KOFI AGYEKUM- PHD VIVA

DAMPNESS IN WALLS OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN GHANA: LEAD SOURCE,

DIAGNOSIS AND PROPOSED TREATMENTS

By

Kofi Agyekum

B.Sc. Building Technology, KNUST, Kumasi

M.Phil. Building Technology, KNUST, Kumasi

1

BACKGROUND TO STUDY

• Buildings by their very nature are composites of differentmaterials and forms of construction each having their ownspecific performance characteristics (Watts et al., 2001).

• Despite the lasting qualities of buildings, old or moderntypes of construction are susceptible to natural and man-made mechanisms of deterioration (Noy and Douglas, 2005;Hollis, 2000; Massari and Massari, 1993).

• Of all defects associated with buildings, moisture is the mostfrequent and dangerous and contributes more than 50% ofall known building failures (Halim et al., 2012; Trotman,2004).

2

BACKGROUND CONT’D

• When moisture whichshould not be present in abuilding accumulates in thatbuilding, it is said to besuffering from dampness(Burkinshaw and Parrett,2004).

• Its effects on the structuralintegrity of materials inbuildings is greatly reported(Hyvarinen et al., 2002;Singh, 2000; King et al.,2000).

3

BACKGROUND CONT’D

• It arises from a number ofdifferent sources (Ahmedand Abdul Rahman, 2010;Riley and Cotgrave, 2005;Trotman et al., 2004).

• Accompanied by varieties ofeffects, such as wallstaining, mould growth,impairment of air qualityand respiratory problems inhumans (Ahmed and AbdulRahman, 2010; Riley andCotgrave, 2005)

4

RESEARCH PROBLEM

• In a tropical region likeGhana characterized by highrainfall with relatively highand even temperatures,dampness is a very commonproblem among manypublic and privatebuildings.

5

PROBLEM STATEMENT CONT’D

• Preliminary investigationsand field surveys carriedout prior to thecommencement of thisresearch revealed that theproblem of dampness hasassumed an alarmingdimension in residentialbuildings in Ghana.

• This is because one out ofevery ten residentialbuildings is affected by theproblem, some of which arevisible and others not. 6


• Generally, the level ofawareness of the problemamong building occupantsand constructionprofessionals in Ghana isvery high.

• This has led to the adoptionof various methods such asthe construction of aprons,tiling of wall bases,replastering among othersto combat the problem.

7

PATCHED WALL BASES

APRONS AT WALL BASES


• The significance of theproblem is also reflectedby the diversity ofproducts on the market.

• Owing to this wide anddifferentiated offer,together with the scarceand fragmented scientificinformation on theeffectiveness of suchmethods, it has becomevery difficult forprofessionals working inthe field to choose suitableinterventions on soundbasis. 8

TILED WALL BASES

TILED WALL BASES


•This issue has left thegeneral public in shockas the problem ofdampness keepsescalating with no sureways to combat it.

9

REPLASTERED WALL BASE

TERRAZZO USED TO CURE DAMPNESS

AIM

•The study aimed at identifying and diagnosing the leadsource of dampness in residential buildings in Ghanaand recommending suitable treatment mechanisms tocontrol such problems.

OBJECTIVES

1. To identify the lead source (most dominant type) ofdampness in walls of residential buildings in Ghana;

2. To conduct laboratory diagnosis of the lead source ofdampness in walls of selected residential buildings; and

3. To explore treatment mechanisms to control the leadsource of dampness through field trials. 10

KNOWLEDGE GAPS THAT SOUGHT TO BE ADDRESSED

• Parrett (2011) reported that to help determine whetherdampness has risen vertically in a wall by capillarity from asource of moisture in the ground (soil) or due to othersources, more research was needed into different saltgroups and their concentrations that become manifest indifferent building elements triggered by dampness andvarious contaminates.

• Burkinshaw (2010) posited that there is very littleindependent published advice concerning diagnosis andremediation of wallbase damp problems. It was suggested inhis study that there should be more practical approachesthat dealt on how to effectively diagnose and treat wall basedamp problems.

11

KNOWLEDGE GAPS THAT SOUGHT TO BE ADDRESSED CONT’D

• In the review of international papers that dealt withdifferent technologies for damp removal in masonries,Franzoni (2014) found that there is no existence of asingle conclusive technology that is able to provide acomplete masonry drying in any condition.

• Far from being a hopeless problem, Franzoni (2014,p.134) threw the challenge that “the removal ofdampness, eg. rising damp can be considered a still openchallenge and a thorough and harmonized research effortby the scientific community can boost its solution”.

12

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

• Lots of attention has currently been drawn by houseowners to the problem of dampness in theirbuildings, and researchers have been called upon toaddress this problem.

•Diagnosing the true cause of dampness plays asignificant role in providing lasting solutions to theproblem.

•This study does not only present theories behinddampness and its causes.

•The relevance of this study which is appreciated inseveral ways.

13

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY CONT’D

It offers detailed and practical advices on how toeffectively investigate and report on dampness issuesusing modern equipment and gadgets, especially in atropical region like Ghana.

The exploration of the treatment mechanisms widens thescope of stakeholders on how basic constructionprinciples could be adopted to control the problem ofdampness.

The study also provides a platform for stakeholders tocome together and find solutions to the problem ofdampness which is open and is receiving attention byresearchers worldwide.

14

SCOPE OF STUDY

• The study focused on a nationwide survey of the problem of dampness in residential buildings in Ghana.

• The level of understanding of building occupants andconstruction professionals were sought on the problem ofdampness in walls of residential buildings in Ghana.

• The study identified:

the different sources of dampness present in different

buildings; and

narrowed its scope to identifying the lead source ofdampness among selected buildings located within fourclimatic regions of Ghana.

15

SCOPE OF STUDY CONT’D

• Three specific buildings located within the Wet SemiEquatorial Climatic Zone (Ashanti Region) were selectedand investigated to:

diagnose the lead source of dampness identified.

• Subsequent to these investigations, several treatmentmechanisms were proposed.

• These treatment mechanisms were explored through theconstruction of experimental test walls located atDeduako, within the vicinity of one of the three selectedcase study areas.

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LITERATURE REVIEWKEY CONCEPTS

PROBLEM OF MOISTURE IN BUILDINGS

•Moisture in a building, can create serious problems for that building, its occupants and furnishings (Dacquisto et al., 2004; Stanke et al., 1998).

• For moisture to be present in buildings, there should be:

a source of moisture available;

a means or route for the moisture to travel; and

a driving force to enhance the moisture movement (Straube, 2007; Straube and Schumacher, 2007; Straube, 2002).

17

LITERATURE REVIEW CONT’D

SOURCES OF MOISTURE IN BUILDINGS

18

SOURCE OF

MOISTURE

Liquid water

sources

leakages, rain, fog, snow, etc.

Water vapour source

Pressure diffusion, sweating, etc.

Soil sources

Gravity, capillarity, absorption

Sources: Prowler, 2008; Straube, 2002; Stanke et al., 1998


MECHANISMS OF VAPOUR TRANSPORT

• Vapor diffusion: A region of higher vapour pressure to a region of lower vapour pressure (MacDonald, 2005).

• Vapour convection: Key mode of transport used to move and dispense water vapour along ducts and within spaces (USDE, 2008; Straube, 2002).

• Capillary suction: Moves liquid moisture slowly and progressively through porous materials (Wilson, 2003; Straube, 2002; Matys and Ferraris, 1997).

• Gravity flow: the most powerful means by which moisture travels in building materials (Voutilainen, 2005; Straube, 2002).

19


WHAT IS DAMPNESS?

• The penetration of water through the walls and certainelements of buildings (Halim et al., 2012).

• An excessive moisture contained within building materialsand components (Hamid and Ngah, 2010).

• The amount of moisture content present in a material(Burkinshaw and Parrett, 2004).

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• It is the major problem of buildings, occurs frequently, andcontributes to over 50% of all known building failuresworldwide (Halim et al., 2012).

• It is inextricably linked to most building deterioration(Hamid and Ngah, 2010; Briffett, 1994; Hollis, 2000).

• It causes:

Damages to brick and blockworks by saturating them;

Decay and breakup of mortar joints;

Chemical attacks;

Mould growth and spores;

Viruses and infections, etc.21


SOURCES OF DAMPNESS

• Sources of moisture in walls of buildings have been extensively studied.

22

• Rising dampness• Penetration dampness• Condensation• Pipe leakages

Hollis (2002)

• Condensation• Penetration dampness• Leakages• Below ground sources• Site/building specific sources

Burkinshaw and Parrett (2004)


• This study classified the sources of moisture into:

23

SOU

RC

ES

OF

D

AM

PN

ESS

RISING DAMPNESS

PENETRATION DAMPNESS

CONDENSATION

LITERATURE REVIEW CONT’D•RISING DAMP

Capillary suction of moisture from the ground into porousmasonry building materials such as stone, brick, blocks,earth and mortar (Halim and Halim, 2010; Ahmed andAbdul Rahman, 2010; Riley and Cotgrave, 2005).

• PENETRATION DAMP

The penetration of moisture through the fabric of buildingsover a period of time, usually characterized by localizedareas of damp or saturated wall/ceiling finishes (Latta,2005; Beall, 2000; Oliver, 1988).

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•CONDENSATION

Occurs where water in the air inside a buildingcondenses on a cooler surface (Curtis, 2007).

Excessive condensation in most cases result insevere mould growth which also creates healthhazards (Burns, 2010).

It creates damp patches which appear anddisappear on regular basis (Burns, 2010).

25


PRINCIPLES OF DAMPNESS INVESTIGATION

•The most important objective of any dampness studyis to identify the lead source of moisture in order torecommend actions to remedy the problem (Halim etal., 2012).

•During the course of an investigation, the sense ofsight, touch, taste, smell and hearing as well ascommunication and analytical skills need to beutilized (Burkinshaw and Parrett, 2004).

26


APPROACHES TO DAMPNESS INVESTIGATION

• STAGE 1-VISUAL INSPECTION: The surveyor needsto record the defect by description, measurement,photograph or sketch drawing (Halim et al., 2012;Burkinshaw and Parrett, 2004).

• STAGE 2-NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING: Themoisturemeter is used to inspect materials orelements of construction in place without causingdestruction to the fabrics (Halim et al., 2012;Burkinshaw and Parrett, 2004).

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APPROACHES TO DAMPNESS INVESTIGATION CONT’D

• STAGES 3 AND 4- DESTRUCTIVE TESTING AND LABORATORYASSESSMENT STUDY

It also involves causing destruction to the fabric of thebuilding.

The tools and techniques used in cutting pieces of materialsinclude drilling, salt test, etc. (Halim et al., 2012; Burkinshawand Parrett, 2004).

More emphasis is placed on the sampling which aims atconfirming moisture conditions within structural elements bydrilling out masonry samples (Burkinshaw and Parrett, 2004).

28


SALTS IN MASONRY MATERIALS

• Salts normally found in buildings are either presentin the masonry during construction or are absorbedfrom the atmosphere or ground water during the lifeof the building (Jordan, 2001).

•Efflorescence is a deposit of soluble salts whichusually appears as a fine, white crystalline powder onthe surface of masonry as the internal waterevaporates (NCMA, 2003).

29


SALTS IN MASONRY MATERIALS CONT’D

• Three conditions must exist for efflorescence to occur.These include (Charola, 2000; Merrigan, 1988):

The presence of water-soluble salts in the wall;

Enough moisture in the wall to dissolve the salts; and

A route for the dissolved salts to travel through to thesurface where the moisture can evaporate and depositthe salts which can crystallize and cause efflorescence.

30


TESTING FOR SALTS IN MASONRY

•Simple or instrumental tests can be used.

•Despite all these methods, there are no simplemethods available on the market to test forcertain salts like phosphates and oxalates.

• In these circumstances, it is always advisable toresort to instrumental analysis like the ionchromatography in a specialized laboratory(Borrelli, 1999).

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ION CHROMATOGRAPHY

• A form of liquid chromatography that uses ion-exchangeresin to separate atomic or molecular ions based on theirinteractions with resins.

• Greatly utilized to analyse anions and cations for whichthere are no other rapid analytical methods available onthe markets (Ahmad and Abdul Rahman, 2010).

• This method is also used whenever diagnosis demands amore precise knowledge not only of the type but also thequantity of cations and anions present in a solution(Borrelli, 1999).

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REMEDYING DAMPNESS

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DAMP REMEDIATION METHOD SOURCE

• Comer Method• The Dry Zone Technology

Tamas and Tuns (2008)Tamas and Tuns (2010)

• Chemical Injection Methods/ Chemical Damp Proof Courses

Rirsch and Zhang (2010)

• Wall Base Ventilation System Torres and de Freitas (2007)

• Traditional Methods eg. creation of a potential against the capillary potential

Guimeraes et al. (2013)

• Reduction of the water flux ingress • Reduction of overall sorptivity of the wall• Enhancing the water evaporation rate

from the masonry• Exploitation of electrokinetic effect

Franzoni (2014)

GAPS IDENTIFIED IN LITERATURE

34

•More research was needed into different salt groupsand their concentrations that become manifest indifferent building elements triggered by dampnessand various contaminates (Parrett, 2011).

•There should be more practical approaches that dealswith how to effectively diagnose and treat wall basedamp problems (Burkinshaw, 2010).

GAPS IDENTIFIED IN LITERATURE CONT’D

•There is no existence of a single conclusivetechnology that is able to provide a completemasonry drying in any condition (Franzoni, 2014).

the removal of dampness, eg. rising damp can beconsidered a still open challenge and a thorough andharmonized research effort by the scientificcommunity can boost its solution”.

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METHODS USED FOR THE STUDY

• A mixed research approach was adopted for this study.

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OBJECTIVE Method/ Data Collection instruments

1. Identifying the lead source of dampness

Data was gathered through checklists and field observations (with the help of photographs) of 5,800 selected buildings experiencing the problem of dampness.

2. Diagnosing the lead source of dampness

• A multiple case study approach was adopted.

• Three Cases were considered.• A four stage approach to damp

investigation (visual inspection, non-destructive testing, destructive testing, laboratory assessment study) applied.

3. Exploring treatment mechanisms to control the lead source through field trials

Experimental test walls were constructed with the application of proposed treatments.

METHODOLOGY CONT’D

•OBJECTIVE 1

Checklists and site observations were adopted.

These enabled the lead source of dampness to be identified,providing a platform for a detailed investigation to beundertaken.

Results analyzed by frequencies and percentages.

•OBJECTIVE 2

A multiple case study approach was adopted.

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•OBJECTIVE 2 CONT’D

Three cases were selected in this current study to follow areplication logic (Yin, 2003).

The logic underlying the use of the multiple case approachin this study was that:

Each case was selected so that

either one predicts similar results (literal replication) or

two produces contrasting results but for predictablereasons (theoretical replication) (Lee, 2006; Yin, 2003).

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•OBJECTIVE 2 CONT’D

CASE 1: A building situated on a fairly level/ low ground.Buildings located in such lands have different salt contentsfrom those in highland areas because of the ground waterconditions, soil types, etc.;

CASE 2: A building situated on a hilly/ high and slopyground. These buildings are predicted to exhibit slowerevaporation and fewer salt attack problems than low lands;and

CASE 3: A building situated in a waterlogged area. There isthe assertion that buildings near rivers/seas may be moreprone to salt attack. This is mainly due to the sea spray andhigher water tables exhibited by such areas.

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The three Cases studied

40

CASE 1

CASE 2

CASE 3

METHODOLOGY CONT’D• OBJECTIVE 2 CONT’D

A four stage approach to damp investigation was applied to the three Cases to diagnose the lead source of dampness.

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STAGE SEQUENCE OF ACTIVITIES

1. Visual Inspection Observation of the surrounding areas, checking of the damp zones and physically identifying the causes of the dampness based on the symptoms identified

2. Non-destructive testing Was carried out to identify the problematic areas. Grids of 300 mm× 300 mm were drawn on the surfaces of affected walls and moisture contents were recorded.

3. Destructive testing and

4. Laboratory assessment study

• Sampling of mortar and soil by adopting approaches used in previous studies. Laboratory analyses of the samples collected to diagnose the lead source of dampness.

• Moisture contents of the samples were determined by oven dry method

• Salt analysis tests was carried out by ion chromatography


EQUIPMENT USED TO SAMPLE MORTAR

• cordless drills;

• sharp tungsten carbide drill bits;

• 35 mm camera film cases;

• plastic resealable sample bags;

• sharp 65 mm bolster;

• small piece of card;

• PCE MMK1 universal moisture meter, etc.

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43

SETTING UP OF RIG TO COLLECT SOIL SAMPLES FROM CASE 3


44Metrohm 861 Advanced Compact IC used in the ion analysis


• Very few countries in the world have threshold values fordamaging ions in masonry (Ottosen, 2007).

• Threshold values spelt out in The standard ÖNORM 3355-1(Dehumidification of masonry-Building Diagnostics andPlanning Principles) have been adopted by several EuropeanCountries.

• Threshold values outlined in the ÖNORM 3355-1 aregenerally considered to be on the safe side (Ottosen, 2007).

• in Ghana, the Austrian ÖNORM 3355-1, there is no thresholdvalue for salt contents. The ÖNORM 3355-1 which is a worldstandard was adopted for this study.

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• Based on this standard (ÖNORM 3355-1, 2011) and otherrelated literature on similar studies,

a percentage of total ions exceeding 0.020% for all the ions(cations and anions) identified in this current study wereconsidered unsafe and vice versa (ÖNORM 3355-1, 2011;Ahmad and Abdul Rahman, 2010; Hamid and Ngha, 2010;Ottosen, 2007; Borrelli, 1999).

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METHODOLOGY CONT’D•OBJECTIVE 3

The experimental approach was employed.

Fourteen prototype walls (made up of sevenstandard manufactured block walls, SB, and sevencommercial block walls, CB) were constructed,conditioned, treated and monitored over time.

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TREATMENT

CODE

EXPLANATION TYPE OF TREATMENT

SB1 & CB1 Sandcrete block wall with

0.15 mm thick dpc.

Polyethylene dpc with a thickness of

0.15 mm.


0.13 mm thick dpc.


0.13 mm.


0.12 mm thick dpc.


0.12 mm.

SB4 & CB 4 Sandcrete block wall with

Coral Epoxy dpc.

Coral Epoxy Damp-proof paint.


Subend damp proofing.

Subend Damp-proof paint from

SilkCoat.

SB6 &CB6 Sandcrete block wall with

no treatment (control test

wall).

Control test wall (No treatment

applied).


concrete base

150 mm thick concrete base to a

height of 900 mm.

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50

LAYING OF DPC WALLS AFTER DPCs WERE LAID

APPLYING CORAL EPOXY DPCCORAL EPOXY DPC AFTER APPLICATION

51

SUBEND DAMP PROOF APPLIED

WALL WITH CONCRETE BASECONTROL WALL

KEY FINDINGS

• OBJECTIVE 1:

The lead source of dampness was identified to be risingdamp.

Five thousand and thirty 37 (5,037) out of the 5,800buildings surveyed demonstrated symptoms closely relatedto rising dampness.

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FINDINGS CONT’D

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FINDINGS CONT’D

•Symptoms identified with the affected buildings:

Surface efflorescence from hygroscopic salts;

Moisture in timber skirting;

Dampness at the base of walls up to 1.5 m high in horizontal bands.

•This finding implied that with the root source ofdampness known, detailed diagnosis could beconducted to ensure suitable remedies to beapplied.

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KEY FINDINGS FROM OBJECTIVE 2DAMP

INVESTIGATIVEAPPROACH

CASE 1 CASE 2 CASE 3

STAGE 1: Visual Inspection

• Internal walls of the building was quite healthy

• blistering of paints could be seen at a height of 100 mm,flaking of mortar, surface efflorescence, damp in horizontal band

• Dampness all around the building

• Cracks in columns resulting from salts

• greenish stains on walls

• blistering of paint • brownish yellow

stains on wall • Dampness all

around the building

• Dampness all around the building

• Blistering of paint• flaking of plaster • Surface

efflorescence

STAGE 2- Non-destructivetesting using the moisture meter

Dampness was everywhere but severe in the part oriented towards the west.

Dampness was everywhere but severe in the part oriented towards the east.

Dampness was everywhere but severe in the part oriented towards the west.

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Stains on wall

surfaces

Surface

efflorescence

Blistering of paint

CASE 1 CASE 3

CASE 2

Dampness in

horizontal band

Browny yellowish

stains

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CASE 1

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CASE 2

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CASE 3

KEY FINDINGS FROM OBJ. 2 CONT’D

DAMP INVESTIGATIVE

APPROACH

CASE 1 CASE 2 CASE 3

STAGE 3 Destructive testing

• Mortar samples were obtained at different heights and depths from the walls oriented in the west

• Soil samples were collected

• Mortar samples were obtained at different heights and depths from the walls oriented in the east


• Mortar samples were obtained at different heights and depths from the walls oriented in the west


STAGE 4: Laboratory assessment

• Similar salts were identified in the mortar and soil samples from the three cases (MgCl2, MgSO4, Na2SO4, NaCl, K2SO4, KCl, KNO3, MgNO3, etc.).

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IMPLICATION OF FINDINGS FROM OBJ. 2

• It was realized fromthe three cases that ifthe various sources ofdampness (rain watersplash backs, possibleleakages, risingdampness and waterpenetrations) were notattended to the wallswould progressivelybecome wetterthrough theirthicknesses.

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• With time the walls willdeteriorate and associatedhealth issues will beexperienced by occupants.

• The most dominant anddangerous salts should betackled. Such salts shouldbe dealt with because theyare more destructive andcan result in more extensivedecay in the walls of thethree studied buildings. Thepossible outcome of whichcould be collapse, wherestructural parts areaffected.

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KEY FINDINGS FROM OBJECTIVE 3

• The DPCs used in the two sets of test walls were functioning.

• The bases of the Test Walls constructed with thecommercially manufactured sandcrete blocks and treatedwith the polyethylene DPCs were noticeably wet ascompared to those constructed with the standard sandcreteblocks.

• In the commercially manufactured sandcrete blockwalls, theheight of water rise was a little over 200 mm, (the DPCswere placed 300 mm above ground level).

• The water rise in the standard manufactured sandcreteblocks was about 85 mm.

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64

Standard block walls with DPCsCommercial block walls with DPCs

Subend and Epoxy for the

Standard block walls

Subend and Epoxy for the

commercial block walls


• The Epoxy Damp-proof and the Subend DPCs seemed to beworking perfectively.

• Moisture content measurements with the moisture metershowed no traces of water at the bases of the walls.

• In the control test walls, traces of water were noticed atheights of 302 mm and 345 mm above DPC levels for boththe standard and commercially manufactured sandcreteblock walls respectively.

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Control test wall for the

standard blockwall

Control test wall for the commercial

blockwall

• Four months after the walls with concrete bases were constructed and monitored, the bases were found to be dry with no traces of moisture present.

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IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS FROM OBJ. 3

• The constructed test walls should offer insights into thepotential for moisture to rise up in solid block walls from theground.

• The proposed treatments have also shed light on theeffectiveness of some treatments applied to walls to controlthe capillary rise of water from the ground into thesuperstructure.

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CONCLUSION

• Rising damp was identified to be the lead source ofdampness among the buildings studied.

• In diagnosing rising damp, the findings revealed that MgSO4,

MgCl2, MgNO3, Na2SO4, NaCl, NaNO3, K2SO4, KCl and KNO3

salts were predominant in both the mortar and soil samples.

• However of all these identified salts, the most damaging anddangerous are MgSO4, MgCl2 and Na2SO4 salts.

• The was a close linkage between the salts found in theground and that found in the walls and therefore confirmedthe presence of rising dampness.

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CONCLUSION CONT’D

• From treatment mechanisms applied to the test walls,although the DPCs and the concrete bases are performingwell, it can be said that the Epoxy and the Subend DPCs haveperformed more effectively.

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LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

• Many buildings could have been considered as part of thecases selected. However, some house owners would notpermit the research team to enter their buildings. This wasdue to the fear of possible future attacks.

• The study focused on diagnosing dampness in onlyresidential buildings.

• The study did not look into why although similar salts wereidentified among the buildings, they were in varyingquantities. A lot of factors could have contributed to this. Itwould have provided a clear explanation for the variationsin the salt quantities within the three buildings.

• The study only proposed methods for controlling risingdampness in new buildings.

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KEY RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER STUDIES

• Other buildings located within the South Western, DryEquatorial and Tropical Continental climatic zones in Ghanashould be investigated.

• More laboratory tests and scientific analyses on salts shouldbe carried out on buildings with similar problems.

• Further studies could be conducted on why the salts whichwere identified varied in quantities among the buildings.

• In-depth research can be conducted to identify methods thatcould be used to treat already affected (existing) buildings inGhana.

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CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

• This study is very relevant and of significant value for nationaldevelopment.

• A global nature of the problem of dampness is presented and theaspects of different approaches used in other studies clearlyformed the basis of most of the decisions used to undertake thisstudy.

• Gaps identified in literature which were the major focus of thisstudy is a confirmation of how this study contributes significantlyto the body of knowledge in this area.

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CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE CONT’D

• In summary, this study has been able to:

Provide a more practical approach on how to effectively diagnose the problem of rising damp using three different buildings (Burkinshaw, 2010);

Identify different salt groups that manifest in buildings affected by rising dampness (Parrett, 2011);

Indicate the linkage between salts found in the ground and that found in the walls of buildings with dampness (Parrett, 2011); and

Good construction methods, good quality walling materials and appropriate treatment mechanisms can control rising dampness.

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THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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KOFI AGYEKUM- PHD VIVA

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