Knowledge, Networks and Nations
-
Upload
giorgio-bertini -
Category
Documents
-
view
212 -
download
0
description
Transcript of Knowledge, Networks and Nations
-
Knowledge, networks and nationsGlobal scientific collaboration in the 21st century
The Royal Society
The Royal Society is a Fellowship of more than 1400 outstanding individuals from all areas of science, mathematics, engineering and medicine, who form a global scientific network of the highest calibre. The Fellowship is supported by over 140 permanent staff with responsibility for the day-to-day management of the Society and its activities. The Society encourages public debate on key issues involving science, engineering and medicine, and the use of high quality scientific advice in policymaking.
We are committed to delivering the best independent expert advice, drawing upon the experience of the Societys Fellows and Foreign Members, the wider scientific community and relevant stakeholders.
We are working to achieve five strategic priorities:
Invest in future scientific leaders and in innovation
Influence policymaking with the best scientific advice
Invigorate science and mathematics education
Increase access to the best science internationally
Inspire an interest in the joy, wonder and excitement of scientific discovery
For further information
The Royal Society Science Policy Centre 69 Carlton House Terrace London SW1Y 5AG
T +44 (0)20 7451 2500 F +44 (0)20 7451 2692 E [email protected] W royalsociety.org
Knowledge, netw
orks and nations
Price 39
ISBN: 978-0-85403-890-9 Issued: March 2011 Report 03/11 DES2096
Founded in 1660, the Royal Society is the independent scientific academy of the UK, dedicated to promoting excellence in science
Registered Charity No 2070430389097808549
ISBN 978-0-85403-890-9
The Royal Society
Science Policy Centre report 03/11
March 2011
-
Cover photo: Strain in graphene opens up a pseudomagnetic gap. Generated by the Condensed Matter Physics Group at the University of Manchester, this image is a representation of the work at Manchester lead by Professor Andre Geim FRS, a Royal Society Research Professor, and Professor Konstantin Novoselov, a Royal Society University Research Fellow. Professors Geim and Novoselov were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2010 for their groundbreaking experiments regarding graphene, a form of carbon, which is the thinnest and strongest material ever isolated. Both men have been cited since their award as global scientists; both were born and studied in Russia, spent time in the Netherlands, and are now based here in the UK, attracting funding and accolades from UK, European, and international sources. Paco Guinea 2010.
Knowledge, Networks and Nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
RS Policy document 03/11Issued: March 2011 DES2096
ISBN: 978-0-85403-890-9 The Royal Society, 2011
Requests to reproduce all or part of this document should be submitted to:The Royal Society69 Carlton House TerraceLondon SW1Y 5AGT +44 (0)20 7451 2500F +44 (0)20 7930 2170E [email protected] royalsociety.org
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 3
Executive summary .................................... 5
Recommendations ...................................... 8
The Advisory Group .................................. 10
Conduct of the study .................................11
Introduction: going global ........................ 14
Part 1: Scientific landscape in 2011 ......... 151.1Trendsanddevelopmentsinglobalscience...16 1.1.1 Emergingscientificnations.........................19 1.1.2 Assessingresearchqualityandimpact.....24 1.1.3 Globalscientists...........................................26 1.1.4 Braingain,drainandcirculation.................26 1.1.5 Disciplinaryshifts?........................................28 1.1.6 Readingtheresearch...................................29 1.1.7 Openingaccess............................................301.2Applyingscience................................................31 1.2.1BusinessR&D...............................................31 Is business R&D recession proof?...............32 Location of business R&D............................32 1.2.2Patentgrowth...............................................331.3Driversofresearch.............................................34 1.3.1Securingprosperityand stayingcompetitive......................................35 1.3.2Addressingglobalchallenges.....................36 1.3.3Nationalscienceinaglobalage.................361.4Centresforscience............................................37 1.4.1Centresofresearchandinfrastructure......391.5Anewworldorder?........................................... 411.6Theworldbeyond2011.....................................42
Part 2: International collaboration ............ 452.1Patternsofcollaboration....................................46 2.1.1 Collaborationinanationalcontext.............47 2.1.2Whoiscollaboratingwithwhom?.............492.2Regionalcollaboration.......................................54 2.2.1SouthSouthcollaboration: agrowingtrend............................................542.3Whycollaborate?...............................................57 2.3.1Seekingexcellence......................................57 2.3.2Thebenefitsofjointauthorship..................59 2.3.3Capacitybuildingthroughcollaboration....61 2.3.4Thegeopoliticalpotentialof scientificcollaboration.................................622.4Underlyingnetworks.........................................62 2.4.1Tappingintotheglobalnetworks ofscience......................................................632.5Enablingcollaborationtopromote excellentscience................................................64 2.5.1Technology....................................................64 2.5.2Fundingmechanisms..................................672.6Harnessingcollaboration...................................70
Contents
DesignsofvasesandteapotsthatwouldbefoundinahouseofamerchantinCanton,fromDesigns of Chinese buildings,byWilliamChambers,1757.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
-
4 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
Part 3: Global approaches to global problems .................................... 713.1Scientificsolutions.............................................733.2Globalresearchgovernance............................. 74 3.2.1Challenge-ledresearchinitiatives...............75 3.2.2Integratingchallengesand maximisingresources..................................77 3.2.3Buildingcapacityandresilience.................783.3Casestudies.......................................................79 3.3.1Theworldslargestwarningsystem: theIntergovernmentalPanelon ClimateChange(IPCC)................................80 3.3.2Centresofexcellenceinagriculture: theConsultativeGrouponInternational AgriculturalResearch(CGIAR)....................83 3.3.3Atransformativeimpactonglobalhealth: theBillandMelindaGatesFoundation......86 3.3.4Towardssustainableenergy: theInternationalTokamak ExperimentalReactor(ITER).......................90 3.3.5CapturingtheinitiativeonCO2: theglobaleffortstodeploycarbon captureandstorage(CCS)technology......933.4Co-ordinatedeffortstotackle globalproblems..................................................97
Conclusions and recommendations: Cultivating the global scientific landscape................................. 103
Glossary of acronyms ............................. 108
Acknowledgments ...................................110
MapofChina,fromAn embassy from the East-India Company of the United Provinces to the Grand Tartar Cham,byJohnNieuhoff,1669.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 5
Scienceisaglobalenterprise.Todaythereareover7millionresearchersaroundtheworld,drawingonacombinedinternationalR&DspendofoverUS$1000billion(a45%increasesince2002),andreadingandpublishinginaround25,000separatescientificjournalsperyear.Theseresearcherscollaboratewitheachother,motivatedbywishingtoworkwiththeverybestpeopleandfacilitiesintheworld,andbycuriosity,seekingnewknowledgetoadvancetheirfieldortotacklespecificproblems.
Knowledge, Networks and Nationsreviews,basedonavailabledata,thechangingpatternsofscience,andscientificcollaboration,inordertoprovideabasisforunderstandingsuchongoingchanges.Itaimstoidentifytheopportunitiesandbenefitsofinternationalcollaboration,toconsiderhowtheycanbestberealised,andtoinitiateadebateonhowinternationalscientificcollaborationcanbeharnessedtotackleglobalproblemsmoreeffectively.
FromSingaporetoSouthAfrica,newresearchersandresearchcommunitiesarereshapingthelandscapeforscienceandinnovation,solongdominatedbytheUSA,JapanandEurope.Thisreportexploresthischanginggeographyofscienceandinnovation.InPart1,itmapsandinvestigateswhereandhowscienceisbeingcarriedoutaroundtheworldandthewaysinwhichthispictureischanging. Science in 2011 is increasingly global,
occurringinmoreandmoreplacesthaneverbefore.Scienceisaddressingquestionsofglobalsignificance.Itissupportedbygovernments,business,philanthropistsandcharities.
Thereareparticularcountrieswherethisincreasedactivityisespeciallystriking,withinvestmentandscientificproductivityoutstrippinggeneraltrendsofgrowth.TheriseofChinahasbeenespeciallynotable,overtakingJapanandEuropeintermsofitspublicationoutputinrecentyears.BeyondChina,rapiddevelopmentshavealsotakenplaceinIndia, Brazilandnew emergent scientific nationsintheMiddleEast,South-EastAsiaandNorthAfrica,aswellasastrengtheningofthesmallerEuropeannations.
However,the traditional scientific superpowers still lead the field.TheUSA,WesternEuropeandJapanallinvestheavilyinresearchandreceiveasubstantialreturnintermsofperformance,withlargenumbersofresearcharticles,thelionsshareofcitationsonthosearticles,andsuccessfultranslation,asseenthroughtheratesofpatentregistration.
Thecontinuedstrengthofthetraditionalcentresofscientificexcellenceandtheemergenceofnewplayersandleaderspointtowardsanincreasingly multipolar scientific world,inwhichthedistributionofscientificactivityisconcentratedinanumberofwidelydispersedhubs.
Beyond these hubs, science is also flourishing.Therecognitionoftherolethatsciencecanplayindrivingeconomicdevelopment,andinaddressinglocalandglobalissuesofsustainability,hasledtoincreasedresearchactivityandtheapplicationofscientificmethodandresultswithinlessdevelopedcountries.
Executive summary
-
6 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
Part2revealstheshiftingpatternsofinternationalcollaboration.Internationalscienceislargelyconductedthroughbottom-up,informalconnections,asscientistsbecomemoremobileandaslargeandoftencomplexdataaresharedattheclickofabutton.Buttop-down,solutions-orientedinitiativesarealsohelpingtoshapetheresearchlandscape,asscientistsorganisethemselves,orarebeingorganised,totacklesharedconcerns. The scientific world is becoming increasingly
interconnected, with international collaboration on the rise.Todayover35%ofarticlespublishedininternationaljournalsareinternationallycollaborative,upfrom25%15yearsago.
Collaboration is growing for a variety of reasons.Developmentsincommunicationtechnologiesandcheapertravelmakeiteasierthaneverbeforeforresearcherstoworktogether;thescaleofresearchquestions,andtheequipmentrequiredtostudydemandsthatresearchersaremobileandresponsive.Collaborationenhances the qualityofscientificresearch,improves the efficiency and effectivenessofthatresearch,andisincreasingly necessary,asthescaleofbothbudgetsandresearchchallengesgrow.
However,the primary driver of most collaboration is the scientists themselves.Indevelopingtheirresearchandfindinganswers,scientistsareseekingtoworkwiththebestpeople,institutionsandequipmentwhichcomplementtheirresearch,wherevertheymaybe.
Theconnectionsofpeople,throughformalandinformalchannels,diasporacommunities,virtualglobalnetworksandprofessionalcommunitiesofsharedinterestsareimportantdriversofinternationalcollaboration.These networks span the globe. Motivated by the bottom-up exchange of scientific insight, knowledge and skills, they are changing the focus of science from the national to the global level.Yetlittleisunderstoodaboutthedynamicsofnetworkingandthemobilityofscientists,howtheseaffectglobalscienceandhowbesttoharnessthesenetworkstocatalyseinternationalcollaboration.
Collaboration brings significant benefits,bothmeasurable(suchasincreasedcitationimpactandaccesstonewmarkets),andlesseasilyquantifiableoutputs,suchasbroadeningresearchhorizons.Thefacilitationofcollaboration,therefore,hasapositiveimpactnotonlyonthescienceconducted,butonthebroaderobjectivesforanysciencesystem(bethatenhancingdomesticprosperityoraddressingspecificchallenges).
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 7
Part3ofthisreportexplorestheroleof
internationalscientificcollaborationinaddressingsomeofthemostpressingglobalchallengesofourtime.Thereportconcentratesonfivecasestudies,andconsidersthestrengthsandshortcomingsofexistingmechanismswhichbringscientificcommunitiestogethertoaddressglobalchallenges.IPCC, CGIAR, the Gates Foundation, ITER and efforts to deploy carbon capture and storage technologydemonstratehowscienceisalreadybeingusedtorespondtothesechallenges,andprovidemodelsandlessonsforhowitmightbebetterdeployedinthefuture. Theglobalscientificcommunityisincreasingly
chargedwithordrivenbytheneedtofindsolutionstoarangeofissuesthatthreatensustainability.These global challenges have received much attention in recent years, and are now a key component of national and multinational science strategies and many funding mechanisms.
Global challenges are interdependent and interrelated:climatechange,water,foodandenergysecurity,populationchange,andlossofbiodiversityareallinterconnected.Thedynamicbetweentheseissuesiscomplex,yetmanyglobalassessmentandresearchprogrammesaremanagedseparately,oftenreflectingalackofco-ordinationinthepolicysphere.Governments,civilsocietyandtheprivatesectorneedtotakeabroaderperspectiveonglobalchallengesinordertoappreciatehowtheyareinterrelated.
Globalchallengesarebeingaddressedviaanumberofdifferentorganisationalmechanisms:throughintergovernmentalorinternationalbodies,throughnationalsystems,andbyprivateindividualsandcorporations.Thesemechanismsoftendeploynovelandinnovativeformsofpartnership,someofwhichworkwell,otherslessso.Valuable lessons can be drawn from existing models in designing, participating in and benefiting from global challenge research.
Science is essential for addressing global challenges, but it cannot do so in isolation.Awiderangeofapproacheswillberequired,includingtheappropriateuseoffinancialincentives,incorporatingnon-traditionalformsofknowledge,andworkingwiththesocialsciencesandwiderdisciplines.Scienceiscrucialbutitisunlikelytoproducealltheanswersbyitself:thescienceinfrastructureworksbestwhenitissupportedby,andenables,othersystems.
All countries have a role in the global effort to tackle these challenges,bothindefiningandprioritisingthemandinusingglobalresearchoutputtoinformlocal,nationalandregionalresponses.Thisneedisincreasinglybeingacknowledgedforinclusivityandcapacitybuildingacrossregionsandcontinents,inhelpingtomeet(national)needs,andindevelopingaglobalinfrastructurethatisresilienttonewchallenges.
-
8 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
Knowledge, Networks and Nations concludes with a set of recommendations to further strengthen global science.Thisreportcallsformorecreative,flexibleandbetter-resourcedmechanismstoco-ordinateresearchacrossinternationalnetworksandtoensurethatscientistsandsciencecanfulfiltheirpotential.Italsocallsformorecomprehensiveandinclusivewaysofmeasuringandevaluatingthesciencewhichisdeliveredandappliedinallitsformsaroundtheworld.Finally,thereporthighlightstheimportanceofscienceandthewiderevidencebaseinunderpinningrobustpolicymaking,especiallyaroundsharedglobalchallenges.
Understandingglobalsciencesystems,theirmechanismsandmotivations,isessentialifwearetoharnesstheverybestsciencetoaddressglobalchallengesandtosecurethefutureofourspeciesandourplanet.
Recommendations1. Support for international science should be
maintained and strengthened Evenindifficulteconomictimes,national
governments need to maintain investment in their science basetosecureeconomicprosperity,tapintonewsourcesofinnovationandgrowth,andsustainvitalconnectionsacrosstheglobalresearchlandscape.Sustainedinvestmentbuildsanationscapacitytoassimilateexcellentscience,whereveritmayhavebeenconducted,forthatcountrysbenefit.
International activities and collaboration should be embedded in national science and innovation strategiessothatthedomesticsciencebaseisbestplacedtobenefitfromtheintellectualandfinancialleverageofinternationalpartnerships.
Commitments to multinational research efforts and infrastructures should not be seen as easy targets for cuts during a period of economic turbulence.Tocutsubscriptionstojointresearchendeavours,withoutduediligenceandassessment,isafalseeconomy.Bydisengagingfromtheseefforts,countriesruntheriskofisolatingtheirnationalscienceandlosingrelevance,qualityandimpact.
2. Internationally collaborative science should be encouraged, supported and facilitated
Research funders should provide greater support for international research collaborationthroughresearchandmobilitygrants,andothermechanismsthatsupportresearchnetworks.
National border agencies should minimise barriers to the flow of talented people,ensuringthatmigrationandvisaregulationsarenottoobureaucratic,anddonotimpedeaccessforresearcherstothebestscienceandresearchacrosstheworld.
National research policies should be flexible and adaptiveinordertoensurethatinternationalcollaborationbetweentalentedscientistsisnotstifledbybureaucracy.
3. National and international strategies for science are required to address global challenges
Recognisingtheinterconnectednessofglobalchallenges,funders of global challenge programmes should devise ways to better co-ordinate their efforts, share good practice, minimise duplication and maximise impact.Wherepossible,theseshoulddrawonexistinginfrastructureorsharedtechnology.
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 9
National research funding should be
adaptive and responsive to global challenges,supportingtheinterdisciplinaryandcollaborativenatureofthesciencerequiredtoaddresstheseissues.
In devising responses to global challenges, governments worldwide need to rely on robust evidence-based policy making,andbringexcellentscientistsintothepolicyadvisoryprocess.
4. International capacity building is crucial to ensure that the impacts of scientific research are shared globally
Researchers and funders should commit to building scientific capacity in less developed countriestohelpimprovetheirabilitytoconduct,access,verifyandusethebestscience,andtoensurethattheycancontributetoglobalscientificdebatesanddeveloplocalsolutionstoglobalproblems.
Scientific capacity building must involve financial support for authors in developing countries to publish in open access journals.Openaccesspublishinghasmadeawealthofscientificliteratureavailabletothedevelopingworld,butconverselyhasmadeitharderfortheirscientiststopublishundertheauthorpaysmodel.
National academies, learned societies and other similar institutions should actively promote public and wider stakeholder dialogue to help identify, shape and respond to global challenges and their local manifestations.
5. Better indicators are required in order to properly evaluate global science
UNESCO (and other agencies such as the OECD) should investigate new ways in which trends in global science can be captured, quantified and benchmarked,inordertohelpimprovetheaccuracyofassessmentsofthequality,useandwiderimpactofscience,aswellastogaugethevitalityoftheresearchenvironment.
There is a specific lack of data on the flow and migration of talented scientists and their diaspora networks.UNESCO,OECDandothersshouldinvestigatewaysofcapturingthisinformationasapriority,whichwouldenablepolicymakerstobetterunderstand,nurtureandoverseeglobalscienceforthebenefitofsocietyasawhole.
InstructivememoireonthenewchronologicaltableofthehistoryofChina,bytheViceroyofCanton,1724.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
-
10 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
Advisory GroupProfessorSirChrisLlewellynSmithFRS(Chair),DirectorofEnergyResearch,UniversityofOxfordProfessorSirLeszekBorysiewiczKBEFRS,ViceChancellor,UniversityofCambridgeProfessorLornaCasseltonFRS,ForeignSecretaryandVicePresident,TheRoyalSocietyProfessorSirGordonConwayKCMGDLFRSFRGS,ProfessorofInternationalDevelopment,ImperialCollegeLondonProfessorMohamedHassan,Co-Chair,InterAcademyPanel(IAP);ExecutiveDirectoroftheAcademyofSciencesfortheDevelopingWorld(TWAS)(untilMarch2011)ProfessorMelissaLeach,Director,STEPSCentre,InstituteofDevelopmentStudies,UniversityofSussexProfessorAngelaMcLeanFRS,AllSoulsSeniorResearchFellow,DepartmentofZoology,UniversityofOxfordProfessorGoverdhanMehtaFRS,CSIRBhatnagarFellowandHonoraryProfessor,DepartmentofOrganicChemistry,IndianInstituteofScienceProfessorJohnMitchellOBEFRS,DirectorofClimateScience,MetOfficeDrColinOsborne,RoyalSocietyUniversityResearchFellow,DepartmentofAnimalandPlantSciences,UniversityofSheffieldProfessorMartynPoliakoffCBEFRS,ResearchProfessorinChemistry,TheUniversityofNottinghamDrPhilRufflesCBEFREngFRS,FormerDirector,EngineeringandTechnology,RollsRoyceplcProfessorCarolineWagner,SchoolofInternationalAffairs,PennsylvaniaStateUniversity
Royal Society Science Policy CentreLukeClarke,PolicyAdviserLauraDawson,SeniorPolicyAdviserNatalieDay,SeniorPolicyAdviserDrTraceyElliott,HeadofInternationalHarrietHarden-Davies,InternTonyMcBride,HeadofStrategyJamesMeadway,SeniorPolicyAdviserSarahMee,PolicyAdviserIanThornton,PolicyAdviserDrJamesWilsdon,DirectorofSciencePolicyRapelaZaman,SeniorPolicyAdviser
Review PanelTheRoyalSocietygratefullyacknowledgesthecontributionofthereviewers.TheReviewPanelwasnotaskedtoendorsetheconclusionsorrecommendationsofthereport,nordidtheyseethefinaldraftofthereportbeforeitsrelease.
ProfessorJohnPethicaFRS(Chair),PhysicalSecretary,RoyalSocietyProfessorBruceAlbertsForMemRS,DepartmentofBiochemistryandBiophysics,UniversityofCaliforniaSanFranciscoProfessorJuanAsenjo,President,ChileanAcademyofSciencesDrMatthewFreemanFRS,Head,DivisionofCellBiology,MRCLaboratoryofMolecularBiologyProfessorSirBrianHeapCBEFRS,FormerDirector,InstituteofAnimalPhysiologyandGeneticsResearchProfessorGeoffreyOldhamCBE,HonoraryProfessor,SPRUScienceandTechnologyPolicyResearch,UniversityofSussex
The Advisory Group
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 11
ThestudyleadingtothisreportwasoverseenbyanAdvisoryGroupofFellowsoftheRoyalSocietyandotherdistinguishedexperts,supportedbythestaffoftheRoyalSocietySciencePolicyCentre.Elsevierhasprovidedfinancialsupport,andfullaccesstotheirpublicationdatabasesandanalyticalservicesthroughoutthestudy.Thedraftingofthereport,itsconclusionsandrecommendationsarethoseoftheRoyalSocietyalone.
Knowledge, Networks and Nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st centuryhasbeenapprovedbytheCounciloftheRoyalSociety.
Advisory Group and terms of referenceTheRoyalSocietyestablishedanAdvisoryGroupmadeupofinternationallyrenownedscientistsandsciencepolicyexpertsfromaroundtheworld,chairedbySirChrisLlewellynSmithFRS.Theaimofthestudy,asoutlinedintheTermsofReference,wastoprovideananalysisoftheglobalscientificlandscapein2011foraglobalaudienceofscientists,governments,business,internationalorganisationsandNGOs.Itsspecificgoalswereto: Provideanoverviewofhow,where,whyand
bywhomscientificresearchisbeingcarriedoutacrosstheworld,andthewaysinwhichthispictureischanging.
CompilebothquantitativeandqualitativeevidencetoofferanoverviewofthesedevelopmentsthroughtheuseofElseviersandotherdatabasessuchasUNESCOandOECD,andbymakinguseoftheSocietysextensiveinternationalnetworks,includingitsglobalFellowshipofover1,400outstandingindividualsfromallareasofscience,mathematicsandengineering.
Identifyandassessillustrativeexamplesofopportunitiesandchallengesthesechangespresentforpolicymakers,scientists,intergovernmentalagenciesandbusiness.
Examineanddiscusshowinternationalscientificcollaborationcanbebetterutilisedtoaddressglobalproblemssuchasclimatechange,foodandwatersecurity,andinfectiousdiseases.
Drawconclusionsaboutthecollaborativenatureofresearchinthe21stcentury,andconsiderthepotentialimplicationsforpolicymakers.
ThestudywasformallylaunchedinJanuary2010.
Collection of evidenceEvidencegatheringfortheprojecttookplaceinfiveways: aformalprocess,throughadetailedCallfor
Evidence; aspecialdiscussionsessionformembersofthe
InterAcademyPanel,heldtocoincidewithitsGeneralAssemblyattheRoyalSocietyinJanuary2010;
face-to-faceandtelephoneinterviewswithkeyfiguresininternationalscienceandsciencepolicyfromaroundtheworld;
extensivedeskresearch; dataanalysis,includingworkwithElsevier.
Conduct of the study
-
12 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
Call for evidenceTheCallforEvidencewassentouton27April2010toFellowsoftheRoyalSociety,RoyalSocietyResearchFellowsandtheworldsscienceacademies,throughtheInterAcademyPanel(IAP),theAcademyofSciencesfortheDevelopingWorld(TWAS),andtheUKGovernmentsScienceandInnovationNetwork(SIN).
Wereceived80responsesfromindividuals,academies,researchinstitutions,governmentdepartmentsandotherorganisationsfromaroundtheworld.Thesearelistedattheendofthereport.
Elsevier methodologyUnlessotherwiseindicated,allofthedatarelatingtopublicationoutputandimpactinthisreporthavebeenprovidedbyElsevier.Wewouldliketoacknowledgetheanalysisandinsightsprovidedbythefollowingindividuals: DrAndrewPlume,AssociateDirector,
Scientometrics&MarketAnalysisResearch&AcademicRelations
MayurAmin,SeniorVicePresidentResearch&AcademicRelations
DrHenkMoed,SeniorScientificAdvisorAcademic&GovernmentMarkets
NielsWeertman,VicePresident,SciValAcademic&GovernmentMarketsPublicationdataarederivedfromScopus,the
worldslargestabstractandcitationdatabaseofpeer-reviewedliterature.Scopuscontainsover41millionrecordsacross18,000journalsandcoversregionalaswellasinternationalliterature.Publicationoutputsinthisreportaredefinedasarticles,reviewsandconferencepaperspublishedinthesejournals.Whereweconsideroveralltotalsofpublications,theseincludeoutputsinalldisciplines.
Defining global scienceTheRoyalSocietydefinesscienceasnaturalknowledge.Inpractice,thisincludesthenaturalsciences,mathematicsandengineering.Forthepurposesofthisreport,wherewediscussoveralltotalsofpublications,theseincludesocialsciences,theartsandhumanities(inpractice,theserepresentaverysmallproportionofpublicationoutput8.9%);thiscoverageisusedtomatchtheinputstatistics,whichallregisterresearchandresearchers,whicharedisciplineneutral.However,ourexamples,casestudiesandobservationsaredrawnfromthescientificcommunity.
Throughoutthisreport,weuseanumberofsourcestocharacteriseandquantifywhatishappeninggloballyinscience.Inthisweareconstrained,tocertainextents,bytheavailabledata.Inordertoachievethewidestinternationalcoverage,wehavemadeuseofUNESCOdataonthenumbersofresearchers,1andtheexpenditureonresearchanddevelopmentasindicatorsofexpenditureandmanpowerinscience(althoughalargeproportionofresearchanddevelopmentisspentonDratherthanRand,assuch,reachesbeyondstrictsciencespending).
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 13
ThesestatisticsareavailablethroughtheUNESCO
InstituteofStatistics,andhavebeencomprehensivelypresentedandanalysedintherecentUNESCOScienceReport,publishedinNovember2010.
Publicationandpatentdataareincompleteproxiesforscientificoutputandscientifictranslation,thefirstbeingpredominantlytheoutputofacademicscience,andtheotherrelatingtotheexploitationofideasandconceptsratherthannecessarilybeingspecificallyscientific.However,theyarethetwomainquantifiable,globallycollated,andcommonlyusedsourcesofdataontheproductionandconsumptionofscience.Byusingthesedata,wearereflectingthecurrenttermsofreferencefordiscussionsofglobalscience.Itiswidelyacceptedthattheyareinadequatetofullyexploretherichnessof21stcenturyscience.Thepaucityofrichersourcesofdataoffersachallengetonational,multilateralandglobalbodiestoexplorewaysofbettermeasuringtheinputs,outputsandimpactsoftheglobalscientificlandscape.
1 TheOECDdefinesresearchersasprofessionalsengagedintheconceptionorcreationofnewknowledge,products,processes,methodsandsystemsandalsointhemanagementoftheprojectsconcerned.SeeOECD(2002).Frascati manual: proposed standard practice for surveys on research and experimental development.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.
PagefromanotebookonscientificexpeditionstoMatoGrosso,Brazil,1967to1969,byIainBishop.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
-
14 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
Introduction: going globalWhenHenryOldenbergfoundedtheworldsfirstscientificpublicationin1665,2itdrewonemergingideasfromGermany,Italy,Hungary,FranceandeventheBermudas.Itenjoyedawideinternationalreadership.Oldenburg,andtheotherfoundingfellowsoftheRoyalSociety,dedicatedthisfirsteditionofPhilosophicalTransactionstosharingtheHappyinventionsofobligingMenallovertheworld,totheGeneralBenefitofMankind.
ButOldenbergcouldneverhaveimaginedhowmanyobligingmenandwomenwouldbecontributingtoscientificknowledgeacrosstheworldin2011.Sciencehastransformedourlivesinwayswhichwouldhavebeeninconceivablein1665.Justhowitwillevolveoverthecomingcenturyisequallyinconceivable.Yetonethingseemscertain:scienceisinherentlyinternationalandwillonlybecomemoreso.
AsLouisPasteuronceputit,Knowledgebelongstohumanity,andthusscienceknowsnocountryandisthetorchthatilluminatestheworld.Largelyfundedatanationallevelandconductedprimarilyinnationalinstitutions,scienceisstillmoredeterminedbyplacethanPasteursdeclarationwouldsuggest.Andyet,itisaworldwideendeavour.In2008,218countriesproducedover1.5millionresearchpapers,fromTuvalusonepaper,totheUKs98,000,Chinas163,000,andtheUSAs320,000.3In2007,Swedenspentnearly3.7%ofitsgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)onresearchanddevelopment(R&D),Canadaspent2%,emergingIndiaspent0.8%,andoilrichSaudiArabia0.04%.4Researchinvestmentandoutputarefarfromevenlyspreadacrosstheworld,
buttherearefewplaceswhicharenotinsomewaypartofthescientificlandscape.
Scienceisconductedinmoreplacesthaneverbefore,butitisalsomoreinterlinked.Overone-thirdofresearchpapersarethedirectresultofinternationalcollaboration,withauthorsaddressesfrommorethanonecountry.5Thenumberofinternationallyco-authoredpapershasmorethandoubledsince1990.6Researchersareincreasinglymobile,travellinglongdistancestoworkwiththebestcolleaguesintheirfield,toaccessresourcesandshareideasandfacilities.Andtheyarebeingsupportedinternationallythroughcross-borderfundingfrominternationalorganisations(charities,philanthropicfundingandbusiness),multilateralinitiativesbetweengovernmentsandresearchcouncils,multinationalfundingbodiesandsharedscientificinfrastructure.
Thescientificcommunityisinfluencedbyglobalisation,andisalsodrivenbyitsowndynamics.Scientistshavebeenbothmotivatedandenabledtoworkacrossdisciplinaryandinternationalbordersbytechnologicaladvancesandshiftsingeopolitics.Butsciencehasalwayspushedboundaries,betheytechnologicalornationalandpolitical.Globalscienceisincreasing,butitisalsonothingnew.ThefoundingmembersoftheRoyalSociety350yearsagolookedbeyondnationalborderstoextendthefrontiersofnaturalknowledge.Todaysscientificpioneerswillneedtoknowhowtonavigatethechangingglobalscientificlandscapeiftheyaretokeepextendingthosefrontiers.Thisreportisintendedtohelpthemunderstandthedynamicsofthiscomplexandfast-evolvingphenomenon.
2 On6March1665,thefirstissueofPhilosophicalTransactionswaspublishedundertheeditorshipofHenryOldenburg,whowasalsotheSecretaryoftheSociety.
3 DatafromElseviersScopus.
4 DatafromtheUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre,Montral,Canada.
5 DatafromElseviersScopus.
6 LeydesdorffL&WagnerC(2005).Mapping global science using international co-authorships: a comparison of 1990 and 2000.InternationalJournalofTechnologyandGlobalization3.Foradiscussionofhowinternational
collaborationhasgrownoverallandattheregionallevel,seeWagnerC&LeydesdorffL(2005).Network structure, self-organization and the growth of international collaboration in science.ResearchPolicy34,10,16081618.
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 15
AnewmanifestationofthecelebratedMollowtriplet,oneofthefundamentalspectralshapesoflight-matterinteraction,fromDrElenadelValle,RoyalSocietyNewtonInternationalFellow,SchoolofPhysicsandAstronomy,UniversityofSouthampton.ThetripletasfoundbyMollowemergesinthelightemittedbyanatomwhenexcitedbyalaser.Thedepictedtripletisthecounterpartemissionfromanatomwhenexcitedincoherentlyinsideacavity.DrElenadelValle,2010.
PART 1
Scientific landscape in 2011
-
16 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
PART1
Scientificlandscapein2011
Scienceisgrowingglobally.Sincethebeginningofthe21stcentury,theglobalspendonresearchanddevelopmenthasnearlydoubled,publicationshavegrownbyathird,andthenumberofresearcherscontinuestorise(seeTable1.1).NorthAmerica,Japan,EuropeandAustralasiahaveallwitnessedgrowth,witheachincreasingspendingbyaroundone-thirdbetween2002and2007.Inthesameperiod,developingcountries,7includingtheemergingeconomiesofChina,IndiaandBrazil,morethandoubledtheirexpenditureonR&D,increasingtheircontributiontoworldR&Dspendingby7percentagepointsfrom17%to24%.8
Table1.1.Global science by numbers.9 Spend on research
and developmentNumbers of researchers
Number of publications
US$ %GDP
2007 1145.7bn 1.7 7.1m 1.58m
2002 790.3bn 1.7 5.7m 1.09m
Thearchitectureofworldscienceisalsochanging,withtheexpansionofglobalnetworks.Theseinvolvenetworksofindividuals,mostlyself-organisedbutsometimesorchestrated(asintheHumanGenomeProject).Somenetworksarebasedoncollaborationsatinternationalorganisations(suchasCERN);othersarefundedinternationally,bymultinationalbusinesses(whichfundtheirownlaboratoriesandworkinuniversitiesacrosstheglobe),bymajorfoundations(suchasGates),orbycross-nationalstructuressuchastheEU.Theseglobalnetworksincreasinglyexertasignificantinfluenceontheconductofscienceacrosstheworld.
1.1 Trends and developments in global science TheUSAleadstheworldinresearch,producing20%oftheworldsauthorshipofresearchpapers,10dominatingworlduniversityleaguetables,11andinvestingnearlyUS$400billionperyearinpublicandprivateresearchanddevelopment.12TheUK,Japan,GermanyandFranceeachalsocommandstrongpositionsinthegloballeaguetables,producinghighqualitypublicationsandattractingresearcherstotheirworldclassuniversitiesandresearchinstitutes.Thesefivecountriesaloneareresponsiblefor59%ofallspendingonscienceglobally.13
However,thesecountriesdonotcompletelydominateglobalscience.Between1996and2008theUSAlostone-fifthofitsshareoftheworldsarticleauthorship,Japanlost22%andRussia24%.TheUK,GermanyandFrancealsofellbackinrelativeterms.14Figure1.1showshowthenumberofarticleshasgrownandhowtheirdistributionacrosstheworldhaschangedinrecentyears,betweentheperiods1999to2003(Figure1.1a)and2004to2008(Figure1.1b).
Thetraditionalscientificleadershavegraduallylosttheirshareofpublishedarticles.Meanwhile,Chinahasincreaseditspublicationstotheextentthatitisnowthesecondhighestproducerofresearchoutputintheworld.IndiahasreplacedtheRussianFederationinthetopten,climbingfrom13thin1996totenthbetween2004and2008.FurtherdownthelistSouthKorea,Brazil,Turkey,SouthEastAsiannationssuchasSingapore,Thailand,andMalaysia,andEuropeannationssuchasAustria,GreeceandPortugalhaveallimprovedtheirstandingsintheglobalscientificleaguetables.15
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 17
Key
United StatesJapanUnited KingdomGermanyFranceChinaItalyCanadaRussian FederationIndiaSpainOther
26%
8%
7%
7%5%4%4%
3%3%3%
30%
21%
6%
7%
6%4%
10%
4%3%
3%2%
34%
Fig a Fig b
Changesintherankingofnationswithintheleaguetablesareshiftingatthesametimeastotaloutputisincreasing.Forexample,Italymaintainedasteadyshareofpublicationsbetween1996and2008(3.5%ofworldproductioninbothyears,fluctuatingbetween3%and4%overthewholeperiod);butinordertoholdthispositionitincreaseditsnumberofarticlesby32%.Allovertheworld,somecountriesarerunningtostandstill16whileothersarebreakingintoasprint.
Figure1.1. Proportion of global publication authorship by country17 The top ten producing countries in each period are shown. Fig a. 1999-2003. Fig b. 2004-2008
Key
United StatesJapanUnited KingdomGermanyFranceChinaItalyCanadaRussian FederationIndiaSpainOther
26%
8%
7%
7%5%4%4%
3%3%3%
30%
21%
6%
7%
6%4%
10%
4%3%
3%2%
34%
Fig a Fig b
7 BasedonthestandardUnitedNationsStatisticsDivisionclassification(compositionofmacrogeographical(continental)regions,geographicalsub-regions,andselectedeconomicandothergroupings).
8 UNESCO(2010).UNESCO science report 2010.DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).UNESCOPublishing:Paris,France.DataareprovidedinUS$peggedatcurrentprices(2007pricesin2007,2002pricesin2002)andreflectpurchasingpowerparity.
9 Spendonresearchanddevelopment:datafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).Numberofresearchers:datafromUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre,UNESCOInstituteforStatistics:Montral,Canada.Numberofpublications:datafromElseviersScopus.
10 DatafromElseviersScopus.Ifanauthoronapapergivesacountryashisorheraddress,thatpaperisassignedtothatcountry.SoapaperwhichhasbeenwrittenbyauthorsintheUK,SpainandGermanywouldbeassignedasasinglepaperineachcountry(thatpaperthereforebeingaccountedforthreetimesasanationalpaper).Figure1.1showsthetotalnumberofindividualpaperswithoutanymultiplecounting.Thetotalnumberofnationalpapers(ie.withpaperscountedmultipletimesifthereareauthorsbasedinmorethanonecountry)in2007was1,580,501;in2002thiswas1,093,564.TheUSAproduced316,317nationalpapersin2008(221,707withtheUSAasthesoleauthors,and94,610incollaborationinternationally);thisrepresents19.97%ofallnationalpapersglobally.
11 TheQSrankingshavesixUSuniversitiesinthetop10
(CambridgeintheUKisrankedfirst,andtheotherthreearealsointheUK).IntheTimesHigherEducationWorldUniversityRankingstheUSAholdsthetopfivepositions,sevenofthetop10placesand27ofthetop50(theremainingthreeinthetoptenareintheUK).IntheARWURankingsthefourtoppositionsand17ofthetop20areUSuniversities(theremainingthreeinthetop20aretheUniversitiesofCambridge,OxfordandTokyo).Source:AcademicRankingofWorldUniversities(2010)availableonlineathttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsp;QSTopUniversityRankings(2010)athttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/home;TimesHigherEducationWorldUniversityRankings(2010)athttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.html,accessed29September2010.
12 NationalScienceBoard(2010).Science and engineering indicators 2010.NationalScienceFoundation:Arlington,VA,USA.
13 DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).
14 DatafromElseviersScopus.
15 DatafromElseviersScopus.
16 RoyalSociety(2010).The scientific century: securing our future prosperity.RoyalSociety:London,UK.
17 DatafromElseviersScopus.Thesechartsshowthetop10countriesbynumberofpublications,withallothercountriesincludedintheothersegment.Thepiechartsarescaledtorepresenttheincreasedvolumeofpublicationsinthetwotimeperiods.In19992003therewere5,493,483publicationsglobally,andin20042008therewere7,330,334.
-
PART1
Scientificlandscapein2011
18 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
Box1.1.A note on the dataExpenditureonresearchanddevelopment(R&D)isusedthroughoutthisreportasaproxyforspendingonscience.Grossexpenditureonresearchanddevelopment(GERD),ascollatedbytheOECDandUNESCO,andusedinthisreport,includesinvestmentbygovernmentandbusinessenterprise,fundingfromoverseassources,andothersources,whichcanincludefundingbyprivatefoundationsandcharities.Inareasofthereportwedistinguishbetweentheproportionofthisgrossexpenditurespentbybusinessenterprise(BERD),andthatspentbygovernment(GOVERD).Thisisacommonlyused,yetlargelyunsatisfactoryproxyforscience(and/orresearch)spending.AlargeproportionofresearchanddevelopmentisspentonDratherthanR(withthelargestproportionspentonproductdevelopment).Assuch,thisfiguregoesbeyondtheactualamountofmoneydedicatedtofundingresearch,
inwhicheversector,butitisassumedthatthishassomerelationshiptotheupstreaminvestmentinsciencethatprecedesit.
Unlessotherwisestated,wherechangesinexpenditureovertimearediscussedinthereport,thefiguresusedarebasedoncurrentUS$prices(2004dollarsin2004,2008dollarsin2008)andpurchasingpowerparity,18ascalculatedbyeithertheOECDorUNESCO.
Whenwerefertopapersinthereport,thisreferstopeer-reviewedarticleswhichhaveappearedininternationaljournals.Thesedatahavebeendrawn,unlessotherwisenoted,fromElseviersScopusdatabase.19Wherewediscussoveralltotalsofpublications,theseincludesocialsciences,theartsandhumanities(inpractice,theserepresentaverysmallproportionofpublicationoutput8.9%);thiscoverageisusedsoastomatchtheinputstatistics,whichallregisterresearchandresearchers,whicharedisciplineneutral.
Article:CroonianLecture:Ontheanatomicalstuctureoftheeye,byEverardHome,drawingsbyFranzBauer.PTvol112,1822,pp76-85.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 19
1.1.1EmergingscientificnationsChinasriseuptherankingshasbeenespeciallystriking.ChinahasheavilyincreaseditsinvestmentinR&D,withspendinggrowingby20%peryearsince1999toreachoverUS$100billionayeartoday(or1.44%ofGDPin2007),20inpursuitofitsgoalofspending2.5%ofGDPonR&Din2020.21Chinaisalsoturningouthugenumbersofscienceandengineeringgraduates,with1.5millionleavingitsuniversitiesin2006.22
China,India,SouthKoreaandBrazilareoftencitedasrisingpowersinscience.23Indiaproducesroughly2.5millionscienceandengineeringgraduateseachyear.24In2008,India,theworldssecondmost
populouscountry,succeededinsendingitsfirstunmannedflighttothemoon,becomingonlythefourthcountrytolandacraftonthelunarsurface.Brazil,inlinewithitsaspirationtobeanaturalknowledgeeconomy,buildingonitsnaturalandenvironmentalresources,isworkingtoincreaseresearchspendingto2.5%ofGDPby202225(fromjustover1.4%in2007).26SouthKoreahaspledgedthatR&Dspending,(3.2%ofGDPin2007),willreach5%ofGDPby2012.27
Thesecountriesarenotaloneinrapidlygrowingtheirsciencebases.Overthelast15years,eachoftheG20countrieshasbeenincreasingitsresearchproductionandmosthavescaleduptheproportion
18 Purchasingpowerparity(PPP)measurestheamountofagivencurrencyneededtobuythesamebasketofgoodsandservicesasoneunitofthereferencecurrencyinthisreport,theUSdollar.Itishelpfulwhencomparinglivingstandardsindifferentcountries,asitindicatestheappropriateexchangeratetousewhenexpressingincomesandpricesindifferentcountriesinacommoncurrency.
19 ForfurtherinformationonthemethodologyusedbyElsevier,pleaseseetheConductoftheStudyonpage11.
20 OECD(2006).China will become worlds second highest investor in R&D by end of 2006, finds OECD.Pressrelease,4December2006.OfficeforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.
21 TheStateCouncilofthePeoplesRepublicofChina(2006).The national medium- and long-term program for science and technology development (20062020): an outline.Beijing,China.
22 MinistryofScienceandTechnologyofthePeoplesRepublicofChina(2007).S&T statistics data book 2007.Beijing,China.Thisistheequivalentof
0.66%oftheChinesepopulationagedbetween15and24,whichwasprojectedtobe228,663,000in2010accordingtotheUnitedNationsPopulationDivision.UNESCOstatisticsindicatethatthemostrecentfiguresoftotalscience,engineering,manufacturingandconstructiongraduates,expressedasapercentageoftheirprojectedpopulationof1524-year-oldsfor2010(aspertheUNstatisticsabove),wouldequal0.95%intheUSA(428,256graduatesinthesedisciplinesin2008againstaprojectedpopulationaged1524of44,880,000in2010),and1.73%intheUK(140,575graduatesinthesedisciplinesin2007againstaprojectedpopulationof8,147,000in2010).Thesearenotperfectcomparisons,asthemostrecentyearforwhichwehavegraduatedataavailablevariesbycountry,anditdoesnottakeintoaccountgraduatesabovethisagerange,ortheproportionofpeopleinthelowerendofthisagerangewhoareunlikelytograduateattheirage.Sources:PopulationDivisionoftheDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairsoftheUnitedNationsSecretariat(2008).World population prospects: the 2008 revision.Availableonlineathttp://esa.un.org/unpp,accessed7
January2011;UNESCOInstituteforStatisticswebsite:http://www.uis.unesco.org/,accessed13January2011.
23 SeeBoundK(2007).India: the uneven innovator;WebbM(2007).South Korea: mass innovation comes of age;WilsdonJ&KeeleyJ.China: the next science superpower?;BoundK(2008).Brazil, the natural knowledge economy.Demos:London,UK;AdamsJ&WilsdonJ(2006).The new geography of science: UK research and international collaboration; AdamsJ&KingC(2009).Global research report: Brazil;AdamsJ,KingC&SinghV(2009).Global research report: India;AdamsJ,KingC&MaN(2009).Global research report: China.Evidence,aThomsonReutersbusiness:Leeds,UK.Battelle(2009).2010 global R&D fund-ing forecast.Battelle:Columbus,OH,USA.WilsdonJ(2008).The new geography of science.PhysicsWorld,October2008.GilmanD(2010).The new geography of global innovation.GoldmanSachsGlobalMarketsInstitute:NewYork,NY,USA.
24 BoundK(2007).India: the uneven innovator.Demos:London,UK.Indiaspopulationagedbetween
15and24wasprojectedtobejustunder234millionaccordingtotheUN.Ifallthose2.5milliongraduateswerewithinthatagerange,theywouldrepresent1.07%ofthepopulationinthatagerange.Source:UnitedNationswebsite.World population prospects: the 2008 revision.PopulationDivisionoftheDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairsoftheUnitedNationsSecretariat.Availableonlineathttp://esa.un.org/unpp,accessed7January2011.
25 KuglerH(2011).Brazil releases science blueprint.SciDev.Net,7January2011.Availableonlineathttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.html,accessed17January2011.
26 PetherickA(2010).Science safe in Brazil elections.Natureonline,29September2010.Availableonlineathttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.html,accessed17January2011.
27 StoneR(2008).South Korea aims to boost status as science and technology powerhouse. ScienceInsider,23December2008.Availableathttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.html.
-
20 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
PART1
Scientificlandscapein2011
Argen
tina
Australia
Brazil
China
India
Indonesia
Mexico
Rep
ublic of Korea
Sau
di A
rabia
South Africa
Turkey
Can
ada
Fran
ce
German
y
Italy
Japan
Russian Fed
eration
United
Kingdom
United
States
10%
8%
6%
4%
0%
-2%
2%
-4%
Argen
tina
Australia
Brazil
China
India
Indonesia
Mexico
Sau
di A
rabia
Korea, Rep
ublic of
South Africa
Turkey
Can
ada
Fran
ce
German
y
Italy
Japan
Russian Fed
eration
United
Kingdom
United
States
14%
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
16%
18%
20%
Figure1.2. Science in the G20G8 labelled in red. Fig a. Annual growth in publications 1996-2008.28 Fig b. Annual growth in GDP spending on R&D 1996-200729
Fig a Fig b
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 21
oftheirGDPspentonR&D(seeFigure1.2).Increasedinvestmentandincreasedpublicationshavetakenplaceintandem.Thegrowthofcommitmenttoscienceinanumberofthenon-G8nationsisespeciallystriking.
TurkeyhasimproveditsscientificperformanceataratealmostrivallingthatofChina.Havingdeclaredresearchapublicpriorityinthe1990s,theTurkishGovernmentincreaseditsspendingonR&Dnearlysix-foldbetween1995and2007,andnowspendsmoreannuallyincashtermsthaneitherDenmark,FinlandorNorway.30Overthisperiod,theproportionofTurkeysGDPspentonR&Drosefrom0.28%to0.72%,andthenumberofresearchersincreasedby43%.31Fourtimesasmanypaperswerepublishedin2008asin1996.32
ThenumberofpublicationsfromIranhasgrownfromjust736in1996to13,238in2008makingitthefastestgrowingcountryintermsofnumbersofscientificpublicationsintheworld.33InAugust2009,Iranannouncedacomprehensiveplanforsciencefocusedonhighereducationandstrongerlinksbetweenindustryandacademia.TheestablishmentofaUS$2.5millioncentrefornanotechnologyresearchisoneoftheproductsofthisplan.OthercommitmentsincludeboostingR&Dinvestmentto
4%ofGDP(0.59%ofGDPin2006),andincreasingeducationto7%ofGDPby2030(5.49%ofGDPin2007).34
Since1996,R&DasapercentageofGDPinTunisiahasgrownfrom0.03%to1.25%in2009.35Duringthesameperiod,asubstantialrestructuringofthenationalR&Dsystemsawthecreationof624researchunitsand139researchlaboratories,ofwhich72aredirectedtowardslifeandbiotechnologicalsciences.36Lifesciencesandpharmaceuticalsremainatoppriorityforthecountry,withthegovernmentannouncinginJanuary2010thatitwantedtoincreasepharmaceuticalsexportsfive-foldinthenextfiveyearswhilealsoaimingtohave60%oflocalmedicineneedscoveredbythecountrysownproduction.37
In1996,Singaporeinvested1.37%ofGDPinR&D.By2007thishadreached2.61%ofGDP.38Thenumberofscientificpublicationshasgrownfrom2,620in1996to8,506in2008,almosthalfofwhichwereco-authoredinternationally.39TheAgencyforScience,TechnologyandResearch(A*STAR)iscentraltothegovernmentscommitmenttoinvestmentinworldclassresearchandinfrastructure,andoverseesSingapores14researchinstitutesandassociatedcentreswithinflagshipdevelopmentssuchasBiopolisandFusionopolis.40AtacostofoverUS$370million,
28 DatafromElseviersScopus.
29 DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre,Montral,Canada.Notethatstatisticsforsomecountriesacrosstheperiodareincomplete.Theclosestaccountableyearsintheperiodareusedwherecompletestatisticsarenotavailable.
30 OECD(2010).Main science and technology indicators (MSTI): 2010 edition, version 1.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.
31 OECD(2009).Main science and technology indicators (MSTI): 2009
edition.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.
32 DatafromElseviersScopus.
33 Science-Metrix,Thirty years of science.Montreal:http://www.Science-Metrix.com,accessedNovember2010.
34 SawahelW(2009).Iran: 20-year plan for knowledge-based economy.UniversityWorldNews.
35 MadikizelaM(2005).The science and technology system of the Republic of Tunisia.FromCountryStudies:ArabStates,UNESCO
website.Availableonlineathttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdf.
36 MadikizelaM(2005).The science and technology system of the Republic of Tunisia.FromCountryStudies:ArabStates,UNESCOwebsite.Availableonlineathttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdf.
37 GlobalArabNetwork(2010).Tunisia to boost pharmaceutical & biotechnological industry. GlobalArabNetwork,13January2010.
Availableonlineathttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.html.
38 DatafromtheUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre.Montral,Canada.
39 DatafromElseviersScopus.
40 Seehttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspx,accessed29September2010.
-
22 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
PART1
Scientificlandscapein2011
Biopolisisahigh-techbiomedicalparkwhichthegovernmentlaunchedin2003.Sincethen,thecountrysbiotechexpertisehascontinuedtoexpandandisattractingsomebigplayerssuchasNovartis,GlaxoSmithKlineandRoche.41
ThepictureofscientificresearchisalsostartingtochangeacrosstheMiddleEast,wherethereareanumberofsignificantnewcommitmentstoscience.Gas-richQataraimstospend2.8%ofGDPonresearchby2015.Withapopulationofjustover1.4million(ofwhicharound85%areforeignworkers)andacurrentGDPofUS$128billion,thistarget,ifrealised,wouldcombinetogiveGERDpercapitaofUS$2,474.42Sincethemid-1990s,theQatariGovernmenthasintroducedanumberofeducationreformsandhasinvestedaroundUS$133billionininfrastructureandprojectsdesignedtocreateaknowledge-basedeconomy.43TheUnited Arab EmiratesisattemptingtocreatetheworldsfirstfullysustainablecityandinnovationhubtheMasdarInitiative.Duetoopenin2011,Masdarwilleventually
house50,000peopleand1,500businessesfocusedonrenewableenergyandsustainabletechnologies.44GE,BP,Shell,MitsubishiandRolls-Royceareamongthosewhohavejoinedasstrategicpartners.45
Elsewhere,manyoftheworldspoorestcountrieshaveplacedsciencebehindmoreimmediatepriorities,suchashealthcareandprimaryeducation.Thisisnottosaythatscienceandresearcharenothavinganimpactinthelessdevelopedworldatall,orthattherearenosignsofgrowth.Cambodiaproducedonlysevenarticlesin1996,butincreasedthisto114by2008.BothUgandaandPeru,inthesameperiod,increasedtheiroutputsfour-fold,albeitfromlowbases(Ugandafrom116to477papers,Perufrom153to600).46Inthesecountries,aselsewhere,thereisoftenalsoawealthofinformalinnovationcarriedoutbyfarmers,47localhealthpractitionersandsmallfirmsfrequentlydrawingonlocalknowledgeandlargelyunacknowledgedinformalmetrics,letalonepublishedinresearchpapers.48
TheKingofTonkinandretinueontheirwaytoaceremonialblessingoftheground.AnillustrationforSamuelBaronsA description of the kingdom of Tonqueen,1685.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 23
Box1.2. Measuring global science through publicationsTraditionally,globalscientificoutputhasbeenmeasuredthroughtheanalysisofpublishedpapersinpeer-reviewedjournals.Peerreviewmeansthatthesciencethatispublishedhasbeensubjectedtoindependentscrutinyandapprovedbyqualifiedscientists,andtherebyassuresitsqualityandcredibility.Thevolumeofscientificliteratureinpeer-reviewedjournalsisvast.Individualarticlesareabstractedandcollectedontodatabaseswhicharethensearchablebytheirusers,usuallythroughsubscription.ThemostcomprehensiveoftheseservicesareScopus(maintainedbyElsevier)andWebofScience(maintainedbyThomsonReuters).Theseservicesprovideaccesstoinformationabouttitles,authors,abstracts,keywordsandreferencesforthousandsofjournalarticleseachyear.Thesedataareusedtoassessthequalityofresearchand,throughitsuseasmeasuredbycitations,itsimpact.
Thereare,however,notablegapsinthecoverageofthebibliometricdatabases.Insomecasesthismaymeanthattheofficialpublicationfiguresunder-representthetrueextentofscientificactivity.Forexample,therearemanypeer-reviewedjournalswhichdonotappearin
theindexingservices.Regional,nationalandlocaljournalsinthenon-English-speakingpartsoftheworldareoftennotrecognisedand,asaconsequence,journals,conferencesandscientificpapersfromsomecountriesarenotwellrepresentedbyabstractingservices.
Muchscientificliteratureisalsoproducedfornon-peer-reviewedpublications(andhencenotcoveredbyScopusorWebofScience).Oftenreferredtoasgreyliterature,thiscaninclude:technicalreportsfromgovernmentagenciesandNGOs;workingpapersfromresearchgroupsorcommittees;governmentwhitepapers;conferenceproceedingsandsymposia;andagrowinglevelofpublicationoninternetsites.Allofthesearepotentiallyvaluablecontributionstotheglobalstockofknowledge,buttheyarenotaccountedforintraditionalassessmentsofresearchoutput.
Initsanalysesofglobalsciencethroughbibliometricdata,thisreportdrawsexclusivelyonthesepeer-reviewedsourcesofresearch,andspecificallyonElsevierdata.Itisclearthatbibliometricdataalonedonotfullycapturethedynamicsofthechangingscientificlandscape.However,theypresentlyoffertheonlyrecognisedandmostrobustmethodologyfordoingso.
41 SingaporeEconomicDevelopmentBoard(2010).Pharmaceutical and biotech companies partner Singapore to accelerate innovation in Asia.Pressrelease,4May2010.SingaporeEconomicDevelopmentBoard:Singapore.
42 Authorscalculations.Qatarspopulationis1,448,446andithasaGDPofUS$128billion.Source:USStateDepartmentwebsite.
Seehttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5437.htm,accessed8February2011.2.8%of128billionis3,584million,whichwhendividedbythepopulationgivesusafigureof2,474.38.
43 Source:QatarFoundationwebsite.Seehttp://www.qstp.org.qa/output/page559.asp,accessed30September2010.
44 Source:Masdar(2008).Seehttp://www.masdar.ae/en/mediaCenter/newsDesc.aspx?News_ID=40&MenuID=0,accessed29September2010.Masdar(theAbuDhabiFutureEnergyCompany):AbuDhabi,UnitedArabEmirates.
45 EnglandA(2007).Abu Dhabi eyes renewable energy future.FinancialTimes,4April2007.
46 DatafromElseviersScopus.
47 ScoonesI&ThompsonJ(2009).Farmer first revisited: innovation for agricultural research and development.InstituteofDevelopmentStudiesattheUniversityofSussex:Brighton,UK.
48 STEPSCentre(2010)Innovation, sustainability, development: a new manifesto.STEPSCentre:Brighton,UK.
-
24 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
PART1
Scientificlandscapein2011
Somegovernmentsanddevelopmentpartnersareembracingthefactthatscienceisnotaluxurywhichisthepreserveofdevelopedcountries.Theyrecognisethattechnologyandinnovationarekeytoachievinglong-termeconomicandsocialdevelopment,49andthatscienceandscientificadvicearevitalassetsingovernance.50PaulKagame,PresidentofRwanda,hasbeenastrongadvocateforsciencefordevelopment,sayingWeinAfricamusteitherbegintobuildourscientificandtechnologicaltrainingcapabilitiesorremainanimpoverishedappendagetotheglobaleconomy.51AfricanscienceministersresolvedinMarch2010that2011wouldbethestartofanAfricandecadeforscience,promisingincreasedresearchbudgetsandattemptstousescienceandtechnologytodrivedevelopment.52Althoughencouraging,politicalcommitmentstoinvestinsciencearegreetedcautiouslybymanyscientistsacrossAfricaandinotherpoorcountries.Itwasin1980thatAfricanpresidentsagreedtoincreaseresearchspendingto1%ofGDP,aspartoftheLagosPlanofAction,53butby2007Sub-SaharanAfricancountriesstillspentanaverageofjust0.5%oftheirGDPonscienceandtechnology.54Africanleadersreiteratedtheir1%target,thistimeagreeingtoreachitby2010,55butSouthAfricaistheonlysub-Saharancountrythatisclose,spending0.92%inthe2008to2009financialyear.56
1.1.2AssessingresearchqualityandimpactAsresearchoutputhasgrown,sohavethelevelsatwhichresearchersciteoneanotherswork.Citationsareoftenusedasameansofevaluatingthequalityofpublicationsrecognitionbyanauthorspeersindicatesthatthescientificcommunityvaluestheworkthathasbeenpublished.Theyare,however,alaggingindicator,aswellasasometimescrudeone.
Lookingattheglobalpictureinrecentyears,wecanseethatcitationsareincreasingatagreaterrate
thanpublicationsbetweentheperiods1999to2003and2004to2008publicationsgrewby33%andcitationsby55%(seeFigure1.3).57However,whenexaminingcitationpatterns,themovementinnationalperformancehasnotbeenasdramaticaswithpublicationnumbers.SwitzerlandandAustraliafelldowntherankings,tobereplacedbyChinaandSpaininthelatterperiod,buttheperformanceofChina,forexample,doesnotmirrorthatnationsgrowthininvestmentorpublicationoutput.Citationscontinuetobemuchmoreconcentratedthanthejournalarticlesthemselves.
Itwilltakesometimefortheabsoluteoutputofemergingnationstochallengetherateatwhichthisresearchisreferencedbytheinternationalscientificcommunity.Thereisalsodiversificationwithsomecountriesshowingleadershipinspecificfields,suchasChinainnanotechnology,58andBrazilinbiofuels,59butthescientificallyadvancednationscontinuetodominatethecitationcounts.
Citationsare,however,onlyonemeansofbenchmarkingtheexcellenceofresearchoutput.WithoverUS$1,000billioneachyearbeingspentonR&D,itisunsurprisingthatfundersandgovernmentswanttoknowwhatvaluetheyaregettingfortheirmoney.
IntheUK,theimpactandexcellenceagendahasdevelopedrapidlyinrecentyears.TheResearchAssessmentExercise,apeerreviewbasedbenchmarkingexercisewhichmeasuredtherelativeresearchstrengthsofuniversitydepartments,60isduetobereplacedwithanewResearchExcellenceFramework,whichwillbecompletedin2014.61TheUKResearchCouncilsnow(somewhatcontroversially)askallapplicantstodescribethepotentialeconomicandsocietalimpactsoftheirresearch.TheExcellenceinResearchforAustralia(ERA)initiativeassessesresearchqualitywithinAustraliashighereducationinstitutionsusinga
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 25
combinationofindicatorsandexpertreviewbycommitteescomprisingexperienced,internationallyrecognisedexperts.
Theimpactagendaisincreasinglyimportantfornationalandinternationalscience(inEurope,theCommissionerforResearch,InnovationandSciencehasspokenabouttheneedforaEurope-wideinnovationindicator).63Thechallengeofmeasuringthevalueofscienceinanumberofwaysfacesallofthescientificcommunity.Achievingthiswilloffernewinsightsintohowweappraisethequalityofscience,andtheimpactsofitsglobalisation.
ChinaSpainOther
Key
United States
Japan
United KingdomGermany
France
Australia
ItalyCanada
Netherlands
Switzerland
36%
9%8%7%
5%4%3%3%2%
2%
21%
30%
8%
7%5%5%
4%
4%
3%
4%
3%
27%
Fig a Fig b
Figure1.3. Comparative proportion of global citations by country62The top ten cited countries in each period are shown. Fig a. 1999-2003. Fig b. 2004-2008
49 ConwayG&WaageJ(2010).Science and innovation for development.UKCollaborativeonDevelopmentSciences:London,UK.
50 RoyalSociety(2010).Science: an undervalued asset in governance for development.RoyalSociety:London,UK.
51 KagameP(2006).SpeechbyRwandanPresident,PaulKagame,attheRoyalSocietyon18September2006.
52 NordlingL(2010).African nations vow to support science.Nature465,994995.
53 OrganizationofAfricanUnity(1980).Lagos plan of action for the economic development of Africa
19802000.TheOrganizationofAfricanUnitywasdisbandedin2002andreplacedbytheAfricanUnion.
54 DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).
55 AfricanUnion(2007).Assembly of the African Union, eighth ordinary session, 2930 January 2007, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: decisions and declarations.Assembly/AU/Dec.161(VIII).AfricanUnion:AddisAbaba,Ethiopia.
56 DepartmentofScienceandTechnology,South Africa (2010). South Africa maintains steady growth in R and D expenditure.Pressrelease,9September2010.DepartmentofScienceand
Technology:CapeTown,SouthAfrica.
57 DatafromElseviersScopus.
58 RoyalSociety(2010).The scientific century: securing our future prosperity.RoyalSociety:London,UK.
59 BoundK(2008).Brazil, the natural knowledge economy.Demos:London,UK.
60 Seehttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htm.
61 Seehttp://www.hefce.ac.uk/research/ref/,accessed7January2011.
62 DatafromElseviersScopus.Thesechartsshowthetoptencountriesbynumberofcitations,withallothercountriesincludedintheothersegment.Thepiechartsarescaledtorepresenttheincreasedvolumeofpublicationsinthetwotimeperiods.In19992003therewere23,639,885citationsglobally,andin20042008therewere36,562,135.
63 FinneganG(2010).Geoghegan-Quinn: we must communicate our R&D.Euractiv.com(EuropeanUnionInformationWebsite),5May2010.Availableonlineathttp://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702.
-
26 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
PART1
Scientificlandscapein2011
1.1.3GlobalscientistsRecentdecadeshaveseensignificantincreasesintheglobalcompetitionfortalent,withtheworkforceinplaceslikeSiliconValleyhighlightingtherolethatskilledmigrantscanplayininnovationandwealthcreation.CountriesliketheUK,Australia,CanadaandtheUSAhavegrappledwithcontentiouspolicydecisions,aimingtostriketherightbalancebetweenencouragingthehighlyskilledontheonehand,anddiscouragingunskilledpotentialmigrantsontheother.
Withinaccuratedataandinconsistentdefinitionsofhighlyskilledacrosstheworld,itisdifficulttomeasurehighlyskilledmigration,particularlyamongscientists.Thereisnointernationallyagreeddefinitionofhighlyskilledworkers,althoughtheOECDsCanberraManualprovidesoneusefulbasisforthemeasurementofhumanresourcesinscienceandtechnology(HRST).TheirdefinitionincludesthosewhohavecompletededucationatthethirdlevelinaS&Tfieldofstudyand/orthosenotformallyqualifiedbutemployedinaS&Toccupationwheresuchqualificationswouldnormallyberequired.64AccordingtoOECDanalysistheUSA,Canada,AustraliaandtheUKattractedthelargestnumbersofhighlyskilledexpatriatesfromOECDcountriesin2001,followedbyFranceandGermany.65OftheUKs4.5millionforeign-bornadultpopulation,34.8%hadauniversity-leveleducation.Approximately19.5%ofthesemigrantshadascientificbackground,manyofwhomhailedfromemergingeconomiessuchasChinaandIndia.66However,wearefarfromunderstandingwhatfactorsinfluencetheseindividualschoiceoflocation.Howlongdotheyintendtostay?Andhowdotheyconnectbacktotheirresearchnetworksfromtheirnewhome?
ThecareerpathsofrecentNobelprizewinnersdemonstratetheinternationaloutlookofmanyoftheworldsmostsuccessfulscientists.Professor
AndreGeimFRS,alongwithKonstantinNovoselov,wasawardedtheNobelprizeforPhysicsin2010.ProfessorGeimobtainedhisPhDattheRussianAcademyofSciencesinChernogolovka,movedtotheUKforpostdoctoralpositionsatNottinghamandBath,beforethenmovingontoCopenhagenandNijmegen,andreturningtotheUKin2001totheUniversityofManchester.NowaRoyalSocietyResearchProfessor,ProfessorGeimmaintainslinkswithcolleaguesinRussia,andisstillaprofessorintheNetherlands.The2009winnerforPhysics,SirCharlesKaoFRS,wasborninChina.HeobtainedhisPhDfromtheUniversityofLondon,workedattheStandardTelecommunicationsLaboratoryintheUK,andinboththeUSAandGermany.AdaYonath(thefirstwomanfromIsraeltowinaNobelPrize,andcurrentlybasedattheWeitzmannInstituteinRehovot)heldpostdoctoralpositionsintheUSAandworkedinGermanybeforeshewonthe2009Chemistryprize.Herco-winnerVenkatramanRamakrishnanFRSwasborninTamilNadu,India,undertookgraduatedegreesintheUSA,andnowworksinCambridge,England.
1.1.4Braingain,drainandcirculationTheNobelPrizeexamplesshowtheattractiveforceofthestrongscientificnations,inparticulartheUSAandWesternEurope.Todayissuesofbraindrainareusuallyassociatedwithdevelopingcountries,buttheoriginalphrasewascoinedbytheRoyalSocietyin1963.Atthetime,theUKwasstrugglingtostemtheexodusofitstopbrainstotheUSA.TheSocietyfounditselfatthecentreofafiercedebateastohowtocounterthisphenomenon,67withthethenMinisterofScience,LordHailsham,lamentingtheparasitisingofBritishbrains.68
Today,thefocusofdiscussionhasmovedfrompreventingbraindraintomakingthemostofbraincirculation.Ithasbeenarguedthatoldpatternsof
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 27
one-wayflowsoftechnologyandcapitalfromthecoretotheperipheryareslowlybreakingdown,creatingfarmorecomplexanddecentralisedtwo-wayflowsofskills,capitalandtechnology,withscientistsfollowingthebestscienceandthebestresources.69Somegovernmentsappreciatethevalueofbraincirculationandallocateresourcesforattractingnationaltalentbackhometostartanewbusinessortakeupaseniorpositioninacademia,whilemaintainingusefullinksbacktotheUSAorEurope.
Ofthe1.06millionChinesewhostudiedabroadbetween1978and2006,over70%didnotreturn.70IthasbeenapolicypriorityfortheChineseGovernmenttoattractthisdiasporaback.TheThousandTalentsProgram,establishedin2008,hasbroughtmorethan600overseasChineseandforeignacademicsbacktoChina.LaunchingfurthermeasuresinMay2010,PremierWenJiabaoannouncedthat,Wewillincreasespendingontalentprojectsandlaunchaseriesofinitiativestooffertalent-favourablepoliciesinhouseholds,medicalcareandtheeducationofchildren.71Arangeoffacilities,bothpersonalandprofessional,isessentialtoensurethatreturninghomeisanattractiveoption.
India,meanwhile,hascreatedaspecificgovernmentministrytheMinistryofOverseas
Indianstoorganisepolicyrelatingtoremittancesandinvestmentflows,aswellasrelaxingpreviouslystringentcitizenshiprequirementstomakeiteasierforpotentialreturnees.OtherinitiativestoconnectIndiawithitsdiasporahavealsoprovenfruitful.TheIndusEntrepreneurs(TiE),forexample,wasoriginallyfoundedbyIndianentrepreneursbasedinSiliconValleyanditnowhasaglobalmembershipof12,000peoplewithin11countries,andhasassistedinthecreationofbusinessesworthoverUS$200billioninIndia.72
Elsewhere,MalaysiarecentlyestablishedanewTalentCorporationwhichwillbechargedwithconnectingwithdiasporacommunities.EcuadorsPresidentalsoannouncedaUS$1.7millionPrometheusOldWisemanplantoattractseniorscientistswhoseeEcuadorastheretirementdestinationofbrilliantminds.73
Yetattractingbackthediasporaisonlyonepartoftheequation.Findingnewwaystoconnectwithdiasporaandothercommunities,andtheirassociatedglobalnetworks,isalsocritical.Nomadicscientistsareoftenkeentomaintainscientificandinformallinkswiththeirhomecountries.Manyareeagertocontributebutareunsurewheretostart.Insupportinginternationalcollaboration,thesediasporacommunitiesareanuntappedresource.
64 OECD(1995).The measurement of scientific and technological activities: manual on the measurement of human resources devoted to S&T: Canberra manual.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.
65 OECD(2002).The global competition for talent: mobility of the highly skilled.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.
66 OECD(2008).A profile of immigrant populations in the 21st century: data from OECD countries.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.
67 RoyalSociety(1963).The emigration of scientists.TheRoyalSociety:London,UK.
68 BalmerB,GodwinM&GregoryJ(2009).The Royal Society and the brain drain: natural scientists meet
social science. Notes&RecordsoftheRoyalSociety63,4,339353.
69 SaxenianA(2006).The new Argonauts: regional advantage in a global economy.HarvardUniversityPress:Cambridge,MA,USA.
70 Source:http://www.gov.cn(ChineseGovernmentsofficialwebportal).Seehttp://www.gov.cn/english/2010-06/07/content_1622015.htm,accessed13October2010.
71 ChenJ(2010).Nation aims to increase talent pool.ChinaDaily,6June2010.
72 BoundK(2007).India: the uneven innovator.Demos:London,UK.
73 HirschfeldD(2010).Ecuador opens its doors to senior scientists.SciDev.Net,16August2010.Availableonlineathttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/ecuador-opens-its-doors-to-senior-scientists.html.
-
28 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
PART1
Scientificlandscapein2011
Inreality,braindrainisstillamajorproblem.AtarecenteventattheRoyalSociety,PrincessSumayaofJordanreflectedonthesuccessofJordaniangraduatesintheregionandthewiderworld.Humancapitalisourgreatestnaturalresource,shesaid,yetithasbeenexportedformanyyears.ItissaidthattheFrenchkeepthebestchampagneforthemselves.Perhapsweshouldlearnfromthem.Dependingonthelevelofscientificcapacityathome,migratingscientistsfromdevelopingcountriesaregenerallymorelikelytostaypermanentlyintheirnewhomesthanreturntowheretherearefeweropportunitiesandpoorerinfrastructure.ThisisasignificantproblemforAfrica,acontinentwhicharguablyneedsitsskilledworkersmost,butofferstheleasttokeepthemorattractthemback.Thechallengeforgovernmentsinemergingcentresofscienceishowtorewardtalentedscientistsandenablethemtofosterglobalnetworks,whilestillusingthemtobuildnationalcapacity.
1.1.5Disciplinaryshifts?Withthegrowthinscienceglobally,itisinterestingtoaskwhetherthelargeriseinthenumberofscientificpublicationsinrecentdecadeshasvariedgreatlyacrossthedisciplines.Indeed,theuseofbibliometricdataacrossthewholeofresearchcanmaskverydifferentpatternsinpublicationactivityacrossdisciplineswith,forexample,lifescientistsdisplayingagreaterpropensitytopublishthanengineers.
Availableheadlinedatasuggestthattherehasnotbeenadramaticshiftinthebroaddisciplinarybreakdownofresearch.Between1996and2008thetotalnumberofacademicpublicationsroseby43%;lookingatthenumberofarticlesinspecificdisciplines(asdefinedbythedisciplinaryfocusofthejournal),74theoverallsharebysubjectareahasnotaltereddramaticallyoverthesameperiod.Energy
andcomputerscienceshaveseenthehighestgrowth,bothincreasingtheiroutputbyover100%,buttheshareofpapersinenergypublicationsamongscientificoutputhasgrownfromonly0.73%tojust1.03%;incomputersciencesthissharehasgrownfrom2.47%to3.42%.Thissubstantialgrowthinabsoluteoutputhasnottranslatedintodramaticleapsinmarketshare.
Lookingmorecloselyatthedatawecan,however,seesometrendsinparticularfieldswhichreflectemergingorpressingresearchareas.KeywordsearchesintheElsevierdatabaseonspecifictermshighlightsometrends.Climatechange,forexample,hasseenasix-foldincreaseinusageinresearchpublicationsbetween1996and2008.Suchanalysescanonlybepartialtheypickuponbuzzwordswhichreflecttrendsinlanguageasmuch,perhaps,astheydoscientificcontent.Thattheseareasaregrowingrapidly,though,isundeniable.
Thegeographicchangesinglobalsciencedonotthemselvesappeartohavehadadirectimpactonthetypesofresearchbeingconducted.Thedomesticconditionsofacountry,suchasgovernmentprioritiesandtheavailabilityofnatural,humanandeconomicresourceshaveadistinctbearingonscientificoutput.Consideringagainthedisciplinaryspreadofresearchasidentifiedthroughjournalclassification,thedevelopedG7countrieshavesimilarresearchprofiles,whicharebalancedbetweenbroadresearchdisciplines,Bycontrast,theBRICgroupingofmajoremergingeconomiesBrazil,Russia,IndiaandChinaareweightedtowardsspecificfields;inthecaseofChina,IndiaandRussiatowardsengineering,andinBrazil,agricultureandbiosciences.InAfrica,thefocusisonagricultureandmedicine.However,theemergenceoftheseareashasnottodatechangedtheglobalbalanceofresearch.
Researchchallengesandinterestsarechanging
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 29
asglobalsciencegrows,butthesechangesreflectmorethedifferenttypesofquestionsbeingposed,ratherthanthenationalityofthepeopleposingthequestions.
1.1.6ReadingtheresearchTheworldsresearchpapersareproducedtobereadbypeersinthescientificcommunity,andfortheideasandconclusionstobeputtouse.Sowherethescienceisbeingpickedupandexploitedisjustasimportantaswhereintheworlditisbeingwrittenup.Thespreadofaccesstoacademicjournalsacrosstheworldisakeyfactorintheglobalisationofresearch.
Publishershaveactivelypursuednewreadermarkets.NaturelauncheditsChinawebsitein2007,highlightingresearchfromtheChinesemainlandandHongKong.NatureIndiafollowedinFebruary2008.TheRoyalSocietynowhasspecificportalsforthoseinterestedinresearchfromBrazil,China,India,Malaysia,RussiaandTurkey,andprovidesinformationonthewebsiteinChinese,Farsi,Korean,Russian,Portuguese,ArabicandSpanish.75
ThepatternofdownloadsfromElseviersjournalsshowthat,unsurprisingly,thelargestconsumersoftheirpublicationsarebasedintheUSA,JapanandWesternEurope.ChinaandSouthKoreahavewitnessedasurgeinreadershipoverthe
lastdecade.76TheRoyalSocietysownjournalsfollowasimilartrend.IntheyearfromJune2009toJune2010,USandUKaudiencesaccountedfornearly51%ofthereadershipfortheSocietyssevenjournals.Chinanowaccountsforthethirdhighestnumberofdownloadsandsubscriberstothejournals;thefourBRICcountriesmakeup12%ofthetotalreadership.77
Readershiphasbeenfarfromuniversal.AWorldHealthOrganisation(WHO)studyin2000identifiedthat56%ofinstitutionsincountrieswithannualincomesofUS$1,000andlessperpersonhadnocurrentsubscriptionstointernationaljournals,therebycuttingofftheirscientistsfromrecentdevelopmentsintheirfields.78
AnumberofinitiativessuchasResearch4Life(R4L)79setupindirectresponsetothesefindingsandtheInternationalNetworkfortheAvailabilityofResearchPublicationsProgrammefortheEnhancementofResearchInformation(INASPPERii)80havebeenestablishedtoexplicitlyimproveaccesstoresearchjournalsinthedevelopingworld,allowingfreeorlow-costaccesstouniversitiesandresearchinstituteswhichhadpreviouslybeenunabletoaffordsubscriptionfees.Take-upofR4Lhasbeenimpressive.Bringingtogetherthreestrandsoneforbiomedicalandhealthliterature,asecondfor
74 Thiswillresultinduplicationacrossfields,asajournalsuchastheRoyal Society Philosophical TransactionsAwillcovereachofthemathematical,physicalandengineeringsciences.Therewillalsobefluctuationbetweenyears,asjournalsubjectareasareredefined.This,therefore,providesanimperfectindicationofthedisciplinarybreadthofpublicationoutput,butitdoesindicatethegeneralrateofoutput.AsimilaroutcomecanbeseenintheUNESCO Science Report 2010,whichusesdatafromanother
indexingserviceThomsonReuters(Scientific)Inc.WebofScience.UNESCO(2010).UNESCO Science Report 2010(pp1011).UNESCOPublishing:Paris,France.
75 Seehttp://royalsocietypublishing.org/librarians,accessed29September2010.
76 DatafromtheElsevierScienceDirectdatabase.
77 DatafromRoyalSocietypublications,July2009June2010.
78 UKNationalCommissionforUNESCO(2008).Improving access to scientific information for developing countries: UK learned societies and journal access programmes.UKNationalCommissionforUNESCOSecretariat:London,UK.
79 Research4LifeisapublicprivatepartnershipoftheWHO,FAO,UNEP,CornellandYaleUniversitiesandtheInternationalAssociationofScientific,Technical&MedicalPublishers.Workingtogetherwithtechnologypartner
Microsoft,thepartnershipsgoalistohelpattainsixoftheUNseightMillenniumDevelopmentGoalsby2015,reducingthescientificknowledgegapbetweenindustrialisedcountriesandthedevelopingworld.Seehttp://www.research4life.org/,accessed30September2010.
80 Seehttp://www.inasp.info/file/5f65fc9017860338882881402dc594e4/perii.html,accessed29September2010.
-
30 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
PART1
Scientificlandscapein2011
agriculturalpublications,andathirdforenvironmentalsciencestheplatformallowsaccesstomaterialofparticularpracticalinteresttodevelopingnations.Sinceitsintroductionin2002,thebiomedicalandhealthplatformHINARIalonehasprovided2milliondownloadsperyearofElseviersoutput.Individualpublishersarealsoinstigatingtheirowninitiatives.TheProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesintheUSAhasbeenfreeonlinesince1997tothedevelopingworld.In2006theUKsRoyalSocietyofChemistry(RSC)madeallofitsjournaloutputfreethroughitsArchivesforAfricaproject.
ProfessorShemO.Wadinga,DirectoroftheCentreforScienceTechnologyInnovationsinNairobi,andChairofthePanAfricaChemistryNetworkKenyahub,isakeenadvocateoftheRSCsscheme.Archives for AfricahasopenedupararewindowforAfricanresearchersandlibrariesinkeepinguptodatewiththelatestscientificinformation.IthasbecomethepointoffreeaccesstoawealthofscientificinformationforAfricanscientiststhroughtheirlibraries.81Itwilltakesomeyearstoidentifyanydirect,long-termimpactthattheseschemesmayhaveonscientificoutput.AnearlystudysuggeststhattherehasbeenasignificantincreaseinresearchoutputincountrieseligibleforR4Laccess,whichoutstripstherateofgrowthseeninnon-R4Lcountries,overtheperiodinwhichtheinitiativehasbeenintroduced.82
1.1.7OpeningaccessInthemid-1990s,theadventoftheonlineavailabilityofscientificjournalshadtwohighlysignificanteffectsonthescholarlycommunicationsprocess.Thefirstwasaresultofthedramaticfallinthecostsofdisseminationofpublishedcontent(whichnolongerreliedsolelyonphysicalshippingofprintedcopies).Thisledtothegrowthoftheso-calledbigdealwherebypublisherswereabletoofferonlineeditions
oftheirentirecataloguetoinstitutionallibrariesthatpreviouslyhadonlysubscribedtospecificjournals.Thesedealsweredoneatgreatlyreducedpricesandmostlargeinstitutionsnowhavesucharrangementsinplace,meaningthatreadershaveaccesstovastlymoreresearchoutputsthaneverbefore.Thesecondwastheenormousincreaseinthecapacitytosearchforandaccesspublishedresearch,initiallyviaspecialistsearchenginessuchasPubMed,andlaterbymoregeneraltools,mostnotablyGoogle(whichnowaccountsforalmost60%ofallreferrals).83Theabilitytosearchforarticlessimplyandrapidlyusingsubjectkeywords,authorsorabstracttexthasopenedupmuchwideraccesstotheentirebreadthofresearchoutputs.
AlsohighlysignificanthasbeenthebirthoftheOpenAccessmovement.Recognisingthatagreatdealofpublishedresearchwasfundedbythepublicpurse(viaresearchcouncilsanduniversities),demandsarosefromvariousquartersfortheresultingpublicationstobemadefreelyavailabletothepublicwhofundedthem,ratherthanbeinglimitedtosubscribers.Publishers,someinitiallyresistanttothisnotion,havenowlargelyembracedopenaccess,notleastbecausemostfundingbodiesnowmakeitarequirementfortheirgrantees.Theoverwhelmingmajorityofthetraditionalpublishersnowoperateanopenaccessoption(inexchangeforanarticleprocessingchargesecuredfromauthorsortheirinstitutions)andanumberofnewerpublishershaveemergedwhooperateanexclusivelyopenaccessmodel.
Thedemandforaccesstopublishedscientificknowledgeissettogrowasglobalsciencecontinuestoexpand.TheauthorpaysmodelofOpenAccessandthesubsidisedsubscriptionschemesofResearch4LifeandINASPcaterforthisdemandindifferentways.Thelatterhaveconsiderablyimprovedaccesstoresearchliteratureinthedevelopingworld,
-
Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 31
butthereisnotyetacorrespondingschemeinplacetoassistauthorswithopenaccesschargesintheseverycountries.However,thedemandformoreaccessisnotonlycomingfromthedevelopingworld.Avarietyofeconomicmodelswillberequiredtoensurethataccessismaximisedacrossarangeofdifferentmarkets.
1.2 Applying scienceAwealthofeconomicliteraturedescribestheimpactofknowledgeoneconomicperformance.84Forexample,studieshaveshownthattechnologicalchangedrivesupincomelevels,85therelationshipbetweenhighlevelsofpatentingandGDPgrowth,86andthepositiveimpactofinnovationonbusinessproductivityandperformance.87Thisbodyofevidencehasunderpinnedtheeffortsofgovernmentstheworldovertostimulateeconomicperformancebyinvestinginscienceandtechnologyfromundirectedacademicsciencetoresearchofstrategicnationalimportanceconductedingovernmentlaboratories,tosupportfornear-to-markettechnologiesintheprivatesector.
1.2.1BusinessR&DScienceisnotrestrictedtoacademia,nordoesitnecessarilyresultinthepublicationofresearchpapers.Ittakesplaceinmanydifferentareasoutsideuniversitiesandresearchinstitutes,andisfundedbyarangeofdifferentsources.Theproportionofinvestmentinresearchascomparedtodevelopmentvariessignificantlyacrossthedifferentindustrialsectors.Forexample,intheUKstelecommunicationssector,companiesinvestroughlyfourandahalftimesmoremoneyinexperimentaldevelopmentthantheydoinresearch,whilecompaniesintheUKaerospacesectorspendroughlytwiceasmuchonresearchastheydoondevelopment.88
Inmostofthedevelopedworld,R&Dactivitiesareprimarilyfundedbyprivateenterprise,whereasthepublicsectorplaysamoresignificantroleinmostdevelopingcountries.89However,thebalancevariesconsiderablybetweennations.InsomecountriesbusinessinvestmentsinR&Dfaroutweighthoseofgovernment,universitiesorotherfunders.In2007theproportionoftotalR&Dwhichwasfundedbybusinesswas84%inMalaysia,70%inChina,66%in
81 InterviewwithProfessorShemO.Wadinga.QuotecourtesyoftheRoyalSocietyofChemistry.
82 Seehttp://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/authored_newsitem.cws_home/companynews05_01269,accessed13October2010.
83 FigurebasedonanalysisofaccesstoRoyalSocietyPublishingjournalcontent.SeeReesM(2010).SpeechbyLordRees,PresidentoftheRoyalSociety,atScienceOnline,BritishLibrary,3September2010.Availableonlineathttp://royalsocietypublishing.org/site/includefiles/Keynote_speech.pdf.
84 SeeRomerD(1990).Endogenous technical change.JournalofPoliticalEconomy98,5,S71102;MokyrJ(1992).The lever of riches: technological creativity and economic progress.OxfordUniversityPress:Oxford,UK;LipseyR,CarlawK&BekarC(2005).Economic transformations: general-purpose technologies and long-term growth.OxfordUniversityPress:Oxford,UK;HallB&RosenbergN(eds)(2010).Handbook of the economics of innovation.Elsevier:Amsterdam,TheNetherlands.
85 FreemanC(2002).Continental, national and sub-national innovation systemscomplementarity and
economic growth.ResearchPolicy31,2,191211.
86 SeeChenD&DahlmanC(2004).Knowledge and development: a cross-section approach.WorldBankPolicyResearchWorkingPaperNo.3366.Thispaperarguedthatbetween1960and2000,a20%annualincreaseinthenumberofpatentsgrantedintheUSAwhetherthetechnologiesoriginatedlocallyoroverseasproducedanincreaseineconomicgrowthof3.8percentagepoints.WorldBank:Washington,DC,USA.
87 NESTA(2009).The innovation index.Thisreportshowedthattwo-thirdsoftheproductivitygrowth
intheUKsprivatesectorbetween2000and2007wasattributabletoinnovationincludingtechnologicaladvances.NationalEndowmentforScience,TechnologyandtheArts:London,UK.
88 Source:UKNationalStatistics(2009).Research and development in UK businesses 2009datasets (Table5).Availableonlineathttp://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_commerce/berd-2009/2009-dataset-links.pdf,accessed17January2011.
89 UNESCO(2009).A global perspective on research and development.UNESCOInstituteforStatisticsFactSheetNo2,October2009(pp911).
BenjaminFranklinslettertoPeterCollinsondescribingthePhiladelphiaExperiment,3October1752.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.
-
32 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century
PART1
Scientificlandscapein2011
theUSA,and57%inAustralia.IntheUK,businessenterprisefunded47%ofallexpenditureonR&D.Bycontrast,businesswasresponsibleforonly29%oftotalR&DspendinginArgentinaandtheRussianFederation,19%inSriLankaand14%inTunisia.90
Theroleofbusinessinsciencehasgrowninrecentyears,withtheproportionofR&Dfundedbytheprivatesectorincreasingsteadily.In1981,52%oftheOECDcountriesspendingonresearchanddevelopmentwasfundedbyindustry;by2008thishadreachednearly65%.91
Is business R&D recession proof?Intheaftermathoftheglobaleconomiccrisisin2008,privatesectorR&DinvestorshavestruggledtomaintaintheirlevelsofinvestmentinR&D.Afterfouryearsof5%growthininvestmentyearonyear,in2009R&Dspendingbytheworldsleading1,400businessR&Dinvestorsfellby1.9%onthepreviousyear.92
TheEUIndustrialR&DInvestmentScoreboard2010showsthatin2009theleadingcompaniesinEuropehaddecreasedtheirR&Dinvestmentby2.6%since2008,andintheUSAthisfellby5.1%.However,therewasanincreaseof40%inChinaand27.3%inIndia.WithinEuropetherewasconsiderablefluctuationtoo:FrenchprivateR&Dinvestmentfellby4.5%,butinSpainitgrewby15.4%onthepreviousyear.Individualsectorshavealsoexperienceddifferingfortunes;pharmaceuticalcompaniesincreasedinvestmentinR&Dbyover5%,whiletheautomobileindustrysspendfellby11.6%.TheimpactofglobalrecessionhasnothadauniformeffectonthepatternsofcorporateR&Dinvestment.
RecentsurveyevidencefromtheEuropeanCommissionshowsthatleadingEU-basedinvestorsexpecttheirR&Dspendingtocontinuegrowingbetween2010and2011,albeitatlowerratesthanin
previousyears.ThesurveyedcompaniesexpectR&DinvestmenttocontinuegrowingstronglyoutsidetheEU,especiallyinIndiaandChina.93
Location of business R&DBusinessR&Dhasbecomeincreasinglymobilesincethemid-1980s,followingtheinternationalisationofmanufacturingduringthe1970s.94Therearenowmanymorelargebusinesseswithglobalresearchoperations,manyofwhomhavelocatedlaboratoriesindifferentpartsoftheworldforstrategicreasons.AcaseinpointisMicrosoftResearchwhohavesetupanumberoflaboratoriesandbusinessesnotonlyintheircoreexpertiseofsoftware,butalsoinotherfieldssuchashealthcare,energy,environmentandrobotics.Manycompanieshavefollowedsimilarmodels,suchasSanofi-Aventis(whohaveR&DoperationsinChina,Japan,SouthKorea,India,theUSA,France,UKandDenmark)andShell(whichhastechnicalcentresintheUSA,theNetherlands,UK,Canada,France,Germany,India,Norway,Oman,QatarandSingapore).Intheperiodfrom1993to2002,R&Dspendingbyforeigninvestorsgrewfrom10%to16%ofglobalbusinessR&D(fromanestimatedUS$30billiontoUS$67billion).95
DevelopedeconomiesarestillthefavouredlocationsforforeignR&Dinvestors,96butthegrowthintheamountofR&a