O B14 U-stand cultural dif 38 3.76 3 .786 A S B1 Effect comm. 38 3.74 4 .685 SA O B6 Meeting 38 3.74 5 .891 SA O B8 Nat-culture 38 3.74 6 .921 O SA B20 Comm. Cultural dif 38 3.74 7 .724 AO S B3 Inter-skilled mgmt 38 3.71 8 .835 S AO B5 Two-way comm. 38 3.71 9 .802 SO A B19 Clarify roles 38 3.71 10 .802 SAO B21 Min. disputes 38 3.71 11 .867 SO A B4 Cultural sense 38 3.68 12 .873 SAO B9 Clear comm. 38 3.66 13 .815 O A B24 Open comm. 38 3.66 14 .815 SAO B22 Flexi form-style 38 3.61 15 .855 A O B25 Cast vote 38 3.58 16 .826 A S B13 Proj-pro comm. 38 3.55 17 .828 A O B26 U-stand language 38 3.53 18 1.033 SO A B18 Timeliness 38 3.50 19 .952 O S B27 Tech-transfer 38 3.45 20 .860 A O B7 Org-culture 38 3.37 21 .852 SA O B15 Outset plans 38 3.37 22 1.172 S A B17 Comm. media 38 3.37 23 .998 SA O B12 Proj-type influ 38 3.32 24 .842 A SO B11 Proj-fund influ 38 3.21 25 1.119 SA O B16 Review plan 38 3.18 26 1.111 S AO B2 Comm. plan 38 2.95 27 1.184 S AO

6.4.3 Part c) Impact of communication barriers

This part of the survey asks the respondents to rate the impact of communication barriers on

a five point rating scale with end points catastrophic (higher extreme) to insignificant (lower

extreme).

Table 6.20 Impact of Communication Barriers: Kruskal-Wallis Test and Descriptive Statistics

Impact of communication barriers Descriptive Statistics Test Statistics a, b.

Variable Code and Description N Mean Rank Std. Dev. Min Max Chi-


Exact Sig.

C6: Varying capacity and capability 38 3.08 1 .818 1 4 .554 2 .758 .751 C16: Varying concept of time 38 2.97 2 .944 1 5 2.737 2 .254 .259 C19: Poor planning 38 2.92 3 1.100 1 5 .858 2 .651 .664 C1: Political/community interference 38 2.82 4 1.159 1 5 4.779 2 .092 .089 C15: Lack necessary skills 38 2.82 5 .926 1 5 .111 2 .946 .948 C3: Varying perception/interpretation 38 2.74 6 .760 1 5 .174 2 .917 .922

C18: Limited resources 38 2.74 7 1.057 1 5 3.658 2 .161 .161 C20: Limited time 38 2.71 8 .984 1 4 1.699 2 .428 .444 C26: Lack of confidence 38 2.66 9 .994 1 5 4.380 2 .112 .110 C21: Lack of motivation 38 2.63 10 .998 1 5 2.546 2 .280 .286 C27: Poor leadership 38 2.61 11 1.152 1 5 4.196 2 .123 .123 C31: Conflicting business/industry ethics 38 2.61 12 1.175 1 5 2.067 2 .356 .363

C13: Resisting change 38 2.55 13 .921 1 4 4.698 2 .095 .092 C2: Lack of/inappropriate technology 38 2.53 14 .922 1 4 .587 2 .746 .755

C7: Unclear channels of communication 38 2.53 15 .951 1 5 4.411 2 .110 .107

C8: Ineffective reporting system 38 2.50 16 .952 1 4 6.110 2 .047 .044 C4: Conflicting cultural values 38 2.47 17 .922 1 5 2.135 2 .344 .350 C5: Lack of support and commitment 38 2.47 18 .922 1 5 2.743 2 .254 .259

C22: Information filtering 38 2.47 19 .830 1 4 2.857 2 .240 .243 C34: Lack of concern 38 2.45 20 1.032 1 5 3.458 2 .177 .179 C24: Poor listeners 38 2.42 21 .919 1 4 3.503 2 .174 .176 C25: Family commitments 38 2.42 22 .919 1 4 1.878 2 .391 .401 C30: Poor negotiation skills 38 2.42 23 .858 1 4 8.736 2 .013 .010 C17: Organisational mishaps 38 2.39 24 1.001 1 5 3.633 2 .163 .163 C29: Personal preferences 38 2.34 25 .815 1 4 3.274 2 .195 .199 C10: Interpersonal conflict 38 2.32 26 1.042 1 4 3.918 2 .141 .139 C33: Unclear objectives 38 2.32 27 1.093 1 4 3.748 2 .153 .155 C9: Language difficulties 38 2.29 28 .984 1 4 4.321 2 .115 .114 C35: Lack of trust 38 2.26 29 1.107 1 5 8.344 2 .015 .012 C32: Stereotyping 38 2.18 30 .955 1 4 5.267 2 .072 .072 C12: Conflicting interest 38 2.11 31 .894 1 4 7.315 2 .026 .023 C28: Concept of space 38 2.11 32 .798 1 4 4.198 2 .123 .119 C23: Religious issues 38 2.08 33 .997 1 4 .408 2 .815 .821 C14: Gender issues 38 1.82 34 .926 1 4 2.871 2 .238 .243 C11: Age difference 38 1.71 35 .867 1 4 2.865 2 .239 .245

a: Kruskal-Wallis test b: Grouping Variable -

Nationality

Table 6.20 combines the variable codes and descriptions, the descriptive statistics, and the

test statistics. Other statistics (mean ranks, sum of ranks) are provided in Appendix B. The

variables are ranked based on their means with the results indicating that C6 (Varying

capacity and capability) recorded the highest 3.08 to C11 (Age difference) recording the

lowest 1.71. The variance (standard deviation) ranged from 0.760 (C3: Varying perception

and interpretation) to 1.175 (C31: Conflicting business/industry ethics).

The results from the Kruskal-Wallis test indicate that three variables (C8: Ineffective

reporting system; C30: Poor negotiation skills; and C35: Lack of trust) show significant

differences between the groups. These variables obtained asymptotic and exact significance

values that are less than the critical level of 0.05 (C8: 0.047/0.044; C30: 0.013/0.010; and

C35: 0.015/0.012). These significant results are presented in Table 6.21.

Table 6.21 Impact of communication barriers: Kruskal-Wallis test – variables with significant results Impact of communication

barriers Descriptive Statistics Test Statistics a, b.

Variable Code and Description N Mean Rank Std. Dev. Min Max Chi-


Exact Sig.

C8: Ineffective reporting system 38 2.50 16 .952 1 4 6.110 2 .047 .044

C30: Poor negotiation skills 38 2.42 23 .858 1 4 8.736 2 .013 .010

C35: Lack of trust 38 2.26 29 1.107 1 5 8.344 2 .015 .012

To check on how the groups differ from each other, the Independent-Sample-Pair-wise

comparison on the Mann-Whitney test was performed. This was carried out for the whole

set of variables, and the following tables present the significant results as found for G1 and

G2 as well as for G1 and G3 pair-wise comparisons by the Mann-Whitney test. Note that for

the G2 and G3 pair-wise comparison, there were no significant results found between the

two groups on these variables.

Table 6.22 Impact of communication barriers: Mann-Whitney test –

Significant values for G1 and G2 pair-wise comparison

Table 6.22 shows the significant results for the G1 and G2 pair-wise comparison with eight

variables (C1, C8, C26, C27, C28, C30, C32, and C35) having values less than the

significance level of 0.05, with both the asymptotic and exact significance are very close.

The Mann-Whitney and the Wilcoxon statistics are less than their expected values as

indicated by the negative Z values. The standard deviation values which are a measure of

variance are all close to one and this is supported by the maximum and minimum values of

five and one respectively. The results indicate that there is significant difference between

the Samoans and the Australians on these variables.

Table 6.23 Impact of communication barriers: Mann-Whitney test –

Significant values for G1 and G3 pair-wise comparison

Table 6.23 show the variables with significant values found in the G1 and G3 pair-wise

comparison, with C12: 0.015/0.018; C13: 0.038/0.041; and C35: 0.032/0.035 all less than

Variable N Mean Std. Dev. Min Max

Mann-Whitney

U

Wilcoxon W Z



C1: Political interference 38 2.82 1.159 1 5 57.500 177.500 -2.142 .032 .035

C8: Ineffective reporting 38 2.50 .952 1 4 52.500 172.500 -2.433 .015 .015

C26: Lack of confidence 38 2.66 .994 1 5 58.500 178.500 -2.137 .033 .035

C27: Poor leadership 38 2.61 1.152 1 5 60.500 180.500 -2.007 .045 .046

C28: Concept of space 38 2.11 .798 1 4 61.500 181.500 -2.029 .043 .045 C30: Poor negotiation skills 38 2.42 .858 1 4 44.500 164.500 -2.784 .005 .005

C32: Stereotyping 38 2.18 .955 1 4 55.000 175.000 -2.294 .022 .021

C35: Lack of trust 38 2.26 1.107 1 5 46.500 166.500 -2.639 .008 .008

Variable N Mean Std. Dev. Min Max

Mann-Whitney

U

Wilcoxon W Z



C12: Conflicting interest 38 2.11 .894 1 4 26.500 71.500 -2.431 .015 .018

C13: Resisting change 38 2.55 .921 1 4 31.500 76.500 -2.078 .038 .041

C35: Lack of trust 38 2.26 1.107 1 5 30.000 75.000 -2.141 .032 .035

the critical value of 0.05. These results indicate that there is significant difference between

the Samoans and Other Expatriates on variables C12, C13, and C35.

The Kruskal-Wallis test found variable C8, C30, and C35 to be significantly different

amongst the groups. The Mann-Whitney test (independent-sample-pairwise comparison) for

G1 (Samoans) and G2 (Australians) resulted in variables C1, C8, C26, C27, C28, C30, C32,

and C35 to be significantly different between the two groups. The pair-wise comparison for

G1 (Samoans) and G3 (Other Expatriates) resulted in variables C12, C13, and C35 with

significant values. As mentioned before, G2 (Australians) and G3 (Other Expatriates) pair-

wise comparison yielded no significant results.

Table 6.24 presents the interpretive summary of results indicating the rating by the different

nationality groups on each variable. The respondents’ perceptions on the impact of barriers

to communication have an overall range of 1.71 to 3.08 MR, reflecting a minor to moderate

impact. Here the Samoans perceive a significantly greater impact of ‘C1: Conflicting

cultural values’, ‘C8: Ineffective reporting system’, ‘C10: Interpersonal conflict’, ‘C12:

Conflicting interest’, ‘C13: Resisting change’, ‘C26: Lack of confidence’, ‘C27: Poor

leadership’, ‘C28: Concept of space’, ‘C30: Poor negotiation skills’, ‘C32: Stereotyping’,

‘C33: Unclear objectives’ and ‘C35: Lack of trust’ than the other two nationality groups. In

contrast, the Australians perceive a significantly lesser impact of ‘C1: Political/community

interference’, ‘C8: Ineffective reporting system’, ‘C18: Limited resources’, ‘C22:

Information filtering’, ‘C24: Poor listeners’, ‘C26: Lack of confidence’, ‘C29: Personal

preferences’, ‘C30: Poor negotiation skills’, and ‘C9: Language difficulties’ than the other

two nationality groups. The results support what some theorists posit as cultural values,

tasks as well as situational variables that help determine the norms for communication.

Table 6.24 Impact of communication barriers: Interpretive Summary of test results

Variable Code and Description N Mean Rank Std. Deviation High Rating Low Rating

C6: Varying capacity and capability 38 3.08 1 .818 SAO C16: Varying concept of time 38 2.97 2 .944 O A C19: Poor planning 38 2.92 3 1.100 SO A C1: Political/community interference 38 2.82 4 1.159 S A C15: Lack necessary skills 38 2.82 5 .926 SAO C3: Varying perception/interpretation 38 2.74 6 .760 SAO C18: Limited resources 38 2.74 7 1.057 S A C20: Limited time 38 2.71 8 .984 S O C26: Lack of confidence 38 2.66 9 .994 S A C21: Lack of motivation 38 2.63 10 .998 S A C27: Poor leadership 38 2.61 11 1.152 S AO C31: Conflicting business/industry ethics 38 2.61 12 1.175 S AO C13: Resisting change 38 2.55 13 .921 S O C2: Lack of/inappropriate technology 38 2.53 14 .922 S C7: Unclear channels of communication 38 2.53 15 .951 S O C8: Ineffective reporting system 38 2.50 16 .952 S A C4: Conflicting cultural values 38 2.47 17 .922 S O C5: Lack of support and commitment 38 2.47 18 .922 S AO C22: Information filtering 38 2.47 19 .830 S A C34: Lack of concern 38 2.45 20 1.032 S A C24: Poor listeners 38 2.42 21 .919 S A C25: Family commitments 38 2.42 22 .919 O A C30: Poor negotiation skills 38 2.42 23 .858 S A C17: Organisational mishaps 38 2.39 24 1.001 S AO C29: Personal preferences 38 2.34 25 .815 S A C10: Interpersonal conflict 38 2.32 26 1.042 S O C33: Unclear objectives 38 2.32 27 1.093 S A C9: Language difficulties 38 2.29 28 .984 SO A C35: Lack of trust 38 2.26 29 1.107 S AO C32: Stereotyping 38 2.18 30 .955 S AO C12: Conflicting interest 38 2.11 31 .894 S O C28: Concept of space 38 2.11 32 .798 S A C23: Religious issues 38 2.08 33 .997 SO A C14: Gender issues 38 1.82 34 .926 A O C11: Age difference 38 1.71 35 .867 S AO

6.4.4 Part d): The extent communication barriers were overcome

This part of the questionnaire asks the respondents to rate the extent to which

communication barriers were overcome on their projects on a three point rating scale with

endpoints never (lower extreme) and totally (higher extreme). Table 6.25 shows the

significant result from the Kruskal-Wallis test whereas Table 6.26 presents the results for

the whole set of variables. The Kruskal-Wallis test resulted in one variable (D12:

Conflicting interest) with an asymptotic significance level of 0.057 and an exact

significance level of 0.046 which is less than the critical value of 0.05. Therefore, the exact

value is adopted making D12 significant for the groups.

Table 6.25 Extent communication barriers overcome: Kruskal-Wallis test – Significant result

Table 6.26 Extent communication barriers overcome: Kruskal-Wallis Test and Descriptive results


Variable Code and Description N Mean Std. Dev. Min Max Chi-


Exact Sig.

D12:Conflicting interest 38 2.11 .689 1 3 5.737 2 .057 .046


Variable Code and Description N Mean Std. Dev. Min Max Chi-


Exact Sig.

D11:Age difference 38 2.45 .686 1 3 4.152 2 .125 .121 D32:Stereotyping 37 2.32 .580 1 3 3.251 2 .197 .197 D8: Ineffective reporting system 38 2.29 .611 1 3 .221 2 .895 .893 D10:Interpersonal conflict 38 2.29 .611 1 3 2.261 2 .323 .339 D33:Unclear objectives 38 2.29 .565 1 3 .388 2 .824 .825 D7: Unclear channels of communication 38 2.24 .590 1 3 3.508 2 .173 .197

D14:Gender issues 38 2.21 .704 1 3 1.745 2 .418 .430 D9: Language difficulties 38 2.16 .547 1 3 2.538 2 .281 .301 D15:Lack necessary skills 38 2.16 .370 2 3 2.210 2 .331 .402 D34:Lack of concern 38 2.16 .638 1 3 3.891 2 .143 .147 D35:Lack of trust 38 2.16 .638 1 3 5.115 2 .077 .075 D6: Varying capacity and capability 38 2.13 .414 1 3 1.184 2 .553 .538 D26:Lack of confidence 38 2.13 .529 1 3 1.615 2 .446 .502 D28:Concept of space 38 2.13 .623 1 3 4.598 2 .100 .102 D4: Conflicting cultural values 38 2.11 .453 1 3 .142 2 .931 .965 D12:Conflicting interest 38 2.11 .689 1 3 5.737 2 .057 .046 D19:Poor planning 38 2.11 .559 1 3 .036 2 .982 1.000 D31:Conflicting business/industry ethics 38 2.11 .606 1 3 .115 2 .944 .927

D2: Lack of/inappropriate technology 38 2.08 .487 1 3 2.268 2 .322 .359 D5: Lack of support and commitment 38 2.08 .587 1 3 5.696 2 .058 .053 D17:Organisational mishaps 38 2.08 .539 1 3 2.012 2 .366 .334 D22:Information filtering 38 2.08 .359 1 3 2.108 2 .349 .430 D23:Religious issues 38 2.08 .784 1 3 .285 2 .867 .851 D29:Personal preferences 38 2.08 .539 1 3 1.918 2 .383 .385 D3: Varying perception/interpretation 38 2.05 .517 1 3 1.212 2 .546 .659 D24:Poor listeners 38 2.05 .517 1 3 3.440 2 .179 .187 D27:Poor leadership 38 2.05 .567 1 3 1.038 2 .595 .668 D18:Limited resources 38 2.03 .434 1 3 1.143 2 .565 .683 D20:Limited time 38 2.03 .492 1 3 .897 2 .638 .720 D16:Varying concept of time 38 2.00 .465 1 3 .639 2 .727 .903 D21:Lack of motivation 38 2.00 .520 1 3 2.631 2 .268 .296 D30:Poor negotiation skills 38 2.00 .465 1 3 2.555 2 .279 .336 D1: Political/community interference 38 1.95 .399 1 3 .239 2 .887 .924 D13:Resisting change 38 1.92 .487 1 3 4.093 2 .129 .140 D25:Family commitments 38 1.84 .594 1 3 2.716 2 .257 .278

a: Kruskal-Wallis test b: Grouping variable - Nationality

The Mann-Whitney test was then carried out to check how the groups differ on this variable

and also to find out if there are other significant variables on group pair-wise comparisons.

The pair-wise group comparisons for G1 and G2 yielded results for D28 (Concept of space)

that has an asymptotic value of 0.036 which is significant, and an exact value of 0.054

which is over the significant level (Table 6.27). The exact value is adopted, making D28

insignificant between the two groups. D35 (Lack of trust) yielded results that are the same

for D28 with 0.036/0.054 asymptotic and exact values respectively. Since the exact value is

over the critical value of 0.05, variable (D35) is not considered significant between the two

groups. So, for the G1 and G2 pair-wise comparison, there is no significant difference

between the groups on these variables.

Table 6.27 Extent communication barriers overcome: Mann-Whitney test –

Significant results for G1 and G2 Pair-wise comparison

Table 6.28 show significant results from G1 and G3 pair-wise group comparison with D5

(Lack of support and commitment) having an asymptotic value of 0.034 and an exact value

of 0.07 which is higher than the critical level of 0.05, hence D5 is insignificant between the

two groups. The other variable is D12 (Conflicting interest) with an asymptotic value of

0.018 and an exact value of 0.027 which are both less than the significant level of 0.05,

hence significant between the groups. The significant result for G1 and G2 pair-wise

comparison is variable D12.

Table 6.28 Significant results – G1 and G3 Pair-wise comparison

Extent barriers were overcome Descriptive Statistics Test Statistics

Variable Code and Description N Mean Std.

Dev. Min

Max

Mann-Whitney

U

Wilcoxon W Z



D5:Lack of support and commitment 38 2.08 .587 1 3 34.500 139.500 -2.126 .034 .070

D12:Conflicting interest 38 2.11 .689 1 3 29.000 134.000 -2.356 .018 .027

Extent barriers were overcome Descriptive Statistics Test Statistics

Variable Code and

Description N Mean Std.

Dev. Min

Max

Mann-Whitney

U

Wilcoxon W Z



D28:Concept of space 38 2.13 .623 1 3 63.500 168.500 -2.098 .036 .054

D35:Lack of trust 38 2.16 .638 1 3 63.500 168.500 -2.098 .036 .054

The third pair-wise group comparison (G2 and G3) yielded no significant results. The result

of the Mann-Whitney test yielded the same result as the Kruskal-Wallis test, with D12

(Conflicting interest) the only significant variable between G1 (Samoans) and G3 (Other

Expatriates). This may be a consequence of the rating method used, being a simpler, but

less discriminating 3-point scale.

Table 6.29 Extent communication barriers overcome: Interpretive Summary of test results

Variable Code and Description N Mean Std. Deviation

High Rating

Low Rating

D11:Age difference 38 2.45 .686 AO S D32:Stereotyping 37 2.32 .580 A SO D8: Ineffective reporting system 38 2.29 .611 AO S D10:Interpersonal conflict 38 2.29 .611 O S D33:Unclear objectives 38 2.29 .565 AO S D7: Unclear channels of communication 38 2.24 .590 O SA D14:Gender issues 38 2.21 .704 AO S D9: Language difficulties 38 2.16 .547 A O D15:Lack necessary skills 38 2.16 .370 A SO D34:Lack of concern 38 2.16 .638 O S D35:Lack of trust 38 2.16 .638 AO S D6: Varying capacity and capability 38 2.13 .414 A O D26:Lack of confidence 38 2.13 .529 A O D28:Concept of space 38 2.13 .623 A S D4: Conflicting cultural values 38 2.11 .453 SAO D12:Conflicting interest 38 2.11 .689 O S D19:Poor planning 38 2.11 .559 SAO D31:Conflicting business/industry ethics 38 2.11 .606 SAO D2: Lack of/inappropriate technology 38 2.08 .487 O S D5: Lack of support and commitment 38 2.08 .587 O S D17:Organisational mishaps 38 2.08 .539 O A D22:Information filtering 38 2.08 .359 O SA D23:Religious issues 38 2.08 .784 AO S D29:Personal preferences 38 2.08 .539 A S D3: Varying perception/interpretation 38 2.05 .517 AO S D24:Poor listeners 38 2.05 .517 O S D27:Poor leadership 38 2.05 .567 AO S D18:Limited resources 38 2.03 .434 SA O D20:Limited time 38 2.03 .492 SA O D16:Varying concept of time 38 2.00 .465 SAO D21:Lack of motivation 38 2.00 .520 O A D30:Poor negotiation skills 38 2.00 .465 A S D1: Political/community interference 38 1.95 .399 SAO D13:Resisting change 38 1.92 .487 AO S D25:Family commitments 38 1.84 .594 O A

The interpretive summary for the results on the extent communication barriers were

overcome is presented in Table 6.29, with the rest of the test statistics and results included

in the Appendix B. Although only one significant result was found, some disparity still

exists between the groups as illustrated by the standard deviation and the high and low

rating indicative of respondents grouping in Table 6.29. Probably the most interesting result

is the consistently low rating by the Samoans on most of the variables which could be

attributed to the Samoans being more aware of the local environment, and are therefore

influenced by and to a certain extent controlled by environmental factors. The respondents’

perception of the extent to which barriers to communication were overcome has an overall

range of 1.84 to 2.45 MR, reflecting a tendency towards partially to totally overcome.

6.4.5 Part e): Communication strategies – extent they were employed

This part of the questionnaire asks the respondents to rate the extent they employed

predetermined strategies listed on a five point ordinal scale with end points: Never (lower

extreme) to Mandatory (Upper extreme). The variable codes and descriptions, descriptive

and test statistics from the Kruskal-Wallis test on this section are presented in Table 6.30 for

convenience. The descriptive statistics recorded the mean range from highest value 4.11 for

E15 (Timely reports) to lowest value 1.82 for E10 (Suggestion box). The variance (standard

deviation) ranged from 1.233 for E1 (Comprehensive communication plan) highest to 0.673

for E5 (Team meetings) the lowest. Test statistics indicate that for most of the variables, no

significant differences exist between the groups as most have asymptotic and exact

significant values higher than the critical level of 0.05. Significant results from the Kruskal-

Wallis test are presented in Table 6.31

The Kruskal-Wallis test found four variables (E1: Comprehensive communication plan; E9:

Consultative approach; E10: Suggestion box; and E15: Timely reports) having significantly

different values between the three groups. Table 6.31 presents these significant variables

with values less than the critical level of 0.05.

Table 6.30 Communication strategies employed:

Variable Codes and Descriptions, Descriptive and Test Statistics

Table 6.31 Communication strategies employed: Kruskal-Wallis test – Significant results

Extent Strategies employed Descriptive Statistics Test Statistics a, b. Variable Code

and Description N Mean Std. Dev Min Max Chi-

Square df Asymp.

Sig. Exact Sig.

E1:Comprehensive communication plan 38 3.32 1.233 1 5 7.976 2 .019 .015 E9:Consultative Approach 38 3.92 .941 2 5 6.853 2 .033 .028 E10:Suggestion Box 38 1.82 1.205 1 5 6.165 2 .046 .044 E15:Timely reports 38 4.11 .831 2 5 6.389 2 .041 .039

The Mann-Whitney test was then carried out to ascertain how the groups differ and to test if

there are any other variables that may be found significantly different when compared pair-

wise. The first pair-wise comparison (G1 & G2) found variables E1 (Comprehensive

communication plan) and E10 (Suggestion box) to have significantly different values

Extent Strategies employed Descriptive Statistics Test Statistics a, b.

Variable Code and Description N Mean Std. Dev M

in

Max

Chi-Square df Asymp.

Sig. Exact Sig.

E1:Comprehensive communication plan 38 3.32 1.233 1 5 7.976 2 .019 .015E2:Clear communication channels 38 4.05 .769 2 5 3.658 2 .161 .167E3:Delegating responsibilities 38 4.03 .716 2 5 3.028 2 .220 .215E4:Adjusting and adapting 38 4.03 .716 2 5 .416 2 .812 .811E5:Team Meetings 38 4.08 .673 3 5 1.262 2 .532 .519E6:Cultural initiation 38 3.32 1.093 1 5 2.340 2 .310 .316E7:Regular reviewing and reality checks 38 3.71 1.063 1 5 1.119 2 .572 .580E8:Training 38 3.76 1.173 1 5 2.321 2 .313 .319E9:Consultative Approach 38 3.92 .941 2 5 6.853 2 .033 .028E10:Suggestion Box 38 1.82 1.205 1 5 6.165 2 .046 .044E11:Continuous Improvement process 38 3.47 1.133 1 5 2.148 2 .342 .349E12:Incremental changes 38 3.39 .946 1 5 5.522 2 .063 .060E13:Resource levelling 38 3.13 .963 1 5 .455 2 .797 .800E14:Feedback processes 38 3.68 .809 2 5 1.804 2 .406 .414E15:Timely reports 38 4.11 .831 2 5 6.389 2 .041 .039E16:Dispute resolution 38 3.66 .994 1 5 1.192 2 .551 .561E17:Problem solving 38 3.97 .788 2 5 .209 2 .901 .890

a: Kruskal-Wallis test b: Grouping variable - Nationality

between the two groups with both the asymptotic and exact significances less than the

critical level as shown in Table 6.32.

Table 6.32 Communication strategies employed: Mann-Whitney test –


The second pair-wise comparison between G1 and G3 found variable E15 (Timely reports)

to be significantly different between the two groups recording both asymptotic and exact

levels below the critical value as presented in Table 6.33.


Significant result for G1 and G3 Pair-wise comparison

Variable Code N Mean Std. Dev M

in

Max

Mann-Whitney

U

Wilcoxon W Z



E15: Timely reports 38 4.11 .831 2 5 30.500 75.500 -2.158 .031 .031

The third pair-wise comparison between G2 and G3 found three variables with significantly

different values between the two groups. Variable E9 (Consultative approach) obtained an

asymptotic two-tailed significance of 0.015 and an exact two-tailed significance of 0.013,

which are both less than the critical value of 0.05. Likewise for variables E12: Incremental

changes (0.022/0.019) and E15: Timely reports (0.020/0.036) having both their asymptotic

and exact significance levels below the critical value. Table 6.34 presents these significant

results.


in

Max

Mann-Whitney

U

Wilcoxon W Z



E1: Comprehensive comm. plan 38 3.32 1.233 1 5 44.500 164.500 -2.719 .007 .005

E10: Suggestion box 38 1.82 1.205 1 5 58.500 178.500 -2.334 .020 .021




in

Max

Mann-Whitney

U

Wilcoxon W Z



E9: Consultative approach 38 3.92 .941 2 5 28.500 73.500 -2.444 .015 .013

E12: Incremental changes 38 3.39 .946 1 5 32.000 77.000 -2.294 .022 .019

E15: Timely reports 38 4.11 .831 2 5 31.500 76.500 -2.335 .020 .036

The Mann-Whitney independent-pairwise group comparisons yielded significant results for

five variables (E1, E9, E10, E12, and E15) which is one variable (E12) more than the four

found by the Kruskal-Wallis test (E1, E9, E10, and E15). The results from the two tests

show much convergence with one supporting and complementing the other. Table 6.35

present the overall interpretive summary of the test results for this section.

Table 6.35 Communication strategies employed: Interpretive Summary of Results

Variable Code and Description N Mean Rank Std. Dev High Rating

Low Rating

E15:Timely reports 38 4.11 1 .831 SA O E5:Team Meetings 38 4.08 2 .673 S O E2:Clear communication channels 38 4.05 3 .769 S AO E3:Delegating responsibilities 38 4.03 4 .716 A AO E4:Adjusting and adapting 38 4.03 5 .716 A SO E17:Problem solving 38 3.97 6 .788 O SA E9:Consultative Approach 38 3.92 7 .941 A O E8:Training 38 3.76 8 1.173 A O E7:Regular reviewing and reality checks 38 3.71 9 1.063 A O E14:Feedback processes 38 3.68 10 .809 A O E16:Dispute resolution 38 3.66 11 .994 O SA E11:Continuous Improvement process 38 3.47 12 1.133 S O E12:Incremental changes 38 3.39 13 .946 A O E1:Comprehensive communication plan 38 3.32 14 1.233 S A E6:Cultural initiation 38 3.32 15 1.093 A O E13:Resource levelling 38 3.13 16 .963 S O E10:Suggestion Box 38 1.82 17 1.205 S A

As Table 6.35 indicates, the Australians rated ‘E9: Consultative Approach’ and ‘E12:

Incremental changes’ higher and ‘E1: Comprehensive communication plan’ lower that the

other two nationality groups. The very low rating of ‘E10: Suggestion box’ particularly by

the Australians is indicative of the nature of international projects where time and resource

constraints makes this strategy rarely if ever used. The Samoans rate this variable higher

than the other two which may suggest that this strategy may have already been employed by

the host organisation. Both Samoan and Australians rate E15 (Timely reports) higher than

the Other Expatriates

The majority of the results of the overall responses pertaining to the communication

strategies employed range from 3.13 to 4.11 MR with one variable outside this range (E10:

Suggestion box – 1.82 MR). The results indicate a tendency towards sometimes and

regularly employed for all but one of the strategies.

6.4.6 Parts f, g: Critical incidents – Other important cross-cultural communication issues

Questions in this section encouraged respondents to share individual reflections regarding

unique experiences and perceptions. The critical incidents responses, arranged in table

format (Table 6.36 and Table 6.37) are presented here to highlight the respondents unique

experiences and perceptions, and to focus the next phase of this investigation on salient

issues. The statements by the respondents provide a preamble for chapter 8 that looks at

integrating, interpreting and discussing the two phases of this study. Most of the issues

raised here are investigated and explored in depth in the next phase of this study which is

covered in Chapter 7 (Phase 2: Interviews).

Tables 6.36 and 6.37 record the statements made by the respondents’, categorising them

based on their influences on the context of cross-cultural communication and project

management, whether identified as a barrier, strategy, or a combination of these.

Table 6.36 Critical Incidences – Other communication issues Item

# STATEMENTS Factor

1 Difficulty within the advisory team will significantly impact on communication and delivery of projects. Advisory Team conflict and its negative influence on outcome achievement.

Barrier and Influence

2 Communication through the use of the "public broadcasting media" has to be stressed. The public must be aware of what is happening. This is of utmost importance to avoid disputes, etc.

Strategy

3 Lack of control, commitment, "ownership" expressed by other stakeholders impacts negatively on communication and projects management systems Barrier

4 Changing objectives and expected deliverables during the course of the project impacts negatively on communication and projects systems Barrier

5 Breaking or unfulfilling of contractual obligations as a cause of communication breakdown Barrier

6 Some major stakeholders would not attend meetings - "contact us when the project is completed" attitude Barrier

7 Cross-cultural communication has rarely been a barrier. While many cross-cultural issues exist, these have always been overcome with goodwill and social occasions

Strategy and Influence

8 Greater problems occur from remote officers being unaware of challenges of local circumstances Barrier

9

Multiple direct stakeholders as a barrier to cross-cultural communication. Having to manage a complex, difficult and challenging project is made more difficult by having to manage multiple sets of needs (internal and external stakeholders). This issue has by far outweighed any communication problems


10 Social issues e.g. expats working in different environments ability to socialise with locals (at clubs, bars, restaurants, etc.). After hours will have different perspectives? After a few visits (or perhaps not!).


11 The ability of expat management staff to communicate with "local" labour force promotes harmonious relationships and produces very positive results for the project overall

Influence

12

Quite often the theoretical-practical application of communication strategy is not lacking in project management, but ignored or sacrificed for other benefits. Also other levels of management above or below can dictate or interfere in beneficial processes for stakeholders for political/social/economical and resource capability within client structures. Trained implementers can also be difficult to source due to undercutting of true fees and true value of expertise by their projects


13 Building up relationships through workshops and forums as a strategy to cross-cultural communication Strategy

14 Tendency of Samoans to switch off English language at social occasions can be frustrating Barrier

15 Lack of competent key personnel from the contractors side seems to be the most problematic in projects where local contractors are employed Barrier

16 Cross-cultural communication enhanced/delayed progress of project e.g. inappropriate use of English language where target group are Samoans with limited English

Barrier

17

Other communication strategies used include: adopting different communication styles for different situations; using the national language in critical situations; use of adviser/counterpart partnering-mentoring; selective recruitment of appropriate personnel

Strategies

Table 6.37 Critical Incidences: Missed important issues

Item

# STATEMENTS Factor

1 Donor countries should at all times give priorities to the needs, cultural requirements, coding and standards prevailing in host country Influence

2 Government departments and their employees do not understand their obligations after accepting work assignments - expatriate companies do - the mix in one project was most uncomfortable - incompatible teams

Barrier

3 The local government department failed to enforce legislation - villagers and village authorities prevailed Barrier

4 Too much local involvement in projects can lead to failure Barrier and Influence

5 The importance of cross-cultural communication should never be underestimated. It is a constant ongoing process. Influence

6 Perhaps the different backgrounds of people likely to fill out the questionnaire. These questions are probably easier for a social scientist to fathom. Probably most of your respondents will be in that category, so will be O.K.

Influence

7 Personal relationships e.g. between advisers and counterparts. Are they friends? Do they get together in non-work time? Friendship ensures good co-operative work

Influence and Strategy

8 Questionnaire is most applicable for responding for one project or for projects within one country Validity

9

I wonder if your section on personal belief could have been more searching. At present it refers to belief in the value of communication in a cross-cultural environment. I am sure that almost every respondent will "strongly agree" with just about every statement. Who could be against communication? You could however have tested some more basic attitudes and provoked a range of opinion with provocative leading statements like: Samoans have no concern for time; It is not necessary to learn any Samoan because they all speak English; Racism is no longer a barrier to effective communication; Racism is equally a problem in both cultures; The Matai system of social organisation is a barrier to communication in Samoa; It is impossible to get Samoans to hurry; Samoans are likely to give the response they think you want to hear; An outsider cannot possibly understand the culture so don't even try.

influence

10

In relation to what might follow your study, I am a little concern that we might conclude that the issues can be fixed easily enough through more consultants and more workshops and by requirements for each project to have a documented communications plan. In my view attitudes are not so easily or quickly changed. The real need is to ensure that papalagi with racist attitudes are not recruited in the first place


11

I think that you have tactfully avoided explicit reference to the biggest barrier to real cross-cultural communication. This is the ugly word: racism. Taking only the case of communications between Samoans and papalagi (whites): There used to be among whites a universal and inexcusable assumption that their race is innately superior. I think, Samoans have come to expect/suspect that these attitudes remain in each papalagi they meet and, until contrary is demonstrated, treat them with great caution. Those that they judge to be racist they treat with a distant politeness but there will never be real communication. Those that demonstrate that they have respect for Samoans as equal human beings have a chance of establishing a useful dialogue. In other words the barriers to communication are less to do with cultural differences than with entrenched personal attitudes

Barriers and Influence

The critical incidences reported how cross-cultural communication is influenced by a

number of factors. Also highlighted are barriers to effective communication and strategies

employed. The respondents’ personal reflections on their experiences provided evidence to

support the key issue of this thesis that cultural difference affects communication in


6.5 Summary

The questionnaire opinion survey of intercultural communication in Samoa found

beliefs to be generally in agreement with the literature. Virtually all those taking part in the

survey agree that communication is vital; their experiences are positive for all the questions

asked; with the exception of ‘the suggestion box’ all the popular communication strategies

are in frequent use; the impact of communication barriers is generally low and all barriers

are being overcome quite well. Some marked differences were found between the different

groups involved which supports the central issue of this thesis that cultural difference

affects communication and impacts on international project management systems. All have

been reported here, and have been noted for further investigation in the next phase of this

study. As far as beliefs are concerned, the Samoans seem to be more favourable to meetings

and planning for improved communication, with Australians using a more responsive

approach and the Other Expatriates being less flexible. In terms of their experiences, the

Samoans claimed to have suffered from a rigid adherence to cultural practice, with less

flexible, clear and ongoing communication but more planning for communication. The

Other Expatriates, on the other hand, recorded awareness of national culture and clear,

flexible, communications among their highest achievements (Australians had clear and

flexible communications high on their list too). The Samoans also scored many of the

barriers to communication higher than the other groups.

The results on personal beliefs ranged from 4.95 and 3.47 on a five point scale indicating a

general agreement, offering supporting evidence for the importance of communication in

international projects. The top five ranked statements on personal beliefs are A1-

Communication is vital, A-11 Project managers must have excellent communication skills,

A4-Culturally sensitive and appropriate communication is necessary, A5-Two way

communication must be encouraged, and A14-Understanding and appreciating the different

cultures involved in a project is vital. These provided further evidence on the importance of

appropriate communication in dealing with cultural differences. The questionnaire results

highlighted the gap between personal beliefs and what is actually practiced which is in

congruence with the literature and supports the key issue addressed in this thesis that

cultural differences affect the communication process in international projects in Samoa.

The realisation of barriers to communication and the application of appropriate strategies to

deal with them have been noted from the results as crucial to communication management

in international projects.

The critical incidences raised a number of issues extending the quantitative data which

include the values and attitudes of project managers and various stakeholders, the extent of

involvement of locals, prevailing standards and codes, hard and soft skills of practitioners,

selection and recruitment of personnel, political influence, cultural beliefs, modes of

communication, and communication barriers and strategies. These issues and factors

influence the communication process and impacts on international project management.

These factors helped shape the interview phase of this study covered in chapter 7.

Phase Two Data Analysis – Interviews

7.1 Introduction

This chapter aims to build on the introduction to the analysis of qualitative data provided in

sub-section 1.4.3 of chapter 1, and adds to sub-section 5.5.2 of chapter 5 that describes in

detail the procedures taken to collect and analyse data in phase 2 (interviews) of this

sequential explanatory mixed methods strategy. The subsequent findings emanating from

the qualitative data analysis process are presented here in relevance to the research

questions. Phase 1 (questionnaire) data gained a broad spectrum of perspectives from a

variety of industries in Samoa on cross-cultural communication and related international

project management issues. Phase 2 involved conducting interviews that focused on the

construction industry in Samoa with the aim of identifying further perspectives and issues in

cross-cultural communication. The data for the two phases of this study are integrated in

chapter 8.

The analysis of interview data involved the use of the NUD*IST 6 program to facilitate the

indexing and text searching within documents. The constant comparative method of

analysis was used in the coding process as well as employing grounded theory tactics. In

addition, a content analysis was also carried out. These procedures of the analysis process

are explained in detail in sub-section 5.5.2 of chapter 5 as well as in Appendix C. The focus

in this chapter is the findings of the analysis process, hence the Chapter Outline to best

capture the aim and objectives of this study as well as addressing the research questions is

as follows: Section 7.2 Profile of Interviewees and Related Details: illustrate the profiles

(demographic data) of the sample group. Section 7.3 Findings: presents the findings for this

phase of the study. Section 7.4 Summary: provides concluding remarks drawn from the data

analysis process and the findings.

7.2 Profile of Interviewees and Related Details

The descriptive data about the interviewees are presented here to focus the analysis on

the context of the sample group characteristics and its impact on the research and findings.

Research projects take place in numerous contexts and despite the best intentions and

vigorous precautions it seems inevitable that they do have an impact on the works and

results (Fellows and Liu, 2003).

Profession

Table 7.1 shows that most of the interviewees were engineers (70 percent), with Carpenters,

Architects, Planners, Quantity Surveyor, Geologist, Administration Manager, and Specialist

comprising 6 percent, 6 percent, 6 percent, 3 percent, 3 percent, 3 percent, and 3 percent

respectively. This composition of practitioners is indicative of professionals involved in

construction infrastructure projects in Samoa and is in line with areas of strategic

development outlined in Samoa’s Statement of Economic Strategies 1996-1998, and 2000-

2002

Table 7.1 Sample Distribution by Profession

Profession Number of Interviewees

Engineers 22 Carpenters 2 Architects 2 Planners 2 Quantity Surveyor 1 Geologist 1 Administration Manager 1 Specialist 1

TOTAL 32

Nationality

The sample group comprised of 34 percent Samoan, 22 percent Australian, 22 percent New

Zealander, 13 percent Japanese, and 9 percent Other Expatriates (consisting of 1-American,

1-Zimbabwean, and 1-British) are shown in Table 7.2. This is reflective of the proportion of

different expatriates and locals involved in construction projects that are part of the overall

strategic developmental program in Samoa.

Table 7.2 Sample Distribution by Nationality

Nationality Number of Interviewees

Samoan 11 Australian 7 New Zealander 7 Japanese 4 Other Expatriate 3

TOTAL 32

Years of cross-cultural experience

The sample group consists of 25 percent that have between 0 and 5 years of cross-cultural

experience, 22 percent with 6 to 10 years, 34 percent with 11 to 15 years, 15 percent with 16

to 20 years, and 9 percent with 21 years and over as illustrated in Table 7.3. This illustrates

a diverse range of experiences amongst the practitioners involved in projects in Samoa.

Table 7.3 Sample Distribution by Years of Cross-cultural Experience

Years of Cross-cultural Experience Number of Interviewees

0 – 5 8 6 – 10 7

11 – 15 11 16 – 20 5

> 21 3 TOTAL 32

Type of experience

A diverse range of experiences among the sample group was recorded with practitioners

having had experiences as contractors, consultants, project managers, construction

supervisors, and having performed functional roles for both private and public

organisations. This is indicative of construction industry practitioners in management,

advisory and supervisory roles in Samoa where the government and donor agencies stipulate

certain criteria for personnel selection on these kinds of projects.

Table 7.4 presents an integrated profile of the interviewees, relating their nationalities with

years of cross-cultural experiences, professions, and types of experiences.

Table 7.4 Sample Distributions by:

Nationality/Years of Cross-cultural Experiences/Profession/Types of experiences

Years of Cross-

cultural Experience Profession Types of Experiences

Nat

iona

lity

0-5

6-10

11-1

5

16-2

0

>20

Eng

inee

r

Car

pent

er

Arc

hite

ct

Pla

nner

Qua

ntity

Sur

veyo

r

Geo

logi

st

Adm

in. M

anag

er

Spec

ialis

t

Pro

ject

Man

ager

Con

sulta

nt

Con

tract

or

Con

str.

Supe

rvis

or

P.M

/Con

sult/

Con

tr.

Australia 3 1 2 1 4 1 1 1 1 2 1 3

Samoa 2 4 4 1 8 1 2 3 1 3 4

NZ 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 1 1 6

Japan 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 1

O. Expat 2 1 3 3

TOTAL 7 7 13 2 3 22 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 17

7.3 Findings and research questions addressed

The findings from the analysis of phase 2 interview data are framed around the identified

core and key categories that satisfy the aims and objectives of this study while synthesising

the need to address the research questions. These categories are further expanded to include

sub-categories. The overall interpretation and discussion of these findings is covered in the

next chapter (Chapter 8 Interpretation and Discussion Phase), where the data of the two

phases (Phase 1 Quantitative – Chapter 6, and Phase 2 Qualitative – Chapter 7) of this study

is integrated. Significant findings from the analysis of the qualitative data are highlighted

briefly in this section with the aid of the summary of results from the content analysis, with

other findings presented in Appendix C. The summary of the content analysis for the core

and key categories ranks the sub-categories under each of the categories based on their

frequency of occurrence within the documents and the amount of information divested.

Additionally, under each sub-category interviewees are ranked based on the same criteria.

The evidence collected from the practitioners interviewed allowed for theoretically driven

factors to be practically refined.

7.3.1 Core Result: Impact of cross-cultural communication on project management

systems

The Core Results (CR1.0 - CR5.0) addresses research question 5 in particular, although it is

the culmination of research questions 1 to 4 for which the literature review established a

theoretical understanding and key categories 1 to 4 provided evidence from what occurs in

practice. The core results focuses on the influences of cross-cultural communication on

management systems, presented here as sub-categories and summarised with brief

descriptions in Appendix C, although these are very much integrated and intertwined. This

has profound implications on the successful delivery of projects and raises issues that need

to be considered in the communication evaluation process. Accordingly, data analysis for

the core category has five of the management systems as sub-categories, namely: planning

(CR1.0), controlling (CR2.0), quality (CR3.0), reporting (CR4.0), and risk (CR5.0). The

summary of the content analysis for the Core Category is presented in Table 7.5a, with

Table 7.5b providing the rankings and distributions for the proportions in percentages of

information divested as per nationality group under each sub-category.

Table 7.5a Core Result: Impact of communication on management systems –

Summary of Content Analysis

% of responses Rank Management

system Frequency Total Cumulative total Positive

Impact Negative Impact

1 CR5.0 Risk 23 1958 1958 30.0 70.0 2 CR1.0 Planning 22 1225 3183 28.6 71.4 3 CR3.0 Quality 16 1016 4199 28.6 71.4 4 CR2.0 Controlling 13 863 5061 7.7 92.3 5 CR4.0 Reporting 6 445 5507 33.3 66.7

The results from Table 7.5a show that the impact of cross-cultural communication on the

management of risk was highest with a frequency of 23 and the total amount of information

is 1958 and reporting with the lowest consisting of frequency at 6 and total information of

445. The results also indicate that most of the impacts were negative with a range of 66.7%

for reporting to 92.3% for controlling, whilst of positive impact range between 7.7% for

controlling to 33.3% for reporting.

Table 7.5b Core Result: Impact of communication on management systems –

Distributions as per nationality group

Ranking of nationalities as percent of total amount of information divested Management Systems Total

1 % 2 % 3 % 4 % 5 % Risk 1958 Aus 36.1 NZ 29.3 Sam 20.5 Jap 10.0 O.Ex 4.1 Planning 1225 Sam 49.7 Jap 20.0 Aus 16.3 NZ 14.0 Quality 1016 Sam 36.3 Aus 23.3 Jap 19.2 NZ 16.7 Controlling 863 NZ 39.2 Jap 26.2 Sam 23.3 Aus 11.3 Reporting 445 Jap 43.8 NZ 27.2 O.Ex 15.3 Sam 13.7

Table 7.5b shows the Australians providing the most information (36.1%) for risk, with

Other Expatriates having the least (4.1%). Samoans provided the most for planning and

quality with 49.7% and 36.3% respectively while New Zealanders provided the second least

with 14.0% and 16.7%, and Other Expatriates had none for both. The New Zealanders

provide the most for controlling with 39.2% whilst Australians had the second least with

11.3% and Other Expatriates with none. The Japanese provide the highest for reporting with

43.8% while Samoans had the second least with 13.7%, and Australians with none.

The following responses are typical of comments made within each sub-category. The top

four ranked interviewees resulting from the content analysis are presented here to provide

an indication of emphasis placed by each practitioner on each sub-category.

CR1.0 Planning

Grouped under this sub-category are comments regarding the impact of communication on

systems in place to plan and co-ordinate activities and to allocate resources to achieve

project goals and objectives. Most of the practitioners comments (71.4 percent) highlight

negative aspects of cross-cultural communication and their impact on planning and

coordinating project activities as indicated below:

“Continuous problems resulting from lack of effective communication between

stakeholders and project managers are common … impact on materials, finances,

human resources and project delivery” (int1)

“Material supply and delivery by local companies can be very frustrating as it often

is not when they say they will have them delivered but a few hours or even days

before you receive them and it affects planning and progress of works which leads to

delays and cost overruns … one needs to factor these into project planning” (int20)

Contrary to these views, other responses (28.6 percent) indicated positive aspects of cross-

cultural communication on projects:

“There has been a big improvement in local business practices since we first

started. The lines of communication have been more open and links with government

departments and local businesses have been established. This established network

has helped communication and speed things up, and facilitates action on a lot of the

local requirements that we have to go through” (int8)

“Working in three organisations, two public and one private, have helped in

understanding the systems in place as well as establishing contacts and creating a

network of colleagues and friends. This does help communication, and in speeding

up actions and reducing the process or response time” (int5)

Table 7.6 presents the results for the top four ranked interviewees from the content analysis

for this sub-category, with Interviewee #22 of Japanese nationality recording 15.9%,

followed by two Samoans (Interviewees #1 and #8) with 10.6% and 9.9% respectively. The

fourth ranked is response from interviewee #20, a New Zealander recording 7.9% of the

total information. The results show that 44.3% of the total information is shared between the

top four ranked interviewees.

Table 7.6 Top four ranked interviewees for the impact of communication on planning

CR2.0 Controlling

Emanating from this sub-category are comments made regarding the impact of

communication on systems in place to control the co-ordination of project activities, time,

quality, cost and cash flow. A full list of subsidiaries that emanated from this sub-category

is provided in Appendix C. Most of the comments (92.3 percent) have indicated negative or

Rank Interviewee # Nationality Yrs of X-cultural experience Frequency TOTAL Percent

1 22 Japanese 2 2 195 15.9 2 1 Samoan 12 2 130 10.6 3 8 Samoan 7 2 121 9.9 4 20 NZ 4 2 97 7.9

challenging aspects of ineffective communication on controlling project activities and

outcomes:

“Sometimes, the matais (village council of chiefs) understand and approve what has

to be done, but this is not conveyed to family members and the general population

resulting in disputes which affect project systems involving schedules, costs, and

time particularly where land issues are involved” (int6)

“It is very difficult for us to get approval for imported materials and supplies. Time

consuming procedures in place delay our project and are impacting on our finances

and project schedules” (int14)

“The biggest thing or pressure that is cultural and economical is having our

workers asking for pay advances and loans. We have said no from day one for it

creates administrative nightmare and affects many aspects of the project. It becomes

an administrative policy … Our pay rate is at the higher end of the bracket.

Sometimes we feel that we help them by saying no and not giving them advances”

(int18)

Table 7.7 presents the rankings for the top four ranked interviewees with interviewee #22 of

Japanese nationality recording 22.6%. Two New Zealanders, #18 and #25 recording 14.3%

and 14.2% respectively. The fourth ranked interviewee was #30, an Australian with 11.4%.

The results show that 62.5% of the total information is shared between the top four

interviewees.

Table 7.7 Top four ranked interviewees for the impact of communication on controlling

CR3.0 Quality

Grouped under this sub-category are comments regarding the impact of communication on

systems in place to ensure the project is delivered to certain standards and criteria. A few


1 22 Japanese 2 2 195 22.6 2 18 NZ 12 1 123 14.3 3 25 NZ 15 1 121 14.2 4 30 Australian 4 2 98 11.4

comments (28.6 percent) reflected on the positive impact of cross-cultural communication

on quality:

“Using local workforce does benefit them personally and improves the

communication process. They also gain transfer of knowledge and skills where they

are trained by very skilful and experienced contractors from overseas. This can then

be translated to the utilities when the project is finished” (int1)

“Consultants who are open to feedback will ensure honest and freely expressed

perspectives by locals. Effective communication builds trust and ensures quality

outcomes …” (int3)

Most (71.4 percent) however, highlighted the negative impact of ineffective communication

on quality with typical comments including:

“Samoan workers are generally very shy and respectful of authority. If something

they feel is incorrect, they won’t say it and therefore won’t be done or corrected

resulting in inferior product. And if found out and has to be done, this result in lost

time and money, create mistrust and so on …” (int30)

Table 7.8 presents the rankings for the top four interviewees, with #22 of Japanese

nationality recording 19.2%. #30 of Australian nationality follows with 19.0% while third is

#7 of Samoan nationality with 15.2%. An Australian #25 recorded 12.0%. The results show

that 65.4% of the total information was shared between the top four interviewees.

Table 7.8 Top four ranked interviewees for the impact of communication on quality

CR4.0 Reporting

Emanating from this sub-category were comments regarding the impact of communication

on systems in place to report on issues, progress and expected outcomes of the project. Most


1 22 Japanese 2 1 195 19.2 2 30 Australian 4 3 193 19.0 3 7 Samoan 6 2 154 15.2 4 25 Australian 15 1 121 12.0

comments (66.7 percent) highlighted the negative impact of cross-cultural communication

on reporting:

“I believe there is a strong hierarchical structure in existence in Samoa. Samoan

social structure (matai system) and also in government departments have top-down

structures in place. In some projects, this does not work and causes a big problem if

the top person holds on to critical, vital information that is not conveyed down to the

operational level. This can also restrict open exchanges as one cannot be too

forward or direct. One has to be humble and come from below through ones

immediate supervisor, showing respect rather than take a top-down approach”

(int7)

“The impact of cross-cultural issues on construction management systems is the

fact that some things take a little while to overcome, while other things take a long

time if ever to overcome. For example, in a situation where a matai of high status

works as a leading hand and a young qualified Samoan supervises the works. In

giving instructions for the matai to follow, the young Samoan need to be respectful

in his approach and at the same time the matai needs to realise that work is work

and no special privileges for matai. Another example is when giving instructions for

things to be done and found after a while that they had done something that is totally

different from what you told them to do. And when you questioned them the replies

would range from – oh, I thought this was what you wanted; oh, I wasn’t quite sure

what you wanted; or, some one else said this is what you wanted. All this and no

questions were asked at the time you gave the instructions. They even said yes when

you asked whether they understood your instructions” (int30)

Table 7.9 Top four ranked interviewees for the impact of communication on reporting

Table 7.9 presents the top four rankings with interviewee #22 of Japanese nationality

recording 43.8% of total information, interviewee #25, a New Zealander with 27.2%, #13 of

Samoan nationality with 13.7%, and #10 of Other Expatriates with 8.1%. The results also


1 22 Japanese 2 2 195 43.8 2 25 New Zealander 15 1 121 27.2 3 13 Samoan 15 1 61 13.7 4 10 Other Expatriate 26 1 36 8.1

show that the top four ranked interviewees make up 92.8% of the total which suggest that

issues relating to reporting were not significant to the majority of practitioners.

CR5.0 Risk

Grouped under this sub-category were comments regarding the impact of communication on

systems in place to manage project associated risks to support decision making in uncertain

circumstances. Most of the comments (70.0 percent) highlighted the negative impact of

cross-cultural communication on managing risks:

“Fa’asamoa (the aspect of fa’alavelave) has put a lot of pressure on people

sometimes resulting in people not turning up to work. Sometime they steal because

their pay is not enough and at times borrow or take some things without permission.

A very small population are working and paying taxes and the rest rely on them and

on remittances from relatives overseas. So the pressure on the individual working is

great which has direct implication on their performance and behaviour at work.

This has a direct impact on project systems” (int6)

“Expats and local managers get frustrated with village councils who control some of

the materials as their demands and expectations changed as the projects progressed.

And sometimes unless those demands are met, they will not allow work to proceed”

(int11)

“Communicating the importance of contract administration and independent work

supervision to locals has been a problem particularly where traditionally, the

builder and community have not been subjected to any such measures. Many

projects have had cost overruns and major delays because of this” (int17)

“Politicians are the masters of the game particularly if you work in the public sector

and it is difficult to manage that as priorities can sometimes be skewed to satisfy

political agendas” (int6)

Few (30.0 percent) have experienced the positive impact of cross-cultural communication

on managing project risks:

“As officials, we can still ensure that the way projects are carried out can still be

influenced by the way we perceive how it should be carried out from a professional

(engineering, architectural, planners and environmental) perspective. Most of the

time, politicians listen to our input on how projects can be delivered through cost

saving alternatives and short and long-term benefits” (int13)

Table 7.10 shows the top four ranked interviewees with #30 of Australian nationality

recording 32.8%, followed by #27 and #25, two New Zealanders with 13.4% and 11.4%

respectively. A Japanese #22 recorded 10.0%. The results show that the top four

interviewees provided 67.6% of the total information. The top four ranked interviewees

provided 67.6% of the information.

Table 7.10 Top four ranked interviewees for the impact of communication on managing risks

7.3.2 Key Result 1: Factors influencing the context of cross-cultural communication

Key Result 1 (KR1.1 – KR1.13) addresses research questions 1 to 5. The context in which

cross-cultural communication is practised is influenced by a number of factors presented

here as sub-categories and briefly defined and summarised in Appendix C. This context has

profound implications on the communication process and raises many issues integral to

successful project management that only an effective cross-cultural communication process

with appropriate strategies can achieve.

Table 7.11a present the summary of the content analysis for key result 1 (factors influencing

the context of cross-cultural communication), ranking them based on their frequency of

occurrence and total amount of information divested. KR1.10 is ranked number one with a

frequency of 64 and total amount of information divested equals 2984, followed by KR1.1

at second place with a frequency of 47 and total information of 2354. The lowest ranked

factor with the least frequency (2) and least amount of information (67) is KR1.8.


1 30 Australian 4 6 642 32.8 2 27 New Zealander 10 3 262 13.4 3 25 New Zealander 15 2 223 11.4 4 22 Japanese 2 1 195 10.0

Table 7.11a Key Result 1: Factors influencing communication – summary of content analysis

Rank Factors influencing the context of communication Freq Total Cumulative total

1 KR1.10 Practitioners values, attitudes, beliefs, expectations and aspirations 64 2984 2984

2 KR1.1 Political 47 2354 5338 3 KR1.2 Cultural 27 1615 6953

4 KR1.5 Local industry and business practices, standards and regulations 33 1499 8452

5 KR1.11 Practitioners hard and soft skills 22 985 9437 6 KR1.7 Nature and type of project 21 928 10365 7 KR1.4 Economical 8 671 11036

8 KR1.6 Operational and strategic focus of donor, host, and management organisations 14 538 11574

9 KR1.3 Social 7 525 12099 10 KR1.12 Physical environment characteristics 9 350 12449 11 KR1.13 Technology 8 307 12756 12 KR1.9 Client requirements 5 213 12969 13 KR1.8 Legal 4 188 13157

Table 7.11b Key Result 1: Factors influencing communication – distribution as per nationality group

Ranking of nationalities by percent of total amount of information divested Ranked factors Total

1 % 2 % 3 % 4 % 5 % 1 2984 NZ 34.3 Aus 26.5 Sam 21.8 Jap 17.4 2 2354 Sam 55.7 O.Ex 15.8 Jap 10.5 Aus 10.4 NZ 7.6 3 1615 Sam 36.6 Aus 31.2 NZ 18.9 Jap 12.1 O.Ex 1.2 4 1499 Sam 29.0 Aus 27.4 NZ 20.3 O.Ex 18.9 Jap 4.4 5 985 Sam 39.1 NZ 23.3 Aus 19.4 Jap 9.1 6 928 NZ 36.4 Sam 36.0 Aus 13.5 Jap 8.6 O.Ex 5.5 7 671 NZ 35.9 Sam 27.1 Aus 26.4 O.Ex 10.6 8 538 Sam 27.1 Aus 25.7 O.Ex 25.3 NZ 13.0 Jap 8.9 9 525 Aus 42.9 Sam 36.2 NZ 11.2 O.Ex 9.7 10 350 Sam 39.4 Aus 24.9 Jap 15.1 NZ 12.0 O.Ex 8.6 11 307 NZ 35.8 O.Ex 33.2 Sam 20.2 Aus 10.8 12 213 Sam 58.2 O.Ex 23.9 NZ 17.8 13 188 Sam 48.9 Aus 34.1 NZ 17.0

Table 7.11b present the rankings for the different nationalities based on the same criteria

mentioned above. The findings indicate that for KR1.10, New Zealanders have the highest

with 34.2%, second is Australians with 26.5%, third is Samoans with 21.8%, and fourth is

Japanese with 17.4. Other Expatriates did not register any comments in this sub-category.

The lowest ranked sub-category is KR1.8 with the Samoans providing the most with 48.9%

followed by Australians with 34.1% and New Zealanders with 17.0% at third place while

the others did not register any comments.

The following responses are typical of comments made within the top eight ranked sub-

categories with the rest provided in the Appendix C. The top four ranked interviewees

resulting from the content analysis are presented to provide an indication of emphasis

placed by each practitioner on each sub-category.

Ranked #1

KR1.10 Practitioners values, attitudes, beliefs, expectations and aspirations

Coded under this sub-category are comments highlighting the influences of practitioners’

perceptual mindsets and their performance on projects. Typical comments include the

following:

“I believe that project managers need to build relationships with local workers in an

informal setting, say for example at restaurants, at bars. In this way, project outcomes

and ownership of projects are reinforced” (int2)

“Communication can be very effective if you treat others as you would like to be

treated. Problems occur when you try to exert too much of your own views without

consideration for the other peoples feelings and ideas” (int11)

“Transfer of technology and knowledge is important in any project especially in small

countries like Samoa. To my knowledge, we can see the merits of the transfer of

knowledge and technology to the local professionals” (int12)

“In dealings with employees, one needs to have some understanding of the culture and

of the systems in place (society and business). This could be dealt with through

training and discussions with people who have worked in Samoa and through on-job

experience, although it is better to have some understanding of these issues before

coming to Samoa so that there will be minimal culture shock and stress” (int22)

Table 7.12 present the rankings for the top ranked comments made under this sub-category

(KR1.10) with #22, a Japanese recording 8.8%, a Samoan (#23) and an Australian (#29)

with 8.1% each, another Samoan (#8) recording 6.4%, and a Japanese and an Australian

ranked equally with 5.8%. The top four ranked interviewees provided 43.0% of total

information.

Table 7.12 Top four ranked interviewees for KR1.10

Ranked #2

KR1.1 Political

Coded under this sub-category are comments regarding the influences of national and local

government policies and the policies of managers, staff and trade unions. Some of the

typical comments highlight the influences of both international and national politics external

to project as well as internal project politics include:

“China and Japan bring their aid in and do the work themselves so we deal with

them at a contractor level. All the negotiations are dealt with at a government to

government level before contractors become involved” (int3)

“In managing staff, political and cultural influences come into play a lot and play a

big part in decision making. Lobbying by politicians for family members, friends, or

constituents to take up vacancies or to reinstate those who have been dismissed can

be hard to manage. Even though the person may not be suitable for the job or have

not performed to expectations, one is still expected to be compassionate …” (int6)

“Political influence is very evident. If ministers’ names are dropped or mentioned,

then no further verification is sought, reflecting ultimate respect for matai,

ministerial heads. It strengthens the case of those who network with top level people

– mates doing things for mates” (int20)

Table 7.13 Top four ranked interviewees for political influences

Table 7.13 present the rankings of the top ranked interviewees with #6 of Samoan

nationality recording 16.5%, #13 a Samoan recording 10.7%, #10 of Other Expatriates with


1 22 Japanese 2 2 262 8.8 2 23 New Zealander 21 4 242 8.1 29 Australian 34 5 242 8.1

3 8 Samoan 4 3 192 6.4 4 28 Japanese 17 4 174 5.8 30 Australian 4 3 174 5.8


1 6 Samoan 14 5 388 16.5 2 13 Samoan 15 3 253 10.7 3 10 Other Expatriate 26 5 213 9.0 4 11 Samoan 10 2 149 6.3

9.0%, and fourthly #11, a Samoan with 6.3%. The results show that the top four ranked

interviewees provided 42.5% of total information.

Ranked #3

KR1.2 Cultural

Grouped under this sub-category are comments regarding the influences of home and host

cultures on projects and the practitioners involved. Some typical comments including:

“The construction industry in Samoa is not very adversarial and not much disputes.

This probably is attributed to cultural influence through the process of consultation or

soalaupule” (int6)

“Our local workers are quite shy. I have to approach them and ask them or initiate a

conversation with them and a response may be a yes and a smile or a very precise and

short response. I guess they have a respect for authority which a cultural thing”

(int26)

“One of the things we find here is that our really good workers will try not to stand

out too much from the others. We try to encourage individual pursuit of excellence but

we get the feeling that they hold back which is a cultural thing” (int26)

“Fa’alavelave plays a part on the workers persona which impacts on the project

finances and schedules. Some people would ask for pay advances and leave to attend a

fa’alavelave quite regularly” (int30)

Table 7.14 Top four ranked interviewees for cultural influences

Table 7.14 shows the rankings for the interviewees’ based on the frequency and amount of

information for KR1.2. Interviewee #30 of Australian nationality recording 14.1%, followed

by #6, a Samoan with 13.7%, #17, a Japanese recorded 12.1%, while #8, a Samoan was

ranked fourth at 11.1%. The top four ranked interviewees provided 51.0% of total

information.


1 30 Australian 4 4 228 14.1 2 6 Samoan 14 2 221 13.7 3 22 Japanese 2 1 195 12.1 4 8 Samoan 4 2 179 11.1

Ranked #4

KR1.5 Local industry and business practices, regulations and standards

Coded under this sub-category are comments regarding the influences of the prevailing local

industry and business practices, legislations and standards on the projects the practitioners

were involved in. Comments emerging from the data set under this sub-category include:

“Health and safety issues on projects as well as environmental impact programs and

training need to be actioned here in Samoa. Most of the workers are in bare feet or

thongs, no gloves and no safety goggles. Some of the environmental issues are not

addressed and adhered to … Construction industry at most is dangerous and

regulations and rules need to be in place”

“We have been advertising and actively looking to recruit more Samoan staff. We try

not to rely on bringing in people for short term or long-term projects. The higher the

percentage of Samoans in the company will help in terms of development” (int16

“From an economical and professional perspective, there is little documentation and

written evidence compared to NZ. Projects can be started with minimum legal work.

Verbal assurance comes before written confirmation in island time” (int20)

Table 7.15 Top four ranked interviewees for local industry and business practices


information for KR1.5. The top four ranked results ranged from 12.9% (#25, a New

Zealander) to 7.3% (#9, a Samoan). Two Australians were ranked 2nd and 3rd respectively

recording 8.9% (#30) and 8.1% (#9). The top four ranked interviewees provided 37.2% of

total information.


1 25 New Zealander 15 2 194 12.9 2 21 Australian 4 3 134 8.9 3 30 Australian 4 3 122 8.1 4 9 Samoan 13 3 110 7.3

Ranked #5

KR1.11 Practitioners hard and soft skills

Coded under this sub-category are comments regarding the influences of technical and

organisational skills (inter and intrapersonal) of practitioners on projects. Typical comments

include the following:

“As officials, we can still ensure that the way projects are carried out can still be

influenced by the way we perceive how it should be carried out from a professional

(engineering, architectural, planners and environmental) perspective. Most of the

time, politicians listen to our input on how projects can be delivered through cost

saving alternatives and short and long-term benefits” (int13)

“Role has been to communicate mainly with professional people so have not really

experienced the influence or impact of local culture in dealings. In dealing with

professional people, communication is free flowing and all issues are dealt with

openly in meetings or discussions over phone, fax or email. When dealing with other

Managers (professionals) communication was fairly straight forward as we both

understand technical issues” (int25)

“When I first came in 1991 as a Construction Supervisor, I found it quite difficult to

supervise 30–40 people with little education and technical know how. When I returned

in 1999, I definitely had a better understanding of the local environment and was

therefore confident with my role” (int27)

Table 7.16 Top four ranked interviewees for practitioners hard and soft skills influences

Table 7.16 presents the rankings for the top four ranked places based on the amount of

comments made under this sub-category (KR1.11). The results range from #7, a Samoan

recording 13.5% at the top, to a New Zealander (#25) at fourth place with 6.6%. A Samoan

(#13) recorded 9.4% while Other Expatriate (#31) recorded 9.1%. The top four ranked

interviewees provided 38.6% of total information.


1 7 Samoan 6 3 133 13.5 2 13 Samoan 15 2 93 9.4 3 31 Other Expatriate 10 2 90 9.1 4 25 New Zealander 15 1 65 6.6

Ranked #6

KR1.7 Nature and type of project

Coded under this sub-category are comments regarding the influences of time, cost, quality,

size and type of project as well as the extent of involvement of different stakeholders as

each project has its own unique way of doing things creating a specific project culture on

the projects. Comments emanating from this sub-category include the following:

“Time frames can be a problem. Govt needs to ensure that all aspects of projects are

covered from planning to construction to post-construction. Client–consultant

communication is very important. Capacity building as a sub-component is vital to

success of projects” (int3)

“Most overseas contractors work in partnership with local counterparts. There have

been difficulties in working in a multinational arena and ineffective communication

has been at the forefront of these” (int9)

“Because we are here on a project (temporary), we don’t put too much effort into

training and increasing skills base. We also question how much loyalty we get and

expect from workers because of the duration of the projects. So projects are a small

part of the equation in increasing the skills base in Samoa. The other parts are

formalised training at polytechs and other institutions and also short and long term

experience (attachments) in projects overseas” (int18)

Table 7.17 Top four ranked interviewees for nature and type of project influences


information for KR1.6. Results range from 17.5% recorded by interviewee #17, a Samoan at

the top, followed by #18, a New Zealander with 16.4%. Another New Zealander (#25)

recorded 11.1%, while fourth ranked was #22, a Japanese practitioner with 8.6%. The top

four ranked interviewees provided 53.6% of total information.


1 17 Samoan 19 2 162 17.5 2 18 New Zealander 12 3 152 16.4 3 25 New Zealander 15 2 103 11.1 4 22 Japanese 2 2 80 8.6

Ranked #7

KR1.4 Economical

Coded to this sub-category are comments relating to the influences of macroeconomic

issues (inflation and interest rates) and microeconomic performance of the host/home and

project organisation on the project. Typical comments emanating from this sub-category

include the following:

“There needs to be special considerations when recruiting locals to give them more

incentives. The salary difference between expats and locals is enormous. Minimum

wage rate set by the government for labourers is very low and this creates negative

feelings by locals towards contractors. The attitude that one should work according to

one’s pay is borne out of this feeling of dissatisfaction” (int8)

“There are two worlds in Samoa. On one hand there is the village with its traditional

cultural structure that is formalised and is alive and thriving. The Apia situation

model is similar to any other metropolitan overseas country. The economy of doing

business demands accountability procedures, insurance requirements and these are

very much ‘palagi’ issues, on par with other companies throughout the world.

Different to village setting in that it is more flexible than village structures” (int10)

Table 7.18 Top four ranked interviewees for economical influences


information for KR1.4. Interviewee #30 of Australian nationality recorded 26.4%, followed

by #25, a New Zealander with 18.0%. A Samoan (#17) recorded 17.9%, while #10, of Other

Expatriates recorded 10.6%. The top four ranked interviewees provided 72.9% of total

information.


1 30 Australian 4 2 177 26.4 2 25 New Zealander 15 1 121 18.0 3 17 Samoan 19 1 120 17.9 4 10 Other Expatriate 26 1 71 10.6

Ranked #8

KR1.6 Operational and strategic focus of home/host/donor/management organisation

Coded to this sub-category are comments regarding the influences of the underlying focus,

commitment and support by the home, host, donor and management organisations on

projects. Emerging from this sub-category are typical comments including:

“Donor agencies will tend to operate at government level. We are more likely to be

dealing with representatives at different levels and their experience can be brought in

to assist local projects” (int16)

“At the operational level we do not deal directly with donor agencies although most of

the procedures and standards followed on donor funded projects would be influenced

by them. Again the marrying of procedures and standards that are overseas based

with the local conditions can be a major challenge” (int17)

“As we are a large company, we are employing TAFE graduates and school leavers

who have some experience and know how. Our company has increased from 40 to 90

and are looking to add another 100 staff in the very near future. We are looking at

building a skills base here by bringing in expats who have worked in other islands to

train and supervise the locals” (int26)

Table 7.19 show the rankings for the interviewees’ based on the frequency and amount of

information for KR1.6. Results for the top four ranked interviewees ranged from

Interviewee #16, of Other Expatriates 13.8% to #10, of Other Expatriates with 9.5%. #26, a

New Zealander recorded 13.0%, and an Australian (#21) recorded 12.1%. The top four

ranked interviewees provided 48.4% of total information.

Table 7.19 Top four ranked interviewees for operational and strategic focus influences


1 16 Other Expatriate 13 2 74 13.8 2 26 New Zealander 16 1 70 13.0 3 21 Australian 4 1 65 12.1 4 10 Other Expatriate 26 1 51 9.5

7.3.3 Key Result 2: Barriers to effective cross-cultural communication

Key Result 2 (KR 2.1-2.26) addresses research questions 1 to 5. The barriers to effective

cross-cultural communication as presented here (summarised and briefly defined in

Appendix C), have direct implications on achieving successful project outcomes.

Identifying factors that impinge on effective communication are integral to the management

process necessary for success in an international project environment.

Table 7.20a Key Result 2: Barriers to Effective Communication – summary of content analysis

Rank Barriers Frequency Total Cumulative total

1 KR2.22 Poor work ethics, culture and practices 57 3628 3628 2 KR2.12 Political and personal agendas 27 1676 5304 3 KR2.2 Cultural beliefs and practices 27 1411 6715 4 KR2.9 Concept of time 26 1383 8098 5 KR2.13 Poor standards, quality, and health and safety 23 1207 9305 6 KR2.7 Top-down bureaucracy and bureaucratic red tape 20 1187 10492 7 KR2.5 Lack of technical competence 24 1054 11546 8 KR2.14 Lack of resources 19 1034 12580 9 KR2.8 Lack of flexibility and sustainability 18 967 13547

10 KR2.10 Lack of trust and confidence 15 858 14405 11 KR2.3 Ethnocentrism 14 839 15244 12 KR2.15 Land acquisition issues 12 663 15907 13 KR2.4 Lack of appropriate skills and training 13 570 16477 14 KR2.1 Language 15 552 17029 15 KR2.24 Lack of support and commitment 7 355 17384 16 KR2.17 Inappropriately channelled assistance 5 285 17669 17 KR2.6 Project ownership issues 4 276 17945 18 KR2.18 Lack of proper records, systems and policies 6 254 18199 19 KR2.20 Lack of planning, coordination and integration 6 222 18421 20 KR2.26 Change in work practices and culture 3 176 18597 21 KR2.16 Public holidays 5 145 18742 22 KR2.11 Lack of incentives and low pay 2 131 18873 23 KR2.21 Lack of competition 3 126 18999 24 KR2.19 Staff turnover 2 123 19122 25 KR2.25 Colonial mindset 2 108 19230 26 KR2.23 Differences in personalities 3 100 19330

Table 7.20a presents the ranked summary of the content analysis for key result 2 (barriers to

effective cross-cultural communication) based on frequency of occurrence and amount of

information divested. The results show that KR2.22 is ranked number one with a frequency

of 57 and a total of 3628 followed by KR2.12 with a frequency of 27 and a total of 1676. At

the other end of the continuum, KR2.23 is ranked last with a frequency of 3 and a total of

100.

Table 7.20b Key Result 2: Barriers to effective communication – distribution as per nationality group

Ranking nationalities as percent of total amount of information divested Ranked barriers Total

1 2 3 4 5 1 KR2.22: 3628 Aus (36.4%) NZ (31.3%) Jap (24.1) Sam (8.2%) 2 KR2.12: 1676 Sam (63.6%) NZ (13.7) O.Ex (11.3%) Jap (8.8%) Aus (2.6%) 3 KR2.2: 1411 Sam (49.3%) Aus (26.3%) NZ (18.3%) Jap (4.8%) O.Ex (1.3%) 4 KR2.9: 1383 Sam (44.5%) O.Ex (18.7%) NZ (15.5%) Aus (14.8%) Jap (6.5%) 5 KR2.13: 1207 NZ (51.3%) Sam (20.0%) Aus (18.1%) Jap (7.0%) O.Ex (3.6%) 6 KR2.7: 1187 Sam (71.9%) Aus (17.3%) Jap (6.7%) NZ (4.1%) 7 KR2.5: 1054 NZ (29.6%) Sam (29.5%) Aus (21.3%) O.Ex (11.3%) Jap (8.3%) 8 KR2.14: 1034 NZ (42.1%) Jap (23.7%) Sam (20.3%) Aus (13.9%) 9 KR2.8: 967 Sam (51.1%) Jap (25.5%) NZ (10.9%) O.Ex (10.4%) Aus (2.1%)

10 KR2.10: 858 Sam (37.8%) Jap (22.7%) O.Ex (16.2%) NZ (13.9%) Aus (9.4%) 11 KR2.3: 839 Sam (71.1%) NZ (20.3%) O.Ex (4.9%) Aus (3.7%) 12 KR2.15: 663 NZ (35.8%) Aus (31.5%) Sam (26.5%) O.Ex (6.2%) 13 KR2.4: 570 NZ (56.7%) Aus (27.9%) Jap (15.4%) 14 KR2.1: 552 Sam (49.5%) Aus (26.5%) NZ (11.8%) O.Ex (8.8%) Jap (3.4%) 15 KR2.24: 355 Sam (49.0%) Jap (39.7%) NZ (11.3%) 16 KR2.17: 285 Sam (44.6%) Jap (43.9%) Aus (11.5%) 17 KR2.6: 276 Aus (54.3%) Sam (45.7%) 18 KR2.18: 254 Aus (72.4%) O.Ex (21.7%) NZ (5.9%) 19 KR2.20: 222 Sam (73.0%) Aus (14.0%) NZ (13.0%) 20 KR2.26: 176 Aus (55.7%) O.Ex (29.0%) Sam (15.3%) 21 KR2.16: 145 NZ (50.3%) Jap (49.7%) 22 KR2.11: 131 Sam (100%) 23 KR2.21: 126 Jap (68.3%) Aus (31.9%) 24 KR2.19: 123 Aus (79.7%) NZ (20.3%) 25 KR2.25: 108 Sam (100%) 26 KR2.23: 100 NZ (66.0%) Sam (34.0%)

Table 7.20b presents the ranked distribution of results as per nationality for key result 2.

The results show that for KR2.22, Australians recorded 36.4%, New Zealanders with

31.3%, Japanese with 24.1% and Samoans with 8.2%. For KR2.12, results ranged from

Samoans at 63.6%, New Zealanders 13.7%, Other Expatriates 11.3%, Japanese 8.8% and

Australians recording 2.6%. At the other end of the continuum, KR2.23 the lowest ranked

barrier has New Zealanders with 66.0% and Samoans with 34.0% with the others not

registering any comments.

The top eight ranked sub-categories with significant findings are presented here, with the

remaining sub-categories provided in Appendix C. The top four ranked interviewees

resulting from the content analysis are also presented to provide an indication of emphasis

placed by each practitioner on each sub-category.

Ranked #1

KR2.22 Poor work ethics, culture, and practices

Coded under this sub-category are subsidiaries highlighting the difficulty in communicating

caused by poor work ethics, culture and practices with typical comments including:

“Another thing I have found is that I have to watch the workers all the time, so that

they don’t disappear. The work ethic here is also very different; perhaps it’s

something to do with the hot weather. I can’t say whether it’s good or bad. What I do

find is that a high level of supervision is required here all the time” (int4)

“Japanese standards are very high. Sometimes, as we try to instil Japanese work

ethics on our projects, Samoan workers complain to me but I only accept reasonable

complaints and reject the rest” (int14)

“The environment in Samoa is that communication is verbal and not very well

recorded and this does present some problems particularly where recorded

information is essential such as in asset management” (int21)

“Sometimes people don’t turn up for scheduled meetings, or are late and don’t relay

any reasons for not turning up. I try to explain that attendance at meetings is vital to

meeting project objectives but it doesn’t seem to change their attitude” (int24)

Table 7.21 present the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount

of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.22) with #22, a Japanese recorded 16.1%

at the top, with an Australian (#30) 15.7% in second place, a New Zealander (#23) in third

place with 10.9%, while another Australian (#21) was ranked fourth with 10.1%. The top

four ranked interviewees provided 52.8% of total information.

Table 7.21 Barriers to effective communication: top four ranked interviewees for KR2.22


1 22 Japanese 2 6 585 16.1 2 30 Australian 4 8 569 15.7 3 23 New Zealander 21 6 395 10.9 4 21 Australian 4 9 365 10.1

Ranked 2nd

KR2.12 Political, personal agendas, and varying priorities

Grouped under this sub-category are comments relating to the difficulty in communicating

because of varying priorities caused by political and personal agendas. Some of the

comments emanating from this sub-category include:

“Here in Samoa, there are personnel who are territorial with regards to functions and

responsibilities which can be a major barrier to communication …” (int3)

“Expats and local managers get frustrated with village councils who control some of

the materials as their demands and expectations changed as the projects progressed.

And sometimes unless those demands are met, they will not allow work to proceed”

(int11)

“Sometimes advice is not received well or acted on because of varying priorities

particularly by immediate counterpart” (int14)

“I think our difficulties generally are to do with politics. A lot of communication

occurs behind the scenes, at social gatherings, behind the system. We get a lot of

instructions without going through the system. It happens fairly regularly and it

becomes a big problem” (int31)

Table 7.22 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount

of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.12). Results ranged from #6, a Samoan

recording 23.4% at the top, to another Samoan (#3) at fourth place recording 7.5%. Another

Samoan (#13) recorded 14.9% in second place, while a New Zealander (#27) is in third

place with 8.2%. The top four ranked interviewees provided 54.0% of total information.



1 6 Samoan 14 4 392 23.4 2 13 Samoan 15 3 250 14.9 3 27 New Zealander 10 2 138 8.2 4 3 Samoan 7 3 126 7.5

Ranked 3rd

KR2.2 Cultural beliefs and practices

Coded under this sub-category are subsidiaries that focused on the difficulty in

communicating because of cultural beliefs and cultural practices. Some of the comments

coded here include:

“Samoa is a very hierarchical/status oriented society. At meetings, people of authority

(matai, leaders, and managers) make comments while the rest just listen and rarely

given a chance to express views and are not expected to give any comments. This does

create problems as others may not agree or have different views to what’s being

discussed but would not say so because they feel it is not their place to do so, or it is

not appropriate, or being respectful of leaders which stems from a ‘save face’ attitude.

This appears to be peaceful on the surface and it sometimes helps reach solutions and

decisions quickly. However, these disgruntled views normally surface later in a round

about way often with negative impact” (int6)

“Samoans value the physical structure and its appearance, the tangibles, but not the

services or intangibles that go with the works which include contract administration,

financial reports and monitoring, design drawings and specifications, so trying to

communicate their importance is quite frustrating” (int25)


of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.2). #6, a Samoan recorded 19.4% at the

top, with an Australian (#30) 8.8% at second place, a Samoan (#17) recorded 8.2%, while

another Samoan (#3) was ranked fourth with 8.1%. 44.5% of total information contained in

the top four ranked interviewees.



1 6 Samoan 14 4 274 19.4 2 30 Australian 4 2 124 8.8 3 17 Samoan 19 2 116 8.2 4 8 Samoan 4 2 114 8.1

Ranked 4th

KR2.9 Concept of Time

Grouped under this sub-category are comments highlighting the difficulty in communicating

because of differing attitudes to time. Typical comments emerging include:

“Samoans do not have a strong sense or attitude towards time. They are not punctual;

they have a sense of ‘Samoan time’. This becomes problematic for projects. It is very

important for people to keep to time schedules as most projects are on a tight time

schedule” (int2)

“I can’t say that time management is a problem only for locals. Some overseas

consultants also drag their feet in responding to deadlines” (int7)

“My understanding of the concept of time is that it is a natural and universal

phenomenon. For those who have not had any technical and professional experience,

they tend to work very casually” (int12)

“I have never met any Samoan who is late for knock off time, but it is not always the

same for starting time. I have encountered some incidences where time is elastic. The

Western idea that time is linear is in contrast to Polynesian view of time as cyclical or

‘rubber time’” (int13)


of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.9). Results ranged from 13.1% (#31)

Other Expatriate, to 6.3% (#6) a Samoan at fourth place. A Samoan (#13) recorded 10.8%

in second place, while another Samoan (#17) recorded 8.7% in third place. 39% of total

information is provided by the top four ranked interviewees.



1 31 Other Expatriate 10 3 181 13.1 2 13 Samoan 15 2 151 10.9 3 17 Samoan 19 1 120 8.7 4 6 Samoan 14 1 87 6.3

Ranked 5th

KR2.13 Standards, quality issues, and health and safety

Under this category are coded comments that focused on the difficulty in communicating

because of the lack of standards, quality control and health and safety issues. Some of the

comments emanating from this sub-category include:

“Differences in standards have also been a problem. Expats come in with higher

standards. Local practices in the construction industry may be perceived by outsiders

as ‘bad practices’ as often Samoans will take ‘short-cuts’ based on local knowledge

and because of limited resources and lack of technology” (int17)

“We place a lot of emphasis on safety and we provide safety gear for workers to wear

on site and having the right tools available. Samoans have a loose attitude in that if

safety gears are there its good, and if they are not there, it doesn’t matter. Some of

them come to work without their gear so we sent them home. We have to enforce the

wearing of safety gear on site when it comes to safety. One of the problems that we

face continuously is losing tools and gear from site” (int18)

“Expats shouldn’t expect too much straight away. They arrive expecting NZ trained

labour force. If you expect NZ/Aust standards you are setting yourself up for

disappointment. It can become frustrating” (int19)



of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.13). The results ranged from #25, a New

Zealander recording 17.1% at the top, to an Australian (#4) recording 9.9% in fourth place.

Another New Zealander (#23) recorded 14.2% in second place, while a Samoan (#3)

recorded 10.6% in third place. 51.8% of total information shared by the top four ranked

interviewees.


1 25 New Zealander 15 2 207 17.1 2 23 New Zealander 21 3 172 14.2 3 3 Samoan 7 3 128 10.6 4 4 Australian 11 2 120 9.9

Ranked 6th

KR2.7 Top-down bureaucracy and bureaucratic red tape

Coded here are focused issues on the difficulty in communicating because of centralised

power and decision making by the boss/manager/chief, with typical comments including:

“I believe there is a strong hierarchical structure in existence in Samoa. Samoan

social structure (matai system) and also in Government departments have top–down

structures in place. In some projects, this does not work and causes a big problem if

the top person holds on to critical, vital information that is not conveyed down to the

operational level. This can also restrict open exchanges as one cannot be too forward

or direct. One has to be humble and come from below thru ones immediate supervisor,

respect rather than take a top-down approach” (int7)

“Politics can be seen as interfering with delivery of services but politics cannot be

used as an excuse for officials not meeting project outcomes…Politicians expect you

to deliver or make the best effort possible to meet those targets irrespective of whether

they played a part in delaying the outcome and divergent of resources. They are not

expected to share the blame nor will they accept it” (int13)

“It is very difficult for us to get approval for imported materials and supplies. Time

consuming procedures in place delay our project and are impacting on our finances

and project schedules” (int14)


of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.7). The results ranged from #6, a Samoan

recording 29.9% at the top, to another Samoan (#9) recording 11.4% in fourth place.

Another Samoan (#13) recorded 14.2% in second place, while an Australian (#21) recorded

12.0% in third place.



1 6 Samoan 14 4 355 29.9 2 13 Samoan 15 3 250 21.1 3 21 Australian 4 3 143 12.0 4 9 Samoan 13 3 135 11.4

Ranked 7th

KR2.5 Lack of technical competence

Coded under this sub-category are subsidiaries that highlight the difficulty in

communicating through lack of technical know-how, with emerging comments including:

“At the higher management level, communication between expats and locals is

professional and very effective. But as you move down an organisation particularly in

the construction industry, problems do occur because of the language and the

technical know-how” (int11)

“There are also many contractors who are not well versed or familiar with reading

specification documents and details. It is very difficult to explain engineering details

to them. It provides a barrier which could end up in extended time for the project”

(int12)

“Limited understanding by locals of construction technologies and modern methods of

construction has also been a problem that affected communication” (int17)

“From the community’s perspective, understanding the technical concepts is much

more a barrier to communication than the English language” (int25)



Zealander recording 15.8% at the top, to an Australian (#29) recording 9.1% in fourth place.

Another New Zealander (#23) recorded 10.0% in second place, while a Samoan (#11) is in

third place recording 9.2%. 44.1% of total information is provided by the top four ranked

interviewees.



1 25 New Zealander 15 3 167 15.8 2 23 New Zealander 21 2 106 10.0 3 11 Samoan 10 2 97 9.2 4 29 Australian 34 2 96 9.1

Ranked 8th

KR2.14 Lack of resources

Emanating from this sub-category are focused issues on the difficulty in communicating

through lack of resources with some typical comments including:

“Lack of resources and materials here in Samoa can impact on projects in many ways

particularly financial and time schedules” (int4)

“Because of lack of resources, we have no choice but to accept certain prices offered

by local companies which are very high. Sometimes we have to improvise and try to

manufacture our own materials. Monopolised markets and lack of competition have

driven prices up and affected the quality of the services provided negatively” (int14)

“I have only worked with a small group of people. Perhaps because of the reforms, the

scarcity of resources have meant that I am caught up with short term issues rather

than deal with the mid-long term issues of asset management” (int24)

“Lack of resources and computer back up programs are perhaps the biggest

difficulties or impact that I have encountered so far” (int24)


of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.14). The results ranged from #14, a

Japanese recording 17.6% at the top, to a New Zealander (#23) in fourth place recording

7.7%. A New Zealander (#25) recorded 14.5% in second place, while a Samoan (#13) is in

third place recording 12.0%. The top four ranked interviewees provided 51.8% of total

information.



1 14 Japanese 11 2 182 17.6 2 25 New Zealander 15 2 150 14.5 3 13 Samoan 15 1 125 12.0 4 23 New Zealander 21 1 80 7.7

7.3.4 Key Result 3: Strategies for cross-cultural communication and their effectiveness

Key Result 3 (KR3.1–3.21) addressed research question 6 in particular and question 5

conjointly. Choosing the most appropriate strategy is integral to successful communication.

This has direct implications on the delivery of successful project outcomes and in

establishing and harnessing relationships necessary for international operations. This key

category encapsulates strategies employed by respondents in the projects they were

involved in and their effectiveness, resulting in a number of sub-categories as presented

here, and briefly defined and summarised in Appendix C.

Table 7.29a presents the summary of the content analysis carried out for Key Result 3,

ranking them in order of highest frequency and total amount of information divested.

Table 7.29a Key Result 3: Strategies – Summary of content analysis

Degree of Effectiveness Rank Strategies F Total

Very Sometimes Not

1 KR3.5 Local liaison 30 1214 29 1 2 KR3.6 Meetings and discussion forums 24 895 18 5 1 3 KR3.2 Situational approach involving different modes 18 844 11 6 1 4 KR3.4 Thorough selection, recruiting and training 14 751 8 6 5 KR3.13 Evaluative and informative approach 12 626 10 2 6 KR3.7 Reinforce procedures and follow-up 14 548 10 4 7 KR3.20 Respect and equality 12 547 12 8 KR3.9 Constant supervision 12 540 12 9 KR3.10 Feedback, open two-way communication 17 510 15 2

10 KR3.12 Adaptability, flexibility and 13 507 13 11 KR3.19 Networking and build relationship 15 499 15 12 KR3.1 Consultative approach 11 494 5 6 13 KR3.16 Comprehensive communication plan 14 471 14 14 KR3.18 Commitment, support and trust 11 414 10 1 15 KR3.8 Timely reports 5 332 4 1 16 KR3.17 Be proactive and improvise 7 260 7 17 KR3.3 Mentoring and coached approach 6 246 3 3 18 KR3.15 Initiation program 4 159 3 1 19 KR3.14 Humour and diplomatic approach 4 60 4 20 KR3.21 Balanced and manageable teams 2 55 2 21 KR3.11 Incremental changes 1 14 1

TOTAL 246 9986 206 38 2

The results indicate that sub-category KR3.5 (Local liaison) has the number one ranking

recording a frequency of 30 and total information equaling 1214. This strategy has been

very effective with a frequency of 29 out of 30 indicating this, with one saying it works

sometimes. The results also indicate that most of the strategies were very effective (total

frequency of 206) with a few that were sometime effective (frequency 38) and only two

were not effective. The strategy with the least frequency and total information is KR3.11

(Incremental changes), recording a frequency of 1 and total information 14.

Table 7.29b presents the distribution of total information divested as per nationality group

with the top ranked strategy KR3.5 (Local liaison) spread across the groups with Samoan

recording 43.6%, New Zealander 24.2%, Japanese 16.3%, Australian 8.1%, and Other

Expatriate 7.8%. Similarly, for the second ranked strategy KR3.6 (Meetings and discussion

forums), New Zealander recorded 43.7%, Samoan 26.7%, Japanese 12.2%, Australian

11.7% while Other Expatriate recorded 5.7%. At the other end of the continuum, the

strategy with the least frequency of 1 and total information of 14 is KR3.11 (Incremental

changes), with Samoan recording 100% of the information.

Table 7.29b Key Result 3: Strategies – distributions as per nationality group

Ranking of nationalities as percent of total amount of information divested Ranked strategies Total

1 2 3 4 5

1 = KR3.5 1214 Sam (43.6%) NZ (24.2%) Jap (16.3%) Aus (8.1%) O.Ex (7.8%) 2 = KR3.6 895 NZ (43.7%) Sam (26.7%) Jap (12.2%) Aus (11.7%) O.Ex (5.7%) 3 = KR3.2 844 NZ (42.7%) Aus (26.9%) Sam (22.9%) Jap (7.5%) 4 = KR3.4 751 Sam (38.3%) NZ (30.0%) Aus (17.2%) Jap (8.9%) O.Ex (5.6%) 5 = KR3.13 626 NZ (54.2%) Aus (21.4%) Jap (16.9%) Sam (7.5%) 6 = KR3.7 548 Aus (27.4%) Sam (26.8%) NZ (25.5%) Jap (17.7%) O.Ex (2.6%) 7 = KR3.20 547 Sam (57.4%) NZ (36.7%) Aus (5.9%) 8 = KR3.9 540 NZ (63.3%) Aus (20.6%) Sam (10.9%) Jap (5.2%) 9 = KR3.10 510 Sam (52.5%) Aus (24.8%) NZ (22.7%) 10 = KR3.12 507 Sam (53.8%) NZ (22.1%) Aus (20.5%) Jap (3.6%) 11 = KR3.19 499 Aus (43.9%) Sam (28.7%) NZ (20.6%) Jap (6.8%) 12 = KR3.1 494 Sam (78.1%) Jap (17.9%) NZ (4.0%) 13 = KR3.16 471 Sam (58.4%) NZ (23.6%) O.Ex (9.8%) Aus (8.2%) 14 = KR3.18 414 NZ (51.0%) Sam (26.6%) Jap (12.8%) Aus (7.6%) 15 = KR3.8 332 NZ (36.5%) Aus (35.8%) Sam (27.7%) 16 = KR3.17 260 Sam (38.1%) NZ (24.6%) Jap (24.2%) Aus (13.1%) 17 = KR3.3 246 Aus (73.2%) NZ (15.8%) Sam (11.0%) 18 = KR3.15 159 NZ (44.0%) Jap (42.2%) Sam (13.8%) 19 = KR3.14 60 NZ (65.0%) Aus (35.0%) 20 = KR3.21 55 NZ (100%) 21 = KR3.11 14 Sam (100%)

The top eight ranked sub-categories or results for Key Result 3 with significant findings are

presented here, with the remaining sub-categories and provided in Appendix C. The top four

ranked interviewees resulting from the content analysis are presented to provide an

indication of emphasis placed by each practitioner on each sub-category.

Ranked #1

KR3.5 Local liaison

Coded to this sub-category are subsidiaries regarding the use of key locals to bridge the gap

and facilitate communication with typical remarks including:

Strategy is to use local senior supervisor to help reinforce instructions to workers to

prevent ‘loss of face’” (int1)

“Outside of office in dealings with the community and contractors, a colleague acts as

interpreter or liaison” (int5)

“For community projects, the participation of matais as liaison officers have changed

the approach to managing projects and has also enhanced the role of matais” (int6)


of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.5). The results ranged from #1, a Samoan

recording 11.0% in first place, to another Samoan (#7) recording 8.8% in fourth place.

Another Samoan (#6) recorded 10.0% in second place, while a New Zealander (#26) is in

third place recording 9.1%. The top four interviewees provided 38.9% of the total for this

sub-category.

Table 7.30 Key Result 3: Strategies – Top four ranked interviewees for KR3.5

Ranked #2

KR3.6 Meetings and Discussion forums

Emanating from this sub-category are comments regarding the use of meetings and

discussion forums to facilitate decision making and resolve issues with some typical

remarks including:



“It is critical for managers to be informed all the time. Communication strategies such

as meetings are very important and one can never have too much” (int11)

“I have found that meeting people face to face will achieve more results than over the

phone” (int20)

“Meetings with workers are very important to discuss issues that pop up and to keep

them aware of progress and schedule” (int14)


of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.6). The results raged from #25, a New

Zealander recording 15.9% in first place, to another New Zealander (#20) in fourth place

recording 10.1%. Another New Zealander (#26) recorded 13.4% in second place, while a

Japanese (#14) recorded 10.2% in third place. The top four interviewees provided 49.6% of

the total for this sub-category.


Ranked #3

KR3.2 Situational approach involving different modes and incentives

Emanating from this sub-category are subsidiaries regarding the application of appropriate

strategies that suit the specific circumstance or situation which include different modes of

communication, with typical comments including:

“One must have a good understanding of situations where corporate time can be

applied. If one is too pushy about time, you won’t get far. You need to understand

village politics” (int1)

“I have found the best way is to get in and show them by example, what I want them to

do” (int4)

“A strategy in this case is to use the expat to deliver what ever point or advice you

want to put across” (int6)


1 25 New Zealander 15 2 142 15.9 2 26 New Zealander 16 3 120 13.4 3 14 Japanese 11 3 91 10.2 4 20 New Zealander 4 2 90 10.1

“I think that because I lead by example, I feel that I earn their respect and I don’t

have too many issues. Other supervisors sit under the tree in the shade and give

orders but I believe that leading by example is important” (int19)


of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.2). #19, a New Zealander recording 16.4%

is in first place while another New Zealander (#25) recording 11.3% is in second place. A

Samoan (#1) and an Australian (#4) both recorded 8.6% in third place. The top four

interviewees provided 44.9% of the total information for this sub-category.


Ranked #4

KR3.4 Selection, recruiting and training

Coded under this sub-category are subsidiaries relating to the appropriate selection,

recruiting and training of personnel to suit the environment with typical comments

including:

“Selection process of staff on project planning is critical to ensure all areas have been

covered from engineers, architects, planners and environmentalists, to make

integrated decisions on the design of projects” (int3)

“The selection of overseas personnel for assignments in Samoa needs to be well

conducted to take into account their experience and their cultural awareness” (int8)

“We have been advertising and actively looking to recruit more Samoan staff. We try

not to rely on bringing in people for short term or long-term projects. The higher the

percentage of Samoans in the company will help in terms of development” (int16)


of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.4). #27, a New Zealander recorded 20.5%


1 19 New Zealander 8 3 138 16.4 2 25 New Zealander 15 1 95 11.3 3 1 Samoan 12 1 73 8.6 4 Australian 11 2 73 8.6

is in first place while a Samoan (#3) recorded 12.8% in second place. An Australian (#4)

recorded 11.5% in third place followed by a New Zealander (#26) in forth place recording

9.5%. The top four ranked interviewees provided 54.3% of the total for this sub-category.


Ranked #5

KR3.13 Evaluative, informative and problem-solving approach

Grouped under this sub-category are subsidiaries that involved taking a problem-solving

approach involving a thorough evaluation and informative decision-making with typical

comments including:

“Strategy to deal with this is to give advice to the CEO and always be clear why

something has to be done, outlining what benefits and consequences” (int14)

“We aim to be professional, analyse risks and take steps to mitigate risks before big

problems occur” (int18)

“So our strategy was instead of ringing up, we write a letter and copy important

people say the CEO of MOT and even the Minister to ensure that they act

immediately” (int22)




Zealander recording 29.9% at first place, to a Japanese (#22) in fourth place recording


1 27 New Zealander 10 1 154 20.5 2 3 Samoan 7 3 96 12.8 3 4 Australian 11 1 86 11.5 4 26 New Zealander 16 1 71 9.5


1 27 New Zealander 10 2 187 29.9 2 25 New Zealander 15 2 120 19.2 3 30 Australian 4 2 98 15.7 4 22 Japanese 2 1 63 10.2

10.2%. Another New Zealander (#25) recorded 19.2% in second place while an Australian

(#30) is in third place recording 15.7%. These top four ranked interviewees provided 75.0%

of total information.

Ranked #6

KR3.7 Reinforce procedures and follow-ups

Coded under this sub-category are subsidiaries to ensure procedures are followed and have

control mechanisms in place to check on progress typical comments including:

“Nowadays, we try to make sure World Bank criteria are met. We have conducted a

few workshops; hence four page submissions have improved to approx. 80 pages”

(int9)

“In communication here, one has to reinforce procedures repeatedly. Perhaps it is not

clearly received especially if message is received indirectly. I found I need to do quick

follow ups before starting tasks” (int24)

“From our point of view, we try to get people to follow recognised procedures”

(int31)


of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.7). #19, a New Zealander recorded 16.2%

is in first place while an Australian (#4) recorded 15.7% is in second place. A Samoan (#11)

is in third place recording 10.8%, and a New Zealander (#26) in forth place with 9.3%. The

top four ranked interviewees provided 52.0% of total information.



1 19 New Zealander 8 3 89 16.2 2 4 Australian 11 1 86 15.7 3 11 Samoan 10 1 59 10.8 4 26 New Zealander 16 1 51 9.3

Ranked #7

KR3.20 Respect and equality

To this sub-category are coded subsidiaries focusing on treating others with the respect that

they deserve and ensuring that equality exists in principles and practice with typical

comments including:

“Treat locals and contractors on site as equal. They serve you faster and are very

helpful if you do. Treat them otherwise and they will react negatively or no action at

all” (int5)

“I try and communicate the same way with expats as I do with the locals on a

professional level” (int9)

“Communication can be very effective if you treat others as you would like to be

treated. Problems occur when you try to exert too much of your own views without

consideration for the other peoples feelings and ideas” (int11)



of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.20). #27, a New Zealander recording

20.5% in first place while another New Zealander (#20) recording 16.3% is in second place.

A Samoan (#17) is in third place recording 13.0% while another Samoan (#9) is in forth

place recording 11.3%. These top four ranked interviewees provided 61.1% of total

information.

Ranked #8

KR3.9 Constant supervision

Emanating from this sub-category are comments highlighting the need for hands on and

regular supervision with typical remarks including:

“When giving instructions and physical demonstration, some still think that they can

do it better another way. One definitely needs to be hands on” (int19)


1 27 New Zealander 10 2 112 20.5 2 20 New Zealander 4 2 89 16.3 3 17 Samoan 19 1 71 13.0 4 9 Samoan 13 2 62 11.3

“ … So one has to regularly check on what they are doing as well as what they have

already done to ensure that they have done the right thing” (int22)

“We have learnt from our experience not to leave them on their own and also to keep

them moving on as they can get distracted” (int26)


of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.9). #27, a New Zealander recording 28.7%

is in first place while another New Zealander (#26) recording 17.4% is in second place.

Another New Zealander (#19) is in third place recording 17.2% while an Australian (#4) is

in forth placing recording 11.7%. The top four ranked interviewees provided 75.0% of total

information.


7.3.5 Key Result 4: Proactive measures to improve communication

Key Result 4 addressed research question 6. This key category compiled what respondents

perceived as necessary proactive measures to improve cross-cultural communication and

project management resulting in a number of sub-categories summarised and briefly

described in Appendix C. Practical proactive measures are products of experiences and are

therefore reflective of the environment the experiences were formed. This has direct

implications on management processes necessary for successful international project

implementation which are facilitated by effective communication, in anticipation of future

assignments. The ranked summary of the content analysis for this category is presented in

Table 7.38a with the distributions as per nationality for each sub-category shown in Table

7.38b.


1 27 New Zealander 10 3 155 28.7 2 26 New Zealander 16 2 94 17.4 3 19 New Zealander 8 3 93 17.2 4 4 Australian 11 1 63 11.7

Table 7.38a Key Result 4: Proactive measures to improve cross-cultural communication –

Summary of content analysis

Rank Proactive measures Frequency Total Cumulative total

1 KR4.2 Skills upgrading and capacity building 22 860 860 2 KR4.23 Culturally sensitive and localised approach 19 836 1696 3 KR4.3 Promote ownership of projects 15 769 2465 4 KR4.5 Inter-industry collaboration, integration … 11 524 2989 5 KR4.16 Educational and awareness program 11 520 3509 6 KR4.15 Cultural training and initiation 11 467 3976 7 KR4.9 Be tolerant and understanding 11 382 4358 8 KR4.19 Change in work culture, ethics and practices 7 345 4703 9 KR4.7 Industry support training and work experience 7 326 5029

10 KR4.14 Networking and build relationships 10 319 5348 11 KR4.10 Effective transfer of technology 7 284 5632 12 KR4.6 Practitioners with common vision 5 245 5877 13 KR4.17 Encourage and motivate 5 232 6109 14 KR4.20 Equity 4 184 6293 15 KR4.26 Exposure to technology, systems, methods… 4 142 6435 16 KR4.25 Effective planning and keep good records 4 141 6576 17 KR4.18 Make informed decisions 3 122 6698 18 KR4.1 Sustainable measures 2 105 6803 19 KR4.13 Streamline and prioritise 3 104 6907 20 KR4.8 Do not expect to delegate 3 87 6994 21 KR4.4 Construction specific research 2 83 7077 22 KR4.24 Use locals in positional authority 1 65 7142 23 KR4.11 Well balanced management and work teams 2 55 7197 24 KR4.21 Increase resource pool 1 52 7249 25 KR4.22 Incremental changes 1 52 7301 26 KR4.12 Set reasonable targets 1 36 7337

Table 7.38a presents the summary of the content analysis carried out for Key Category 4:

Proactive measures, ranking them in order of highest frequency and total amount of

information divested. The results indicate that sub-category KR4.2 (Skills upgrading), is

ranked number one recording a frequency of 22 and total information equaling 860. KR4.23

(Culturally sensitive and localised approach) is ranked second recording a frequency of 19

and a total of 836. Ranked twenty-six recording the least frequency (1) and total (36) is

KR4.22 (Set reasonable targets).

Table 7.38b Key Result 4: Proactive measures to improve cross-cultural communication –

Distributions as per nationality group

Ranking nationalities by percent of total amount of information divested Ranked proactive measures

Total 1 2 3 4 5

1 = KR4.2 860 Sam 40.8% NZ 33.8% Aus 17.7% Jap 6.2% O.Ex 1.5% 2 = KR4.23 836 Sam 36.7% Aus 25.8% Jap 20.9% NZ 16.6% 3 = KR4.3 769 Sam 77.2% Aus 12.4% Jap 10.4% 4 = KR4.5 524 Sam 67.4% O.Ex 17.4% Aus 15.2% 5 = KR4.16 520 Aus 40.4% Sam 38.5% O.Ex 13.4% NZ 7.7% 6 = KR4.15 467 Sam 36.8% Aus 33.4% Jap 22.5% O.Ex 7.3% 7 = KR4.9 382 Sam 49.2% Aus 27.3% NZ 18.8% Jap 4.7% 8 = KR4.19 345 Sam 79.1% Aus 11.9% O.Ex 9.0% 9 = KR4.7 326 Sam 52.2% NZ 33.4% O.Ex 14.4% 10 = KR4.14 319 NZ 34.8% Sam 32.9% Aus 26.7% Jap 5.6% 11 = KR4.10 284 Sam 41.5% NZ 26.4% Aus 19.0% O.Ex 13.1% 12 = KR4.6 245 Aus 70.6% O.Ex 29.4% 13 = KR4.17 232 Aus 56.0% Jap 22.9% NZ 21.1% 14 = KR4.20 184 Sam 82.6% Aus 17.4% 15 = KR4.26 142 Sam 35.2% Jap 33.1% Aus 17.6% O.Ex 14.1% 16 = KR4.25 141 Sam 61.0% NZ 39.0% 17 = KR4.18 122 Sam 100% 18 = KR4.1 105 Sam 100% 19 = KR4.13 104 Sam 37.5% Aus 37.5% O.Ex 25.0% 20 = KR4.8 87 Aus 72.4% Sam 27.6% 21 = KR4.4 83 NZ 88.0% Aus 12.0% 22 = KR4.24 65 NZ 100% 23 = KR4.11 55 NZ 100% 24 = KR4.21 52 Sam 100% 25 = KR4.22 52 Sam 100% 26 = KR4.12 36 Aus 100%

Table 7.38b presents the distribution of total information divested as per nationality group

with the top ranked proactive measure KR4.2 (Skills upgrading) spread across the groups

with Samoans having 40.8%, New Zealander 33.8%, Australian 17.7%, Japanese 6.2%, and

Other Expatriate 1.5%. For the second ranked KR4.23 (Culturally sensitive and localised

approach) the spread is Samoan recorded 36.7%, Australian 25.8%, Japanese 20.9%, New

Zealander 16.6% and Other Expatriate recorded none. At the other end of the continuum,

the proactive strategy with the least frequency and total is KR4.12 (Set reasonable targets),

with Australian recording 100% of the information.

The top eight ranked sub-categories or results for Key Result 4 with significant findings are

presented here, with the remaining sub-categories provided in Appendix C. The top four

ranked interviewees resulting from the content analysis are presented to provide an

indication of emphasis placed by each practitioner on each sub-category.

Ranked #1

KR4.2 Skills upgrading, training and capacity building

Coded to this sub-category are subsidiaries the focused on ensuring a continuous

improvement process through skills upgrading, training and capacity building with typical

comments including:

“There is a definite need to increase resource pool and skilled workforce. Need to

support courses run by the Polytech to create skilled workforces. Communication,

both vertically and horizontally can be taught. We need to be more proactive on a

local level. We can’t totally rely on overseas qualified professionals and tradesmen”

(int1)

“Capacity building as a sub-component is vital to success of projects” (int3)

“Also upgrading of skills is very important. In most cases, I need to repeat giving

instructions many times to communicate what I want done. But once workers

understand the general ideas, they can offer some alternatives to what is being asked”

(int28)

Table 7.39 presents the rankings for the top four ranked interviewees based on the

frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR4.2). #18, a New

Zealander recording 17.4% in first place while an Australian (#4) recording 15.6% is in

second place. A New Zealander (#26) is in third place recording 8.1% while a Samoan

(#13) is placed fourth recording 7.2%. The top four ranked interviewees provided 48.3% of

total information.

Table 7.39 Key Result 4: Proactive measures – top four ranked interviewees for KR4.2


1 18 New Zealander 12 2 150 17.4 2 4 Australian 11 3 134 15.6 3 26 New Zealander 16 1 70 8.1 4 13 Samoan 15 2 62 7.2

Ranked #2

KR4.23 Culturally sensitive and localised approach

Coded to this sub-category are subsidiaries that focused on applying strategies that are

culturally appropriate and tailor made for the local environment ensures sustainability with

typical comments including:

“My own experience and approach to construction projects will not succeed in Samoa

because here, there is a different thinking and approach to projects. So, we cannot

bring a strong cultural approach to projects overseas” (int2)

“Local conditions such as political, economical, social and cultural need to be taken

into account and then apply systems and solutions which are tailor-made or modified

to suit Samoa” (int6)

“I believe one has to be culturally sensitive. If someone has a ‘fa’alavelave’ that’s

okay but the problem lies in the fact that they don’t tell us. When someone’s away for

2-3 days and we don’t know why, it becomes annoying” (int27)



frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR4.23). #13, a Samoan

providing 15.8% in first place while an Australian (#29) recording 13.3% is in second place.

A Japanese (#2) is in third place providing 8.3%, while an Australian (#30) is in forth place

recording 8.0%. The top four ranked interviewees provided 45.4% of total information.

Ranked #3

KR4.3 Promote ownership of projects

Coded to this sub-category are subsidiaries ensuring that stakeholders feel attached, related,

responsible, and continue to benefit from the project with typical comments including:


1 13 Samoan 15 2 132 15.8 2 29 Australian 34 2 111 13.3 3 2 Japanese 11 2 69 8.3 4 30 Australian 4 1 67 8.0

“Ownership of projects is imperative for clients like Samoa, for after all we are the

ones paying back the loan. Stakeholders need to have a bigger say, more control over

projects being funded by donor countries to prevent problems down the track” (int1)

Projects now are trying to ensure that villages gain a sense of cooperative

participation, they are becoming contributors, and they are gaining a sense of

ownership. This helps everyone to be aware of the objectives of projects to avoid false

expectations, misunderstandings and misconceptions” (int3)

“There needs to be more involvement of locals in planning of projects to make them

feel part of the team, increase the feeling of ownership, awareness and understanding

of benefits and implications. Most projects fail on their long-term objectives not long

after the expats have departed after project completion, because locals do not relate

well to a project and have not got that ownership feeling in them” (int8)




recording 18.7% is in first place while another Samoan (#1) providing 16.0% is in second

place. Another Samoan (#7) is in third place providing 11.4%, while a Japanese (#2) is in

fourth place recording 10.4%. The top four ranked interviewees provided 56.5% of total

information.

Ranked #4

KR4.5 Inter-industry collaboration and integrated approach

Coded to this sub-category are subsidiaries the focused on trying to eliminate the

duplication of tasks and to improve cooperation between stakeholders with typical

comments including:

“Today in the construction industry in Samoa, there is now an integrated approach to

what projects will be undertaken. Consultations takes place and needs are identified


1 13 Samoan 15 3 144 18.7 2 1 Samoan 12 3 123 16.0 3 7 Samoan 6 1 88 11.4 4 2 Japanese 11 1 80 10.4

with regards to infrastructure. Feedback is sought from local villages. Planning and

prioritisation then results in which option will be decided on before a design is

produced, in consultation with engineers, and environmental scientists” (int3)

“There is also a need to have procedures to integrate traditional design and

construction methods with modern design and modern methods” (int17)

“There is a need to co-ordinate inter-agency and intra-agency activities to minimise

wastage particularly with utilities (road works, water works, telecommunications,

environmental)” (int17)



recording 27.7% is in first place while another Samoan (#17) recording 26.5% is in second

place. Other Expatriate (#10) recoded 17.4% in third place, while an Australian (#29) is in


information.


Ranked #5

4.16 Educational and awareness programs

Coded to this sub-category are subsidiaries focusing on educating and making the public

aware of project requirements helps create a smart society with typical comments including:

“Integral to projects is the need for major public awareness before, during, and after

projects which will gauge success of projects” (int1)

“There is a need to educate the public on the value of contract administration which

would save them headaches; could keep the job running on time; keep the quality up;

keep the finances in line and no unnecessary cost overruns” (int25)


1 3 Samoan 7 3 145 27.7 2 17 Samoan 19 4 139 26.5 3 10 Other Expatriate 26 2 91 17.4 4 29 Australian 34 1 80 15.3

“From a project manager’s perspective, there needs to be more liaison and awareness

programs or consultations so that the public especially those affected by the projects

are made aware of what requirements and expectations as well as compensation

before project implementation. This should be the responsibility of the government”

(int30)



frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR4.16). #30, an

Australian recording 18.3% is in first place while another Australian (#4) recording 16.5%

is in second place. Two Samoans (#7 and #12) share third place both recording 15.4%. The

top four ranked interviewees provided 65.6% of total information.

Ranked #6

KR4.15 Cultural training and initiation

Coded to this sub-category are subsidiaries focusing on having expatriates exposed to the

local culture before projects to help reduce stress associated with acculturation with typical

comments including:

“There needs to be a balanced approach where the expat is slowly and gradually

exposed to the local environment to ensure his/her personal and professional

development particularly with factors relating to the local environment” (int5)

“There is a need to have pre-departure training that covers cross-cultural

communication, cultural issues and other local environmental factors, but more

importantly is on assignment support for expats and their families and debriefing and

evaluation after the project. This will assist in the training of personnel, review of

management systems and also personal reflection on performance and development”

(int8)


1 30 Australian 4 2 95 18.3 2 4 Australian 11 1 86 16.5 3 7 Samoan 6 1 80 15.4 12 Samoan 20 1 80 15.4


frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR4.15). The results

ranged from #5, an Australian providing 16.1% in first place, to a Samoan (#8) in fourth

place recording 12.4%. A Japanese (#22) recorded 16.5% in second place while a Samoan

(#32) is in third place recording 13.5%. The top four ranked interviewees provided 56.3% of

total information.


Ranked #7

KR4.9 Be open-minded, tolerant and understanding

Coded to this sub-category are subsidiaries that focused on the expectations that people,

work ethics and practices to be different and therefore willing to adapt with typical

comments including:

“Most of our expats are highly professional. It is their attitude that may cause

problems. We try to educate them and make them aware that some things although

may seem unethical and poor business practice is quite normal in Samoa. They need

to have open minds and be patient” (int9)

“Instead of getting frustrated, expats need to keep an open mind instead of trying to

constantly compare things done in Samoa to the way things are done in their home

country” (int15)

“Most definitely, expats need to have open minds. As project managers, one becomes

a mediator for the crew who come in from overseas and the locals” (int19)



providing 25.1% in first place while another Samoan (#9) recording 12.8% is in second

place. A New Zealander (#26) is in third place recording 12.0%, while an Australian (#30)


1 5 Australian 4 2 75 16.1 2 22 Japanese 2 1 67 14.3 3 32 Samoan 16 1 63 13.5 4 8 Samoan 4 1 58 12.4

is in fourth place recording 10.2%. The top four ranked interviewees provided 60.1% of

total information.


Ranked #8

KR4.19 Change in work culture and ethics

Coded to this sub-category are subsidiaries focusing on instilling a corporate mindset and

changing from casual approach to a more business-like and outcome oriented with typical

comments including:

“ … Strategically, we need to instil a planning or corporate mentality that is similar to

Australia or NZ into our society. However, expats need to be aware of reasons why

locals do things the way they do …” (int13)

“Attitudes and work culture definitely need to change from being unquestionable to

openly expressing views which is not so easy. The work environment needs to be

strong and conducive to bring about these changes on the select few that you employ”

(int30)

“Some of the proactive measures include: trying to improve time issues; trying to

separate work environment from social environment; put into place structures for

communication as opposed to adhoc, informal channels” (int31)



providing 42.6% in first place while another Samoan (#17) providing 20.6% is in second

place. An Australian (#30) is in third place recording 11.9%, while a Samoan (#12) is in


information.


1 13 Samoan 15 1 96 25.1 2 9 Samoan 13 1 49 12.8 3 26 New Zealander 16 2 46 12.0 4 30 Australian 4 1 39 10.2


7.3.6 Key Result 5: Influences of experience on perspectives

This category addressed one of the central issues of this study regarding practitioners’

perceptions of the ways in which their self-identity, personal beliefs, and worldview

regarding international project management changed as a result of their cross-cultural

experiences. Key Result 5 (KR5.1 – KR5.16) is an outcome or product of practitioners

experiences and is therefore reflective of the responses to all the questions. This has direct

implications on successful project outcomes as it engenders a ‘learning to learn’ attitude that

is essential to project managers and supervisors as agents of change.

Table 7.47 Key Result 5: Influences of experiences on perspectives – Summary of Content Analysis

Code Change in perspectives F Total Cumulative total

KC5.1 Ethnocentric to polycentric 2 131 131 KC5.2 Rigid to flexible 2 73 204 KC5.3 Conservative to appreciative 1 39 243 KC5.4 Paradigm shift 1 140 383 KC5.5 Knowledgeable society 1 64 447 KC5.6 Skilful industry 2 93 540 KC5.7 Evaluative and informed decision-making 3 69 609 KC5.8 Personal development 2 48 657 KC5.9 Pre-assignment training as opposed to debriefing 3 187 844 KC5.10 Gaining experience to experienced decision-maker 2 50 894 KC5.11 Reduced level of expectation 5 148 1042 KC5.12 Increased awareness and understanding rather than change 8 155 1197 KC5.13 Mostly learning experience 1 56 1253 KC5.14 Accept and adapt 5 154 1407 KC5.15 Generalising to not stereotyping 1 20 1427 KC5.16 Ignorant to considerate 2 59 1486



Table 7.47 presents the summary of the content analysis for Key result 5: Influences of

experiences on perspectives regarding cross-cultural communication and international

construction project management.

Some practitioners have noted changes in their perspectives on a number of fronts regarding

different aspects of cross-cultural communication and project management and their

comments have been coded under respective sub-categories. The highest number of

practitioners 8 (31%) provided comments coded under KC5.12 emphasised that their

perspectives have not changed but rather an increased sense of awareness and understanding

of the local environment and its people. These sub-categories are now briefly defined here

with typical comments made provided:

KC5.1 Ethnocentric to polycentric

Coded to this sub-category are changes in perspectives from thinking that ones way is the

only way to being considerate and understanding, with comments including:

“Overseas Project Managers must have respect for local culture and the system of

social society. Expats should not bring their own cultural perspectives to projects,

even if it has to take more time. My own Japanese experience and approach to

construction projects will not succeed in Samoa because here, there is a different

thinking and approach to projects. So, we cannot bring a strong cultural approach to

projects overseas” (int2)

“Even after all the years I have been here, I do not fully understand the way Samoans

think because of different backgrounds. I think sometimes we get carried away or too

excited with projects to realise their impact or consequences on the local environment

and people. To some extend, local Samoans know better about the impact that projects

will have on them” (int29)

KC5.2 Rigid to flexible

Coded to this sub-category are comments regarding changes in perspectives from being very

set on a certain way of doing things to being flexible and circumstantial with remarks

including:

“My experience here has given me some ideas as to how I would approach things

differently. I was fairly stressed out at first trying to do too much” (int4)

KC5.3 Conservative to appreciative

Coded to this sub-category are changes in perspectives from being entrenched in traditional

methods to being welcoming and embracing new ideas with one commenting:

“Standards of works and services in Samoa are improving all the time to meet

international standards but I hope Samoa maintains its own flair and way of doing

things. No rush but ensure job is done well first time” (int5)

KC5.4 Paradigm shift due to environmental factors

Coded to this sub-category are changes in perspectives due to the influences of

environmental factors on the framework practitioners’ view events with one commenting:

“My time spent in Samoa has been during the period that the most rapid changes have

occurred in the Pacific. In Samoa my perspective changed from pre-cyclone to post-

cyclone, in the 1990s. People are travelling more, electricity is everywhere, people are

no longer isolated, and the media now reaches all corners of the islands. The islands

are not too different from other places now. When I used to return to the USA it was

like returning from another planet. Now, I can pick up the phone and speak to my

family in 30 seconds. The frequency now in flights and the ease and efficiency of

computer internet facilities and electronic communication of documents has radically

changed the face of business. This has only occurred within the last five years in the

islands. These changes have been catalysed by the cyclones” (int10)

KC5.5 Knowledgeable society

To this sub-category are coded changes in perspectives regarding the local people becoming

more knowledgeable in business practices with one commenting:

“Samoans are becoming more aware of western principles, practices and business

concepts – what is considered best business practices. My experience with this is that

when I left Samoa for education, one always knew ones place. Now, Samoa is

becoming more accommodating and integrative. The involvement of organisations

such as the Peace Corps, Rotary, AusAid and many more have done a lot to increase

awareness” (int11)

KC5.6 Skilful industry

To this sub-category are coded changes in perspectives regarding the local industry

becoming more skilful with comments including:

“The culture of the construction industry in Samoa has been affected by the reforms

that have been going on and I believe it is a blessing in disguise. Samoa is becoming

more professional in their approach to business. More people are getting work and

gaining skills. The graduates from Polytech have raised the level of skills in the labour

force and new methods and approaches are now being implemented” (int11)

KC5.7 Evaluative and informative decision-making

Coded to this sub-category are changes in perspectives from being reactive to evaluative

and informative decision-making with comments including:

“I have learned not to jump to conclusions. If I see things are not going well, I try to

talk to site managers to see if there are legitimate reasons for problems and delays. I

try to evaluate first before making decisions” (int11)

KC5.8 Challenging to personal development

To this sub-category are coded changes to perspectives from seeing projects as difficult

challenges to being rewarding experiences with comments including:

“I had a very limited scope when I first started working on major projects. I have

learnt much over the years. It is not always easy to see through muddy waters. I have

experienced both good and bad experiences and I have learnt a lot from them” (int13)

KC5.9 Pre-assignment training as opposed to debriefing

Coded to this sub-category are changes in perspective regarding the value of training before,

during and post-project with comments including:

“I would have benefited from having had some training in understanding local

culture. One definitely needs a bit of experience at the beginning of contracts. Post-

project, I don’t really see the value of debriefing” (int31)

“It is very important for expats to participate in training before coming to Samoa,

during time of project and debriefing after project. The need to be aware and

understand local culture and business practices before and during assignment, to deal

with problems arising during the project and reflecting on their learning experience

after the project is very important for personal and organisational development”

(int32)

KC5.10 Gaining experience to experienced decision-maker

To this sub-category are coded changes to perspectives form just gaining experience to

being a very experienced decision-maker with comments including:

“My perspective has changed over the years. When I was young it was more the case

of gaining practical experience from work. As a manager, I have learnt much from

experiences and have become more informed” (int17)

KC5.11 Reduced level of expectations

Coded to this sub-category are changes to perspectives regarding readjusting expectations

relative to the local industry’s practices and workers skills with comments including:

“My levels of expectations have come down in relation to what I expect from workers

because of my experience” (int19)

KC5.12 Increased understanding and awareness rather than change

To this sub-category are coded comments that indicated their increase in understanding and

awareness rather than changes to perspectives which include:

“After two years the communication has improved significantly as the staff become

more aware of my idiosyncrasies and I become aware of theirs” (int21)

“Samoan culture has many similarities to Japanese culture. I’m very comfortable

working and living in Samoa. I’m used to differences, because I have lived in different

cultures and I accept that there are different ways of doing things” (int28)

KC5.13 Mostly learning experience

Coded here are perspectives that focused on their involvement as being learning experiences

with one commenting:

“This is my first assignment overseas, so mostly a learning experience for me. I feel

that this has been a very good experience that I would not have been able to get in

Japan which will enrich me personally and professionally. I feel that one has to keep

an open mind as every country is different” (int22)

KC5.14 Accept and adapt

Coded to this sub-category are changes to perspectives from being critical to adapting and

accepting with comments including:

“Initially hated the Samoans relaxed attitude towards time at the beginning but

eventually adapted/accepted it. Most things are done well but in stretched time.

People working in Samoa have allowed for this Samoan time in their planning” (int5)

“My perspective has changed dramatically. My lifestyle has slowed down in line with

local. I used to start work at 5am till 6pm six days a week and now I start at 8am till

5pm for five days. My attitude to business negotiations and site management has

changed. The realisation of local cultural values, limited resources, limited technical

know how and the need to some times improvise. Samoa is a much softer business

environment but also not discounting the fact that it is just as sharp as overseas”

(int30)

KC5.15 Generalising to not stereotyping

Coded here are changes to perspectives from generalising and stereotyping groups of people

to individual assessment with one commenting:

“One should not stereotype any group of people as not everyone in that group behave

and act the same way” (int23)

KC5.16 Ignorant to considerate

Coded here are changes to perspectives from being ignorant of the local culture and

practices to making an effort to understand with comments including:

“I am dealing with professional staff with overseas experiences. Expats need to

recognise that they are ignorant of many aspects of Samoan culture and if one sees

something one doesn’t understand, then one should try to ask for clarification” (int24)

The interview findings on changes to perspectives resulting from experiences highlighted

the diversity of responses on how international projects in Samoa have affected the

practitioners involved. Most of the comments were positive indicating increased awareness

and understanding, learning experience, changes to attitudes, and acceptance and adaptation.

This is as expected as individual practitioners have mindsets that are culturally conditioned

by their home cultures and are influenced by their years of cross-cultural experience and

level of hard and soft skills. The findings also revealed that the changes in perspectives are

influenced by the types of projects practitioners were involved in and the skills and attitudes

of people they worked with. This offers supporting evidence on how cultural differences

affect communication and impacts on international project management.

7.4 Summary

The findings from the qualitative analysis process are categorised under one core category

and an accompanying core result, along with five key categories and five key results. These

categories and results constitute the main findings of this phase of the study that addresses

the research questions directly. A number of sub-categories emanated from the data set

under each of the categories that provided further evidence to support the adopted analysis

framework. Furthermore, the results from the content analysis highlight the frequency and

total information divested under each category and sub-category, offering collaborating

evidence on its validity. The findings from this phase of the study are integrated, interpreted

and discussed in detail together with the results of phase one in the next chapter.

The findings for the core category revealed that most of the impacts of cross-cultural

communication on management systems were negative. The impact of cross-cultural

communication on the management of risks recorded the highest frequency (23) followed

by planning (22), quality (16), controlling (13), and reporting (6). The findings for key

category 1 provided evidence to support 13 factors influencing the context of cross-cultural

communication with practitioners’ values, attitudes, beliefs, expectations and aspirations

recording the highest frequency (64) followed by political (47), local industry and business

practices, standards and regulations (33), cultural (27), practitioners hard and soft skills

(22), nature and type of project (21), operational and strategic focus of donor, home, host,

management organisations (14), physical environment characteristics (9), economical (8),

technology (8), social (7), client requirements (5), and legal (4). These findings support the

central issue in this research that cultural difference affects the context of communication in


The top five ranked barriers to effective communication were poor work ethics, culture and

practices with a frequency of 57, followed by political and personal agendas (27), cultural

beliefs and practices (27), concept of time (26), and poor standards, quality, health and

safety (23). The top five strategies were local liaison with a frequency of 30, followed by

meetings and discussion forums (24), situational approach involving different modes of

communication (18), thorough selection, recruiting and training (14), and evaluative and

informative approach (12). The top five proactive measures include skills upgrading and

capacity building with a frequency of 22, followed by culturally sensitive and localised

approach (19), promote ownership of projects (15), inter-industry collaboration and

integration (11), and educational and awareness programs (11). These barriers to effective

communication provided evidence to support the issue investigated in this study that

cultural difference does affect communication in international project management. The

strategies and proactive measures identified offer support for a culturally appropriate

communication management process that incorporates the cultural strategy, the business

strategy and the human resources strategy. The findings for the changes in perspectives as a

result of experiences revealed how practitioners’ personal reflections can facilitate and

enhance the communication process in international project management.

Interpretation and Discussion Phase – Data Integration

8.1 Introduction

This chapter integrates the quantitative (phase 1: questionnaire) and qualitative (phase

2: interviews) data of the two phases of this sequential explanatory mixed methods study. It

provides a mechanism for discussion of the main issues arising out of this study in the

context of the literature reviewed in chapters 2, 3 and 4. The main conclusions drawn from

this integration process is presented in chapter 9. Hence, the analysis and discussion of the

results and findings are centred on the interpretation of the qualitative data and the outputs

of the statistical analysis. The structure of this chapter is designed to allow for the best

opportunity to address the aim, objectives, and research questions.

This study is set out in nine sections to investigate the impact of cross-cultural

communication on construction project management systems in Samoa; Section 8.2

Synthesising Phase 1 and Phase 2 data for interpretation and discussion; Section 8.3

Factors influencing the context of cross-cultural communication; Section 8.4 Barriers to

effective cross-cultural communication; Section 8.5 Strategies for effective cross-cultural

communication; Section 8.6 The impact of cross-cultural communication on construction

project management systems; Section 8.7 Proactive measures to improve communication;

Section 8.8 Influences of experiences on perspectives; Section 8.9 Summary.

8.2 Synthesising phases 1 and 2 for interpretation and discussion

Both phases of this study were implemented to address the research questions. The

questionnaire opinion survey in phase 1 was aimed at gaining a broad spectrum of

perspectives from a variety of industries in Samoa on cross-cultural communication and

related international project management issues. The interviews in phase 2 focused

specifically on the construction industry in Samoa with the aim of using the qualitative

findings to assist in explaining, interpreting and extending the results of the primary

quantitative phase.

Six areas are discussed;

1. Factors influencing the context of cross-cultural communication – the discussion

and interpretation in this section integrates quantitative data and results from

part a: Personal beliefs, part b: Extent beliefs were evident in projects

practitioners’ were involved in, and qualitative data from critical incidence

responses in parts g and f of phase 1, together with interview data of phase 2 that

emanated from the category on factors influencing the context of cross-cultural

communication. (Addresses research questions 1 to 4)

2. Barriers to effective cross-cultural communication – the discussion and

interpretation in this section integrates quantitative data from part c: The impact

of communication barriers, part d: the extent communication barriers were

overcome, and critical incidence qualitative data of phase 1 together with

interview data from phase 2 emanating from the category on barriers to effective

cross-cultural communication. (Addresses research questions 1 to 5)

3. Strategies for effective cross-cultural communication – the discussion and

interpretation in this section involves the integration of quantitative data from

part e: Communication strategies, and critical incidences from phase 1 together

with interview findings from phase 2 emanating from the category on strategies

for effective cross-cultural communication. (Addresses research questions 5 and

6)

4. The impact of cross-cultural communication on construction project

management systems – the discussion and interpretation in this section integrates

quantitative data and results as well as critical incidences from phase 1 with the

interview findings from phase 2. (Addresses research questions 1 to 6)

5. Proactive measures to improve cross-cultural communication – the discussion

and interpretation in this section involve the integration of quantitative data and

results as well as critical incidences from phase 1 together with interview data

from phase 2. (Addresses research question 6)

6. Section 8.8 Influences of experiences on perspectives – the discussion and

interpretation in this section integrates the quantitative results from phase 1 and

qualitative findings from phase 2. (Addresses research questions 1 to 6)

The questionnaire and interview data suggest that a fuller understanding and a holistic

account of communication in a cross-cultural project environment in Samoa is possible. The

overwhelming amount of evidence collected from the interviews across the range of

categories identified gave a very strong indication of their validity. One glaring factor from

the evidence collected indicates that to consider the impact of cross-cultural communication

on construction project management systems is not as straight forward as giving a ‘how?’

answer but highlights the necessity to provide the ‘what?’, “where?’, ‘who?’, ‘when?’ and

‘why?’ components of that answer. In essence, answering the question ‘how cross-cultural

communication impacts on construction project management systems?’ is juxtaposed within

all the categories and sub-categories that encapsulate this study’s aim and objectives and

therefore need to be considered as a whole.

8.3 Factors influencing the context of cross-cultural communication

The Kruskal-Wallis test in the quantitative questionnaire data (phase 1) on

practitioners personal beliefs (part a) in the value of communication in a cross-cultural

project environment revealed statistically significant differences in ten variables amongst

the nationality groups. These results were supported by the Mann-Whitney test results for

independent-pairwise group comparisons with the same ten variables plus one extra variable

statistically significant. In particular, A2-Comm. Plan, A3-Inter. Comm., A6-Meeting

overcome, A7-Org-culture, A10-Proj-type, A12-Proj-funding, A15-Plan outset, A16-Plan

Review, A18-Timing Vital, A20-Cultural dif, and A27-Tech-transfer were all statistically

significantly varied amongst the three nationality groups (Australian, Samoan, and Other

Expatriates). Table 6.14 of chapter 6 presents the interpretive summary of results for

personal beliefs. The results on personal beliefs overall suggest that relatively high

importance is placed by the respondents on the value of cross-cultural communication as

mean values ranged from 3.47MR for A12-Proj-funding to 4.95MR for A1-Comm. Vital on

a five point ordinal scale with endpoints 1-strongly disagree to 5-strongly agree. This

indicates a general agreement on the need for effective communication in a cross-cultural

environment with the higher rated variables suggesting support for emphasising the ‘soft’

side of management (Dinsmore, 1984).

One interesting result is the relatively low rating for A18-Timing is vital for effective

communication by the Other Expatriates, which is in contrast with the research literature

(Meredith and Mantel, 1995) that refers to timeliness as being crucial for communication in

a foreign context. Similarly, the absence of the need for A2-Communication plan from the

Australians and Other Expatriates’ higher rated items contrasts with the literature (Harvey

et al, 2000). The impression overall is that, relatively speaking, Samoans favour meetings

and planning (though not necessarily for the same reasons); while Other Expatriates have

less regard for meetings, timing and other possible influences. Australians, though generally

closer to Samoans, seem to favour a more reactive approach to management. Beliefs vary

according to nationality group. This evidenced the influences personal beliefs and sample

group characteristics have on cross-cultural communication.

However, the Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests results revealed no statistically

significant results for the extent beliefs were evident (part b) within the projects respondents

were involved in. The overall results for this section reflects the extent to which effective

communication is evident particularly in projects where cultural values and attitudes

influence the way project participants behave and communicate. Table 6.18 of chapter 6

presents the interpretive summary of results for the extent beliefs were evident. The results

overall suggest that relatively effective communication processes are in place as none fall

below 2.95MR, but that they are not regularly achieved or fully met as none come above

3.84MR on a five point ordinal scale with endpoints 1-never to 5-always. Cross-cultural

theorists (Jaafari, 2001) may attribute this to the tendency of managers to apply key success

factors intuitively, based on the manager’s reference framework (knowledge and personal

experience) and his or her ability to apply reflective thinking. The marked differences

between personal beliefs (part a) and extent beliefs were evident (part b) offer some support

for Dieckmann’s (1996) and Pardu’s (1996) views that the quality of the intentions is often

greater than the quality of what is actually practiced.

The most evident differences between the three nationality groups on the extent beliefs were

evident show the Samoans recording relatively lower ratings against the other two for B14-

Understanding and appreciation of cultural difference involved, B20-Effective

communication reflecting openness and tolerance of cultural differences, B23-Essential

communication to stakeholders for endorsement, and B25-Clear communication giving

stakeholders opportunity to comment/cast a vote. Australians, on the other hand, are high

against the other two for B12-Project type and duration influences communication strategy

and structure, B13-Ongoing communication between project proponents and stakeholders,

B22-Flexibility of form and style of communication, and B25-Clear communication giving

stakeholders opportunity to comment/cast a vote. Other Expatriates were high against the

other two on B8-Awareness of national culture and B9-Clear communication of

organisational and national objectives. This evidenced the influences of respondents’

beliefs on cross cultural-communication but also raises the need to consider other

influencing factors preventing beliefs to be realised in practice.

The critical incidence statements (parts f and g of questionnaire survey) support the

quantitative results (parts a, b) regarding personal beliefs on the value of communication in

a cross-cultural project environment. In addition, the critical incidences raised a number of

factors that influenced the context of cross-cultural communication which extends the

quantitative results with factors including: values and attitudes of project managers and

various stakeholders; the extent of involvement of locals; the prevailing industry standards,

codes and practices; hard and soft skills of practitioners; selection and recruitment of

personnel; and political and cultural influences. Table 8.1 presents the critical incidence

statements on factors influencing the context of cross-cultural communication.

The interview findings generally confirmed the questionnaire survey results and the critical

incidences on beliefs in the value of communication and factors that influence the context of

cross-cultural communication in an international project environment. The interview

findings also helped explain and extend questionnaire results as well as contributed to the

critical incidences on factors that influence the context of cross-cultural communication.

This offers support for the assertion that communication is contextual (Neuliep, 2000) and

that project communication is influenced by a number of factors broadly grouped by means

of a systems approach under socio-econo-political, suppliers, client, physical environment

and the project unit (Howes and Tah, 2003; Schneider and Barsoux, 2003).

Table 8.1 Factors influencing the context of cross-cultural communication: critical incidences

Item # STATEMENTS Factor





3





5 The ability of expat management staff to communicate with "local" labour force promotes harmonious relationships and produces very positive results for the project overall Influence

6



7 Donor countries should at all times give priorities to the needs, cultural requirements, coding and standards prevailing in host country Influence

8 Too much local involvement in projects can lead to failure Barrier and Influence

9 The importance of cross-cultural communication should never be underestimated. It is a constant ongoing process. Influence



11

In relation to what might follow your study, I am a little concern that we might conclude that the issues can be fixed easily enough through more consultants and more workshops and by requirements for each project to have a documented communications plan. In my view attitudes are not so easily or quickly changed. The real need is to ensure that papalagi with racist attitudes are not recruited in the first place


12

I think that you have tactfully avoided explicit reference to the biggest barrier to real cross-cultural communication. This is the ugly word: racism. Taking only the case of communications between Samoans and papalagi (whites): There used to be among whites a universal and inexcusable assumption that their race is innately superior. I think, Samoans have come to expect/suspect that these attitudes remain in each papalagi they meet and, until contrary is demonstrated, treat them with great caution. Those that they judge to be racist they treat with a distant politeness but there will never be real communication. Those that demonstrate that they have respect for Samoans as equal human beings have a chance of establishing a useful dialogue. In other words the barriers to communication are less to do with cultural differences than with entrenched personal attitudes

Barriers and Influence

The content analysis of interviews resulted in thirteen influencing factors on communication

(refer Table 7.11a of chapter 7), ranked in order of significance based on their frequency of

occurrence and the amount of information divested. Ranked number one is KR1.10-

Practitioners’ values, attitudes, beliefs, expectations and aspirations recording a frequency

of 64 and total information of 2984. Ranked number two is KR1.1-Political, recording a

frequency of 47 and a total of 2354. At the other end of the continuum, ranked thirteen is

KR1.8-Legal recording a frequency of 4 and a total of 213.

Table 7.11b of chapter 7 presents the ranked distribution of information amongst nationality

groups for factors influencing the context of cross-cultural communication. The results

overall show the Samoans recording the most information for KR1.1-Political; KR1.2-

Cultural; KR1.5-Local industry and business practices, standards and regulations; KR1.11-

Practitioners’ hard and soft skills; KR1.6-Operational and strategic focus of donor, host,

and management organisations; KR1.12-Physical environment characteristics; KR1.9-

Client requirements; and KR1.8-Legal. New Zealanders recorded the most for KR1.10-

Practitioners’ values, beliefs, attitudes, expectations and aspirations; KR1.7-Nature and

type of project; KR1.4-Economical; and KR1.13-Technology. Australians recorded the most

for Social.

The findings indicate a spread across the five groups (Australian, Japanese, New Zealander,

Other Expatriate, and Samoan) for KR1.1-Political; KR1.2-Cultural; KR1.5-Local industry

and business practices, standards and regulations; KR1.7-Nature and type of project;

KR1.6-Operational and strategic focus of donor, host, and management organisations; and

KR1.12-Physical environment characteristics. This does suggest that these influencing

factors were the most significantly evident within the projects practitioners were involved

in.

Closer inspection of results revealed the Samoans recording very high results for KR1.1-

Political; KR1.11-Practitioners’ hard and soft skills; KR1.12-Physical environment

characteristics; KR1.9-Client requirements; and KR1.8-Legal. Samoans and Australians

recorded similarly high results for KR1.2-Cultural; KR1.5-Local industry and business

practices, standards and regulations; KR1.6-Operational and strategic focus of donor, host,

and management organisations; and KR1.3-Social. New Zealanders and Samoans recorded

similarly high results for KR11.7-Nature and type of project while New Zealanders recorded

high results for KR1.10-Practitioners’ values, beliefs, attitudes, expectations and

aspirations and KR1.4-Economical. New Zealanders and Other Expatriates recorded

similarly high results for KR1.13-Technology. The results show Samoans and New

Zealanders recording information across the thirteen sub-categories, followed by

Australians recording for twelve sub-categories. Other Expatriates recorded information for

ten while Japanese recorded for eight. This suggests there is a wide spectrum of influences

affecting cross-cultural communication.

The research findings for this part of the investigation are consistent with Hofstede (1980)

and Trompenaars (1993) in the identification of certain dimensions that characterise

national, business and management cultures. Samoa can be seen as an example of a high

power distance country with status differentials, deference to leaders and decision making

highly centralised, tendency to view the organisation as a family, loyalty, obedience

expected and personalistic relations encouraged. In contrast many of the expatriate

managers and supervisors interviewed were from predominantly individualistic cultures that

are objective, criteria-driven, have impersonal relations, individual performance and

expertise is emphasised, and assertive behaviour and confrontation is expected. This result

supports the claims of other researchers such as Schwartz, (1994), Triandis (1994),

Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars (1993), Hooper (2000) and Meleisea (2000). The

frameworks presented by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) and Harris and Moran (2000)

suggested local Samoan personnel would have a high degree of collectivism based on a

traditional kinship system that has a structured social base and this turned out to be the case.

The questionnaire and interview data revealed that different and competing values, beliefs

and expectations affect the flexibility and the application of appropriate management

strategies (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003; Laroche, 2003). For example, the attitudes and

perspectives regarding ‘time’ by Expatriates and Samoan practitioners are in convergence

with the literature (Hall and Hall, 1990) that referred to ‘monochronic’ and ‘polychronic’

cultures. Cultures such as Samoa can be viewed as ‘polychronic’ where technological

qualities of business are superseded by relationships and time is very ‘elastic’

(Trompenaars, 1993). However, Japanese managers although classified by Hall and Hall as

‘polychronic’ are very clock conscious (Grove and Hallowell, 1999).

For managers of projects in Samoa it is frustrating when set and rigid deadlines are not met

by the local labour force. For expatriate practitioners in Samoa who are used to schedules

that are set in concrete, fixed agendas and business meetings that are rarely interrupted, the

‘Samoan experience’ would come as a complete culture shock initially. The research

findings indicate that many expatriate practitioners adapt themselves and their project

schedules around the ‘time’ issues, fa’alavelave aspect of fa’asamoa, and local business

culture. Another example is the influence of politics at all levels as indicated by the high

ranking in the results. Political influences take on a different dimension in small island

nations such as Samoa with the majority of practitioners indicating this which require

careful selection of management strategies to address. The questionnaire and interview

findings indicate that irrespective of factors influencing the context of communication, and

whether dominating or insignificant, success depends on how the practitioners’ control the

extent of influence and in managing competing needs and associated risks which is

consistent with the literature (Schein, 1992; Fellows et al., 2002; Haimes, 2003).

8.4 Barriers to effective cross-cultural communication

The Kruskal-Wallis test found variables ‘C8-Ineffective reporting system’, ‘C30-Poor

negotiation skills’, and ‘C35-Lack of trust’ to be significantly different amongst the groups

on the impact of communication barriers (part c). The Mann-Whitney test for G1 (Samoans)

and G2 (Australians) resulted in variables C1, C8, C26, C27, C28, C30, C32, and C35 to be

significantly different between the two groups. The pair-wise comparison for G1 (Samoans)

and G3 (Other Expatriates) resulted in variables C12, C13, and C35 with significant values.

G2 (Australians) and G3 (Other Expatriates) pair-wise comparison yielded no significant

results.

Table 6.23 of chapter 6 presents the summary of test results for the impact of

communication barriers. Here the Samoans perceive a significantly greater impact of ‘C1-

Conflicting cultural values’, ‘C8-Ineffective reporting system’, ‘C10-Interpersonal conflict’,

‘C12-Conflicting interest’, ‘C13-Resisting change’, ‘C26-Lack of confidence’, ‘C27-Poor

leadership’, ‘C28-Concept of space’, ‘C30-Poor negotiation skills’, ‘C32-Stereotyping’,

‘C33-Unclear objectives’ and ‘C35-Lack of trust’ than the other two nationality groups. In

contrast, the Australians perceive a significantly lesser impact of ‘C1-Political/community

interference’, ‘C8-Ineffective reporting system’, ‘C18-Limited resources’, ‘C22-Information

filtering’, ‘C24-Poor listeners’, ‘C26-Lack of confidence’, ‘C29-Personal preferences’,

‘C30-Poor negotiation skills’, and ‘C9-Language difficulties’ than the other two nationality

groups.

The respondents’ perceptions on the impact of barriers to communication have an overall

range of 1.71 to 3.08 MR, reflecting a minor to moderate impact. The results support what

some theorists posit as cultural values, tasks as well as situational variables that help

determine the norms for communication. The multiplicity of language use and the diversity

of cultures may have a constraining influence on communication in cross-cultural situations

(Terpstra, 1991; Ronen and Shenkar, 1985; Schneider and Barsoux, 2003).

The respondents’ perceptions of the extent to which barriers to communication were

overcome (refer Table 6.28 of chapter 6) has an overall range of 1.84MR to 2.45 MR,

reflecting a tendency towards partially to totally overcome. The result of the Mann-Whitney

test yielded the same result as the Kruskal-Wallis test, with ‘D12-Conflicting interest’ the

only significant variable between G1 (Samoans) and G3 (Other Expatriates) for the extent

communication barriers were overcome. This may be a consequence of the rating method

used, being a simpler, but less discriminating 3-point ordinal scale. This may also be

attributed to what the respondents perceive as constituting effective communication and is a

reflection of the manager’s background and training. Gudykunst and Nishida (2001) point

out that effectiveness of communication is a necessary function of an individual’s ability to

cope with uncertainties and anxieties which is supported by the questionnaire results.

However, the questionnaire results suggest that the types and nature of aid projects in the

Pacific such as those carried out in Samoa, which involves adhering to government-to-

government protocols and guidelines may have an influence on respondent’s answers

(Terpstra and David, 1991). Probably the most expected result is the consistently low rating

by the Samoans on most of the variables which could be attributed to the Samoans being

more aware of the local environment, and are therefore influenced by and to a certain extent

controlled by environmental factors (Deresky, 2000).

The critical incidence responses support the quantitative results and leads us to posit that

factors that tend to reduce the uncertainty associated with trying to determine which

behaviours are appropriate or inappropriate relative to the host culture (in this instance,

Samoa) would generally facilitate adjustment. On the other hand, factors that may increase

uncertainty would tend to inhibit the adjustment. Table 8.2 presents the critical incidence

responses on barriers to effective cross-cultural communication. The results are consistent

with the literature (Black, 1988), which assert that adjustment, generally is defined and is

operationalised as the degree of a person’s socio-cultural comfort with various aspects of a

new setting. The responses relating to socio-cultural adjustment are consistent with the

literature (Ward and Chang, 1997; Kirkman and Shapiro, 1997) which indicates that socio-

cultural adjustment is related to culture specific skills, the ability to negotiate the host

culture, or general cultural competence as measured by the amount of difficulty experienced

in the management of everyday situations in the host culture.

Table 8.2 Barriers to effective cross-cultural communication: critical incidences


1 Greater problems occur from remote officers being unaware of challenges of local circumstances Barrier

2 Government departments and their employees do not understand their obligations after accepting work assignments - expatriate companies do - the mix in one project was most uncomfortable - incompatible teams

Barrier

3 The local government department failed to enforce legislation - villagers and village authorities prevailed Barrier

4 Lack of control, commitment, "ownership" expressed by other stakeholders impacts negatively on communication and projects management systems Barrier

5 Changing objectives and expected deliverables during the course of the project impacts negatively on communication and projects systems Barrier

6 Breaking or unfulfilling of contractual obligations as a cause of communication breakdown Barrier

7 Some major stakeholders would not attend meetings - "contact us when the project is completed" attitude Barrier

8 Tendency of Samoans to switch off English language at social occasions can be frustrating Barrier

9 Lack of competent key personnel from the contractors side seems to be the most problematic in projects where local contractors are employed Barrier

10 Cross-cultural communication enhanced/delayed progress of project e.g. inappropriate use of English language where target group are Samoans with limited English Barrier



12



13



14 Too much local involvement in projects can lead to failure Barrier

15 The barriers to communication are less to do with cultural differences than with entrenched personal attitudes Barrier

The critical incidence responses indicate how the cultural environment is posited to

influence ethical issues, which in turn precedes individual ethical decision-making as

suggested in the literature (Hunt and Vitell, 1986). Armstrong (1996) found a strong link

between individualism and perceived importance of ethical problems which is supported by

the questionnaire results. The questionnaire results indicate that in collectivistic societies

like Samoa, the individual is ‘outer directed’ and controlled by the need to save face by

meeting the group’s requirements which is in congruence with the literature (Armstrong,

1996; Ting-Toomey, 1988; Harris and Moran, 2000). The critical incidence results provided

collaborating evidence supporting the quantitative results on barriers to effective cross-

cultural communication. A number of responses in this section mentioned that the questions

provided them with a useful framework for reflecting on current and past experiences and

focused on aspects of cross-cultural communication necessary for managing adjustment and

change in foreign contexts. Issues relating to racism and prejudice were raised by

respondents and were consistent with the literature (Schlossberg, 1984; Drake, 1994)

indicating how, by virtue of exposure to cultural customs and surroundings different from

one’s own, the individual redefines an understanding of self and/or the surrounding world.

The interview findings generally confirmed the questionnaire survey results and the critical

incidences on barriers to effective cross-cultural communication (refer Table 7.20a, chapter

7). The results show that KR2.22-Poor work ethics, culture and practices is ranked number

one with a frequency of 57 and a total of 3628 followed by KR2.12-Political and personal

agendas with a frequency of 27 and a total of 1676. At the other end of the continuum,

KR2.23-Differences in personalities is ranked last with a frequency of 3 and a total of 100.

The results indicate that KR2.22-Poor work ethics, culture and practices is by far the most

common barrier to effective cross-cultural communication experienced by the practitioners’

which supports the assertion that differences in ethics between national cultures may be a

significant source of friction between expatriates organisations and their host cultures

(Grossman and Schoenfeldt, 2001).

The distributions of total information on barriers to effective cross-cultural communication

amongst nationality groups as a result of content analysis are presented in Table 7.20b of

chapter 7. The results indicate a spread across the five nationality groups (Samoans,

Australians, New Zealanders, Japanese, Other Expatriates) for KR2.12-Political and

personal agendas; KR2.2-Cultural beliefs and practices; KR2.9-Concept of time; KR2.13-

Poor standards, quality, health and safety; KR2.5-Lack of technical competence; KR2.8-

Lack of flexibility and sustainability; KR2.10-Lack of trust and confidence; and KR2.1-

Language.

Samoans are high against the others for KR2.12-Political and personal agendas; KR2.2-

Cultural beliefs and practices; KR2.9-Concept of time; KR2.7-Top-down bureaucracy and

bureaucratic red tape; KR2.8-Lack of flexibility and sustainability; KR2.5-Lack of trust and

confidence; KR2.3-Ethnocentrism; KR2.1-Language; KR2.24-Lack of support and

commitment; KR2.20-Lack of planning, coordination and integration. Samoans also

recorded 100% for KR2.11-Lack of incentives and low pay and KR2.25-Colonial mindset.

Other nationality groups mentioned their awareness of low pay and the need for incentives

but did not view it as a barrier stating that their pay rates are higher than the rate set by the

local government and those paid by local contractors.

Australians were ranked high against the others for KR2.6-Project ownership issues;

KR2.18-Lack of proper records, systems and policies; KR2.26-Change in work practices

and culture; KR2.19-Staff turnover; and recorded similarly high results with New

Zealanders for KR2.22-Poor work ethics, culture and practices. New Zealanders were

ranked high against the others for KR2.13-Poor standards, quality, health and safety;

KR2.14-Lack of resources; KR2.4-Lack of appropriate skills and training; KR2.23-

Differences in personalities; and recorded similarly high results with Samoans for KR2.5-

Lack of technical competence; similarly high results with Australians for KR2.15-Land

acquisition issues; and similarly high results with the Japanese for KR2.16-Public holidays.

Perhaps the most interesting and enlightening findings to emerge from the interviews are the

perceptions associated with KR2.22-Poor work ethics, culture and practices; KR2.6-Project

ownership issues; KR2.15-Land acquisition issues; and KR2.25 Colonial mindset.

Attitudes towards time can interfere with the communication process (Victor, 1992) and the

results of interviews reflect the differing perceptions of time between expatriate managers

and local counterparts in Samoa. The responses relating to the cultural variable of time and

uncertainty coincided with the mainstream literature (Hall, 1990), in classifying Samoan

culture as polychronic. That is, Samoans are non-linear, responsive, informal and flexible in

resolving problems and planning projects. The literature on Samoa (Linkels, 1995;

Meleisea, 2000) asserts that the Samoans take a fatalistic approach to problem solving and

greatly value face-to-face communication processes. The ability, highlighted in the literature

(Linkels, 1995; Meleisea, 2000), of Samoans to handle multiple tasks and the tendency to

ignore schedules, preference for spontaneity and informality in meetings, is supported by

the survey responses. The interview responses indicate how workers in societies

characterised by low-power distance (Samoa) are less likely to accept their superior’s

questionable practices (Nyaw and Ng, 1994) and is reflected in the emphasis on KR2.22-

Poor work ethics, culture and practices.

The questionnaire and interview data prove that barriers to communication do impact

greatly on project management systems. The questionnaire and interview findings show that

the extent of this impact depends on the skills of practitioners involved, the environmental

factors and the management strategies employed which is consistent with the literature

(MacDuffie, 1995; Reich, 1991; Adler, 1997; Redmond, 2000). Lack of communication

according to Pardu (1996) has been cited as one of the biggest reasons for the failure of

change projects to meet their expectations. The literature states that there is a contrast in

approaches on management issues between collectivistic individuals (Samoans, Japanese)

and some individualistic individuals (Australians, New Zealanders, and Other Expatriates).

The findings of the field work in Samoa reinforce the literature on individualistic cultures

which place high value on speaking their minds and value accuracy over face-saving

(Waterman, 1994, Gudykunst, 1991). Most of the expatriate managers and supervisors in

Samoa reiterate the ‘I’ identity over the ‘We’ identity which has precedence in collectivistic

cultures (Hofstede and Bond, 1984). In contrast, the Samoan and Japanese managers

emphasised the needs of the group, the value of cooperation and the influence of the main

in-groups such as family, church (Samoa) and work group (Japan). Status and role are

greatly emphasised in collectivistic societies (Gudykunst, 1991) and this is reflected in

Samoa’s matai and kinship systems and supported by the questionnaire and interview data.

The quantitative results and qualitative findings reflect the experiences of managers from

individualistic or low context cultures (for example, Australia and New-Zealand) with local

personnel from a high-context cultural society like Samoa. The situations presented are

potentially stressful which is consistent with literature, and may impact on the success of

international projects. The data collected from the questionnaire and interviews supports this

literature and highlights the impact of cultural differences on communications and project

management.

The relationship between adaptation, adjustment, effective management and communication

in Samoa underpins successful implementation and sustainability of a project. Research

findings highlight how ethnocentric attitudes become a barrier to knowledge transfer and

learning (Welch et al., 1994), and the questionnaire and interview data showed that this is

the case. Culture shock, lack of effective communication skills and intercultural competency

are aspects that managers have highlighted as factors which are detrimental to effective

cross-cultural communication. Stereotypical attitudes are prevalent in projects conducted in

Samoa. Expatriate managers are viewed as authoritarian figures who are unquestionable by

locals and who are viewed as holding all the ‘answers’ and ‘solutions’. Samoan practitioners

view this as a communication barrier and have called it ‘colonial mindset’. Some expatriate

managers display ethnocentric attitudes towards local counterparts and the research findings

indicate that this may cause conflict and strained relationships between Expatriate and

Samoan managers. Loosemore (1997) asserts that stereotypes harm communications by

isolating behavioural traits and limiting communication and the questionnaire and interview

data support this.

8.5 Strategies for effective cross-cultural communication

The Mann-Whitney independent-pairwise group comparisons yielded significant

results for five variables (E1, E9, E10, E12, and E15) which is one variable (E12) more than

the four found by the Kruskal-Wallis test (E1, E9, E10, and E15). The results from the two

tests show much convergence with one supporting and complementing the other. The

interpretive summary of test results from the questionnaire data for communication

strategies employed are presented in Table 6.29 of chapter 6. The Australians rated ‘E9-

Consultative Approach’ and ‘E12-Incremental changes’ higher and ‘E1-Comprehensive

communication plan’ lower than the other two nationality groups. The very low rating of

‘E10-Suggestion box’ particularly by the Australians is indicative of the nature of

international projects where time and resource constraints make this strategy rarely if ever

used. The Samoans rate this variable higher than the other two which may suggest that this

strategy may have already been employed by the host organisation. The results show

Samoans and Australians rate ‘E15-Timely reports’ higher than the Other Expatriates. The

majority of the results of the overall responses pertaining to the communication strategies

employed range from 3.13 to 4.11 MR with one variable outside this range ‘E10-Suggestion

box’ recording 1.82 MR.

The results indicate a tendency towards sometimes and regularly employed for all but one of

the strategies. This is consistent with the literature (Saphiere, 1996; Adler, 1997), which

asserts that it is necessary for overseas assignments to have positive interactions between

project staff, team-building, problem solving exercises, and strategies for conflict resolution

and cultural adaptation, which may be integral ingredients for project success. According to

the literature (Black, 1988) conflicting signals about what is expected of individuals in a

new setting (i.e., role conflict) would be expected to increase uncertainty and inhibit

adjustment. In a new cultural setting, conflicting signals may generate a high degree of

uncertainty since individuals need to first understand the messages about what to do and

then decide which messages to either follow or ignore. That none of the items returned

ratings at either end of the score analysis continuum (1-never to 5-mandatory) suggests that

variables within cultural contexts need to be addressed through a number of strategies that

suit the situation and circumstance. This also suggests that appropriate pre-departure

training, as well as through support during the sojourner period in cross-cultural

environments is necessary to facilitate adjustment (Black and Mendenhall, 1990; Goldstein

1989, cited in Belout 1998).

Table 8.3 Strategies for effective cross-cultural communication: critical incidences



Strategy


3

Other communication strategies used include: adopting different communication styles for different situations; using the national language in critical situations; use of adviser/counterpart partnering-mentoring; selective recruitment of appropriate personnel

Strategies


Strategy


Strategy


Strategy

7 In my view attitudes are not so easily or quickly changed. The real need is to ensure that papalagi with racist attitudes are not recruited in the first place Strategy

The critical incidences offer support for the survey results on strategies for effective cross-

cultural communication. In addition, the critical incidences indicate (Table 8.3) that both

local and expatriate managers viewed the ability to build personal relationships

(collectivistic trait) before formalising business relationships, as well as the view that time

commitments were desirable but not binding, as key aspects of ‘fa’asamoa’. These views

are consistent with contemporary literature (Hofstede, 1980, 1997; Triandis, 1994) on

individualism-collectivism values in international project management. The effect of coping

with the impact of human and cultural factors on communication in cross-cultural

environments such as Samoa may require some level of host country proficiency. According

to the literature (Black et al., 1991), without this proficiency it may be difficult to

communicate genuinely with host country nationals in a new culture. The critical incidences

confirmed the view that the selection process for expatriates need to take into account their

ability to interact and communicate with people from cultures different to their own

(Schuler, 2000) as well as the use of situational strategies involving adopting different

communication styles, using national language in critical situations, use of partnering-

mentoring approach, and selective recruitment of appropriate personnel (Rhinesmith, 1992;

O’Leary-Kelly and Bowes-Speery, 2001).

Most of the interview findings do confirm the quantitative results and critical incidences

with a few exceptions: KR3.8-Timely reports is ranked the highest in the questionnaire

results but ranked relatively low for the interviews; E3-Delegating responsibilities is ranked

high in the questionnaire results but contrasts with the interview results which ranks KR3.9-

Constant supervision highly; Samoans rate E5-Team meetings the highest in the

questionnaire results and in the interview findings they are ranked second to New

Zealanders. In addition, some interesting interview findings include the use of strategies like

KR3.5-Local liaison, KR3.20-Respect and equality, KR3.14-Humour and diplomatic and

KR3.21-Balanced management and manageable teams.

Table 7.29a of chapter 7 presents the summary of results from the content analysis of

interviews for strategies employed. The results indicate that KR3.5-Local liaison has the

number one ranking recording a frequency of 30 and total information equalling 1214. This

strategy has been very effective with a frequency of 29 out of 30 indicating this. The

strategy with the least frequency and total information is KR3.11-Incremental changes,

recording a frequency of 1 and total information 14. The results also indicate that most of

the strategies were very effective (total frequency of 206) with a few that were sometimes

effective (frequency 38) and only two were ineffective. Evidenced also from the interview

findings is the common use of ‘example’ as the communication mode between expatriate

supervisors and local construction workers as indicated by the high ranking of KR3.2

Situational approach involving different modes of communication.

The distribution of information amongst the nationality groups is presented in Table 7.29b

of chapter 7. The results show the top ranked strategy KR3.5-Local liaison spread across the

groups with Samoans recording 43.6%, New Zealander 24.2%, Japanese 16.3%, Australian

8.1%, and Other Expatriate 7.8%. Similarly, for the second ranked strategy KR3.6-Meetings

and discussion forums, New Zealander recorded 43.7%, Samoan 26.7%, Japanese 12.2%,

and Australians 11.7% while Other Expatriate recorded 5.7%. At the other end of the

continuum, the strategy with the least frequency of 1 and total information of 14 is KR3.11-

Incremental changes, with Samoan recording 100% of the information. Four strategies

KR3.5-Local liaison, KR3.6-Meetings and discussion forums, KR3.4-Thorough selection,

recruiting and training, and KR3.7-Reinforce procedures and follow up had distributions

across the five nationality groups.

The results indicate the Samoans are ranked highest against the others for KR3.5-Local

liaison, KR3.4-Thorough selection, recruiting and training, KR3.20-Respect and equality,

KR3.10-Feedback, open two-way communication, KR3.12-Adaptability, flexibility and

continuous improvement, KR3.1-Consultative approach, KR3.16-Comprehensive

communication plan, KR3.17-Be proactive and improvise, and 100% for KR3.11-

Incremental changes. New Zealanders are high against the others for KR3.6-Meetings and

discussion forums, KR3.2-Situational approach involving different modes, KR3.13-

Evaluative and informative approach, KR3.9-Constant supervision, KR3.18-Commitment,

support and trust, KR3.14-Humour and diplomatic approach. New Zealanders also

recorded similarly high results with Australians for KR3.8-Timely reports, similarly high

result with Japanese for KR3.15-Initiation program, and recorded 100% for KR3.21-

Balanced management and manageable teams. Australians recorded the highest for KR3.19-

Networking and building relationship, KR3.3-Mentoring and coached approach, and similar

results with Samoans and New Zealanders for KR3.7-Reinforce procedures and follow up.

Crucial to cross-cultural project management and communication in particular is the

application of appropriate strategies to suit the situation and circumstance. This point is

supported by research literature (McEnery and DesHarnais, 1990; Lancaster, 1998) and

repeated in the questionnaire and interview data. The questionnaire and interview data

revealed that the most common modes of communication used by expatriate practitioners in

their dealings with the locals were example, visual and verbal which support the literature

on cross-cultural interaction. The literature on cross-cultural management highlights the

difficulties with language, particularly the technical language as a barrier to communication,

which meant that written methods were seldom used at the operational level, and this is

supported by the questionnaire and interview data. The questionnaire and interview data

revealed that manuals had to be translated as English versions were too technical and

culturally overladen which is in congruence with the literature.

The questionnaire and interview data revealed that in Samoa, there is an emphasis on face to

face contact, which is in congruence with the literature on traits associated with

relationship-oriented cultures. Expatriate managers who are used to communicating via

technologies such as fax, email and telephone are often disconcerted at delayed or non-

response which supports the literature on traits associated with individuals from deal-

oriented cultures. However, those who utilised face to face meetings with local counterparts,

government departments and officials found these interactions to be successful in

communicating project needs. The questionnaire and interview data converges with the

literature which asserts the importance of kinesics, proxemics, and para-language in

communication in cross-cultural situations (Lossemore, 1997; Harvey and Allard, 1995,

Hoecklin, 1994; Grove and Hallowell, 1994).

This section of the investigation reiterates the importance of applying effective strategies

that not only overcome barriers but also to achieve outcomes that are beneficial to all

stakeholders. In congruence with the literature (Redmond, 2000), the questionnaire and

interview data highlighted the importance placed by practitioners on the value of

‘competency’ on intercultural communication. Project practitioners identified the need for

specific competency skills to ensure effective communication within the project host

culture. These competencies include clear and effective problem-solving strategies,

awareness and sensitivity, understanding new language and local customs and collaboration.

New competencies emerging from the research findings include knowledge transfer from

locals to expatriates in contrast to traditionally held perspectives of knowledge transfer only

flowing from expatriate practitioners to locals.

Conflict resolution in Samoa as indicated by the questionnaire and interview data uses a

variety of strategies which include a consultative approach, consensual process and

mediation through village council, use of matai or person in positional authority, and

established networks or contacts. The emphasis in Samoa in resolving conflicts is based on

maintaining relationships and harmony as indicated by the questionnaire and interview data

which is in congruence with the literature on relationship-oriented cultures with

collectivistic values. Expatriate managers in Samoa from deal-oriented cultures tend to

value direct and frank language in business contexts while relationship-oriented Samoans

favour a more indirect, subtle, round about style that avoids insulting others through body

language or direct response which is revealed by the questionnaire and interview data. This

is in congruence with the literature (Gesteland, 1999; Thambain and Wilemon, 1974;

Triandis, 1995).

Questionnaire and interview data are also in congruence with literature in identifying

methods for conflict resolution which include withdrawal, suppression, force, compromise

and confrontation (Blake and Moulton, 1964; Thambain and Wilemon, 1974). This

research’s findings indicate Japanese managers in Samoa advocate group collaboration or

problem solving to tackle issues. The questionnaire and interview data revealed that most

expatriate managers (Australian, New Zealander, and Other Expatriate) in Samoa advocate

the direct, forceful approach while many Samoan managers view withdrawal and

compromise as the most appropriate strategy within this ‘high context’ relationship focused

culture. Hofstede (1991) found that avoidance of direct confrontation was a characteristic of

a collectivistic culture, which is consistent with this research’s findings. The questionnaire

and interview data supports the literature on the importance of viewing things from another

perspective, of putting oneself in another person’s shoes when interacting with people from

other cultures.

The questionnaire and interview data emphasised the need to consider the business strategy,

the cultural strategy and the human resource strategy which supports the socio-technical

model of Human Resource Management advocated by Howes and Tah (2003). All

practitioners interviewed emphasised the necessity and importance of recruiting and

retaining appropriately qualified and skilled staff. The training and upgrade of skills was

viewed by the majority of practitioners as a key aspect in HRM. Findings emphasise the

aspects of accountability and transparency in project management systems. Both local and

expatriate practitioners stressed the need to understand and utilise knowledge in both

strategic and international human resource management which is consistent with the

literature (Wright and McMahan, 1992; Schuler, 1993; Schuler, 2000).

Expatriate practitioners in Samoa in general viewed integration as the best form of

interaction which supports the literature. Tung (1993) suggests that under integration the

better elements of the host and home cultures are preserved, combined and expanded and

this is reiterated by the questionnaire and interview data. Research findings indicate how the

degree of acculturation by expatriate practitioners greatly impacts on project management

systems in Samoa, in the way they deal with issues and their selection of strategies to cope

with barriers to effective communication. Questionnaire and interview data support the

literature on key skills for effective leaders as espoused by Harris and Moran (2000) and

Kudykunst (1991) which include cultural sensitivity, effective intercultural performance,

cultural synergy, intercultural communication, work culture and world culture. Expatriate

managers working in Samoa have drawn on previous experiences in the South Pacific to

assist in adjusting and communicating effectively.

Other supporting literature outlines competency skills required for effective communication

and these include intercultural competence, social empathy, knowledge of the host culture,

language competence, adaptation, and social integration (Redmond, 2000; Roger and

Kincaid, 1980; Leavitt and Bahrami, 1988). This research’s findings indicate that expatriate

managers who attempted to increase competencies and skills such as those outlined, found

that they were able to develop strong and effective communication channels with locals

through the use of feedback, simplification of language, eliminating emotions and watching

one’s non-verbal cues which is in congruence with the literature. Other expatriate managers

who did not attempt to increase their awareness of the host culture and intercultural

competence encountered a number of barriers that hindered effective cross-cultural

communication which impacted on project planning and outcomes, which also supports the

literature. The literature is in congruence with the questionnaire and interview data which

showed that strategies such as socialising with local counterparts outside of the work

context reaped benefits for expatriate managers as they gained an insight into the

importance of establishing relationships in the Samoan context which in turn had a positive

impact on project management.

8.6 The impact of cross-cultural communication on project management systems

The respondents’ perceptions for part c of the questionnaire survey on the impact of

barriers to cross-cultural communication have an overall range of 1.71 to 3.08 MR on an

ordinal scale with endpoints 1-Insignificant to 5-Catastrophic, reflecting a minor to

moderate impact. While the respondents’ perception for part d of the questionnaire survey

on the extent to which barriers to communication were overcome has an overall range of

1.84MR to 2.45 MR on an ordinal scale with endpoints 1-Not at all to 3-Totally, reflecting a

tendency towards partially to totally overcome. These results suggest that relatively

effective communication strategies were employed to lessen the negative impact and

enhance positive outcomes. The results for part e of the questionnaire survey on strategies

employed support this with the employment of all of the predetermined strategies. The

majority of the results of the overall responses pertaining to communication strategies

employed ranged from 3.13 to 4.11 MR with one variable outside this range ‘E10-

Suggestion box’ recording 1.82 MR on an ordinal scale with endpoints 1-Never to 5-

Manadatory. The results indicate a tendency towards sometimes and regularly employed for

all but one of the strategies.

The critical incidences highlight some negative impacts of cross-cultural communication on

management systems which supports the quantitative results. Table 8.4 presents some of the

critical responses emphasising the negative impact on management systems caused by the

lack of commitment, control, ownership, changing objectives, lack of technical competence,

inappropriate use of English, interpersonal conflicts and too much local involvement. The

results emphasised the fact that projects are people centred and management is behavioural

which supports the literature (Gray, 2001). Respondents indicated that there were incidences

of stressful interactions between the locals and expatriate counterparts which is in

congruence with the literature. Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey (1998), Furnham and Bochner

(1982) attribute this to cultural distance when a person from a feminine culture (Samoa)

which values harmony and relationships comes into conflict with someone from a masculine

culture (Australia, New Zealand, Other Expatriate) who place more emphasis on

materialism and wealth and have a more assertive style of communication.

Table 8.4 Impact of Cross-cultural communication on management systems: critical incidences Item

# STATEMENTS Factor

1 Lack of control, commitment, "ownership" expressed by other stakeholders impacts negatively on communication and project management systems

Negative impact

2 Changing objectives and expected deliverables during the course of the project impacts negatively on communication and projects systems

Negative impact

3 Lack of competent key personnel from the contractors side seems to be the most problematic in projects where local contractors are employed

Negative impact

4 Cross-cultural communication enhanced/delayed progress of project e.g. inappropriate use of English language where target group are Samoans with limited English

Negative impact


Negative impact

6 Too much local involvement in projects can lead to failure Negative impact

The interview findings confirmed the questionnaire results and reiterate the critical

incidence responses regarding the impact of cross-cultural communication on project

management systems. The summary of results from the content analysis for the impact of

cross-cultural communication on construction project management systems is presented in

Table 7.5a of chapter 7. The results show that the impact of cross-cultural communication

on the management of risk was highest with a frequency of 23 and total amount of

information is 1958, and reporting with the lowest consisting of frequency at 6 and total

information of 445. The results also indicate that most of the impacts were negative with a

range of 66.7% for reporting to 92.3% for controlling, whilst of positive impact range

between 7.7% for controlling to 33.3% for reporting. However, the interview findings for

KR3: Strategies indicate that most of the strategies were very effective (total frequency of

206) with a few that were sometimes effective (frequency 38) and only two were not

effective, suggesting that despite the negative impact, most were overcome or managed in

such a way that their impact on the projects were insignificant.

Table 7.5b of chapter 7 presents the distributions of information amongst the nationality

groups on the impact of cross-cultural communication on construction project management

systems. The results show the spread across the nationality groups for the impact of cross-

cultural communication on the management of risks with Australians recording the most

information (36.1%), New Zealanders recording 29.3%, Samoans recording 20.5%,

Japanese recording 10.0%, and Other Expatriates recording the least (4.1%). Samoans

provided the most responses for planning and quality with 49.7% and 36.3% respectively

while New Zealanders recorded the second least with 14.0% and 16.7%, and Other

Expatriates had none for both. The New Zealanders provide the most for controlling with

39.2% whilst Australians had the second least with 11.3% and Other Expatriates with none.

The Japanese recorded the highest for reporting with 43.8% while Samoans had the second

least with 13.7%, and Australians with none. This evidenced the impact of cross-cultural

communication on construction project management systems.

Trompenaars’ (1993) set of parameters highlighted aspects of cultural differences which are

consistent with this research’s findings. Interview findings portray Samoan practitioners as

neutral, diffuse and whose culture emphasises ascription. In contrast, Australians, New

Zealanders, and Other Expatriates revealed individuals who were affective, specific and

who accorded status through achievement. A source of friction between local practitioners

and expatriates that is highlighted by the research findings is the differences in attitudes

towards ethical issues. Some practices may be viewed as unfair and potentially unethical,

such as those associated with land acquisition in Samoa. According to Hofstede (1980),

individuals in collectivistic societies may make commitments based on morals and duty

while individuals from individualistic cultures form commitments for calculative reasons

and this was shown in the responses in the questionnaire and interview data.

The research findings highlight how ethical dilemmas impact on project management

systems and how they impact on relations between expatriate organisations and their host

cultures which supports the literature (Grossman and Schoenfeldt, 2001). The interview

findings highlight the ethical issues in relation to human resources, communication and its

impact on management systems. The questionnaire and interview data showed that the

predominance of collectivistic values in Samoa is perceived by some expatriate practitioners

as a hindrance which is in congruence with the literature. However, other literature

advocates how diversity can be harnessed to provide ‘cultural synergies’ (Harris and Moran,

2000). The understanding of cultural differences as well as similarities has been identified in

the questionnaire and interview data as a step in the direction of being able to communicate

effectively within a cross-cultural situation which supports the literature.

The major implication for cross-cultural communication as highlighted by the literature and

supported by the questionnaire and interview data is that it impacts on all management

systems and therefore requires the application of appropriate management strategies that

takes into account the values, beliefs and attitudes of people involved, their skill level, the

physical environment and resources, the industry and business practices, and the political,

social, cultural and economical influences. The questionnaire and interview data supports

the literature on other aspects to take into account which include the type and nature of

projects, the legal considerations, technological, and the strategic and operational focus of

the donor, home, host and management organisations. This research’s findings are

consistent with research literature (Steers, 1991; Ghoshall and Bartlett, 1997; Yeung and

Ready, 1995) which highlights how cultural differences impact greatly on project planning

and success. “What’s right” is closely aligned with cultural differences and how they are

perceived. According to Brock and Thomas (1998), research into cultural influences has

been largely overlooked. Using appropriate resources at the right time in the right place

according to Brock and Thomas will result in organisational success. This perspective is

consistent with the questionnaire and interview data which indicate that leadership styles

and communication approaches has to take into account not only the project environment

but also the acceptance of the wider local community.

This research’s findings shows how ‘noise’ is caused through cultural variables resulting in

negative implications for communication between Expatriates and local Samoans which is

consistent with the literature. The messages communicated are received via an interpretation

of meaning influenced by culture, experience, relations and values. ‘Noise’ is anything that

serves to undermine the communication of the intended meaning (Deresky, 2000). This

research’s findings illustrate that messages communicated by senders are not always

received with the interpretation that the sender intended which supports the literature. The

questionnaire and interview data revealed that for projects in Samoa, this

miscommunication may impact on deadlines, timeliness, quality, and may cause cost

overruns and frustration, which is in congruence with the literature.

8.7 Proactive measures to improve communication

The results on personal beliefs (part a: questionnaire) indicates a general agreement

on the need for effective communication in a cross-cultural environment with the higher

rated variables suggesting support for emphasising the ‘soft’ side of management. The

results overall for the extent beliefs were evident (part b: questionnaire) suggest that

relatively effective communication processes are in place but that they are not regularly

achieved or fully met suggest that the quality of the intentions is often greater than the

quality of what is actually practiced. The majority of the results of the overall responses

pertaining to the communication strategies employed (part e: questionnaire) indicate a

tendency towards sometimes and regularly employed for all but one of the strategies. The

quantitative results evidenced the need for proactive measures that places emphasis on the

soft side of management (Grove and Hallowell, 1999), the realisation that the environment

has a bearing on the communication process which may go against practitioners’ personal

beliefs, and the need to have a wide range of management strategies to effect

communication to achieve project outcomes which is in congruence with the literature

(Harris and Moran, 2000).

Critical incidences support the quantitative results emphasising the need for networking and

building relationships, public awareness programs, use of multiple strategies, and thorough

selection and recruiting process as proactive strategies. This evidenced the need to focus on

the soft side of management both in training and in practice and in the application of

strategies that suit the project environment which supports the literature. Table 8.5 presents

the critical incidences pertaining to proactive strategies. The ‘wa’ concept in Japan which

means group harmony and cohesion is similar to Samoan collectivistic values. However, the

literature suggests that the most valued in-group in Japanese culture is the work group or

company while this research’s findings indicate that in Samoa the family group takes

precedence over other in-groups. The critical incidence data showed that Australians, New

Zealanders and Other Expatriates view competent leaders as those that can help individuals

realise their full potential which is consistent with the literature (Harris and Moran, 2000).

The questionnaire and interview data highlight the importance of understanding the ethical

values of the host culture which is supported by the literature. Ethnocentric and racist

attitudes have been identified by expatriate and local practitioners as catalysts for

communication breakdown. O’Leary-Kelly and Bowes-Sperry (2001:88-89) assert, that the

probability of ‘ethical breaches’ is reduced when managers take into account the ethical

values of the host culture.

Table 8.5 Proactive strategies: critical incidences



Strategy


3 Other communication strategies used include: adopting different communication styles for different situations; using the national language in critical situations; use of adviser/counterpart partnering-mentoring; selective recruitment of appropriate personnel

Strategies

4 Cross-cultural communication has rarely been a barrier. While many cross-cultural issues exist, these have always been overcome with goodwill and social occasions Strategy


Strategy

6 Personal relationships e.g. between advisers and counterparts. Are they friends? Do they get together in non-work time? Friendship ensures good co-operative work Strategy

7 In my view attitudes are not so easily or quickly changed. The real need is to ensure that papalagi with racist attitudes are not recruited in the first place Strategy

The interview findings on proactive measures confirmed the quantitative results and the

critical incidences. The interview findings also extend the quantitative results and critical

incidences in helping explain and explore proactive measures. Table 7.38a of chapter 7

presents the summary of results from the content analysis for proactive measures to improve

cross-cultural communication. The most frequent of the proactive measures however

indicate the need to upgrade skills and capacity building, followed by the need to apply

culturally sensitive and localised approaches. Other interesting findings include the need to

promote ownership of projects, inter-industry and inter-departmental collaboration,

practitioners’ with common vision, sustainable measures, construction specific research

and statistics, and do not expect to delegate. The least frequent proactive measures from the

findings include increase resource pool, incremental changes, and set reasonable targets.

The findings suggest that perhaps the most urgent and appropriate proactive measures are to

upgrade skills and to take culturally sensitive and localised approaches to managing

projects and cross-cultural communication.

The distributions of information amongst the nationality groups for proactive measures to

improve cross-cultural communication are presented in Table 7.38b of chapter 7. The results

indicate a spread across the five nationality groups for KR4.2-Skills upgrading, ranked

number one recording a frequency of 22 and total information equals 860. KR4.23-

Culturally sensitive and localised approach is ranked second recording a frequency of 19

and a total of 836. Ranked twenty-six recording the least frequency (1) and total (36) is

KR4.22-Set reasonable targets.

The results show the Samoans recording the most against the others for KR4.2-Skills

upgrading, KR4.23-Culturally sensitive and localised approach, KR4.3-Promote ownership

of projects, KR4.5-Inter-industry and inter-departmental collaboration, KR4.9-Be tolerant

and understanding, KR4.19-Change in work culture, ethics and practices, KR4.7-Industry

training and work experience, KR4.10-Effective transfer of technology, KR4.20-Equity,

KR4.25-Effective planning and keep good records, KR4.18-Make informed decision, KR4.1-

Sustainable measures, KR4.21-Increase resource pool and KR4.22-Incremental changes.

Australians are ranked highly in contrast to other groups for KR4.6-Practitioners’ with

common vision, KR4.17-Encourage and motivate, KR4.8-Do not expect to delegate,

KR4.12-Set reasonable targets, however Australians recorded similarly high results with

Samoans for KR4.16-Educational and awareness programs. New Zealanders are ranked

highly compared to the other groups for KR4.4-Construction specific research, KR4.24-Use

locals in positional authority, KR4.11-Well balanced management and work teams, and

record similarly high results with Samoans for KR4.14-Networking and build relationships.

Culture shock has been noted by most expatriate practitioners in Samoa as something that

even the most experienced international project managers go through time and time again

which is consistent with the literature. For those who come to Samoa on their first overseas

assignment they are confronted by an environment in marked contrast to what they are

accustomed to, although some Japanese managers indicated that Samoan culture is very

similar to their own. This research’s findings indicate that anxiety felt by expatriate

practitioners in Samoa stems from uncertain feelings at what they might encounter within

the Samoan context which supports the literature. Those practitioners who have not had pre-

arrival and post-arrival cross-cultural training experience anxiety in their cross-cultural

interactions which is in congruence with the literature. According to the literature, when

anxiety is above one’s maximum threshold or below one’s minimum threshold, one is

unable to communicate effectively (Gudykunst, 1993). To be motivated, one’s anxiety has

to be below one’s maximum threshold. Adler (1987) notes that culture shock can lead to a

high degree of self-awareness and personal change which is supported by the questionnaire

and interview data. The questionnaire and interview data show that culture shock is a very

real and challenging phenomenon for project managers in international development

projects and that preparation prior to departure as well as support throughout the duration of

the project is essential to ensure minimal negative impact on cross-cultural communication,

which is consistent with the literature.

Evident from this research’s findings and supported by the literature is that post-arrival

cross-cultural training is an especially effective tool to facilitate adjustment of expatriate

managers (Selmer et al., 1998). Most practitioners interviewed emphasised the importance

of training and knowledge transfer. Expatriate practitioners can be said to be ‘agents of

change’, which is consistent with the literature (Lancaster, 1998). Some practitioners

indicated that in some projects, little transfer of knowledge takes place and local

counterparts often feel ill prepared to take over management of projects once expatriate

practitioners have left which is in congruence with the literature. Questionnaire and

interview findings highlight how expatriates can also benefit from learning about local

practices which is consistent with the literature (Cyr and Schneider, 1996). The

questionnaire and interview data show that in Samoa, the emphasis on valuing harmony,

cooperation, status quo and consensus in decision making is in contrast to entrepreneurial

cultures with its emphasis on long, legalistic contracts and its approach to deal making and

contracts which is supported by the literature (Grove et al., 1999). This research’s findings

highlight how Samoan culture emphasises the establishment of hierarchical relationships

and emphasis on the group, in contrast to entrepreneurial cultures (Australian, New

Zealand) who promote an ideology that support and encourage individuals, supported by the

literature.

The results in this section highlight the need for project managers to think proactively and

the application of culturally sensitive and appropriate strategies that involves locals to gain a

sense of project ‘ownership’ which is in congruence with the literature on cross-cultural

management. The questionnaire and interview data stress equally the need to upgrade skills

and to ensure that projects include capacity building components so that knowledge and

technology transfer is not just realised but also sustainable which is also consistent with the

literature. This is supported by the literature that asserts projects are like ‘building blocks’

for organisational development, which ultimately translates to the national level (Cleland,

1999). The literature asserts that understanding the differences and working towards an

agreed consensus allows effective communication to take place which is supported by the

questionnaire and interview data. A ‘learning to learn’ approach (Senge, 1992) allows both

parties to use diversity as a positive component in working relations.

8.8 Influences of experiences on perspectives

The most salient feature in the quantitative results which is supported by the critical

incidences in phase 1 is the need for non-indigenous managers to achieve an adequate level

of cultural competence. Of particular note are the managers’ realisations about cultural

influences on their own behaviours including value conflicts with others, and the

importance of developing at least a tolerance for cultural differences. A feature is the link

between personal transition and cultural adjustment. Managers, who were able to set aside

personal discomforts and take on new ways of learning and relating to others, reported an

impact on their value shifts and appreciation for the strengths and diversity of the host

culture and its influence on projects. This is consistent with the literature (Child and

Rodrigues, 1996) on international project managers as agents of learning. Stress-

management training has been identified in the literature (Harvey, 1997) as a necessary

feature of programs designed to prepare managers for effective communication overseas

which is supported by the questionnaire and interview data. The questionnaire and interview

data show this to be especially useful at the initial entry into the new environment when

differences between home and host cultures are most noticeable and overwhelming which is

in congruence with the literature.

The interview findings generally confirmed the assertions highlighted in the literature and

supported by the questionnaire data, as indicated by some practitioners who have noted

changes in their perspectives on a number of fronts regarding different aspects of cross-

cultural communication and project management. Table 7.47 of chapter 7 presents the

summary of results from the content analysis for the influences of experiences on

perspectives of practitioners. The highest number of practitioners 8 (31%) provided

comments coded under KC5.12 emphasising that although their perspectives have not

changed but they have an increased sense of awareness and understanding of the local

environment and its people. Other significant results include KC5.14-Accept and adapt

rather than get frustrated; KC5.11-Reduced level of expectation regarding local standards

and labour skills, resources available, work and business practices; and the need for KC5.9-

Pre-assignment training, during project support, and debriefing after projects for

performance evaluation and organisational development.

The most pertinent aspects to emerge from this part of the investigation is that positive

value shifts and changes in perspectives are made possible through practitioners’

willingness to ‘see things the way other people see things’, the realisation of constraining

environmental factors, and the skills to deliver project outcomes that meet the various

stakeholders needs. The findings articulate the need for project managers to utilise a range

of cross-cultural communication approaches, which incorporate a mix of styles which may

include direct-indirect, elaborate-exacting-succinct, personal-contextual and instrumental-

affective which supports the literature (Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey, 1988). Some

expatriate practitioners in Samoa describe how their communication styles have changed

during their sojourn in Samoa from initially a direct and personal style associated with

individualistic cultures (Australia and New Zealand) to a relatively indirect and affective

communication style. These practitioners emphasise that they have learned to adapt to the

‘fa’asamoa’ and local business culture which supports the literature that highlighted the

need to adapt and adjust to the host environment to ensure positive outcomes.

8.9 Summary

The quantitative results and qualitative findings of this investigation into the impact of

cross-cultural communication on construction project management systems in Samoa found

beliefs to be generally in agreement with the literature. Moreover, the research findings

highlight the link between the cultural strategy, the business strategy and the

communication strategy and its impact on international project management. The research

findings identify a need for cultural sensitivity when designing an inter-organisational

communication strategy for the management of international projects. The research findings

also indicate that an organisation must have a global perspective and be willing to modify

communication strategies that are appropriate within the context of host cultures – “Think

globally, Act locally”.

The questionnaire results and interview findings are in congruence with earlier research

literature on the effect of cultural difference on communication and its impact on

international project management. The 13 factors identified as influencing the context of

cross-cultural communication supports the earlier literature on the need for broad

considerations with a localised focus in the communication management process in

international project management. The identification of barriers to effective cross-cultural

communication, their predominantly negative impact, and the application of appropriate

strategies to deal with cultural difference were evident in the questionnaire and interview

findings which supports the literature. The questionnaire and interview results revealed how

proactive measures to improve cross-cultural communication in Samoa, if implemented

appropriately can facilitate the communication management process which is in congruence

with earlier research literature. Earlier research literature asserts how positive value shifts

through personal reflections gained through experiences affect communication and impacts

on international project management which is supported by the questionnaire and interview

findings.

The questionnaire and interview data also highlight the need for the communication

management process to be dynamic enough to accommodate environmental factors,

stakeholders’ needs, organisational objectives and personal expectations and aspirations,

which is in congruence with the literature. The field work in Samoa revealed how the

impacts of cross-cultural communication on project management systems were mostly

negative. However, these negative impacts were combated through effective strategies and

proactive measures. What is strongly evident in both the questionnaire and interview data

and reinforced in the literature is the necessity for managers in cross-cultural situations to be

open minded and adaptable to new cultural experiences.

Conclusions and Implications

9.1 Introduction

This chapter identifies the main points covered in this study through summarising and

drawing conclusions based on the literature reviewed (Chapters 2, 3, and 4), the

methodology used to provide data to investigate issues identified (Chapter 5), and the results

and findings of this investigation (Chapters 6, 7) in conjunction with the discussion and

interpretation carried out in chapter 8. It highlights the contributions this study makes to the

construction management field. Implications of this study are also discussed and

recommendations for future research stated.

Highlighting the contributions this study makes involves listing ‘new’ themes arising out of

the research on factors affecting the context of cross-cultural communication. Table 9.1 lists

the main categories, noting the degree that extant literature had explicitly addressed new

themes. Most of the results and findings of this thesis confirm expectations from the body of

literature reviewed in chapter 2, but it is the first time that this has been done for a small

island nation such as Samoa. In that respect, most results and findings extend previous

research and are of interest because they add a new depth to our understanding of cross-

cultural communication within a construction project environment. The focus in the

conclusion will be on salient and significant contributions or additions to knowledge arising

from the quantitative results and qualitative findings about:

• Disconfirmations of expectations derived from the literature, indicated by the

categories with a “to some extent” entry in table 9.1;

• Areas where there were some speculations in the literature but no empirical testing,

indicated by the categories with a “to a very small extent” entry in table 9.1; and

• New areas which had not been raised in the previous literature, indicated by

categories with a “none” entry in table 9.1.

Table 9.1 Categories with ‘new’ themes and degree they are explicitly addressed by literature

Degree extant literature explicitly addressed Categories with ‘new’ themes

To some extent To a very small extent None

Factors influencing the context of communication • Political influence

o Ministerial agenda o Behind the scene and ad hoc instructions o Territorial

√ √ √

• Cultural influence o ‘Fa’alavelave’ aspect of fa’asamoa o Respect ‘fa’aaloalo’ aspect of fa’asamoa o Matai system

√ √ √

• Social o ‘Va fealoai’ or public relations

√

• Nature and type of project √ • Operational and strategic focus of

home/host/donor/management organisations √

• Local industry and business practices and standards

o Pay advances and loans o Varying standards

√

√

Barriers to effective communication

• Land acquisition issues √

• Project ownership issues √

• Lack of incentives and low pay √

• Too many public holidays √

• Colonial mindset √

• Poor work ethics, culture and practices √ Strategies for effective communication

• Communication plan √

• Lead by example √

• Consultative approach or ‘soalaupule’ √

• Local liaison √ Impact of communication on management systems

• Fa’asamoa √ Proactive measures to improve communication

• Promote ownership of projects √

• Inter-industry collaboration, integration … √

• Do not expect to delegate √

• Construction specific research √

• Practitioners with common vision √ Influences of experiences on perspectives

• Accept and adapt √

• Reduced level of expectation √

• Pre-assignment training as opposed to debriefing √

• Increased awareness and understanding rather than change √

• Ethnocentric to polycentric √

9.2 Conclusions about research questions

The aim of this research is to define and consider the key principles and issues of

human and cultural influences on international construction project management and cross-

cultural communication evaluation processes. Six research questions were posed to address

the aim and objectives of this research. They form sub-sections 9.2.1 to 9.2.6 of this chapter

and present the conclusions drawn from the interpretation and discussion of the results and

findings in the context of the literature reviewed covered in chapter 8.

9.2.1 Research Question 1

What are the key aspects and issues underlying ‘culture’ for international project

management?

This question is covered in the literature on culture, diversity and characteristics of the

South Pacific Islands and Samoa reviewed in chapters 2, 3, and 4. The review of the

literature found that cultural dimensions, typologies of culture, cultural orientations and

cultural assumptions, levels of culture, cultural spheres of influence, variables and

determinants of culture, intercultural variation, value orientation, cultural differences,

group-individual orientation, cultural distance, ethical distance, cultural relatedness, cultural

tendencies, and diversity are key aspects and issues underlying culture for international

project management.

7.2.1.1 Cultural dimensions

The conclusions drawn from the research findings for cultural dimensions are presented in

Table 9.2. It must be noted that the findings are consistent with the literature. Previous

researchers have already noted that these dimensions and orientations exist in all cultures

and that some tendencies predominate over others. “Cultural dimensions” refer to subparts

of culture that help explain how and why people from various cultures behave as they do

(for example those presented by Hofstede (1980) and Trompenaar (1993). “Cultural

orientations” refer to tendencies of people from various cultures to behave as they do (for

example those presented by Hall and Hall (1990). The two terms refer to subparts of culture

and can be interchangeable.

Table 9.2 Conclusions: Research Question 1 – Cultural Dimensions

Power distance (Hofstede 1980); Equality/hierarchy (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1993) – degree of tolerance for hierarchical or unequal relationships.


The findings are consistent with the literature in characterising Samoa as a high power distance society with decision making highly centralised; large pay and status differentials; acceptance of authority and deference to the leader; and control of information by organisation heads/leaders. In contrast, the findings indicate that most expatriates are from low power distance cultures (Australia, New Zealand and Other Expatriates) with decentralisation of decision making; small pay and status differentials; expectations of involvement and non-differential subordinate-superior relations; and open information and communication systems. The findings also indicate that the Japanese displayed high power distance characteristics which are consistent with the literature.



The findings indicate that Samoan practitioners are generally accepting for uncertainty and risk which is in congruence with the literature indicating these cultures have less organisational formality and formalisation; limited use of policies, rules, and procedures; more use of generalists and organisations value and encourage heterogeneity; and managers are more willing to take risks in decision-making. In contrast, expatriate practitioners have little acceptance for uncertainty or risk which is also consistent with the literature indicating these cultures value greater organisational formality and formalisation, extensive use of policies, rules, and procedures, more use made of specialists, organisations value and strive for homogeneity, managers more risk-averse in decision-making, and attention to detail emphasised.

Individualism (Hofstede 1980; Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1993) – degree of emphasis placed on individual accomplishment


The findings indicate that Samoans displayed predominantly collectivistic characteristics with the tendency to view the organisation as a family and to expect to be looked after like a family member; engagement with the organisation is on a moral basis; employees will reciprocate with loyalty and obedience to the organisations who protect their interests; holistic evaluation of persons and their performance; internal promotions; and personalistic relations. In contrast, most expatriates displayed individualistic tendencies which are consistent with the literature indicating organisations are viewed neutrally and there are limited expectations of the organisation in terms of the personal life of members; engagement with the organisation is on a calculative basis; employees will stay with the organisation only as long as the exchange relationship is relatively positive; objective, criteria-driven evaluations; open, competitive promotions; impersonal relations; individual performance and expertise emphasise. Japanese practitioners also displayed collectivistic tendencies which are in congruence with the literature.

Masculinity (Hofstede 1980) – degree of stress placed on materialism


The research findings are in congruence with the literature with Samoan practitioners displaying femininity characteristics with acceptance of those who do not value a career – both men and women; wary of intra-organisational competition, preference for co-operation; supportive and encouraging behaviour is valued; and harmony is sought and confrontation avoided. In contrast most expatriate practitioners are of the masculinity tendencies that have high expectation that men will pursue a career, and will be considered as failures if they do not; encouragement and acceptance of intra-organisational competition; aggressive and assertive behaviour is valued; and conflict and confrontation are expected. Japanese practitioners were found to be of the femininity tendency which is also consistent with the literature.

Table 9.2 (cont’d)

Confucian dynamism (Hofstede 1980); Orientation toward time (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1993) – degree to which a society takes long-term versus a short-term orientation in life


The research findings show the Samoans displaying high Confucian dynamism in contrast to most expatriate practitioners who were low on this dimension which is consistent with the literature. The Japanese practitioners were concerned with ‘saving face’ and social norms and at the same time very task oriented which is also consistent with recent literature that highlighted changes in Japanese culture (Grove and Hallowell, 1999).

Universalism (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1993; Triandis 1994) – describes norms for regulating behaviour

Universalism – codes of laws exist that apply equally to all Particularise – individuals enjoy special rights or privileges because of their status

The research findings are consistent with the literature in characterising most expatriates as being universalistic with their focus more on rules than relationship; legal contracts are readily drawn; a trustworthy person is one who honours their word or contract; there is only one truth or reality, that which has been agreed to; and a deal is a deal. In contrast, Samoans seem to be displaying particularistic characteristics where their focus is more on relationships than on rules; legal contracts are readily modified; a trustworthy person is the one who honours changing mutualities; there are several perspectives on reality relative to each participant; and relationships evolve. The Japanese also displayed predominantly particularistic characteristics.

Achievement (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1993; Triandis 1994) – describes how power and status are determined


The research findings are in congruence with the literature that show the expatriate practitioners to have a tendency towards Achievement – use of titles only when relevant to the competence you bring to the task; respect for superior in hierarchy is based on how effectively his or her job is performed and how adequate their knowledge; and most senior managers are of varying age and have shown proficiency in specific jobs. In contrast, Samoan practitioners lean predominantly towards Ascription – extensive use of titles, especially when these clarify status in the organisation; respect for superior in hierarchy is seen as a measure of your commitment to the organisation and its mission; and most senior managers are male, middle-aged and qualified by their background. Analysis/integration (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1993) – the relative emphasis of society’s members to consider organisations or event in terms of separable parts vs. consideration of the whole


The research findings indicate a tendency for high-integrated individuals amongst Samoan practitioners whereas expatriates have a tendency towards high-analysis individuals which is consistent with the literature.

Orientation toward the environment (Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars 1993) – the relative emphasis of society’s members on sources of motivation and values stemming internally from the individual versus the external environment


The research findings are consistent with the literature that highlight the Samoan practitioners’ predominance towards the external source of motivation and values and therefore strive to remain in harmony with their environment but not in structured compliance. In contrast, expatriate practitioners reveal more of the internal source of motivation and values and therefore try to control their environment, also consistent with the literature.

9.2.1.2 Cultural orientation

The conclusions drawn from the research findings for cultural orientations are presented in

Table 9.3.

Table 9.3 Conclusions: Research Question 1 – Cultural Orientations

Low context cultures (Hall and Hall, 1990) – communicate with the mass of the information vested in the explicit code. Associated with deal oriented cultures.

High context cultures (Hall, 1990) – communicate most of the information in the physical context or internalised in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message. Associated with relationship oriented cultures.

The research findings are in congruence with the literature in characterising Samoa as a high context culture whereas most expatriates are from low context cultures (for example Australia and New Zealand). The findings are also consistent with the literature in characterising Japan as a high context culture.

Deal oriented cultures (Hall and Hall, 1990; Gesterland, 1999) – prefer to get straight down to business and value direct, frank, straight forward language when dealing with business situations

Relationship oriented cultures (Hall and Hall, 1990; Gesterland, 1999) – prefer to get to know the people before business and favour a more indirect, subtle and round about way of dealing with business situations

The research findings are consistent with the literature in classifying Samoa and Japan as relationship oriented cultures whereas most expatriates were from deal oriented cultures.

Monochronic cultures (Hall and Hall, 1990) – see time as linear and moving and therefore are very strict on schedules, punctuality and place monetary value on time

Polychronic cultures (Hall and Hall, 1990) – see time as flexible and stretchable and are not so obsessed with time schedules and punctuality

The research findings are in congruence with the literature in classifying Samoa as a polychronic culture whereas most expatriates were from monochronic cultures. The findings are also consistent with recent literature that asserts Japan was polychronic but have become highly monochronic (Grove and Hallowell, 1999).

Hierarchical relationship (Lee and Peterson, 2000) – values harmony, co-operation, status quo, and consensus in decision-making

Entrepreneurial orientation (Lee and Peterson, 2000) – values freedom, independence, self-sufficiency, taking initiative, individualism, achievement and materialism

The findings revealed that in Samoa, hierarchical relationships are the norm which is in contrast to most expatriates who have a tendency towards entrepreneurial orientation which is consistent with the literature. The literature is also supported by the findings in regards to Japanese practitioners valuing hierarchical relationships.

Neutral (Trompenaars, 1993) - In Neutral cultures people believe that emotions should be held in check so as not to cloud issues or give the appearance of being out of control.

Affective (Trompenaars, 1993) - In Affective cultures people express emotions immediately and openly either by laughing, smiling, grimacing, scowling and gesturing.

The findings are consistent with the literature that show the Samoan and Japanese practitioners to be Neutral - do not reveal what they are thinking or feeling; may (accidentally) reveal tension in face and posture; emotions often dammed up, will occasionally explode; cool and self-possessed conduct is admired; physical contact, gesturing or strong facial expressions often taboo; and statements often read out in monotone. In contrast, expatriate practitioners are Affective - reveal thoughts and feelings verbally and non-verbally; transparency and expressiveness release tensions; emotions flow easily, effusively, vehemently and without inhibition; heated, vital, animated expressions admired; touching, gesturing and strong facial expressions common; and statements read fluently and dramatically.

Table 9.3 (cont’d) Diffuseness (Trompenaars, 1993) - Diffuseness is the degree we engage others in multiple areas of our lives and at several levels of personality at the same time.

Specificity (Trompenaars, 1993) - Specificity is the degree to which we engage others in specific areas of life and single levels of personality.

These are closely related to whether we show emotions in dealing with people or not. The findings support the literature indicating how expatriate practitioners (Australians, New Zealanders, and Other Expatriates) have a tendency for Specificity - direct, to the point, purposeful in relating; precise, blunt, definitive and transparent; principles and consistent moral standards independent of the person being addressed. In contrast, Samoan and Japanese practitioners have a tendency for Diffuseness – indirect, circuitous, seemingly “aimless” forms of relating; evasive, tactful, ambiguous, even opaque; and highly situational morality depending upon the person and context encountered.

The first research question concentrated on identifying the key aspects and issues

underlying cultural impact on international project management. The research findings

reflect the significant influence that culture plays in project management within cross-

cultural contexts reinforcing Neulip’s (2000) assertion that communication is contextual.

Furthermore, tables 9.2 and 9.3 as well as frameworks presented by Kluckhohn and

Strodtbeck (1961) and Harris and Moran (2000) highlight how contrasting cultural

dimensions have the potential to form a chasm or barriers between local Samoan personnel

with high degree of collectivism based on traditional kinship systems with structured social

base, and expatriate managers and personnel who are predominantly individualistic whose

behaviour is influenced by socio-cultural variables of their home cultures. Another key

finding is the need for careful planning for communication that allows for flexibility and the

application of appropriate management strategies to deal with unique aspects of Samoan

culture such as ‘time’ issues, fa’alavelave, and local business culture. A fundamental need

in all international projects is the delivery of effective communication processes so that

project development is assisted and all stakeholders’ needs are met. To ensure this is

delivered, it is necessary for project managers to make culturally sensitive and appropriate

decisions. That decision-makers are somewhat separated from the outcomes of their

decisions was identified. Research findings into the cross-cultural paradigm also revealed

implications for decision-making in cross-cultural communication management processes.


What are the key functions and considerations underpinning ‘human resources’ for

international project management?

This question was partly addressed by the literature on human resource management

reviewed in chapters 3. The review of literature found that there are key functions and

considerations underpinning ‘human resources’ for international project management,

including; integration of human resource management, (HRM) models applicable to

international construction, international HRM functions (planning, recruitment and

selection, redundancy and dismissal, repatriation, staff appraisal, staff development, job

evaluation, reward system and management including allowance, and industrial relations),

and strategic HRM, resources and competencies (acculturation, ethical issues, cross-cultural

training, agents of learning, and hierarchical relationships versus entrepreneurial

orientations).

This thesis extends the literature on key functions and considerations by underpinning

human resource management for international projects as indicated by the integration of

eleven key factors, including;

• shift of focus from the hard to the soft side of management;

• support for the socio-technical model of human resource management;

• the necessity and importance of recruiting and retaining appropriately qualified and

skilled staff;

• the importance of training and upgrading of skills for local project personnel;

• the contrasting perspectives between expatriate and local personnel with regards to

accountability, transparency and ethical issues;

• the need to understand and utilise local knowledge in both strategic and international

human resource management;

• the importance of ‘competency’ on intercultural communication including clear and

effective problem-solving strategies, awareness and sensitivity, understanding new

language and local customs, and collaboration;

• the emergence of new competencies which include knowledge transfer from locals

to expatriates in contrast to traditionally held perspectives of knowledge transfer

only flowing from expatriate practitioners to locals;

• the value of drawing upon previous experiences in the South Pacific to assist in

adjusting and communicating effectively within a cross-cultural context;

• the importance of viewing things from another perspective, of putting oneself in

another person’s shoes when interacting with people from other cultures; and

• the varying perspectives by expatriate practitioners toward integration and

acculturation.


What are the key elements and qualities underlying ‘leadership’ for international

project management?

The literature on global managers reviewed in section 3.2 of chapter 3 focused on this

question. The review of the literature found leadership and globalisation, cultural influences,

human influences, and key skills (cosmopolitaness, intercultural communication, cultural

sensitivity, acculturation, cultural management influences, effective intercultural

performance, changing international business, cultural synergy, work culture, and world

culture) to be key elements and qualities underlying ‘leadership’ for international project

management.

The research findings in general confirmed the literature on key elements and qualities

underlying leadership for international project management. The conclusions drawn from

the findings emphasised:

• the importance of key skills for effective leaders which include cultural sensitivity,

effective intercultural performance, cultural synergy, intercultural communication,

work culture and world culture;

• the value in nurturing strong and effective communication channels with locals

through the use of feedback, simplification of language, eliminating emotions and

watching one’s non-verbal cues;

• the effectiveness of communication as a necessary function of an individual’s ability

to cope with uncertainties and anxieties;

• the critical link between socio-cultural adjustment and culture specific skills;

• the extent to which the Samoan environment is posited to influence ethical issues,

which in turn precedes individual ethical decision-making; and

• the contrasting leadership styles and communication approaches between local

managers and expatriates.


What is the context of cross-cultural communication evaluation in international

project management?

The review of the literature in section 2.4 of chapter 2 found the following factors to be

involved in the evaluation process for the context of cross-cultural communication in

international project management: cultural variables, emerging realities (continual

innovation, global markets, strategic planning and technological change), contextual

(cultural, micro-cultural, environmental, perceptual, socio-relational), cross-cultural

communication styles, cultural issues (cultural shock, cultural competency, time,

stereotypes, language and signs), conflict management, communication strategies

(uncertainty and anxiety), and intercultural communication competence (social empathy,

knowledge of the host culture, language competence, adaptation, communication

effectiveness, and social integration).

The research findings generally support the literature. Project management evaluation is a

key aspect in international project communication processes. It is clear from the literature

and the field work in Samoa, that for projects to achieve deliverables in foreign contexts,

considerations wider than purely quantitative factors must be incorporated into project

planning and evaluation. Such broader issues, in keeping with the role of international

projects, in particular those relating to foreign aid to areas such as the Pacific, include

twelve factors; socio-cultural; political; economical; client requirements; practitioners

values, attitudes, beliefs, expectations and aspirations; practitioners hard and soft skills;

technology; strategic and operational focus of home, host, donor, and management

organisations; type and nature of project; local industry and business practices, standards

and regulations; legal; and local environment considerations. These factors need to be

considered by projects in order to implement effective communication within cross-cultural

environments. Equally important for the cross-cultural communication management process

is the identification of barriers, strategies, proactive measures, their impact on management

systems, and the changes in perspectives as a result of experiences. One key contextual

issue was the role of managers and the realisation that this role is changing. Also identified

in current literature and confirmed by the research findings was the shift in emphasis from

the technical or hard factors of projects to the soft or organisational factors. Another

significant issue emerging from the research is the impact of globalisation on international

project management systems and how it influences cross-cultural communication

management processes.


How does cross-cultural communication impact on international project management

systems?

The literature reviewed in chapters 2, 3 and 4 highlight how cross-cultural communication

difficulties can impact on project management systems due to cultural differences, ethical

issues, dispute resolution, perceptual mindsets, and values and attitudes which ultimately

affect time, cost and quality.

The research findings generally confirmed the literature on the impact of cross-cultural

communication on management systems as well as extending and shedding new light on the

topic. This thesis highlights;

• the impact of cross-cultural communication on management systems;

• the negative emphasis of most of the impacts;

• the use of effective strategies to manage negative impacts and minimise risks;

• the impacts of ethical dilemmas on project management systems and on relations

between expatriate organisations and their host cultures;

• the emergence of ethical issues in relation to human resources, communication and

its impact on management systems;

• how cultural differences impact greatly on project planning and success;

• how the extent of impact is linked to the skills of practitioners involved, the

environmental factors and the management strategies employed; and

• how miscommunication may impact on deadlines, timeliness, quality, and may

cause cost overruns and frustration.


In what ways can these cross-cultural communication and project management issues

be addressed?

A sound cross-cultural communication management process is needed for international

projects for a number of reasons. Firstly, in recognition of the limitations of resources

available to international projects to plan and implement project objectives, not all possible

projects may be able to meet the communication needs of both home organisation and host

culture. This, then, requires a management process that will select appropriate strategies for

effective cross-cultural communication. Secondly, international projects, by their very

nature are required to satisfy the needs of those that fund the projects. In the Pacific region

the projects are in most part funded through government-run aid agencies. A clear and

consistent process enables transparency in decision-making and accountability of

governments to project stakeholders. Effective communication therefore becomes a

necessary priority to enable effective management by personnel from different cultural

backgrounds.

While the opportunities to challenge international project aims and decision-making are not

the subject of this thesis, the needs, rights and opportunities of citizens of the host culture in

this regard are recognised. The accountability of international projects emphasises the need

for an open and transparent communication management process. Such a process is a key

risk management tool. That the process clearly recognises broader cultural and societal

goals, interests and impacts, such as environmental, socio-cultural issues, cross-cultural

transition and adjustment, places international project managers in a better position to

manage communication effectively in foreign contexts. The opportunity for criticism by

parties disaffected by project decisions may be lessened if projects can demonstrate

consideration of broader cultural and human factors. A transparent and accountable process

for cross-cultural communication and decision-making is necessary in the face of political

or other criticism.

The following represents conclusions drawn from the discussion and interpretation of

results and findings of this study in chapter 8 that addresses research questions 1 to 6, and of

contextual and international project management issues discussed in chapters 2, 3 and 4. To

avoid flawed communication, a process for management and evaluation should be

established that considers:

• the dynamic nature of communication evaluation and be flexible enough to

incorporate contemporary research, approaches, and methodologies;

• the establishment of a framework that should reduce uncertainty and anxiety by

providing a ‘point of departure’ and outlining strategies for decision-makers to refer

to;

• effective decision-making is necessary to meet cross-cultural communication needs;

• international, bi-lateral, and regional agreements;

• cultural and human factors in decision-making;

• the changing roles and nature of project management and counters this through

flexibility, adaptability, transparency, accountability, sensitivity and responsibility;

• the need to set communication and decision-making in context – the wide

framework and the whole of project context. The extent of this may be determined

by the size and nature of the project;

• the unique and special considerations necessarily attached to international projects,

in particular, those at government to government level;

• how decision-makers and key stakeholders separated from project outcomes may be

remedied with increased and effective communication;

• how micro and macro issues impact on organisational and national cultures;

• the ways in which project managers may rely on heuristic decision-making;

• the aspects of the behavioural paradigm which is an important influence on decision-

making and communication;

• proactive measures to improve communication;

• changes in perspectives resulting from experiences;

• the tendency for short term focus and the need to focus on longer term international

project management considerations; and

• the evaluation of project priorities, requirements, and systems that seeks a balance

between competing needs.

9.3 Conclusions about the research problem

This section builds on the contributions based on initial assumptions provided in

section 1.3 of chapter 1. The research problem is covered in detail in section 9.2 of this

chapter whereas here, the contributions regarding ‘new’ themes in addressing the research

problem as highlighted in Table 9.1 in the introductory section of this chapter is presented.

Modification to the framework developed in chapter 2, 3 and 4 is also presented here as part

of the summary of how this research has added to the body of knowledge.

Figure 9.1 Conceptual framework:

Cross-cultural Communication Management Process

The factors influencing the context of cross-cultural communication were isolated from the

literature. The research findings provided evidence to validate all these factors as

influencing the context of cross-cultural communication. The research findings also

established a strong link between changes in perspectives as a result of experiences and the

impact of cross-cultural communication on project management systems. This can be

COMMUNICATION

Strategic

Management Project

Unit Operational

Industry and Business Practices

Social

Ordnance and regulation

Political

Technology

Legal

Economical

Home and Host Cultures

Hard and Soft skills of practitioners

Operational and Strategic focus of Home/Host/Donor/Management organisations

Practitioners’ values, beliefs, attitudes, aspirations and expectations

Type and Nature of Project

Client requirements

Physical Environment

The impact of cross-cultural communication on project management systems

Barriers to communication

Strategies for effective

communication Proactive measures to

improve communication

Changes to perspectives as a

result of experiences

Factors influencing the context of cross-cultural communication

Project Outcomes

considered a major contribution to the communication management process and its impact

on management systems. Figure 9.1 presents the conceptual framework for the cross-

cultural communication management process that is supported by the results of this study.

This conceptual framework contains clearly defined and measurable variables that have

been vigorously developed based on studies reviewed in chapter 2, 3 and 4, and supported

by this research. The definitions for factors influencing the context of communication are

provided in chapters 2, 3 and 4 as well as Appendix C. Research propositions developed and

grounded from this framework that are considered empirically testable are as follows:

Research Proposition 1 – developed from the literature supported by the findings

‘Cross-cultural communication impacts on project management systems

depending on the environment (social, cultural, political, economical,

technological, legal and physical characteristics); values, attitudes, beliefs,

expectations and aspirations of practitioners; hard and soft skills of

practitioners; client requirements; type and nature of project; operational and

strategic objectives of home/donor/host/management organisations; and the

prevailing industry and business regulations, standards and practices’

Research Proposition 2 – an amendment or addendum from research findings

‘The effectiveness of cross-cultural communication on project management

systems depends on barriers to communication, strategies employed, proactive

measures to improve communication, and the changes in perspectives as a

result of experiences’

New themes emanating from categories identified in Table 7.1 with justifications for calling

them ‘contributions’ are listed below. The findings of this study were categorised under the

elements of the conceptual framework. The following issues have been identified and

extensively discussed and explored in this thesis:

1. Cultural influence:

‘Fa’alavelave’ aspect of ‘fa’asamoa’ – this refers to the obligations,

responsibilities and duties of Samoans to their family, church and village.

This issue has been covered to some extent in the literature but this is the

first time it has been looked at in the context of project management;

Respect or ‘fa’aaloalo’ aspect of ‘fa’asamoa’ – this refers to the respect

Samoans have towards visitors, chiefs, people of authority, old people, and

female. This aspect has been partly covered in the literature but not in the

context of cross-cultural communication in project management;

‘Matai’ system – this refers to the chiefly system with a hierarchical base that

controls village affairs and most natural resources. The literature addressed

this aspect but this is the first time it has been looked at in the context of

cross-cultural communication in project management;

2. Social influence:

‘Va fealoai’ or public relations and mutual understanding – this aspect of

fa’asamoa refers to building and maintaining relationships and harmony

through considerations of others views and wellbeing. This aspect has been

addressed to a certain extent by the literature but this is the first time it has

been considered in the context of cross-cultural communication in project

management;

3. Nature and type of project – this refers to the influences of time, cost, quality,

size, procurement method and type of project as well as the extent of

involvement of different stakeholders as each project has its own unique way of

doing things creating a specific project culture. There has been speculations in

the literature but no empirical testing;

4. Operational and strategic focus of home, donor, host, and management

organisations – this refers to the influences of the underlying focus, commitment

and support by the home, host, donor, and management organisations. This has

been speculated on in the literature but no empirical testing;

5. Local industry and business practices, standards and regulations:

Loans and pay advances – this refers to requests by local personnel for loans

or pay advances for various reasons or excuses. This has not been mentioned

in previous literature;

Varying standards – refers to contrasting levels of construction standards

between local industry and expatriate home industries. The literature

addressed this aspect but it is the first time in the context of cross-cultural

communication in project management.

6. Impact of cross-cultural communication on construction project management

systems

‘Fa’asamoa’ – this refers to the Samoan way of doing things which include

attitudes to time, work practices, fa’alavelave, fa’aaloalo, va fealoai and

soalaupule which influences how they communicate which in turn impact of

management systems. This has been raised in the literature but not

empirically tested;

9.4 Implications for theory

This section also builds on the initial justification provided in section 1.3 of chapter 1

and together with section 9.3 provides the ‘conclusion’ for the whole thesis and the

suggested solutions to this study’s research questions. The literature reviewed in chapter 2

covered a number of disciplines including inter-cultural studies, social psychology,

international business management, business ethics, international project management,

international human resource management, and international construction management.

Most studies discussed looked at problems associated with communication within a cross-

cultural environment. No study investigated the impact of cross-cultural communication on

management systems. No study investigated the impact of cross-cultural communication

issues in small Island Nations. One study (Loosemore and Al Muslmani, 1999) investigated

communication problems associated with cultural diversity between UK and Persian Gulf

nationals on international construction projects. Several studies have touched on issues

associated with cross-cultural communication and management, with some issues

mentioned very frequently with much detail and others quite sporadically with sparsely any

information. No study has formulated a conceptual framework to evaluate the context of

cross-cultural communication within a project environment. Most studies, apart from one

(Thorne and Saunders, 2002) have used independent cultural models developed by cross-

cultural theorists (for example, Hofstede, 1980; Trompenaars, 1993) to define central

differences in cultures. Thorne and Saunders’ (2002) study on socio-cultural embeddedness

of individuals’ cross-cultural ethical reasoning in organisations, integrated the two models

by Hofstede and Trompenaars to formulate a framework useful for cross-cultural project

management.

This thesis therefore identifies and argues for the development of a conceptual framework

on the impact of cross-cultural communication on project management systems to assist in

the management process. The elements of this framework are presented in figure 9.1. This

framework is generic in nature, but its application needs to be ‘tailor made’ to suit the

environment or industry under study. Furthermore, each environment, industry or project is

different which has its own unique problems and therefore requires its own special

solutions. This framework can be used as a ‘point of departure’ or a ‘frame of reference’ for

international project management, international business management, international

construction management, and research institutions on cross-cultural communication issues.

It can also be used by multinational organisations, aid agencies, government departments

acting as project implementing agencies, individual firms operating on the international

arena, and individual researchers investigating cross-cultural communication issues within

international project or business environments. The findings of this research provided

evidence to support and consolidate this framework. The findings also highlighted the

importance of handling the cross-cultural communication process appropriately to ensure

positive project outcomes that takes into account the needs of all stakeholders.

The second implication is the formulation of an integrated cultural framework that

incorporates and extends the one put forward by Thorne and Saunders (2002). This

framework combines a number of cultural models which include: Hofstede (1980),

Trompenaars (1993), Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997), Hall (1990), Triandis

(1994), Gesterland (1999), and Lee and Petersons’ (2000). These models provide a

systematic and empirically founded basis on which central differences in culture can be

defined. An integrated cultural framework provides an encompassing assessment tool on

which the perspectives of practitioners can be evaluated. This proved useful in addressing

issues underlying culture for international project management. The research findings were

grouped under relevant dimensions or orientations of which a characterisation was carried

out to differentiate between the practitioners involved. This integrated cultural framework is

particularly useful for comparative cultural studies in management, but can also be used in

other fields in cross-cultural studies.

The third implication is linked to the identification of factors influencing the context of

cross-cultural communication, their definitions and their impact on project management

systems. The existing literature identified a number of factors that were deemed to be

important to the management of the cross-cultural communication context. These factors

were derived from the body of knowledge that is multidisciplinary and therefore can be

considered generic:

• The most common amongst the literature include political, social, economical;

• Followed by cultural, technology, legal, environmental, and industry and business

practices, standards and regulations;

• Then client requirements, hard and soft skills of practitioners, and practitioners

values, beliefs, attitudes, aspirations and expectations;

• And the least mentioned were type and nature of project, and operational and

strategic focus of home, host, donor and management organisations.

The descriptions for these factors were determined a priori and modified as a result of the

research findings. Brief descriptions are provided in Appendix C. The research findings

provided evidence to support these factors with the most significant being practitioners’

values, beliefs, attitudes, aspirations and expectations; political; cultural; local industry and

business practices, standards and regulations; practitioners’ hard and soft skills; and nature

and type of project. The findings also identified sub-categories and subsidiaries under these

factors that can be considered unique to Samoa in particular those associated with

‘fa’asamoa’ or the Samoan way of doing things, cultural beliefs, and aid-funded projects.

The last implication stems from the factors influencing the context of communication which

involves the identification of barriers to cross-cultural communication, effective strategies

to cross-cultural communication, the impact of cross-cultural communication on project

management systems, proactive measures to improve cross-cultural communication, and

influences of experiences on perspectives. The body of literature reviewed identified a

number of barriers, strategies, proactive measures and general statements about the impact

of communication, particularly miscommunication on project schedules and quality. There

was no identified link in the literature between the impact of cross-cultural

communication on management systems and changes in perspectives of practitioners as a

result of experiences.

The research findings confirmed the literature on barriers, strategies, proactive measures

and also extend these and provided some unique aspects that are specific to projects in

Samoa. The most significant findings for barriers include poor work ethics, culture and

practices; political and personal agendas; cultural beliefs and practices; concept of time;

poor standards, quality, health and safety issues; top-down bureaucracy and bureaucratic

red tape; lack of technical competence; and lack of resources. The most significant findings

for strategies include the use of local liaison; meetings and discussion forums; situational

approach involving different modes; thorough selection, recruiting and training; evaluative

and informative approach; reinforce procedures and follow-up; respect and equality; and

constant supervision. While the findings for the impact of cross-cultural communication on

project management systems indicated that risks has the highest, followed by planning,

quality, controlling, and reporting. The most significant findings for proactive measures

include skills upgrading and capacity building; culturally sensitive and localised approach;

promote ownership of projects; inter-industry collaboration and integration; educational

and awareness programs; cultural training and initiation; and be tolerant and

understanding. The findings also established a link between the influences of experiences

on perspectives of practitioners and the impact of cross-cultural communication on project

management systems.

In summarising the overall implications of this study, it can be deduced that the research has

made a number of contributions to the project management body of knowledge including:

The proposal of a generic conceptual framework with elements that have been

defined and measured as well as empirically tested in other studies and supported by

this research;

The proposal of an integrated cultural framework consisting of models by other

cross-cultural theorists which have been systematically and empirically founded, and

have proven useful in this research;

The identification of barriers to communication and their impact on management

systems; the strategies to effective communication; and proactive measures to

improve communication. Some of these factors can be considered generic in nature,

with others quite specific and unique to Samoa.

Potentially, the findings of this research can be relevant and valuable to the construction

industry as well as other stakeholders which include:

International agencies (funding and aid) may be able to review approaches to project

evaluation complemented by this cross-cultural communication process;

National governments and policy makers may consider making changes in light of

this evaluative framework or incorporating them as part of the review process;

Professional bodies and institutions involved in projects may consider taking a more

proactive and leadership role in implementation of collaborative and integrated

approaches, and in carrying out industry specific research and provide a database for

statistics;

Multinational organisations may consider incorporating this framework and findings

in their human resource developmental program to develop practitioners that are

‘globally’ competent;

Individual firms may consider their relationship with other organisations and their

approaches to projects and how improved communication and collaboration can reap

benefits. Considerations of both intra and inter-organisational issues are necessary

for organisational evaluation.

Individual practitioners and other stakeholders need to develop an understanding of

the issues, how to deal with them, how to proactively address them, and to use

positive experiences to enhance the communication process which leads to satisfying

project outcomes.

Research, educational and training institutions need to promote research, learning,

teaching and training in cross-cultural studies both within disciplines and

interdisciplinary. Consideration of environmental, social, cultural, economic and

other factors needs to be encouraged in light of the increased globalisation and

internationalisation of the market. Contributions by the learning community to

further enhance and develop the findings of this research can be invaluable in

ensuring a ‘learning to learn’ attitude that is essential to having a continuous

improvement process necessary for personal growth and understanding.

9.5 Implications for policy and practice

Cross-cultural communication within international projects managed in Samoa

involves complex decision-making situations that require discerning abilities and methods

to make sound decisions. As hypothesised, cross-cultural communication seems to affect

and effect what skills play a role in both the amount and handling of uncertainty and anxiety

by international project managers. The intricate and subtle complexities which define

fa’asamoa requires international organisations to have the ability to create an open, inviting

culture that will impact on its ability to effectively manage the impact of cultural and human

factors, through the development of cultural synergistic communication processes. An

interesting point to note is the insight into the importance and value placed by the Samoans

on fa’asamoa and how deeply this is entrenched in the political psyche of Samoan society,

evident through its enshrinement in the Samoan constitution. This explicit constitutional

recognition of ‘Samoan custom and tradition’ ensures the prominence of fa’asamoa in legal,

political and economic contexts as a matter of principle (Lawson, 1996). The ‘fa’amatai’

system as noted in the literature (Hooper, 2000) on Samoa, mixed with Christian values,

forms the basic framework of modern society in Samoa. The emphasis on the cultural and

human aspects in fa’asamoa reflects the current literature on sensitivity to cross-cultural

differences and how they may be managed through effective communication processes.

9.5.1 Practical implications for private sector managers

Cultural implications for international project management from this study include the fact

that collectivists may take longer to make decisions (consensual approach), for example, the

‘soalaupule’. This may be problematic as individualists worry about the speed or timing of

decisions (Lewicki and Sheppard, 1985). The findings from this research also highlight the

importance for international managers to provide explanations for their actions to ensure

that their decisions are not misconstrued (Greenberg, 1990).

Individualism-collectivism values of Hofstede’s study (1980, 1984) have been used to

illustrate cultural differences in Pacific Project management. A core skill for expatriates to

acquire is to understand cultural distance (Kirkman and Shapiro, 1997). Expatriates need to

be counselled beyond how typical members of a culture differ. They need to be advised on

how and why some cultures have so much internal variation, and how cultural difference

can be a positive factor in management.

9.5.2 Implications for public sector analysts and managers

The cross-cultural experience provides managers with the challenge to explore their beliefs,

assumptions and sense of competency. A broader socio-cultural perspective encompassing

awareness of cultural diversity and soft aspects of project management is necessary to

enhance approaches to cross-cultural communication evaluation. Aid in the form of

international projects in the Pacific Islands need to target the modernisation of host

economies that reflect the country’s overall policy on development that take into account

social and environmental considerations. Failure to adequately provide for broader cultural

and human issues within project evaluation may lead to flawed communication and

decision-making. Ineffective communication as a consequence of flawed decision-making

in international project management can affect the trilogy of time, cost and quality.

The results and findings of this study also suggest implications for international personnel

policies. Most of the implications listed below apply equally to private sector managers.

• Few expatriate managers receive intensive cross-cultural training over a sufficient

time period which highlights the need to promote active interaction with host

nationals. This reflects the importance of testing and validating the effectiveness of

training programs;

• Results highlighted the need to encourage problem solving, coping strategies before

and during projects as well as after project completion and the importance of making

thorough and wise staff selections – focusing on both the technical and

organisational competence of personnel;

• Results identify the need to ensure projects build in capacity building components to

ensure sustainability of projects that consider and ascertain both the expatriate and

host country practitioners’ perspectives in evaluation processes;

• The value of an evaluation process that includes knowledge and technology transfer

assessment that promotes project ownership, utilising a balanced management team

consisting of both locals and expatriates;

• The importance of mentoring/coaching locals with positional authority and influence

as liaison officers through establishing a continuous improvement process that

allows for feedback and self evaluation; and

• The need to apply culturally appropriate and localised approaches that addresses the

needs and expectations of all stakeholders.

9.6 Limitations

The major limitation that became apparent during the course of this research is not

considering the perspectives of the workforce which includes tradespersons and labourers.

Most of the issues identified and discussed in this study involved these individuals and their

responses would have provided a ‘fuller picture’ of cross-cultural communication within a

construction project environment in Samoa.

Another limitation that became apparent during the analysis of interview data was the fact

that although categories and sub-categories were determined a priori, the practitioners were

not made aware of these resulting in responses that were specific personal reflections on

critical issues. As a result of this, some practitioners did not register comments across the

range of sub-categories identified. However, the amount of evidence collected across the

categories and sub-categories identified gave a strong indication of their validity.

9.7 Implications for further research

This study investigates the impact of cross-cultural communication on construction

project management systems in Samoa. The sequential explanatory mixed methods strategy

employed in this research involved two phases: questionnaire opinion survey for phase 1

and in-depth interviews for phase 2. These mixed methods provided a balance between

researcher subjectivity and objectify which is required when investigating a complex and

potentially contentious issues. The degree of confidence and the generalisability of the

research findings reflect, however, the nature of methods employed:

The questionnaire opinion survey phase of this sequential explanatory mixed

methods study has the strength of generalisability but, since the sample size was

relatively small and the scope limits the population to project managers and

supervisors who are working or have worked in Samoa across a number of

industries, the results can only be considered indicative;

The critical incidences part of the questionnaire survey and interview phase of this

study has the strength of in-depth analyses, although the results gained focuses on

‘information rich’ practitioners in the construction industry in Samoa, so can only be

considered indicative.

Addressing the generalisability issues of this research involves further work arising from

this study:

1. Using a larger, representative sample across the industries, various organisation

sizes, similar number of nationality groups, involving project managers, supervisors

and other stakeholders;

2. Conducting similar representative studies in other small island nations, developing

countries and rural communities in larger countries such as Australia;

3. This could also be extended to include other countries where projects involve people

from different cultures.

These further studies would help the research and management community in international

construction management, cross-cultural management, international business management,

international human resource management, strategic resource management, and

international project management to develop a ‘fuller picture’ and a ‘holistic account’ of the

impact of cross-cultural communication on management systems. Equally important is the

practical synthesising of factors influencing the context of cross-cultural communication as

a result of these international studies. The use of a mixed methods strategy as employed in

this research is highly recommended as one can compliment the other and therefore

addresses potential weaknesses that may be prevalent to each method.

To address some of the other issues identified in this study, future research may include:

• Further study into cross-cultural communication processes for international project

management considering the perspectives from the workforce – tradesperson,

leading hands and labourers;

This further research is imperative as it will address the perspectives of individuals that are

directly involved and affected by the interactions and therefore would provide a complete

picture of the cross-cultural exchanges. The findings of this research show that

communicating at the professional level is fairly straight forward, but as you move down an

organisation, or engage with the community at large, communication problems are common

because of the language, technical know-how, and cultural beliefs amongst other factors.

• Investigating the training and education of future project managers so that effective

strategies and approaches may assist with adaptability and flexibility in

communicating and living in cross-cultural environments;

There is a need to focus on the training and education of future project managers so that

they can be well prepared to manage in an increasingly global market however, there has

been very little research conducted on the effectiveness of this training. Managers need to

manage and adapt to different cultural environments, however, most practitioners indicated

that they received very little or no cross-cultural training prior to assignment. Further

research would assist training institutions and organisations in addressing human resource

developmental programs for organisational effectiveness and as a strategic objective.

• Further consideration of the cultural and human influences in projects undertaken

across ‘borders’, and the impact of these influences on host cultures;

Some practitioners commented on the need to assess the impact of projects on the local

people, environment and culture. Further research would address this concern regarding the

impact of projects on the local people and culture to ensure that all stakeholders are aware

of the benefits and consequences that includes social and cultural implications. The

integrated cultural framework developed in this study can be used to identify some central

differences in cultures before and possible shifts post projects.

• Comparative studies involving other small island nations, developing countries,

rural communities, and developed countries with multinational workforce;

Major projects in Small Island nations such as Samoa, developing countries and rural

communities are in most part aid funded and involve people from other nations or outside

the local community in their management. Hence realistic, practical experiences of

communication problems faced by practitioners involved in these kinds of projects would

enable organisations and individuals to compare approaches and strategies from different

perspectives and to determine their advantages. Further research would also increase the

generalisability of these findings and also help in synthesising factors influencing the

context of cross-cultural communication and their impact on project management systems.

The integrated cultural framework developed in this study can also be used to identify

central differences in cultures involved.

• Testing the reliability of the conceptual framework developed in this research.

Further research can help develop key indicators for the elements of this framework to assist

in the cross-cultural communication evaluation process and test the reliability of this

framework, using as a ‘point of departure’ empirically testable research propositions in

section 9.3 of this chapter.

9.8 Summary

It is very clear that international project management requires an effective process to ensure

effective cross-cultural communication between all stakeholders. The key elements and

context of cross-cultural communication management, as discussed in the literature and

supported by the questionnaire and interview data further highlight and reinforce this

conclusion. The literature suggests that cross-cultural communication impacts on project

management systems in uncertain ways that requires the application of appropriate

strategies and skills to affect the communication process to ensure effective and positive

outcomes. The sequential explanatory mixed methods study supports the literature and

consolidates the foundation for further research into cross-cultural project environments.

Findings and conclusions arising out of the field work in Samoa poses a number of key

areas for further research both nationally and regionally on the impact of cultural and human

factors on international project management.

It can therefore be deduced that the methodology used in this research was appropriate and

effective because:

• It facilitated a review of how international project management processes interrelate

and how important human resource management and cultural awareness is to all

project management functions;

• It analysed the successes of applying sound management planning tools and

techniques;

• It facilitated a review of critical areas in selection of international Project Managers;

• It facilitated a review of how international projects respond to cultural, socio-

political and economic factors, impacting on project objectives and deliverables;

• It analysed the consequences of not addressing the human and cultural impact on

international projects in Samoa;

• It facilitated an investigation into methodology and approach by aid-project donors

and their role in the development of Pacific Nations;

• It provided insight into the characteristics of international strategic alliances;

• It analysed the impact of local labour, business, social customs and culture on

productivity rates; and

• It provided insight into the characteristics of effective cross-cultural communication.

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LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX A: Questionnaire and Interview Schedule

A1: Questionnaire A2: Interview Schedule

APPENDIX B: Questionnaire Data, Procedures and Other Test Results

B1: Statistical Test Procedures B2: Other Supporting Test Results

APPENDIX C: Interview Data and Findings Not Presented in Chapter 7

C1: Brief Descriptions of Categories and Sub-categories C2: Findings not Presented in Chapter 7

APPENDIX A1: QUESTIONNAIRE Part A. What are your personal beliefs? This section asks you to think about your feelings toward cross-cultural management and communication in particular. Please indicate your response by ticking the value that best describes what you think.

Rate of Agreement Item #

Your Personal Beliefs - In a cross-cultural project environment 1 2 3 4 5

1 Communication is vital 2 A communication plan is necessary 3 High levels of interpersonal and intrapersonal skills are needed 4 Culturally sensitive and appropriate communication is necessary 5 Two way communication must be encouraged

6 Meetings help overcome communication barriers and increase performance level

7 Organisational culture and objectives dictate communication process 8 National culture determines acceptable means of communication 9 Communication help achieve organisational and national objectives

10 Project type and duration has a bearing on communication strategy and structure

11 Project managers must have excellent communication skills 12 Project funding influences tools and techniques of communication

13 Project proponents and stakeholders need to communicate throughout the project

14 Understanding and appreciating the different cultures involved in a project is vital

15 Communication plans and strategies must be determined/established at the outset

16 Communication plans must be reviewed regularly, and adjusted if need be

17 Appropriate communication media for specific purposes/audiences are necessary

18 Timing is vital for effective communication

19 Clear communication is needed to help clarify the roles of project stakeholders

20 Effective communication strategies are needed to demand openness and tolerance of cultural differences

21 Effective communication strategies are needed to minimise potential disputes and misunderstandings

22 Situations determine form and style of communication employed by Project Managers

23 Communication is necessary for endorsement by the stakeholders

24 Open communication is required to provide management with some control

25 Communication gives project stakeholders the opportunity to comment or cast a vote

26 Understanding the language(s) and practices of local culture enhances communication

27 Effective communication strategies are needed to ensure successful technology transfer

Rate of Agreement: Strongly Disagree (1), Disagree (2), Neither agree nor disagree (3), Agree (4), Strongly Agree (5).

Part B. What happened in the projects you were involved in? This section asks you to think about the extent the following items were evident or practiced in the projects you were involved in. Please indicate your response by ticking which point on the scale best describes what happened.

To what extent Item # What happened in the projects you worked on?

1 2 3 4 5

1 Effective communication 2 A communication plan 3 High levels personal/intrapersonal skilled management 4 Culturally sensitive and appropriate communication 5 Two way communication 6 Ongoing meetings between management/staff/stakeholders 7 Well established organisational culture and objectives 8 Awareness of national culture 9 Clear communication of organisational and national objectives 10 Project managers with excellent communication skills 11 Project funding influencing tools and techniques of communication

12 Project type and duration influences communication strategy and structure

13 Ongoing communication between project proponents and stakeholders

14 Understanding and appreciation of cultural difference involved

15 Determination/establishment of communication plans and strategies at the outset

16 Regular review and adjustments of communication plans

17 Selective use of communication media for specific purposes/audiences

18 Effective timeliness 19 Clear communication clarifying roles of stakeholders

20 Effective communication reflecting openness and tolerance of cultural differences

21 Communication strategies to help minimise potential disputes and misunderstandings

22 Flexibility of form and style of communication 23 Essential communication to stakeholders for endorsement 24 Some control by management through open communication

25 Clear communication giving stakeholders opportunity to comment/cast a vote

26 Understanding of language(s) and cultural practices of local community

27 Effective communication strategies ensuring successful technology transfer

To What Extent Rating: Never (1), Seldom (2), Sometimes (3), Mostly (4), Always (5).

Part C: Impact of communication barriers; and Part D: Extent communication barriers were overcome. This section asks you to think about the impact of communication barriers on your project and the extent they were overcome. Please indicate your response by ticking which points on the scale best describe what you experienced on your project.

1. Rate the Impact Communication Barriers 2.Extent they were overcome

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1. Political/community interference 2. Lack of/inappropriate technology 3. Varying perception/interpretation 4. Conflicting cultural values 5. Lack of support and commitment

6. Varying capacity and capability 7. Unclear channels of communication 8. Ineffective reporting system 9. Language difficulties 10. Interpersonal conflict 11. Age difference 12. Conflicting interest 13. Resisting change 14. Gender issues 15. Lack necessary skills 16. Varying concept of time 17. Organisational mishaps 18. Limited resources 19. Poor planning 20. Limited time 21. Lack of motivation 22. Information filtering 23. Religious issues 24. Poor listeners 25. Family commitments 26. Lack of confidence 27. Poor leadership 28. Concept of space 29. Personal preferences 30. Poor negotiation skills 31. Conflicting business/industry ethics 32. Stereotyping 33. Unclear objectives 34. Lack of concern 35. Lack of trust Other(s):

Impact Rating: 1-Insignificant, 2-Minor, 3-Moderate, 4-Major, 5-Catastrophic

Extent overcome rating: 1-Not at all, 2-Partially, 3-Totally

Part E Communication Strategies This section asks you to think about communication strategies and the extent they were employed on your project. Please indicate by ticking which point on the scale most describes in your view the extent each strategy was employed in your project.

Section F This section asks you to think about any other cross-cultural communication issues that are worth mentioning. Please write a brief description of each of the issues in the space provided.

Extent They Were Employed Rating Item

Number Communication Strategies 1 2 3 4 5

1 Comprehensive communication plan 2 Clear communication channels 3 Delegating responsibilities 4 Adjusting and adapting 5 Team Meetings 6 Cultural initiation 7 Regular reviewing and reality checks 8 Training 9 Consultative Approach

10 Suggestion Box 11 Continuous Improvement process 12 Incremental changes 13 Resource levelling 14 Feedback processes 15 Timely reports 16 Dispute resolution 17 Problem solving

Other(s): Extent they were employed rating: 1-Never, 2-Seldom, 3-Sometimes, 4-Regularly,

5-Mandatory

Section G The following asks you to think about the appropriateness and usefulness of this survey and research project. Please answer each of the questions by ticking the response which best describes how you feel about this survey. Questions Yes No Not

sure Some

unclear 1. Do you think this is a useful exercise?

2. Are the right questions being asked?

3. Are the questions clear, well defined and easily understood?

4. Is there anything important missing? If you answered ‘Yes’ to question 4 above, please explain

Section H Demographic information

1. What is your nationality? _____________________ (e.g. Australian, New Zealander, etc) 2. What is your age? _____________________

3. What is your marital status? (please circle) Single/Living with partner/Married

4. What is your profession? _______________________ (e.g. Architect, Engineer, etc.)

5. What is your role for the project? _____________________ (e.g. Project Manager,

Construction Engineer, etc)

6. What type of project are you working on and its duration? _________________________

7. How long have you been employed in your organization? _________________________

8. How long have you been in your current position? _______________________________

9. How many years have you worked in Samoa? __________________________________

10. How many years have you worked on projects outside your home country other than Samoa? Please state Number of years and country _____________________________________

Would you like a copy of the research findings? Yes/No If “Yes”, please provide e-mail or postal address: ______________________________________ Thank you very much for your participation – your responses are very much appreciated

APPENDIX A2: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

The Impact of Cross-cultural Communication on Construction Project Management in Samoa

Investigator: Konelio Tone PhD Student

School of Construction Management and Property Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering

Phone: (061 7) 3864 2973 E-mail: [email protected]

Fax: (061 7) 3864 1170

- Interview Information Sheet - Description This research project aims to define and consider the key principles and issues of human and cultural influences on construction management so that they may be identified and addressed in cross-cultural communication evaluation processes. The research is being conducted as a requirement for PhD studies undertaken by myself, Investigator – Konelio Tone. Expected benefits The information from this research will be used to demonstrate my awareness and understanding of the process of data gathering, analysis and interpretation as well as a contribution to knowledge in this area of management in the Construction field. Confidentiality Participants will not be identifiable in any way by the data collected. I will be directly involved in each stage of the research process and no identifying characteristics will be used. All the data will be pooled together into one database, making it impossible for any individual to be identified. Only the results will be published as part of my final thesis. Voluntary participation Your participation in this interview is completely voluntary. You are under no obligation to participate and there will be no negative consequences for you, if you choose not to participate. Further, if you agree to participate you are free to withdraw from participation at any time during the study. Questions/Further information If you have any queries or concerns please feel free to contact me on telephone, fax, or e-mail provided above. My Principal Supervisor, Prof. Martin Skitmore can also be contacted via e-mail: [email protected]; telephone: (061 7) 3864 2234; or fax: (061 7) 3864 1170. Concerns/Complaints If you have any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of this research, you should contact the Secretary of the University Human Research Ethics Committee on (061 7) 3864 2902.

Thank you for your participation – it is greatly appreciated

- Participant Consent Form - I have read the above information regarding the research project being carried out by Konelio Tone. I understand its contents and conditions and I consent to participate in a taped interview. I also give permission for the contents of the interview to be used to provide data for the research. I understand that any information provided will be treated in confidence. Name: ____________________ Signature: ___________________ Date: ____________________ Position: _________________________ Organisation: _________________________________

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS – Thank you for your participation

‘Talking past each other’ – The impact of cross-cultural communication on construction

project management in Samoa Part A: Demographic – Background information 1. What is your nationality? 2. What is your profession? 3. Can you briefly describe your work experience to date? 4. How many years have you worked on projects in Samoa? Name type(s) of project(s), role

played, and duration. 5. How many years have you worked on projects outside your home country? State country(s),

type(s) of project(s), role played, and duration. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Part B: Main Interview body – Major issues pertaining to cross-cultural communication 1. In your experience, what do you perceive as the main factors affecting the context of cross-

cultural communication in Samoa? * Political (degree of capitalism, communism or socialism – as applied at different levels),

* Economical (government spending on construction, GDP, strength of currency, ability to move and convert currency – applied at different levels),

* Cultural (e.g. language, beliefs), * Local business practices (holidays, timeliness, bureaucratic red tape, material supply and delivery), etc. 2. Can you describe how poor the extent cross-cultural communication has impacted on

construction project management systems? E.g. meeting deadlines, personnel behaviour and expectations

3. Can you describe how good cross-cultural communication has impacted on construction project

management systems? E.g. meeting deadlines, personnel behaviour and expectations 4. What barriers to effective cross-cultural communication did you encounter in your project(s)?

e.g. language, cultural beliefs, stereotype, ethnocentrisms 5. What communication strategies did you employ in your project(s) to overcome these barriers? 6. How effective were these strategies? ( ) Not effective ( ) Minimal effectiveness ( ) Effective ( ) Very effective ( ) Exceptionally effective 7. What proactive measures would you recommend to ensure effective cross-cultural

communication? E.g. appropriate staff selection and recruitment, training and debriefing (before, during, and after), etc.

8. Has recent international or other workplace experience changed or altered your perspective and

attitude towards cross-cultural communication and international project management? 9. Are there other factors not yet mentioned deemed as having major impact on successful

communication in international project management?

Your participation is greatly appreciated. Thank you very much

APPENDIX B1: STATISTICAL TEST PROCEDURES Kruskal-Wallis K-statistic Levin and Rubin (1990:609) assert the K-statistic can be approximated by a chi-square distribution when all the sample sizes are at least five. For this phase of the study, the group sizes are Australians and Samoans having 15(39.5%) and 14(36.8%) respectively, with Other Expatriates having 9(23.7%). The responses to each of the questions were grouped according to the nationality of the respondent and their sample means and variances calculated. Sample values almost invariably differ somewhat, and the question is whether the differences among the samples signify genuine population differences or whether they represent merely the kind of variations that are to be expected among random samples from the same population (Siegel and Castellan, 1988:206). Determining how much the group ranks differ from the average rank of all the groups were measured by the formula:

)1(3)1(

12 2

+−+

= ∑ nnR

nnK

j

j , (Equation 6.1)

Where: K = Kruskal-Wallis K-statistic

jn = number of items in sample j

jR = sum of the ranks of the items in sample j k = number of samples; the degree of freedom is k-1 knnnn +++= L21 = the total number of observations in all the samples The statistical hypotheses for a Kruskal-Wallis test are (Fellows and Liu, 2003:175): 3210 : µµµ ==Η (Equation 6.2) equalnotare321 ,,: µµµΑΗ (Equation 6.3) 05.0=α (i.e. 95% confidence level) The statistical procedures used were to:

1(a) Rank each case without regard for group membership; 1(b) Cases tied on a particular value receive the average rank for that value; 2 Determine the sum of the ranks and the average of the ranks within groups; 3 Measure how much the group ranks differ from the average rank of all groups;

4 Calculate the chi-square value by squaring each groups distance from the average

of all ranks, weighting by its sample size, summing across groups, and multiplying by a constant. The chi-square statistic is calculated by the formula:

∑=

−=

k

i i

ii

eeo

1

22 )(

χ (Equation 6.4)

5 Calculate the degree of freedom for the chi-square by taking the number of groups and subtracting one (df = k-1);

6 Estimate the asymptotic significance for the probability of obtaining a chi-square

statistic greater than or equal to the one calculated, if there truly are no differences between the group ranks;

7 Calculate exact significance levels for the statistics as a parallel method to

asymptotic significance. This was repeated for each question. The next step was: 8 Check the significance level ratings for the differences between groups and

highlight the ones with significance levels less than 0.05 (critical significance level adopted for this investigation) and group them together. If the probability associated with the observed value of K (approximated by the chi-square) is equal to or less than the critical significance level, reject OH in favour of AH ;

9 If OH is rejected, determine how the groups differ – apply the Mann-Whitney

test for pair-wise group comparison. Mann-Whitney test The Mann-Whitney U-statistic is used to test the null hypothesis that two independent samples come from the same population. The U-statistic is a measure of the difference between the ranked observations of the two samples with the formula:

111

21 2)1( RnnnnU −

++= , (Equation 6.5)

Where U = Mann-Whitney U-statistic =1n Number of cases in sample 1 =2n Number of cases in sample 2 =1R Sum of ranks in sample 1 =2R Sum of ranks in sample 2 The statistical hypotheses for Mann-Wallis U-test are (Fellows and Liu, 2003:173): =OH Samples are from the same population =AH Samples are from different populations If OH applies, samples are from the same population and the U-statistic has a sampling distribution described by:

2

21nnu =µ (Equation 6.6)

Where =uµ mean, Z-value = confidence level required, and =α level of confidence.

The statistical procedures used were:

1 For each case in group 1, the number of cases in group 2 with higher ranks is counted. Tied ranks count as average of the tied ranks. This process is repeated for group 2. The Mann-Whitney U-statistic displayed is obtained by counting the number of times an observation from the group with the smaller sample size precedes an observation from the larger group;

2 Both the Wilcoxon W-statistic (which also measure the null hypothesis that two

independent samples come from the same population) and the Z statistic are also calculated. The Wilcox statistic is calculated by ranking the pooled observations of the two samples and obtaining the sum of the ranks of the population with the smaller sample size;

3 Calculate the asymptotic two-tailed and exact two-tailed significance values. The

two tailed exact significance value estimates the probability of obtaining a Z statistic as or more extreme (in absolute value) as the one displayed. A negative Z statistic indicates that the rank sums are lower than their expected values;

4 If the observed value of W has an associated probability equal to or less than the

critical significance value of 0.05, reject OH in favour of AH ;

5 This resulted in summary tables for each of the pair-wise comparisons, indicating cases with significantly different results for the groups.

These procedures were repeated for group 1 and group 3, and also for group 2 and group 3 pair-wise comparisons. The statistical procedures for both the Kruskal-Wallis and the Mann-Whitney tests focused on identifying significant differences in responses among the groups on tested variables, and the extent of variation. The results are presented in chapter 6, and the interpretations and discussions are presented in chapter 8. The Kruskal-Wallis test may find that no significant differences exist between the groups on the tested variables, and then the procedures stop. However, the Mann-Whitney test may still be used as a check to confirm the results obtained.

APPENDIX B2: OTHER SUPPORTING TEST RESULTS Table B1 Kruskal-Wallis Test: Impact of Barriers on Communication – Mean Ranks

Variable Nationality N Mean Rank Samoan 14 23.86Australian 15 15.17Other Expatriates 9 19.94

Political/community interference(impact) Total 38 Lack of/inappropriate technology Samoan 14 21.18 Australian 15 18.80 Other Expatriates 9 18.06 Total 38 Varying perception/interpretation Samoan 14 19.43 Australian 15 20.20 Other Expatriates 9 18.44 Total 38 Conflicting cultural values Samoan 14 22.29 Australian 15 19.07 Other Expatriates 9 15.89 Total 38 Lack of support and commitment Samoan 14 23.14 Australian 15 17.77 Other Expatriates 9 16.72 Total 38 Varying capacity and capability Samoan 14 20.82 Australian 15 18.00 Other Expatriates 9 19.94 Total 38 Unclear channels of communication

Samoan 14 24.00

Australian 15 17.77 Other Expatriates 9 15.39 Total 38 Ineffective reporting system Samoan 14 24.89 Australian 15 15.43 Other Expatriates 9 17.89 Total 38 Language difficulties Samoan 14 22.14 Australian 15 15.07 Other Expatriates 9 22.78 Total 38 Interpersonal conflict Samoan 14 23.79 Australian 15 17.93 Other Expatriates 9 15.44 Total 38 Age difference Samoan 14 23.14 Australian 15 17.53 Other Expatriates 9 17.11 Total 38 Conflicting interest Samoan 14 24.64 Australian 15 18.57 Other Expatriates 9 13.06 Total 38

Table B1 (cont’d)

Resisting change Samoan 14 23.29 Australian 15 19.57 Other Expatriates 9 13.50 Total 38 Gender issues Samoan 14 19.00 Australian 15 22.53 Other Expatriates 9 15.22 Total 38 Lack necessary skills Samoan 14 20.11 Australian 15 19.43 Other Expatriates 9 18.67 Total 38 Varying concept of time Samoan 14 19.50 Australian 15 16.73 Other Expatriates 9 24.11 Total 38 Organisational mishaps Samoan 14 23.79 Australian 15 17.00 Other Expatriates 9 17.00 Total 38 Limited resources Samoan 14 23.00 Australian 15 15.57 Other Expatriates 9 20.61 Total 38 Poor planning Samoan 14 21.18 Australian 15 17.57 Other Expatriates 9 20.11 Total 38 Limited time Samoan 14 22.11 Australian 15 19.00 Other Expatriates 9 16.28 Total 38 Lack of motivation Samoan 14 22.96 Australian 15 16.93 Other Expatriates 9 18.39 Total 38 Information filtering Samoan 14 23.00 Australian 15 16.50 Other Expatriates 9 19.06 Total 38 Religious issues Samoan 14 20.14 Australian 15 18.17 Other Expatriates 9 20.72 Total 38 Poor listeners Samoan 14 23.39 Australian 15 16.07 Other Expatriates 9 19.17 Total 38 Family commitments Samoan 14 20.46 Australian 15 16.77 Other Expatriates 9 22.56 Total 38

Table B1 (cont’d)

Lack of confidence Samoan 14 23.79 Australian 15 15.53 Other Expatriates 9 19.44 Total 38Poor leadership Samoan 14 24.11 Australian 15 16.23 Other Expatriates 9 17.78 Total 38 Concept of space Samoan 14 23.50 Australian 15 15.60 Other Expatriates 9 19.78 Total 38 Personal preferences Samoan 14 23.18 Australian 15 16.20 Other Expatriates 9 19.28 Total 38 Poor negotiation skills Samoan 14 24.93 Australian 15 13.60 Other Expatriates 9 20.89 Total 38 Conflicting business/industry ethics Samoan 14 22.64 Australian 15 17.03 Other Expatriates 9 18.72 Total 38 Stereotyping Samoan 14 24.64 Australian 15 16.07 Other Expatriates 9 17.22 Total 38 Unclear objectives Samoan 14 23.71 Australian 15 16.07 Other Expatriates 9 18.67 Total 38 Lack of concern Samoan 14 23.54 Australian 15 16.27 Other Expatriates 9 18.61 Total 38 Lack of trust Samoan 14 26.04 Australian 15 15.30 Other Expatriates 9 16.33 Total 38

Table B2 Kruskal-Wallis Test: Extent Barriers Were Overcome – Mean Ranks

Variable Nationality N Mean Rank Political/community interference(extent overcome) Samoan 14 19.14 Australian 15 19.23 Other Expatriates 9 20.50 Total 38 Lack of/inappropriate technology Samoan 14 16.96 Australian 15 20.43 Other Expatriates 9 21.89 Total 38 Varying perception/interpretation Samoan 14 17.50 Australian 15 20.77 Other Expatriates 9 20.50 Total 38 Conflicting cultural values Samoan 14 18.93 Australian 15 20.03 Other Expatriates 9 19.50 Total 38 Lack of support and commitment Samoan 14 14.89 Australian 15 21.40 Other Expatriates 9 23.50 Total 38 Varying capacity and capability Samoan 14 19.64 Australian 15 20.70 Other Expatriates 9 17.28 Total 38 Unclear channels of communication Samoan 14 18.14 Australian 15 17.63 Other Expatriates 9 24.72 Total 38 Ineffective reporting system Samoan 14 18.54 Australian 15 20.20 Other Expatriates 9 19.83 Total 38 Language difficulties Samoan 14 18.18 Australian 15 22.33 Other Expatriates 9 16.83 Total 38 Interpersonal conflict Samoan 14 16.50 Australian 15 20.57 Other Expatriates 9 22.39 Total 38 Age difference Samoan 14 15.25 Australian 15 22.33 Other Expatriates 9 21.39 Total 38 Conflicting interest Samoan 14 15.86 Australian 15 18.93 Other Expatriates 9 26.11 Total 38 Resisting change Samoan 14 16.00 Australian 15 21.97 Other Expatriates 9 20.83 Total 38

Table B2 (cont’d) Gender issues Samoan 14 16.64 Australian 15 21.10 Other Expatriates 9 21.28 Total 38 Lack necessary skills Samoan 14 17.86 Australian 15 21.57 Other Expatriates 9 18.61 Total 38 Varying concept of time Samoan 14 20.71 Australian 15 18.37 Other Expatriates 9 19.50 Total 38 Organisational mishaps Samoan 14 20.54 Australian 15 17.07 Other Expatriates 9 21.94 Total 38 Limited resources Samoan 14 20.29 Australian 15 20.17 Other Expatriates 9 17.17 Total 38 Poor planning Samoan 14 19.14 Australian 15 19.77 Other Expatriates 9 19.61 Total 38 Limited time Samoan 14 20.25 Australian 15 20.17 Other Expatriates 9 17.22 Total 38 Lack of motivation Samoan 14 19.50 Australian 15 17.30 Other Expatriates 9 23.17 Total 38 Information filtering Samoan 14 18.11 Australian 15 19.23 Other Expatriates 9 22.11 Total 38 Religious issues Samoan 14 18.32 Australian 15 20.27 Other Expatriates 9 20.06 Total 38 Poor listeners Samoan 14 16.21 Australian 15 20.83 Other Expatriates 9 22.39 Total 38 Family commitments Samoan 14 19.86 Australian 15 16.83 Other Expatriates 9 23.39 Total 38 Lack of confidence Samoan 14 18.61 Australian 15 21.67 Other Expatriates 9 17.28 Total 38 Poor leadership Samoan 14 17.54 Australian 15 20.77 Other Expatriates 9 20.44 Total 38

Table B2 (cont’d)

Concept of space Samoan 14 15.18 Australian 15 22.67 Other Expatriates 9 20.94 Total 38 Personal preferences Samoan 14 17.00 Australian 15 21.50 Other Expatriates 9 20.06 Total 38 Poor negotiation skills Samoan 14 17.07 Australian 15 21.77 Other Expatriates 9 19.50 Total 38 Conflicting business/industry ethics Samoan 14 18.82 Australian 15 19.97 Other Expatriates 9 19.78 Total 38 Stereotyping Samoan 13 16.15 Australian 15 22.33 Other Expatriates 9 17.56 Total 37 Unclear objectives Samoan 14 18.25 Australian 15 20.37 Other Expatriates 9 20.00 Total 38 Lack of concern Samoan 14 15.96 Australian 15 20.00 Other Expatriates 9 24.17 Total 38 Lack of trust Samoan 14 14.79 Australian 15 22.20 Other Expatriates 9 22.33 Total 38

Table B3 Kruskal-Wallis Test: Strategies Employed – Mean Ranks

Variable Nationality N Mean Rank Comprehensive communication plan Samoan 14 25.61 Australian 15 14.33 Other Expatriates 9 18.61 Total 38 Clear communication channels Samoan 14 23.64 Australian 15 17.27 Other Expatriates 9 16.78 Total 38 Delegating responsibilities Samoan 14 23.14 Australian 15 17.53 Other Expatriates 9 17.11 Total 38 Adjusting and adapting Samoan 14 18.82 Australian 15 20.77 Other Expatriates 9 18.44 Total 38

Table B3 (cont’d) Team Meetings Samoan 14 21.54 Australian 15 19.23 Other Expatriates 9 16.78 Total 38 Cultural initiation Samoan 14 20.14 Australian 15 21.67 Other Expatriates 9 14.89 Total 38 Regular reviewing and reality checks Samoan 14 19.82 Australian 15 21.07 Other Expatriates 9 16.39 Total 38 Training Samoan 14 19.93 Australian 15 21.80 Other Expatriates 9 15.00 Total 38 Consultative Approach Samoan 14 19.18 Australian 15 24.00 Other Expatriates 9 12.50 Total 38 Suggestion Box Samoan 14 24.43 Australian 15 15.80 Other Expatriates 9 18.00 Total 38 Continuous Improvement process Samoan 14 21.57 Australian 15 20.23 Other Expatriates 9 15.06 Total 38 Incremental changes Samoan 14 17.61 Australian 15 24.20 Other Expatriates 9 14.61 Total 38 Resource levelling Samoan 14 20.29 Australian 15 19.97 Other Expatriates 9 17.50 Total 38 Feedback processes Samoan 14 19.00 Australian 15 21.93 Other Expatriates 9 16.22 Total 38 Timely reports Samoan 14 22.50 Australian 15 21.27 Other Expatriates 9 11.89 Total 38 Dispute resolution Samoan 14 18.14 Australian 15 18.77 Other Expatriates 9 22.83 Total 38 Problem solving Samoan 14 19.14 Australian 15 19.03 Other Expatriates 9 20.83 Total 38 Australian 15 21.07 Other Expatriates 9 16.39 Total 38

Table B3 (cont’d) Training Samoan 14 19.93 Australian 15 21.80 Other Expatriates 9 15.00 Total 38 Consultative Approach Samoan 14 19.18 Australian 15 24.00 Other Expatriates 9 12.50 Total 38 Suggestion Box Samoan 14 24.43 Australian 15 15.80 Other Expatriates 9 18.00 Total 38 Continuous Improvement process Samoan 14 21.57 Australian 15 20.23 Other Expatriates 9 15.06 Total 38 Incremental changes Samoan 14 17.61 Australian 15 24.20 Other Expatriates 9 14.61 Total 38 Resource levelling Samoan 14 20.29 Australian 15 19.97 Other Expatriates 9 17.50 Total 38 Feedback processes Samoan 14 19.00 Australian 15 21.93 Other Expatriates 9 16.22 Total 38 Timely reports Samoan 14 22.50 Australian 15 21.27 Other Expatriates 9 11.89 Total 38 Dispute resolution Samoan 14 18.14 Australian 15 18.77 Other Expatriates 9 22.83 Total 38 Problem solving Samoan 14 19.14 Australian 15 19.03 Other Expatriates 9 20.83 Total 38

APPENDIX C1: Brief descriptions of categories and sub-categories The core and key categories for this phase were driven by the research questions whereas the sub-categories although mostly identified during the conceptual formulation stage and Phase 1 of this study, their ‘resultant make-up’ mainly emerged from the data set. Definitions for the categories and sub-categories were determined in advance. The overarching Core Category refers to the main aim of this study that looks at the impact of cross-cultural communication on construction project management in Samoa. The Key Categories in this analysis refer to the five main areas that conceptualise the aim of this research while at the same time synthesising the need to address the research questions. The core category together with the key categories form the backbone of this study, while the sub-categories and subsidiaries make up the skeletal framework that as a whole constitute the answers to the research questions. The evidence collected from the literature reviewed and the results of phase one of this study allowed a number of separate categories and sub-categories to be theoretically and practically synthesised. These were further reduced and refined with actual evidence from interviews. Given the overwhelming evidence collected with the proportion of the comments from the interviews spread across the categories and sub-categories set out in the data analysis framework, there can be no doubt of their validity. This resulted in the following categories and sub-categories: Core Category: Impact of cross-cultural communication on project management systems This is the overarching theoretical proposition being investigated in this research which the research questions examined. This core category shed light on how the respondents viewed the extent cross-cultural communication impacted on construction project management systems (planning, control, reporting, quality, risk), and whether it was positive or negative.

Table C1-1 Brief descriptions of project management systems Sub-categories and Descriptions

CR1: Planning Systems in place to plan and co-ordinate activities and to allocate resources to achieve project objectives CR2: Controlling Systems in place to control the co-ordination of project activities, time, quality, cost and cash flow CR3: Quality Systems in place to ensure the project is delivered to certain standards and criteria CR4: Reporting Systems in place to report on issues, progress and expected outcomes of the project CR5: Risk Systems in place to manage project associated risks to support decision making in uncertain circumstances

The Core Results addressed research question 5 in particular, although it is the culmination of research questions 1 to 4 for which the literature review established a theoretical understanding and key categories 1 to 4 provided evidence from what occurs in practice. The core results focused on the influence of cross-cultural communication on management systems presented as sub-categories with brief descriptions in Table C-1 and covered in detail in section 7.4 of chapter 7, although these are very much integrated and intertwined. This has profound implications on the successful delivery of projects and raises issues that need to be considered in the communication evaluation process.

Key Category 1: Factors influencing the context of cross-cultural communication This key category looked at what the respondents identified as factors influencing the context of communication in a cross-cultural project environment, giving rise to a number of sub-categories as summarised and briefly described in Table C-2. Key Result 1 addressed research questions 1 to 4. The context in which cross-cultural communication is practised is influenced by a number of factors as presented in section 7.4 of chapter 7. This has profound implications on the communication process and raises many issues integral to successful project management that only an effective cross-cultural communication process with appropriate strategies can achieve. Table C1-2 Brief descriptions of factors influencing the context of cross-cultural communication

Sub-categories and Descriptions

KC1.1: Political influence The influences of national and local government policies and the policies of managers, staff and trade unions KC1.2: Cultural influence The influences of home and host cultures KC1.3: Social influence The influences of the lives of practitioners and the local community KC1.4: Economic influence The influences of macroeconomic issues (inflation and interest rates) and microeconomic performance of the host/home and project organisation KC1.5: Local industry and business practices The influences of the prevailing local industry and business practices, legislations and standards KC1.6: Operational and strategic focus of host/donor/management organisation The influences of the underlying focus, commitment and support by the home, host, donor and management organisations KC1.7: Nature and type of project The influences of time, cost, quality, size and type of project as well as the extent of involvement of different stakeholders as each project has its own unique way of doing things creating a specific project culture KC1.8: Legal The influences of the laws of the land, consisting of Acts of Parliament, regulations and local by-laws, and policies and procedures of the host/home organisation in compliance with national or local law and regulation KC1.9: Client requirements The influences of the clients demands, expectations and involvement KC1.10: Practitioners values, beliefs, attitudes, aspirations and expectations The influences of practitioners perceptual mindsets KC1.11: Practitioners hard and soft skills The influences of technical and organisational skills (inter and intrapersonal) of practitioners KC1.12: Technology The influences of technology of the industry and the technical capability of the host and project organisation KC1.13: Physical environment characteristics The influences of the environment either in geographical location, infrastructure, weather, resource base, or in compliance with national or local law and regulation

Key Category 2: Barriers to effective cross-cultural communication Coded to this key category were focused issues that respondents identified to impede cross-cultural communication in project management resulting in a number of sub-categories as summarised and briefly described in Table C-3. Key Result 2 addressed research question 1 to 4 in particular and question 5 conjointly. The barriers to effective cross-cultural communication are presented in section 7.4 of chapter 7, which has direct implications on achieving successful project outcomes. Identifying factors that impinge effective communication is integral to the evaluative process necessary for success in an international project environment.

Table C1-3 Brief descriptions of barriers to effective cross-cultural communication

Sub-categories and Descriptions KC2.1: Language

Difficulty in communicating because of not being able to speak and understand the language KC2.2: Cultural beliefs and practices

Difficulty in communicating because of cultural beliefs and cultural practices KC2.3: Ethnocentrism

Difficulty in communicating because of the belief that ones way of doing things is superior KC2.4: Lack of skills and training

Difficulty in communicating through lack of appropriate skills and training KC2.5: Lack of technical competence

Difficulty in communicating through lack of technical know-how KC2.6: Project ownership issues

Difficulty in communicating through not feeling related, responsible or in tune with a project KC2.7: Top-down bureaucracy and bureaucratic red tape

Difficulty in communicating because of centralised power and decision making by the boss/manager/chief

KC2.8: Lack of flexibility and sustainability Difficulty in communicating because of inflexibility and rigid compliance to certain ways and ideas

KC2.9: Concept of time Difficulty in communicating because of differing attitudes to time

KC2.10: Lack of trust and confidence Difficulty in communicating because of not trusting and confident in the ability and behaviour of others

KC2.11: Lack of incentives and low pay Difficulty in communicating through not being motivated as a result of low pay and lack of incentives

KC2.12: Political/personal agendas and varying priorities Difficulty in communicating because of varying priorities caused by political and personal drives

KC2.13: Poor standards, quality issues and health and safety Difficulty in communicating because of lack of standards, quality control and health and safety issues

KC2.14: Lack of resources Difficulty in communicating through lack of resources that facilitate the process

KC2.15: Land acquisition issues Difficulty in communicating because of sensitive customary and government land issues

KC2.16: Too many public holidays Difficulty in communicating plans and keeping schedules as a negative affect of having too many holidays

KC2.17: Inappropriate or poorly channelled assistance Difficulty in communicating caused by inappropriately applied or channelled assistance

KC2.18: Lack of proper systems, policies and procedures Difficulty in communicating caused by the lack of proper systems, policies and procedures in place

KC2.19: Staff turnover Difficulty in communicating caused by staff turnover and having to deal with or train new people

KC2.20: Lack of planning, coordination, collaboration and integration Difficulty in communicating caused by the lack of coordinated and integrated planning and collaboration

KC2.21: Lack of competition Difficulty in communicating caused by the lack of competition through monopolisation of services

KC2.22: Poor work ethics, culture and practices Difficulty in communicating caused by poor work ethics and practices

KC2.23: Differences in personality Difficulty in communicating caused by personality differences

KC2.24: Lack of support and commitment Difficulty in communicating caused by the lack of support and commitment from the boss, organisation or government

KC2.25: Colonial mindset Difficulty in communicating caused by local beliefs that expatriates know better

KC2.26: Changes in work practices, culture, and procedures Difficulty in communicating caused by changes in the work environment

Key Category 3: Strategies for cross-cultural communication and their effectiveness This key category encapsulates strategies employed by respondents in the projects they were involved in and their effectiveness, resulting in a number of sub-categories as summarised in Table C-4 with detailed findings presented in section 7.4 of chapter 7. Key Result 3 addressed research question 6 in particular and question 5 conjointly. Choosing the most appropriate strategy is integral to successful communication. This has direct implications on the delivery of successful project outcomes and in establishing and harnessing relationships necessary for international operations.

Table C1-4 Brief descriptions of strategies for effective cross-cultural communication Sub-categories and Brief Descriptions

KC3.1: Consultative approach Keeping key stakeholders involved in the decision making process and well informed of progress

KC3.2: Situational approach Applying appropriate strategies that suit the specific circumstance or situation

KC3.3: Mentoring/coached approach The locals are coached and mentored by expatriates to facilitate knowledge transfer

KC3.4: Selection, recruiting and training The appropriate selection, recruiting and training of personnel to suit the environment

KC3.5: Local liaison Using key locals to bridge the gap and facilitate communication

KC3.6: Meetings and Discussion forums Holding meetings and discussion forums to facilitate decision making and resolve issues

KC3.7: Reinforce procedures and follow-ups To ensure procedures are followed and have control mechanisms in place to check on progress

KC3.8: Timely reports Keeping stakeholders up-to-date with progress, current issues and forecasts of events

KC3.9: Constant supervision Hands on and regular supervision

KC3.10: Feedback, open and two way communication Expectation that communication needs to be two-way, and feedback required between all stakeholders

KC3.11: Incremental changes The introduction of new ideas, technology, and systems should be incrementally implemented

KC3.12: Adaptability, flexibility and continuous improvement Having a continuous improvement process or ‘mindset’ that is adaptable and flexible to accommodate changes

KC3.13: Evaluative, informative and problem-solving approach Taking a problem-solving approach that involves thorough evaluation and informative decision-making

KC3.14: Humour and diplomatic approach Taking a humorous and diplomatic approach when attempting to deal with issues that are sensitive

KC3.15: Initiation program Cultural and environmental sensitising of expatriate practitioners through training, discussions, and first hand experience

KC3.16: Effective communication plan Having a plan at the outset that maps out all links that facilitates the communication and decision-making processes

KC3.17: Be proactive and improvise Taking the initiative to take actions and to establish connections and be willing to improvise in light of constraints

KC3.18: Commitment, support and trust Soliciting support, commitment and trust of management, partners, government, clients and other stakeholders

KC3.19: Networking and build relationships Taking time to establish relationships and build networks with stakeholders to facilitate communication and build rapport

KC3.20: Respect and equality Treating others with the respect that they deserve and ensuring that equality exists in principles and practice

KC3.21: Balanced and manageable teams Having a balanced management team with expatriates and locals and keeping their ratio to the workers manageable

Table C1-5 Brief descriptions of proactive measures to improve cross-cultural communication Sub-categories and Descriptions

KC4.1: Sustainable measures Ensuring that project life cycle considerations are adhered to processes, policies, and procedures

KC4.2: Skills upgrading, training and capacity building Ensuring the continuous improvement process through skills upgrading, training and capacity building

KC4.3: Ownership Ensuing that stakeholders feel attached, related, responsible and continue to benefit from the project

KC4.4: Construction specific research and statistics Having construction specific research and statistics that facilitate decision-making and planning

KC4.5: Inter-industry collaboration and integrated approach To eliminate the duplication of tasks and to improve cooperation

KC4.6: Practitioners with common vision Having everyone strive for the same strategic goals

KC4.7: Industry support training and work experience programs To increase the skills base of the local workforce

KC4.8: Do not expect to delegate Leading by example and constant supervision is more effective that delegating responsibilities

KC4.9: Be open minded, tolerant and understanding Expect people, work ethics and practices to be different

KC4.10: Effective transfer of technology Ensure an efficient process is in place to maximise benefits from the transfer of technology

KC4.11: Well balanced management team Having a well balance management team in terms of hard and soft skills as well as a healthy composition of locals

KC4.12: Set reasonable targets Set targets that are challenging but reachable and rewarding

KC4.13: Streamline and prioritise In light of resource and time constraints, streamlining and prioritising of conflicting needs may be the best way

KC4.14: Networking and build relationship Building relationships and networking helps breakdown barriers and speeds things up

KC4.15: Cultural training and initiation Being exposed to the local culture before project helps reduce stress associated with acculturation

KC4.16: Educational and awareness programs Educating and making the public aware of project requirements help create a smart society

KC4.17: Encourage and motivate Encouraging and motivating locals to take initiatives and to improve their performance

KC4.18: Informed decision-making Gathering all the necessary information before making a decision

KC4.19: Change in work culture and ethics Instilling a corporate mindset and changing from casual approach to a more business-like and outcome oriented

KC4.20: Equity Ensuring that all practitioners are given a fair chance to gain work and there are open and transparent procedures

KC4.21: Increase resource pool Increasing the resource pool particularly skilled man power facilitates communication

KC4.22: Incremental changes Incrementally applying new systems, technology, and knowledge ensures sustainability of projects

KC4.23: Culturally sensitive and localised approach Applying strategies that are culturally appropriate and tailor made for the local environment ensures sustainability

KC4.24: Use locals in positional authority Using locals in positional authority facilitates communication and helps speed up the decision-making process

KC4.25: Effective planning and keep good records Having an effective plan and records of activities facilitates the communication and decision-making process

Key Category 4: Proactive measures to improve and enhance communication This key category compiled what respondents perceived as necessary proactive measures to improve cross-cultural communication and project management resulting in a number of

sub-categories as summarised and briefly described in Table C-5, and presented in section 7.4 of chapter 7. Key Result 4 addressed research question 6. Practical proactive measures are products of experiences and are therefore reflective of the environment the experiences were formed. This has direct implications on management processes necessary for successful international project implementation which are facilitated by effective communication, in anticipation of future assignments. Table C1-6 Brief descriptions of influences of experiences on practitioners’ perspectives

Key Category 5: Influences of experiences on perspectives This category addressed one of the central issues of this study regarding practitioners’ perceptions of the ways in which their self-identity, personal beliefs, and worldview regarding international project management changed as a result of their cross-cultural experiences. A number of sub-categories emanated from this key category which are summarised in Table C-6 and presented in detail in section 7.4 of chapter 7. Key Result 5 is an outcome or product of practitioners experiences and is therefore reflective of the responses to all the questions. This has direct implications on successful project outcomes as it engenders a ‘learning to learn’ attitude that is essential to project managers and supervisors as agents of change.

Sub-categories and Descriptions KC5.1: Ethnocentric to polycentric

Changing from thinking that ones way is the only way to being considerate and understanding KC5.2: Rigid to flexible

From being very set on a certain way of doing things to being flexible and encompassing KC5.3: Conservative to appreciative

From being entrench in traditional methods to being welcoming and embracing new ideas KC5.4: Paradigm shift

Changes in perspectives due to the influences of environmental factors on the framework practitioners’ view events

KC5.5: Knowledgeable society Changes in perspectives regarding the local people becoming more knowledgeable in business practices

KC5.6: Skilful industry Changes in perspectives regarding the local industry becoming more skilful

KC5.7: Informed decision-making Changes in perspectives from being reactive to evaluative and informative decision-making

KC5.8: Increased knowledge and awareness Changes to perspectives from seeing projects as difficult challenges to being rewarding experiences

KC5.9: Pre-assignment training necessary VERSUS post-assignment debriefing Changes in perspective regarding the value of training before, during and post-project

KC5.10: Experience to decision-making Changes to perspectives form just gaining experience to being a very experienced decision-maker

KC5.11: Reduced level of expectations Changes to perspectives regarding readjusting expectations relative to the local industry’s practices and workers skills

KC5.12: Increased understanding and awareness rather than change Increase in understanding and awareness rather than changes to perspectives

KC5.13: Mostly learning experience Focused on their involvement as being learning experiences

KC5.14: Accept and adapt Changes to perspectives from being critical to adapting and accepting

KC5.15: Generalising to not stereotyping Changes to perspectives from generalising and stereotyping groups of people to individual assessment

KC5.16: Ignorant to considerate Changes to perspectives from being ignorant of the local culture and practices to making an effort to understand

APPENDIX C2: Findings not presented in Chapter 7 Factors influencing the context of cross-cultural communication Ranked #9 KR1.3 Social Coded to this sub-category were comments relating to the influences of the lives of practitioners and the local community on the projects they were involved in. a list of subsidiaries emanating from this sub-category is provided in Appendix C, with some of the typical comments made including:

“On community projects, everyone and everything impacts on projects. Villages can support projects if they are made aware of the benefits to them. Villages can support or hinder projects depending on interests and perceived benefits to them” (int1) “This World Bank funded job had a requirement to meet with village councils (8 to 10 villages). These meetings took 2-3 weeks. The matai expressed an element of frustration because they had been interviewed 3-4 times before. They were slightly cynical, and were not too convinced that anything would happen soon” (int10) “Because most Samoans have family land where they can grow a plantation or other subsistence activities and have relatives overseas who remit money to support families in Samoa, most locals don’t feel the urgency to find work at the construction site or to be punctual and committed and would not really worry too much if they lost their jobs” (int23)

Table C2-1 show the rankings for the interviewees’ based on the frequency and amount of information for KR1.3. Interviewee #30 of Australian nationality having 37.1% at the top, followed by #7, a Samoan with 17.5%, another Samoan (#17) at third place with 11.6%, and forth place is #23, a New Zealander with 11.2%.

Table C2-1 Top four ranked interviewees for social influences

Ranked #10 KR1.12 Physical environment characteristics To this sub-category were coded comments highlighting the influences of the environment either in geographical location, infrastructure, weather, resource base, or in compliance with national or local law and regulation on projects. A list of subsidiaries emerging from this sub-category is provided in Appendix C, with typical comments including:

“When working in a country that is isolated from the rest of the world with limited resources, one needs to be pro-active and sometimes improvise. A lot of the responsibilities is on you as the PM to ensure that all is well which the supply of materials, the coordination of activities, quality assurance, political and cultural correctness, stakeholders satisfaction, local legislations and regulations satisfied” (int8)


1 30 Australian 4 2 195 37.1 2 7 Samoan 6 1 92 17.5 3 17 Samoan 19 1 61 11.6 4 23 New Zealander 21 1 59 11.2

“In the 1990’s after the cyclones, a lot of the projects took off. The government needed to act quickly. That was a great period of activity within the construction industry” (int10) “We can usually detect from the body language the mood of the workers when receiving instructions, then we know they may need a break or a meal before the next task, especially if it has been a long day or the temperature has been too high for outside work” (int30)

Table C2-2 present the rankings for the four places based on the amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR1.12) with #11, a Samoan having 13.5% at the top, another Samoan (#8) with 18.0% at second place, a Japanese (#14) is at third place with 15.1%, and an Australian (#30) at fourth place with 14.0%.

Table C2-2 Top four ranked interviewees for physical environment characteristics influences

Ranked #11 KR1.13 Technology Coded to this were comments highlighting the influences of technology of the industry and the technical capability of the host and project organisation. Emanating from this sub-category were a number of the subsidiaries as listed in Appendix C, with some of the comments including:

“Technology has also had an impact on communication and the industry in general. Category A contractors have a strong command of computer programs and therefore do well in their presentations, reports and proposals whereas most local contractors do not” (int7) “Samoa may get very expensive and sophisticated technology through aid projects but the maintenance falls apart because there are no spare parts and qualified local technicians to maintain and service the facilities built” (int21) “Communication relies on availability of phone lines, e-mails, and fax machines. Everyone accepts that people need to move information quickly. Samoan building contractors recognised this. The Samoan way of communication allows flexibility for moving information” (int16)

Table C2-3 present the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR1.13) with #20, a New Zealander having 27.7% at the top, Other Expatriate (#31) with 22.1% at second place, a Samoan (#7) is at third place with 12.7%, and Other Expatriate (#16) at fourth place with 11.1%.

Table C2-3 Top four ranked interviewees for technology influences


1 11 Samoan 10 2 75 21.4 2 8 Samoan 4 1 63 18.0 3 14 Japanese 11 1 53 15.1 4 30 Australian 4 1 49 14.0


1 20 New Zealander 4 2 85 27.7 2 31 Other Expatriate 10 1 68 22.1 3 7 Samoan 6 1 39 12.7 4 16 Other Expatriate 13 1 34 11.1

Ranked #12 KR1.9 Client requirements Coded to this sub-category were comments regarding the influences of the clients’ demands, expectations and involvement on projects the practitioners were involved in. Emanating from this sub-category were a number of subsidiaries listed in Appendix C, with some of the comments including:

“This World Bank funded job had a requirement to meet with village councils (8 to 10 villages). These meetings took 2-3 weeks. The matais expressed an element of frustration because they had been interviewed 3-4 times before. They were slightly cynical, and were not too convinced that anything would happen soon” (int10) “On the projects that I have been involved in, it is a requirement for the contractor to list all their supervisory personnel when tendering to ensure the appropriate staff for supervision of the project and for effective communication” (int25)

Table C2-4 present the rankings for the four interviewees that made comments under this sub-category (KR1.9) with #11, a Samoan having 27.7% at the top, two other Samoans (#10 and #12) with 23.9% and 19.2% at second and third place respectively, and at forth place is #25, a New Zealander with 17.8%.

Table C2-4 Top four ranked interviewees for client requirements influences

Ranked #13 KR1.8 Legal Coded to this sub-category were comments highlighting the influences of the laws of the land, consisting of Acts of Parliament, regulations and local by-laws, and policies and procedures of the host/home organisation in compliance with national or local law and regulation on projects. Emerging from this sub-category were a few subsidiaries as listed in Appendix C, with some of the typical comments including:

“Land issues and land control has implications on managing projects. Even if the matai has given the go ahead, legally, anyone member of the family can stop the project through the Lands and Titles Court” (int6) “In dealing with tight projects it is rare in Samoa to apply penalties although it has happened. In western environments penalties are applied rigidly, where the environment is much more financially driven. If you understand how people think and operate you can usually talk to them and follow up with something else” (int16) “From an economical and professional perspective, there is little documentation and written evidence compared to NZ. Projects can be started with minimum legal work. Verbal assurance comes before written confirmation in island time” (int20)

Table C2-5 present the rankings for the four interviewees that made comments under this sub-category (KR1.8) with #4, an Australian having 34.0% at the top, two Samoans (#9 and #6) with 30.4% and 18.6% at second and third place respectively, and at forth place is #20, a New Zealander with 17.0%.


1 11 Samoan 10 1 59 27.7 2 10 Samoan 26 1 51 23.9 3 12 Samoan 20 1 41 19.2 4 25 New Zealander 15 1 38 17.8

Table C2-5 Two ranked interviewees for legal influences

BARRIERS not presented in chapter 7 Ranked 9th KR2.8 Lack of flexibility and sustainability Coded to this sub-category were issues in communicating because of inflexibility and rigid compliance to certain ways and ideas that are not conducive to sustainable practices, with comments including:

“Public at large find it hard to comprehend or accept what is involved in a project. Sometimes changes (variations) are unavoidable but the public and politicians do not allow or accept that particularly where extra costs are involved; requests from the public and politicians for extra work to be included which are not part of the project but no extra funds allocated; the fa’asamoa, expected to say yes (very hard to say No) to every request, most difficult problem as very hard to manage; the awareness and understanding of processes involved, say for example the consultation at different levels (stakeholder analysis, needs analysis and preliminary investigation) which could happen a number of times before a final decision is made. To the public, once they give their views or approval once, then they should not be asked again. They see this as wasting their time or questioning their authority (matais or village council)” (int6) The Ministry appears to be shrinking as the overseas consultants are disappearing and that may pose problems if there are no measures in place to ensure that the roles of asset managers can continue” (int16)

Table C2-6 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.8) with #22, a Japanese having 20.6% at first place; a Samoan (#6) with 18.1% at second place, another Samoan (#9) is at third place with 14.0%, followed by Other Expatriate (#16) at fourth place with 10.4%.

Table C2-6 Barriers to effective communication: top four ranked interviewees for KR2.8

Ranked 10th KR2.10 Lack of trust and confidence To this sub-category were coded remarks that focused on the difficulty in communicating because of not trusting and confident in the ability and behaviour of others, with typical comments including:


1 4 Australian 11 1 64 34.0 2 9 Samoan 13 1 57 30.4 3 6 Samoan 14 1 35 18.6 4 20 New Zealander 4 1 32 17.0


1 22 Japanese 2 3 199 20.6 2 6 Samoan 14 2 175 18.1 3 9 Samoan 13 3 135 14.0 4 16 Other Expatriate 13 2 101 10.4

“Villages seem to have the perception that projects are carried out without much input by them” (int3) ‘I don’t walk away from the job because I’m not sure of whether they would do it right’ (int4) “The best experts are the people living in Samoa and this includes Samoans and expats who have lived in Samoa for a long time with some expats having married Samoans. Unfortunately, Samoans themselves tend not to accept or trust other Samoans to be experts” (int6) “Most locals perceive expats as more intelligent and more experience than Samoans which is a Colonial mindset. This can be a problem as not all expats are and have resulted in advice from locals who are familiar with the local environment been neglected at great expense” (int8)

Table C2-7 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.10) with #22, a Japanese having 22.7% at first place; a Samoan (#3) with 16.7% at second place, a New Zealander (#23) is at third place with 10.8%, followed by Other Expatriate (#31) at fourth place with 10.2%.


Ranked 11th KR2.3 Ethnocentrism Coded to this sub-category were notes that focused on the difficulty in communicating because of the belief that ones way of doing things is superior with typical comments including:

“There have been expats who have come to Samoa without much experience and are not flexible and open minded who have faced much frustrations and at worse have gone back before the end of the assignment” (int8) “Communication can be very effective if you treat others as you would like to be treated. Problems occur when you try to exert too much of your own views without consideration for the other peoples feelings and ideas” (int11) “Cultural beliefs can be a barrier sometimes. Some expats come to Samoa with very stubborn mindsets, not accepting of feedback. They only felt that their way was the only way. However, the majority of expats come with open mindedness, and willingness to learn from their experience. I used to refer to local people as counterparts. But now we refer to them as colleagues because counterparts somehow means that they are still learning from someone else, whereas being referred to as a colleague implies equal status” (int13)

Table C2-8 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.3) with #13, a Samoan having 21.8% at


1 22 Japanese 2 2 195 22.7 2 3 Samoan 7 3 144 16.7 3 23 New Zealander 21 2 93 10.8 4 31 Other Expatriate 10 1 88 10.2

first place; another Samoan (#8) with 14.7% at second place, a New Zealander (#23) is at third place with 14.5%, followed by another Samoan (#17) at fourth place with 14.3%.


Ranked 12th KR2.15 Land acquisition issues To this sub-category were coded comments focusing on the difficulty in communicating because of sensitive customary and government land issues, with typical remarks including:

“There are areas for improvement. Sensitive issues such as land acquisition which can become a cross-cultural barrier in projects need to be looked at very carefully. Access to land can become a problem if government has not allayed community concerns” (int1) “Land acquisition is a key issue for international projects” (int9) “Land issues are the key areas where effective communication is critical” (int12) “A lot of the problems in communication on projects that I have been involved in had to do with land issues. Land acquisition has been the major stumbling block in cross cultural communication. Conflicts between groups over land ownership which on some cases have resulted in serious injuries to parties involved. Land issues are so closely interlocked with the Samoan culture” (int29)

Table C2-9 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.15) with #27, a New Zealander having 24.7% at first place; an Australian (#29) with 19.5% at second place, a Samoan (#12) is at third place with 13.7%, followed by an Australian (#30) at fourth place with 12.0%.


Ranked 13th KR2.4 Lack of appropriate skills and training Emanating from this sub-category were annotations focusing on the difficulty in communicating through lack of appropriate skills and training with some typical ones including:

“There is a need to upgrade tradespeople. We struggled to find welders and skilled carpenters. Most people we employ walk in of the street” (int18)




1 27 New Zealander 10 1 164 24.7 2 29 Australian 34 3 129 19.5 3 12 Samoan 20 2 91 13.7 4 30 Australian 4 1 80 12.0

“One of the big problems in Samoa is that fresh graduates are thrown into management positions” (int21) “At the moment with the reforms going on, the ministry does not have qualified people to carry out building inspections as all senior/qualified people have left” (int23) “There is still a lack of professional and technical people with experience in the industry. Some recently qualified Samoans from overseas Universities are given management roles and responsibilities that they are not familiar with or have not developed and attained enough experience to be given such responsibilities” (int30)

Table C2-10 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.4) with #23, a New Zealander having 18.6% at first place; a Japanese (#28) with 15.4% at second place, a New Zealander (#19) is at third place with 15.1%, followed by another New Zealander (#18) at forth place with 14.0%.


Ranked 14th KR2.1 Language Coded to this sub-category were remarks focusing on the difficulty in communicating because of not being able to speak and understand the language with typical comments including:

“Language is the biggest barrier. The people I work with are largely uneducated and cannot communicate well in English” (int4)

“Trying to communicate in English to a Samoan takes time as both of us do not speak it well” (int14) “At times the language is a major problem particularly at the labourers’ level. Understanding English is a problem as well as the technical language” (int29)

Table C2-11 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.1) with #12, a Samoan having 18.3% at first place; another Samoan (#17) with 16.9% at second place, an Australian (#29) is at third place with 14.7%, followed by a New Zealander (#25) at fourth place with 8.9%.



1 23 New Zealander 21 2 106 18.6 2 28 Japanese 17 2 88 15.4 3 19 New Zealander 8 2 86 15.1 4 18 New Zealander 12 2 80 14.0

Rank Interviewee # Nationality Yrs of X-cultural

experience Frequency TOTAL Percent

1 12 Samoan 20 3 101 18.3 2 17 Samoan 19 2 93 16.9 3 29 Australian 34 2 81 14.7 4 25 New Zealander 15 1 49 8.9

Ranked 15th KR2.24 Lack of support and commitment Coded to this sub-category were subsidiaries that focused on the difficulty in communicating caused by the lack of support and commitment from the boss, organisation, government or community with typical comments including:

“Even if the most practical, technically sound and cost effective solution based on engineering best practice has been proposed by consultants, village chiefs and their occupants may object to this based on how they view it and its perceived benefits and implications” (int6) “Sometimes advice is not received well or acted on because of varying priorities particularly by immediate counterpart” (int14) “Some of these issues are difficult to manage and can be frustrating as one is left wondering what one has to do since all the normal steps to follow have been exhausted” (int22)

Table C2-12 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.24) with #6, a Samoan having 37.7% at first place; a Japanese (#22) with 17.7% at second place, another Japanese (#14) is at third place with 12.1%, followed by a New Zealander (#27) at fourth place with 11.3%.


Ranked 16th KR2.17 Inappropriate or poorly channeled assistance Emanating from this category were subsidiaries that highlighted the difficulty in communicating caused by inappropriately applied or channelled assistance with some of the comments including:

“I have noticed that there are many copies of project action plans produced by overseas consultants. They seem to be well produced but I don’t know how many Samoans really understand the contents of these manuals and how relevant the documents are to the locals” (int2) “I felt that some aid funded projects were implemented just for the sake of it. For example the building of water tanks with a design that was not suitable for Samoa. Responsibility of projects ‘hazy’” (int17)

Table C2-13 presents the rankings for the interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.17) with #17, a Samoan having 344.6% at first place; a Japanese (#2) with 43.9% at second place, and an Australian (#21) is at third place with 11.5%. The others did not register any comments under this sub-category.


1 6 Samoan 14 2 134 37.7 2 22 Japanese 2 1 63 17.7 3 14 Japanese 11 1 43 12.1 4 27 New Zealander 10 1 40 11.3

Table C2-13 Barriers to effective communication: top ranked interviewees for KR2.17

Ranked 17th KR2.6 Project ownership issues Coded to this sub-category were comments regarding the difficulty in communicating through not feeling related, responsible or in tune with a project with some typical remarks including:

“Villages seem to have the perception that projects are carried out without much input by them. Projects now are trying to ensure that villages gain a sense of cooperative participation, they are becoming contributors, and they are gaining a sense of ownership. This helps everyone be aware of the objectives of projects to avoid false expectations, misunderstandings and misconceptions” (int3) “There needs to be more involvement of locals in planning of projects to make them feel part of the team, increase the feeling of ownership, awareness and understanding of benefits and implications. Most projects fail on their long-term objectives (not long after the expats have departed after project completion) because locals do not relate well to a project and have not got that ownership feeling in them” (int8)

Table C2-14 presents the rankings for the interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.6) with #21, an Australian having 54.3% at first place; a Samoan (#8) with 24.3% at second place, and another Samoan (#3) is at third place with 21.4%. The others did not register any comments under this sub-category.


Ranked 18th KR2.18 Lack of proper records, systems, policies, and procedures Coded to this sub-category were remarks concerning the difficulty in communicating caused by the lack of proper systems, policies and procedures, records in place that facilitate decision-making with typical comments including:

“System in place for building inspections are too open to corruption and are a problem” (int19) “Keeping documented records is a major problem. The idea of discussing issues over plans becomes problematic as many Samoans prefer to talk about issues without referring to plans” (int21)


1 17 Samoan 19 2 127 44.6 2 2 Japanese 11 2 125 43.9 3 21 Australian 4 1 33 11.5


1 21 Australian 4 2 150 54.3 2 8 Samoan 4 1 67 24.3 3 3 Samoan 7 1 59 21.4

Table C2-15 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.18) with #21, an Australian having 44.5% at first place; Other Expatriate (#31) with 21.6% at second place, an Australian (#15) is at third place with 14.2%, and another Australian (#29) is at forth place with 13.8%.


Ranked 19th KR2.20 Lack of planning, coordination, collaboration and integration Coded to this were comments regarding the difficulty in communicating caused by the lack of coordinated and integrated planning and collaboration with typical comments including:

“Too many agencies doing different projects, sometimes at the same location without co-ordination can be a major problem at times which leads to time and resource wasting. Administration systems are a hassle at times” (int17) “The difficulty of integrating traditional technologies and methods of construction with modern methods has been a problem that affected communication” (int17)

Table C2-16 presents the rankings for the interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.20) with #17, a Samoan having 73.0% at first place; an Australian (#21) with 14.0% at second place, a New Zealander (#25) is at third and last place with 13.0%. The others did not register any comments here.


Ranked 20th KR 2.26 Change in work practices and work culture Coded to this were comments regarding the difficulty in communicating caused by changes in the work environment with some of the typical remarks including:

“Part of the teething process in the changeover from no regulations to some regulations, we do experience interruptions, because of the process, which tends to slow things down as consultation with different bodies are now required and this impacts on project delivery, time on our behalf and affects our fee structure” (int10)


1 21 Australian 4 2 113 44.5 2 31 Other Expatriate 10 1 55 21.6 3 15 Australian 9 1 36 14.2 4 29 Australian 34 1 35 13.8


1 17 Samoan 19 4 162 73.0 2 21 Australian 4 1 31 14.0 3 25 New Zealander 15 1 29 13.0

When working in the Public Sector, there was not much quality control. And now, working in the Private sector, everything has to be done according to specifications (int32)

Table C2-17 presents the rankings for the interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.26) with #30, an Australian having 55.7% at first place; Other Expatriate (#10) with 29.0% at second place, a Samoan (#32) is at third and last place with 13.0%. The others did not register any comments here.


Ranked 21st KR2.16 Public holidays Coded to this were comments regarding the difficulty in communicating plans and keeping schedules as a negative affect of having too many holidays wit comments including:

“Samoans are very religious. In Japan, most workers work 7 days a week. Here it is a problem if we have tight schedules and we cannot work on Sundays” (int14) “Holidays are frustrating here. There are too many holidays. In the islands, holidays play a major influence in family networks. Sometimes it’s frustrating when you are on a strict timeline and holidays crop up” (int20) “From a project management perspective, Samoa has too many holidays” (int23)

Table C2-18 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.16) with #28, a Japanese having 29.7% at first place; a New Zealander (#20) with 23.4% at second place, a Japanese (#14) and a New Zealander (#26) are at third place with 20.0%.


Ranked 22nd KR2.11 Lack of incentives and low pay Coded to this were comments regarding the difficulty in communicating through not being motivated as a result of low pay and lack of incentives with remarks including:

“There needs to be special considerations when recruiting locals to give them more incentives. The salary difference between expats and locals is enormous. Minimum wage rate set by the govt. for labourers is very low and this creates negative feelings


1 30 Australian 4 1 98 55.7 2 10 Other Expatriate 26 1 51 29.0 3 32 Samoan 16 1 27 15.3


1 28 Japanese 17 1 43 29.7 2 20 New Zealander 4 1 34 23.4 3 14 Japanese 11 1 29 20.0 26 New Zealander 16 1 29 20.0

by locals towards contractors. The attitude that one should work according to one’s pay is borne out of this feeling of dissatisfaction” (int8)

Table C2-19 presents the rankings for the interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.11) with #11, a Samoan having 52.7% at first place; and second and last is another Samoan (#8) with 47.3%.


Ranked 23rd KR2.21 Lack of competition Coded to this were comments regarding the difficulty in communicating caused by the lack of competition through monopolisation of services with remarks including:

“The biggest problem is where one local company monopolises the supplying of some locally manufacture products, then you may find frequent delays” (int4) “Monopolised markets and lack of competition have driven prices up and affected the quality of the services provided negatively” (int14) “I think because some operations are run by government and it is the only one on island, there is no competition. There is a need for more competition to improve the work culture” (int14)

Table C2-20 presents the rankings for the interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.21) with #14, a Japanese having 68.3% at first place; and second and last is an Australian (#4) with 31.7%.


Ranked 24th KR2.19 Staff turnover Coded to this were comments relating to the difficulty in communicating caused by staff turnover and having to deal with or train new people with remarks including:

“In the past we had large turnovers. Now we have a core number of people and we have little turnover and we look after them” (int27) Also the reforms have strip bare the MOW (brain drain) of qualified and experience personnel, therefore affecting the performance of the MOW. Only young graduates are there and if new graduates do come in, the people with experience that they need to work with are no longer there. This needs to be looked at urgently” (int30)


1 11 Samoan 10 1 69 52.7 2 8 Samoan 4 1 62 47.3


1 14 Japanese 11 2 86 68.3 2 4 Australian 11 1 40 31.7

Table C2-21 presents the rankings for the interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.19) with #30, an Australian having 79.7% at first place; and second and last is a New Zealander (#27) with 31.7%.


Ranked 25th KR2.25 Colonial mindset Coded to this were comments regarding the difficulty in communicating caused by local beliefs that expatriates know better with remarks including:

Locals (politicians and the public) generally accept advice from expats more so than from a Samoan. Colonial mentality ingrained in Samoans that when a white man says something it is taken very seriously whereas if a Samoan (of the same profession/qualification and similar experience) was giving these instructions or advice, it is not taken/received with the same accolades, respect, seriousness and enthusiasm” (int6) “Most locals perceive expats as more intelligent and more experienced than Samoans – Colonial mindset. This can be a problem as not all expats are and have resulted in advice from locals who are familiar with the local environment been neglected at great expense” (int8)

Table C2-22 presents the rankings for the interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.25) with #6, a Samoan having 60.2% at first place; and second and last is another Samoan (#8) with 39.8%.


Ranked 26th KR2.23 Differences in Personality Coded to this were comments relating to the difficulty in communicating caused by personality differences with remarks including:

“Personality conflict is also a barrier, perhaps because they are under pressure” (int3) “Barriers to effective communication in Samoa include political influence, internal influence, cross-agency influence, nepotism, micro-management influences based on rumours and personal influences” (int17)

Table C2-23 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR2.23) with #26, a New Zealander


1 30 Australian 4 1 98 79.7 2 27 New Zealander 10 1 25 20.3


1 6 Samoan 14 1 65 60.2 2 8 Samoan 4 1 43 39.8

having 48.0% at first place; a Samoan (#17) with 22.0% at second place, a New Zealander (#18) at third place with 18.0%, and a Samoan (#3) at forth place with 12.0%.


STRATEGIES not presented in chapter 7 Ranked #9 KR3.10 Feedback, open and two-way communication Emanating from this sub-category were subsidiaries regarding expectations that communication needs to be two-way, and feedback required between all stakeholders with typical comments including:

“The strategy to deal with this is to listen to them and find some common ground as the people are the ones directly affected by the project” (int6) “Our strategy is to conduct debriefing sessions once contract is awarded to explain why bids were unsuccessful” (int9) “Communication is a two way thing and it is particularly important in a cross-cultural environment to ensure that project outcomes are those that all stakeholders want. This does enhance ownership and promotes sustainability” (int13)

Table C2-24 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.10) with #3, a Samoan having 14.3% at first place; another Samoan (#6) with 13.5% at second place, an Australian (#24) is at third place with 12.3%, and a New Zealander (#25) at forth place with 10.6%. These top four interviewees provided 50.7% of the total.

Table C2-24 Key Result 3: Strategies – Top four ranked interviewees for KR3.10

Ranked #10 KR3.12 Adaptability, Flexibility and Continuous improvement Coded to this sub-category were subsidiaries focusing on having a continuous improvement process or ‘mindset’ that is adaptable and flexible to accommodate changes with typical comments including:

“There are problems in delays and time schedules but all parties concerned have made every effort possible to alleviate the problems and to ensure that these do not reoccur in the future” (int3)


1 26 New Zealander 16 1 48 48.0 2 17 Samoan 19 1 22 22.0 3 18 New Zealander 12 1 18 18.0 4 3 Samoan 7 1 12 12.0


1 3 Samoan 7 3 76 14.3 2 6 Samoan 14 1 69 13.5 3 24 Australian 1 2 63 12.3 4 25 New Zealander 15 1 54 10.6

“The input from local stakeholders is a must from preliminary studies and design to implementation, commissioning and operation. Feedback mechanisms throughout all stages are essential to ensure a continuous improvement process” (int17) “In my experience, patience is the key here. I have been in the islands a long time. We need to try and deal with issues as they come up and move on” (int26)

Table C2-25 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.12) with #1, a Samoan having 14.4% at first place; a New Zealander (#20) with 12.4% at second place, a Samoan (#7) is at third place with 12.2%, and another Samoan (#3) at forth place with 11.4%. These top four interviewees provided 50.4% of the total.


Ranked #11 KR3.19 Networking and build relationships From this sub-category were coded subsidiaries focusing on taking time to establish relationships and build networks with stakeholders to facilitate communication and build rapport with typical comments including:

“One strategy that we use is that we conduct retreats like workshops to help expats and local staff to form relationships in a more informal setting, that also help team building” (int13) “Through business dealings, we have made contact with local consultants and contractors and it has been very positive. Socially, one can get a better understanding and awareness of local business practices” (int15) “Bureaucratic red tape can be cut through locally using network and respect for authority” (int20)

Table C2-26 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.19) with #5, an Australian having 23.8% at first place; a New Zealander (#18) with 14.8% at second place, an Australian (#29) is at third place with 14.2%, and a Samoan (#13) at forth place with 13.4%. These top four interviewees provided 66.2% of the total.



1 1 Samoan 12 1 73 14.4 2 20 New Zealander 4 1 63 12.4 3 7 Samoan 5 1 62 12.2 4 3 Samoan 7 2 58 11.4



1 5 Australian 4 3 119 23.8 2 18 New Zealander 12 2 74 14.8 3 29 Australian 34 2 71 14.2 4 13 Samoan 15 2 67 13.4

Ranked #12 KR3.1 Consultative approach Coded to this sub-category were subsidiaries focusing on keeping key stakeholders involved in the decision-making process and well informed of progress with typical comments including:

“The construction industry in Samoa is not very adversarial and not much disputes. This probably is attributed to cultural influence through the process of consultation (soalaupule)” (int6) “I always am concerned about the priorities of our project schedule. Sometimes we encounter problems and then meetings, consultation take place” (int14) “Consultation with appropriate stakeholders prior to design and sometimes throughout the project is essential to ensure outcomes are as expected” (int23)

Table C2-27 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.1) with #6, a Samoan having 35.2% at first place; another Samoan (#3) with 19.6% at second place, a Japanese (#22) is at third place with 13.6%, and a Samoan (#11) at forth place with 8.5%. These top four interviewees provided 76.9% of the total.


Ranked 13 KR3.16 Effective communication plan Coded to this sub-category were subsidiaries reflecting on having a plan at the outset that maps out all links that facilitates the communication and decision-making processes with typical comments including:

“Effective communication goes back to planning in the beginning which identify strategies in order to deliver the project and should outline how to deal and approach locals. A degree of flexibility need to be in place to deal with the locals but not to the point that the focus of design phase, tenders, construction are lost and that standards are greatly compromised” (int7) “It is very important to have an effective communication plan in place” (int9) “A communication plan is important, especially for stakeholders” (int12)

Table C2-28 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.16) with #12, a Samoan having 38.4% at first place; a New Zealander (#27) with 16.6% at second place, a Samoan (#7) is at third place with 13.2%, and Other Expatriate (#10) at forth place with 9.8%. These top four interviewees provided 78.0% of the total.


1 6 Samoan 14 2 174 35.2 2 3 Samoan 7 3 97 19.6 3 22 Japanese 2 1 67 13.6 4 11 Samoan 10 1 42 8.5


Ranked 14 KR3.18 Commitment, support and trust Emanating from this sub-category were subsidiaries regarding soliciting support, commitment and trust of management, partners, government, clients and other stakeholders with typical comments including:

“We need to get local stakeholders and local people into the mindset that projects success is dependent on everyone playing their role effectively as part of the team. Everyone involved in projects need to contribute effectively from planning phase to the end” (int7) “We try to work with and support local suppliers which is a total philosophy change from say five to ten years ago when we used to try and import a lot of the materials that we require ourselves” (int26) “I feed the workers when we work late and we also drop them at their doorsteps when we knock off” (int27)

Table C2-29 presents the rankings for the top four places based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.18) with #26, a New Zealander having 38.2% at first place; a Japanese (#28) with 12.8% at second place, a Samoan (#17) is at third place with 10.6%, and another Samoan (#7) at forth place with 10.1%. These top four interviewees provided 71.7% of the total.


Ranked #15 KR3.8 Timely reports Coded to this sub-category were subsidiaries focusing on keeping stakeholders up-to-date with progress, current issues and forecasts of events with typical comments including:

“It is therefore very important to discuss deadlines and priorities with staff and managers as often as possible and this could be done in meetings or in progress reports and action lists” (int13) “Another is try to get monthly reports to management to let them know of tasks and goals met. Perhaps the negative side is that there isn’t any feedback from management on our reports” (int24)


1 12 Samoan 20 6 181 38.4 2 27 New Zealander 10 2 78 16.6 3 7 Samoan 6 1 62 13.2 4 10 Other Expatriate 26 1 46 9.8


1 26 New Zealander 16 3 158 38.2 2 28 Japanese 17 1 53 12.8 3 17 Samoan 19 1 44 10.6 4 7 Samoan 6 1 42 10.1

Table C2-30 presents the rankings for the four interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.8) with #25, a New Zealander having 36.4% at first place; a Samoan (#13) with 27.8% at second place, an Australian (#21) is at third place with 25.9%, and another Australian (#24) at forth place with 9.9%. These four interviewees provided 100.0% of the total.


Ranked #16 KR3.17 Be proactive and improvise Emanating from this sub-category were subsidiaries focusing on taking the initiative to take actions and to establish connections and be willing to improvise in light of constraints with typical comments including:

“When working in a country that is isolated from the rest of the world with limited resources, one needs to be pro-active and sometimes improvise. A lot of the responsibilities is on you as the PM to ensure that all is well with the supply of materials, the coordination of activities, quality assurance, political and cultural correctness, stakeholders satisfaction, local legislations and regulations satisfied” (int8) “Lack of resources means that one needs to improvise, be flexible and adaptable” (int20)

Table C2-31 presents the rankings for the top four interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.17) with #8, a Samoan having 24.2% at equal first place with a Japanese (#22), a New Zealander (#27) is at third place with 15.8%, and a Samoan (#11) at forth place with 13.8%. These four interviewees provided 78.0% of the total.


Ranked #17 KR3.3 Mentoring/coached approach Coded to this sub-category were subsidiaries where the locals are coached and mentored by expatriates to facilitate knowledge transfer with typical comments including:

“Mentoring is a key factor to successful implementation of projects” (int21) “The workers with less education do have difficulty to grasp concepts and therefore require more time to be coached or trained to make them understand. If you do not


1 25 New Zealander 15 1 121 36.4 2 13 Samoan 15 2 92 27.8 3 21 Australian 4 1 86 25.9 4 24 Australian 1 1 33 9.9


1 8 Samoan 4 1 63 24.2 2 22 Japanese 2 1 63 24.2 3 27 New Zealander 10 1 41 15.8 4 11 Samoan 10 1 36 13.8

allow for this and take culturally inappropriate action from the start, then they may reject your attempts and I think it may become a clash of cultures where people don’t really know what the expectations are’ (int29)

Table C2-32 presents the rankings for the four interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.3) with #21, an Australian having 46.7% at first place, another Australian (#29) is at second place with 26.4%, a New Zealander (#19) is at third place with 15.9%, and a Samoan (#12) at forth place with 11.0%. These four interviewees provided 100.0% of the total.


Ranked #18 KR3.15 Initiation program Coded to this sub-category were subsidiaries referring to cultural and environmental sensitising of expatriate practitioners through training, discussions, and first hand experience with typical comments including:

“Another strategy is that we encourage expats to spend time in villages as this gives them a greater insight into our traditions and culture” (int13) “In dealings with employees, one needs to have some understanding of the culture and of the systems in place (society and business). This could be dealt with through training and discussions with people who have worked in Samoa and through on-job experience. Although it is better to have some understanding of these issues before coming to Samoa so that there will be minimal culture shock and stress” (int22)

Table C2-33 presents the rankings for the four interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.15) with #22, a Japanese having 42.1% at first place, a New Zealander (#20) is at second place with 32.2%, a Samoan (#13) is at third place with 13.8%, and a New Zealander (#18) at forth place with 11.9%. These four interviewees provided 100.0% of the total.




1 21 Australian 4 3 115 46.7 2 29 Australian 34 1 65 26.4 3 19 New Zealander 8 1 39 15.9 4 12 Samoan 20 1 27 11.0


1 22 Japanese 2 1 67 42.1 2 20 New Zealander 4 1 51 32.2 3 13 Samoan 15 1 22 13.8 4 18 New Zealander 12 1 19 11.9

Ranked #19 KR3.14 Humour and diplomatic approach Emanating from this sub-category were subsidiaries focusing on taking a humorous and diplomatic approach when attempting to deal with issues that are sensitive with typical comments including:

“Humour and diplomatic strategies are employed in communication. There have been situations where certain topics have been diverted around questions asked” (int15) “You need to be diplomatic in your dealings with local departments” (int20) “One definitely needs to employ diplomacy in dealings” (int27) “Humour is used a lot. A happy site is a working site. If you are going to work go happy” (int27)

Table C2-34 presents the rankings for the three interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.14) with #27, a New Zealander having 46.7% at first place, an Australian (#15) is at second place with 35.0%, and a New Zealander (#20) is at third place with 18.3%. These three interviewees provided 100.0% of the total.

Table C2-34 Key Result 3: Strategies – Ranked interviewees for KR3.14

Ranked #20 KR3.21 Well balance management team and manageable teams Emanating from this sub-category were subsidiaries relating to having a balanced management team with expatriates and locals and keeping their ratio to the workers manageable with comments including:

“One other strategy is to keep our workers in small teams. Our gang sizes are smaller so that they are easily controlled. Our ratios are always looked at carefully” (int26) “You need to have a balanced mix of people you can trust particularly at the management and supervisory level – a good blend of expats and locals” (int27)

Table C2-35 presents the rankings for the two interviewees based on the frequency and amount of comments made under this sub-category (KR3.21) with #26, a New Zealander having 52.7% at first place, another New Zealander (#27) make up the remaining 47.3%. These two interviewees provided 100.0% of the total.

Table C2-35 Key Result 3: Strategies – Ranked interviewees for KR3.21


1 27 New Zealander 10 2 28 46.7 2 15 Australian 9 1 21 35.0 3 20 New Zealander 4 1 11 18.3



1 26 New Zealander 16 1 29 52.7 2 27 New Zealander 10 1 26 47.3

Ranked #21 KR3.11 Incremental changes Coded to this sub-category were subsidiaries focusing on the introduction of new ideas, technology, and systems should be incrementally implemented with the one comment:

“I believe that in the Samoan situation, small incremental steps are effective and sustainable” (int17)

Table C2-36 presents the result under this sub-category (KR3.11) with interviewee #17, a Samoan providing 100.0% of the information.

Table C2-36 Key Result 3: Strategies – Information from one interviewee for KR3.11

PROACTIVE MEASURES not covered in chapter 7 Ranked #9 KR4.7 Industry support training and work experience programs Typical comments emanating from this sub-category include the following:

“There is a definite need to increase resource pool and skilled workforce. Need to support courses run by the Polytech to create skilled workforces. Communication, both vertically and horizontally can be taught. We need to be more proactive on a local level. We can’t totally rely on overseas qualified professionals and tradesmen” (int1) “We try to educate local contractors on how to submit high quality bid documents to meet World Bank standards. At first they used to only submit local standard proposals – price and bill of quantities” (int9) “There definitely needs to have a greater upgrade in skills. Apprenticeships would help greatly in this area. I guess it’s an economic thing. The construction industry will benefit in the long run” (int19)

The top four ranked interviewees based on the frequency and amount of information resulting from the content analysis are presented in the following table C2-37:

Table C2-37

Ranked #10 4.14 Networking and build relationships To this sub-category are coded comments which include the following:

“Plan activities well and go thru proper channels of communication. Some materials, equipment, tools, and services are not readily available. Once you have build up a


1 17 Samoan 19 1 14 100



1 18 New Zealander 12 1 77 23.6 2 1 Samoan 12 1 52 16.0 3 31 Other Expatriate 10 1 47 14.4 4 3 Samoan 7 1 46 14.1

network of friends/associates/business partners in Samoa, then a whole lot of barriers will be overcome” (int5) “In Samoa the saying goes ‘it is not what you know, it is who you know’. It is important to have a network of contacts which will aid communication” (int13) “In Samoa, one needs to be respectful to all you deal with. The receptionist and secretaries are key people who are able to open doors and effect communication channels” (int20) “One needs to have and keep a good working relationship with local supervisors and foremen as they have already developed relationships and networks locally that is useful” (int27)

The top four ranked interviewees from the content analysis is presented in the following table C2-38:

Ranked #11 4.10 Effective transfer of technology and knowledge Emanating for this sub-category are comments including:

“The transfer of knowledge is basically one way. In the western world, one becomes more mechanised (relying on machinery and equipment) whereas in Samoa it is fairly labour intensive and nothing is too much trouble. There is no Unions that sometimes dictate how certain conditions are to be met and tasks should be performed” (int30) “Knowledge transfer, on a practical side, I have gained a lot of information and communication. I have picked up an awareness of local practices. Lots of companies organise orientation programs to understand local systems which are complex” (int31) “Transfer of knowledge has been great in the development of the Samoan economy and industries. We have benefited a lot from working with expat consultants. The overseas consultants have also benefited from learning about our culture and some of the local business practices” (int32)

Top four ranked interviewees are presented in the following table C2-39:

Ranked #12 KR4.6 Practitioners with common vision Typical comments emanating from this sub-category include:


1 5 Australian 4 2 85 26.6 2 20 New Zealander 4 3 84 26.3 3 8 Samoan 4 1 58 18.2 4 13 Samoan 15 1 29 9.1


1 20 New Zealander 4 2 75 26.4 2 30 Australian 4 1 54 19.1 3 32 Samoan 16 1 43 15.1 4 3 Samoan 7 1 40 14.1

“Government Reforms improving the culture of the construction industry through competition but there needs to be an education program to ensure everyone is aware and familiar with the changes” (int5) “The Institute of Professional Engineers are endeavouring to determine regulations to set standards for practicing engineers. They are currently trying to enact regulations for registration” (int10) ‘There is also a need for everyone involved in the construction industry in Samoa to be in tune with the developments that are going on, where the industry is heading, the standards to strive for, the necessity for an integrated approach within and inter-industry, the skills and training needed and so much more. This way, Samoa as a country fully appreciates the contribution construction as an industry has made, and the construction industry to realise its place in Samoa’s development” (int29)

The following table C2-40 presents the top four ranked interviewees from the content analysis:

Ranked #13 4.17 Encourage and motivate From this sub-category emanate comments including the following:

“Language isn’t a problem as most of our workers speak or understand English. Our foreman and skilled tradesmen all communicate well in English. I personally try to be on site to encourage them and just to be visible. If I have a language problem I go through my foreman” (int26) “To improve understanding and communication between the parties involved you may need to engage on social activities together – a few drinks after a day’s work. This shows you appreciate the work that they have done and helps motivate them to work harder, accept your instructions and leads to better performance – time and quality” (int28) On the other hand, wages are very low and therefore one would need to motivate locals and sometimes need to provide incentives for them to perform harder” (int30) “Samoans are definitely aware of rewards and payments. If you tell them that certain works or tasks need to be finished by a certain time and when finished before time they can go home or have a BBQ, it is guaranteed work will be finished before time. One needs to encourage and motivate them” (int30)

The ranked interviewees are presented in the following table C2-41:


1 29 Australian 34 1 80 32.7 2 21 Australian 4 1 64 26.1 3 31 Other Expatriate 10 1 47 19.2 4 5 Australian 4 1 29 11.8


1 30 Australian 4 3 130 56.0 2 28 Japanese 17 1 53 22.8 3 26 New Zealander 16 1 49 21.1

Ranked #14 4.20 Equity Comments emanating from this sub-category include the following:

“Treat locals and contractors on site as equal. They serve you faster and are very helpful if you do. Treat them otherwise and they will react negatively or no action at all” (int5) “The big thing now in Samoa is contracting out of works. The whole idea of outsourcing needs to be based on equity and capacity building. The accountability and transparency issues need to be in place particularly in large projects. There is a need to spread contracts out to allow little contractors opportunity to have a chance of winning contracts. Big challenge for construction industry is to ensure equity in all aspects” (int17)

The following table C2-42 presents the top four ranked interviewees:

Ranked #15 4.26 Exposure to technology, systems, methods used overseas Comments coded to this sub-category include the following:

“The best way to initiate proactive measures is to take local workers back to Australia to gain experience and qualifications and then return to Samoa” (int4) “Institutional strengthening consultants need to know that local counterparts also need to be exposed to experience overseas (Australia or NZ where most consultants come from) on short term assignments on related issues (particularly on systems or technologies introduced and recommended by consultants) to ensure smooth transition and sustainability of projects” (int13) “Our local counterparts have trained in Japan. It takes time. We thought that they understood the project plans, but once on site they did not understand clearly what to do. It is important that the local counterpart have related training and relevant qualifications prior to being selected” (int28) “Samoa is a typical developing country, as you get more exposure to western ways of doing things it will develop” (int31)





1 13 Samoan 15 1 50 35.2 2 28 Japanese 17 1 47 33.1 3 4 Australian 11 1 25 17.6 4 31 Other Expatriate 10 1 20 14.1

Ranked #16 KR4.25 Effective planning and keep good records Coded to this sub-category are comments including the following:

“Proactively, projects need to be well planned, with resources” (int1) “Effective communication goes back to planning in the beginning which identify strategies in order to deliver the project and should outline how to deal and approach locals. A degree of flexibility need to be in place to deal with the locals but not to the point that the focus of design phase, tenders, construction are lost and that standards are greatly compromised” (int7) “One should always keep a diary of events which include phone calls to departments and businesses, names of people spoke to or contact person, position or designation, dates and times, whether written correspondence or verbal conversation, meetings and inspection dates and much as you may need to provide account of these events when disputes arise” (int23)


Ranked #17 4.21 Increase resource pool Coded to this sub-category are the following comments:

“There is a definite need to increase resource pool and skilled workforce. Need to support courses run by the Polytech to create skilled workforces. Communication, both vertically and horizontally can be taught. We need to be more proactive on a local level. We can’t totally rely on overseas qualified professionals and tradesmen” (int1) “There is a need to upgrade tradespeople. We struggled to find welders. Most people we employ walk in of the street. There is a need to create a database of people with skills available on island and make a concerted effort to coordinate their training, upgrading, and retraining. This does facilitate the development of human resources, facilitate capacity building, improves recognition of skills and value placed on them, and definitely facilitate project management” (int18)

The ranked interviewees for this sub-category are presented in the table C2-45 below:

Ranked #18 4.18 Make informed decision Coded to this sub-category are comments including the following:

“Whoever is representing the govt needs to be well versed on the selection and recruitment process, funding agency agendas and consultant interests and


1 7 Samoan 6 1 62 44.0 2 23 New Zealander 21 1 55 39.0 3 17 Samoan 19 1 24 17.0


1 18 New Zealander 12 1 73 58 2 1 Samoan 12 1 52 42

qualifications, the strategies of implementation, and the deliverables of a project. The client needs to be more pro-active in making informed decisions relating to projects” (int3) “It is critical for managers to be informed all the time. Communication strategies such as meetings are very important – one can never have too much, and regular reporting helps keep management informed” (int11)

The ranked interviewees for this sub-category are presented in the following table C2-46:

Ranked #19 KR4.1 Sustainable measures To this sub-category are coded comments including the following:

“I guess that the effects from an engineering and project management perspective, the land acquisition issues are very sensitive. It is an element which requires careful negotiation and liaising to ensure smooth progress. It is very important in multimillion dollar projects to make locals aware of the immediate benefits to them of the project. It is important that they are made aware of what is happening. There must be clear lines and channels of communication to ensure smooth completion of projects” (int12) “There is a definite need to view projects under the ‘sustainable microscope’ to look at processes, systems and outcomes that are sustainable for Samoa” (int17)

The ranked interviewees under this sub-category are presented in table C2-47 below:

Ranked #20 4.13 Streamline and prioritise Coded to this sub-category are comments including the following:

“On the local level, there is still an ongoing process to ensure improvement of communication. Challenge is to streamline projects using more efficient methods and channels” (int10) “Often the financial situation of the govt did not meet the desires of the people, but politicians kept pushing the services even though often projects could not be sustained – there is a strong need to prioritise and streamline projects” (int13) “In the context of project management there are a set of deliverables. Sometimes if other emergencies present themselves that may prevent delivery of project objectives then one needs to reduce the number of things that need to be changed” (int21)

The three ranked interviewees under are presented in table C2-48 below:


1 11 Samoan 10 2 74 60.7 2 3 Samoan 7 1 48 39.3


1 12 Samoan 20 1 81 77.1 2 17 Samoan 19 1 24 22.9

Ranked #21 KR4.8 Do not expect to delegate Comments emanating from this sub-category include the following:

“Samoans are terrible people for being told what to do. You need to entrust that labourers can do things without always being stood over” (int1) “I definitely have to improvise and adapt to different situations. People from overseas have failed because they are used to delegate but in Samoa, you need to be hands on and lead by example” (int29)

Ranked interviewees under this sub-category are presented in table C2-49 below:

Ranked #22 KR4.4 Construction specific research and statistics Coded to this sub-category are comments including the following:

“There is a need to upgrade tradespeople. We struggled to find welders. Most people we employ walk in of the street. There is a need to create a database of people with skills available on island and make a concerted effort to coordinate their training, upgrading, and retraining. This does facilitate the development of human resources, facilitate capacity building, improves recognition of skills and value placed on them, and definitely facilitate project management” (int18) “There is a need for more construction specific research, statistics” (int29)

The ranked interviewees for this sub-category are presented in the following table C2-50:

Ranked #23 KR4.24 Use locals in positional authority Coded here are the following comments:

“Some of the proactive measures would include: when dealing with the public (community), pick the most influential people with positional authority and status and some understanding of the technical issues and focus communication through them; try and pin point a point man within the group or community as this limits or lessen the


1 13 Samoan 15 1 39 37.5 2 21 Australian 4 1 39 37.5 3 10 Other Expatriate 26 1 26 25.0


1 29 Australian 43 2 63 72.4 2 1 Samoan 12 1 24 27.6


1 18 New Zealander 12 1 73 88.0 2 29 Australian 34 1 10 12.0

chances of misinterpretation because of different perceptions of a number of people” (int25)

The following table C2-51 presents the result for this sub-category:

Ranked #24 KR4.11 Well balanced management team and manageable teams Comments emanating from this sub-category are presented below:

“You need to have a balanced mix of people you can trust particularly at the management and supervisory level – a good blend of expats and locals” (int27) “One other strategy is to keep our workers in small teams. Our gang sizes are smaller so that they are easily controlled. Our ratios are always looked at carefully” (int26)

The ranked interviewees for this sub-category are presented in the table C2-52 below:

Ranked #25 4.22 Incremental changes Coded here are the following comments by one interviewee:

I believe that in the Samoan situation, small incremental steps are effective and sustainable” (int17)

The following table C2-53 presents the content analysis result for this sub-category:

Ranked #26 4.12 Set reasonable targets Coded to this sub-category are comments by one interviewee:

“One also needs to set tasks and targets that are challenging but reachable, enjoyable and dynamic. The biggest problem in construction is that a lot of the methods are quite mundane – eg. Laying of stormwater pipes” (int30)

The following table C2-54 presents the content analysis result for this sub-category:


1 25 New Zealander 15 1 65 100


1 26 New Zealander 16 1 29 52.7 2 27 New Zealander 10 1 26 47.3


1 17 Samoan 19 1 52 100


1 30 Australian 4 1 36 100

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