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    The Search for Purpose:

    Henry Kissinger's Early Philosophy and American Foreign

    Policy

    Master's Thesis

    Presented to

    The Facutly of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

    randeis !ni"ersity

    #epartment of American History

    #a"id Engerman$ Ad"isor

    %n Partial Fulfillment

    of the &euirements for

    Master's #egree

    (y

    )auren Moseley

    August *+,+

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    AST&A-T

    The Search for Purpose:

    Henry Kissinger's Early Philosophy and American Foreign Policy

    A thesis presented to the #epartment of American History

    Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

    randeis !ni"ersity

    .altham$ Massachusetts

    y )auren Moseley

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    American foreign policy: optimism for human nature$ agency of the indi"idual$ the

    struggle to0ards ideals 0ithin limits$ and purposeful action This thesis concludes that

    Kissinger's early idealistic thoughts contrast sharply to his reputation as a practitioner of

    Realpolitik

    ii

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    Table of Contents

    %ntroduction,

    -hapter ,:&eaching for %deals: Kissinger's Philosophy of the %ndi"idual4

    -hapter *:%deals and Statesmanship: Kissinger's Philosophy of Statesmanship**

    -hapter >:

    %deals and American Foreign Policy: Kissinger's Philosophy of 8ational

    Purpose?+

    -onclusion:2*

    i(liography:2@

    iii

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    Introduction

    5There has (een no one li;e Henry Kissinger in a high go"ernmental position in

    the !nited States at any time in its history$6 Stephen Grau(ard$ (iographer and colleague

    of former national security ad"isor and Secretary of State$ Henry Kissinger$ once 0rote

    The fact that Grau(ard 0rote this in ,2>$ only mid10ay through Kissinger's career in the

    !S go"ernment$ further pro"es his point that Kissinger is one of the most uniue and

    influential figures in modern American history, Kissinger's longe"ity in the go"ernment

    from his appointment as President &ichard M 8i9on's national security ad"isor in ,234

    to the end of his full1time go"ernmental career as President Gerald Ford's Secretary of

    State in ,2$ as 0ell as his unusually high position of po0er Bone could argue that he

    0as more po0erful than President 8i9on during the .atergate scandalC$ his presence in

    the go"ernment through some of the most influential e"ents of the t0entieth century$ and

    his unusual (ac;ground as a German =e0ish refugee ma;e Henry Kissinger a figure to

    not only (e studied$ (ut understood

    %n order to understand Kissinger$ one must consider his statement that 5%t is an

    illusion to (elie"e that leaders gain in profundity 0hile they gain e9periencethe

    con"ictions that leaders ha"e formed (efore reaching high office are the intellectual

    capital they 0ill consume as long as they continue in office6* %f one agrees 0ith

    Kissinger$ this means that 0hile Kissinger's decisions post1,234 0ere incredi(ly

    important in shaping the !nited States' position in the 0orld as 0ell as his o0n

    reputation$ these decisions are contingent upon the 5intellectual capital6 he de"eloped

    , Stephen &ichards Grau(ard$Kissinger: Portrait of a MindB8e0 Dor;: 8orton$ ,2?C$ i9

    * Henry A Kissinger$ White House Years$ ,st ed Boston: )ittle$ ro0n$ ,22C$ @3

    ,

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    (efore 7oining the 8i9on administration Fortunately$ this material is 0ell1documented in

    0ritten form and includes Kissinger's sophisticated undergraduate honors thesis at

    Har"ard Bclose to ?++ pages in length and titled 5The Meaning of History$6 it 0as not the

    typical undergraduate capstoneC$ his graduate dissertation later pu(lished as the (oo;A

    World Restored$ and the numerous scholarly (oo;s and articles he 0rote on American

    foreign policy (efore his appointment as 8i9on's national security ad"isor

    %n this thesis % 0ill argue that Kissinger's early 0ritings re"eal an em(race of an

    idealistic philosophy that o"ershado0ed the political realism he is more 0ell1;no0n for

    His constant calls for "ision$ purpose$ inspiration and intuition 0ere not rhetorical de"ices

    to garner domestic support %nstead$ these concepts 0ere deeply rooted in the idealistic

    philosophy through 0hich Kissinger understood the 0orld and encouraged Americans to

    percei"e the 0orld This idealistic philosophy 0as not idealism in the sense of political

    utopianism rather it 0as the (elief in human purpose and creati"ity through action This

    philosophy per"aded each of Kissinger's early 0or;s

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    optimism for human nature .hile realism typically emphasies the negati"e aspects of

    human nature$ Kissinger is optimistic a(out the capa(ility of humanity to stri"e to0ards

    ideals %ndeed$ he trusts them 0ith the responsi(ility of morality Another of these strains

    is the agency of the indi"idual &elated to optimism for human nature$ the agency of the

    indi"idual in Kissinger's 0ritings represented a (elief in the capacity of men and 0omen

    to do great things$ leading progressi"ely to a (etter 0orld Another strain of idealism

    0ithin Kissinger's thought is the importance he gi"es to the struggle to0ards ideals 0ithin

    limits .ithin this concept is the most apparent reconciliation of realistic and idealistic

    thought %n all of Kissinger's early 0or;s$ he emphasied the importance first on the

    definition of ideals$ and then on stri"ing to0ards those ideals His concern 0as not that

    they (e reached$ (ut that they (e progressed to0ard$ prefera(ly in a strategically outlined

    plan of action )astly$ Kissinger emphasied that ideals could only (e reached through

    purposeful action The definition of purpose and acti"ism for this purpose 0ould ena(le

    an indi"idual or nation to ma;e the most of its opportunities and pa"e the 0ay to0ards

    long1term goals

    The de"elopment and application of these concepts can (e traced through 5The

    Meaning of History$6A World Restored$ and Kissinger's 0ritings on American foreign

    policy Each era of these 0or;s is progressi"ely more concrete than the one preceding it$

    yet each retains strong elements of the philosophical concepts first outlined in 5The

    Meaning of History6 The failure of other historians to pic; up on this pattern has much

    to do 0ith the typically casual consideration of 5The Meaning of History$6 either (ecause

    of its philosophical comple9ity or its presumed irrele"ance to Kissinger's later thought

    >

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    Det % 0ill argue that the concepts first e9pressed in this 0or; 0ere ma7or components of

    Kissinger's later 0ritings

    ne ma7or point to note is that the ideas Kissinger deals 0ith in 5The Meaning of

    History6 0ere not necessarily original to him Much of his thesis 0as a contri(ution to a

    ongoing philosophical de(ate concerning the importance of metaphysics % deeply regret

    my ina(ility to engage this de(ate on more than a surface le"el As my educational

    (ac;ground does not allo0 me to del"e deeply into these concepts$ my analysis 0ill point

    out the appearance of Kissinger's philosophical thought in his 0or;s (ut 0ill not de(ate

    the the "alidity of these concepts or contri(ute to the con"ersation in 0hich Kissinger 0as

    participating

    %n this thesis % 0ill hold to the definitions of realism and idealism as outlined (y

    Thomas G Paterson and and ruce . =entleson in theEncyclopedia of U.. !oreign

    Relations %dealism is the idea 5that the purpose of !S foreign policy should (e the

    promotion of uni"ersal human ideals6 and the 5(elief that foreign policy should (e

    guided (yfundamental "alues6 Part of idealism is also 5the core (elief that the !nited

    States has a special mission to reform the system of international relations: po0er is to (e

    used for a moral purpose6 or in the 0ords of .oodro0 .ilson$ 5'America 0as

    esta(lished not to create 0ealth (ut to realie a "ision$ to realie an ideal'6 >

    Paterson and =entleson contrast the 5concept of transcendent national purpose6 in

    idealism to the political philosophy of realism &ealism 5argues that morality should (e

    made su(ser"ient to raison d"etreand national interest$ that in a contest (et0een principle

    > -ouncil on Foreign &elations$Encyclopedia of U.. !oreign RelationsB8e0 Dor;: 9ford !ni"ersity

    Press$ ,22C$ "*$ >?>1>?@

    ?

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    and po0er$ po0er must (e paramount Ad"ocates of realism stress an o(ligation for the

    !S go"ernment to put its national prosperity$ po0er$ and international position ahead of

    the pursuit of uni"ersal "alues or any other grand ideal6 &ather than thin;ing of

    international affairs in human terms$ 5&ealist thin;ers and statesmen regarded the state

    essentially as a closed structure em(edded in a system of impersonal forces of contending

    interests and po0er (alancesoth po0er and interest$ li;e physical forces$ 0ere

    regarded as measura(le uantities that could ser"e as an o(7ecti"e (asis for political

    calculation and policy formulation6 Most importantly$ realism is 5(ased on a conception

    of human nature as (eing corrupt and self1centered6

    ?

    .hile realists defined national interests in terms of po0er$ Kissinger defined the

    national interest in terms of "alues and purposes !nli;e realist thin;ers$ Kissinger

    (elie"ed that po0er could not (e purposeful 0ithout principle To him the national

    interest eualed cooperation 0ith a nation's allies and the integrity of its people through

    the purposefulness of its actions His early 0ritings sho0 that his political 0orld"ie0

    0as not traditional realism it defined the 0orld in different terms$ used a different

    language$ and concei"ed of different dimensions of interest Kissinger sa0 realism as

    empiricism$ or the ad7ustment to facts$ and 7ust as one1sided and im(alanced as

    utopianism &ather than follo0 the realist paradigm$ he promoted progress to0ards long1

    term ideals through a plan of specific and concrete steps

    Historians ha"e ta;en many atypical approaches to the comple9 figure of Henry

    Kissinger =eremi Suri's most recent 0or;$ for e9ample$ places Kissinger in a glo(al

    conte9t and ta;es a serious loo; at the connection (et0een Kissinger's up(ringing in 8ai

    ? %(id$ "*$ >?*1>?@ ">$ ?3*1?3@

    @

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    Germany and his political attitudes %n an older 0or;$ Har"ey Starr ta;es into account

    Kissinger's perceptions and operational code using uantitati"e techniues to understand

    his policies in the 8i9on administration Another historian$ ruce Malish$ attempted a

    psychoanalysis of Kissinger to e9plain his actions and policies@ .hile these 0or;s

    contri(ute to the understanding of Kissinger$ they ma;e little attempt to understand ho0

    Kissinger's philosophical outloo; shaped his "ie0s Many ac;no0ledge Kissinger's

    uniue 5philosophy of history$6 (ut fe0 lin; this philosophy to his political conceptions

    ther historians ha"e ta;en a loo; at this fundamental lin; (et0een Kissinger's

    ideas as e9pressed in his early 0ritings and his political philosophy A nota(le e9ample is

    Peter #ic;son'sKissinger and the Meaning of History$ 0hich is a close1analysis of the

    te9t of 5The Meaning of History$6 0ith an emphasis on Kissinger's perception of Kantian

    concepts Another is Stephen & Grau(ard'sKissinger: Portrait of a Mind# 0hich is an

    e9cellent companion tool for understanding Kissinger's pre1,234 0ritings Ho0e"er$

    neither #ic;son nor Grau(ard dra0 out the continuities of philosophical thought (et0een

    Kissinger's early te9ts #ic;son focuses too closely on the details of 5The Meaning of

    History6 0hile Grau(ard loo;s more (roadly at Kissinger's 0or;s on American foreign

    policy3 % am aiming to sho0 a continuity of Kissinger's philosophical thought in a 0ay

    that neither of these historians ha"e ela(orated on

    More important to the understanding of Kissinger than any other aspect of his life$

    % (elie"e$ is a serious understanding of the philosophy 0hich he consciously created and

    @ =eremi Suri$Henry Kissinger and the A$erican %enturyB-am(ridge$ Mass: el;nap Press of Har"ard

    !ni"ersity Press$ *++C Har"ey Starr$Henry Kissinger: Perceptions of &nternational Politics

    B)e9ington$ Ky: !ni"ersity Press of Kentuc;y$ ,24?C ruce Malish$Kissinger: 'he European Mind in

    A$erican PolicyB8e0 Dor;: asic oo;s$ ,23C

    3 Grau(ard$Kissinger Peter . #ic;son$Kissinger and the Meaning of HistoryB-am(ridge EngI:

    -am(ridge !ni"ersity Press$ ,24C

    3

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    acti"ely follo0ed y analying Kissinger through the lens of his personal philosophy$ %

    0ill sho0 that his political conceptions are contingent on the surprisingly optimistic and

    often idealistic philosophy he first outlined in 5The Meaning of History6

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    Chapter One:

    Reaching for Ideals: Kissinger's Philosophy of the Individual

    Henry Kissinger's earliest 0riting re"ealed his optimistic "ie0 of human nature

    through a reconciliation of realist and idealist thought 8um(ering o"er three hundred

    eighty pages in length$ his undergraduate honors thesis at Har"ard$ entitled 5The Meaning

    of History$6 represented more than a capstone on a (achelor's degree He 0rote it as the

    sum of the philosophy he de"eloped during the tragedies of his past t0enty1se"en years:

    his childhood in Germany$ the 0retchedness of the holocaust$ the discomfort of (eing a

    refugee in a foreign country$ and the horrors of fighting in the Second .orld .ar

    #espite all of this suffering$ Kissinger's personal philosophy represented a surprisingly

    optimistic 0orld"ie0 His 0riting displayed a (elief in the possi(ility of good in human

    nature$ the importance of indi"idual action and choice$ and the necessity for constant

    stri"ing to0ards ideals Kissinger hoped that humanity could continue to progress in

    history through a recognition of (oth its freedom and its limits

    Kissinger first introduced his 0orld"ie0 as a reconciliation of realism and

    idealism in 5The Meaning of History6 He outlined the contradiction (et0een necessity$

    or irre"oca(le action of the past$ and freedom$ the concept that action is conducted (y

    choice A good illustration of the contradiction (et0een freedom and necessity is in -S

    )e0is' description of a hero 0ho 5tra"eled into the past$ and there$ "ery properly$ found

    raindrops that 0ould pierce him li;e (ullets and sand0iches that no strength could (ite

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    (et0een necessity and freedom 0as also the pro(lem of con7ecture$ or the need yet

    ina(ility to understand the future conseuences of one's actions He pro(ed this parado9

    in order to understand the meaning of freedom in the midst of ine"ita(ility$ and in doing

    so$ to disco"er meaning in history

    Kissinger 0as certainly not the first to as; this uestion His thesis 0as a mere

    footnote in the tradition of philosophy$ and German philosophy in particular German

    philosophers such as Hegel and Kant as;ed similar uestions concerning purpose and

    meaning in life$ and the tradition of German idealism posed the possi(ility that o(7ects in

    reality are percei"ed (y the indi"idual and do not necessarily hold importance in

    themsel"es This theory is often contrasted 0ith the philosophies of positi"ism$

    pragmatism$ or empiricism$ 0hich loo; to the e9ternal reality$ rather than metaphysics$

    for ;no0ledge

    Kissinger separated his analysis into t0o le"els that represented the parado9 of

    necessity and freedom ne le"el consisted of empiricism$ an analytical approach 0hich

    0rested potential from human purpose (y suggesting that history 0as only a composite of

    patterns and cycles The second le"el of historical analysis$ the ethical le"el$ promoted

    history as a 5;ey to action6 and emphasied the po0er of indi"iduals to gi"e meaning to

    their o0n e9istence Kissinger reflected these le"els of historical analysis in the structure

    of his thesis$ 0hich he di"ided into sections titled 5History as %ntuition$6 analying the

    philosophy of s0ald Spengler$ 5History as an Empirical1Science$6 analying the

    philosophy of Arnold Toyn(ee$5History and Man's E9perience of Morality$6 in 0hich he

    contemplated Kant's categorical imperati"e$ and 5The Sense of &esponsi(ility$6 in 0hich

    2

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    he made his o0n conclusions concerning meaning in history His definition of the le"els

    of historical analysis and the corresponding sections of his thesis re"ealed a tension in

    thought that he 0ould deal 0ith throughout his career as (oth a scholar and a

    policyma;er %n this thesis and in later 0or;s$ he aimed to pro"e the efficacy of the

    ethical le"el of historical analysis$ 0hich opposed the institutions of (ureaucracy and the

    creation of policy through an empirical approach

    %n 5History as an Empirical1Science$6 Kissinger put forth an argument against the

    empirical approach to history He claimed that empiricists attempted to employ an

    accumulation of ;no0ledge to find meaning in history$ neglecting the crucial dimension

    of the human spirit As e9ternal reality is more than meets the eye and each indi"idual

    constructs his o0n "ision of this reality$ so an empirical approach could not grasp all of

    the elements that compose meaning in history4 History is not only the flo0 of time$ (ut

    the composite of human interaction$ and thus the study of history should in"ol"e not only

    an analysis of the e9ternal dimension of human (eha"ior$ (ut also a portrait of the in0ard

    dimension of humanity ecause man is not solely a thin;ing (eing$ the essence of

    human nature and therefore the meaning of history$ cannot (e defined (y reason$ science$

    and empirical studies

    Kissinger's distaste for empiricism re"ealed a (rea; 0ith realist thought His

    philosophy esche0ed the immediate importance of e9ternal reality (y insisting that

    meaning transcended ;no0ledge and history transcended facts He yearned for another

    dimension to historical analysis that 0ould incorporate an element of human spirituality$

    4 Henry A Kissinger$ 5The Meaning of History: &eflections on Spengler$ Toyn(ee and Kant6

    B!ndergraduate honors thesis$ Har"ard !ni"ersity$ ,2@+C$ 3

    ,+

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    0riting that a focus on e9ternal reality could 5ne"er satisfy the totality of man's desire for

    meaning62 An understanding of the meaning of history$ and therefore the potential for

    freedom and purposeful human action$ 0ould not focus on studies of concrete data or

    historical e"ents$ (ut 0ould rather 5grasp of the totality of life$ instead of 7ust its

    appearances6,+

    Kissinger's argument against empiricism formed the foundation for his criticism

    of modern policy1ma;ing systems %n 5The Meaning of History$6 he (riefly touched on

    the connection (et0een his personal philosophy and the modern American political

    system (y condemning political scientists for trying to find technical solutions to 5matters

    of the soul6 and insisting that (ecause o(7ecti"e ;no0ledge is limited and cannot create

    purpose or 5relie"e man from his ultimate responsi(ility$ from gi"ing his o0n meaning to

    life$6 policy1ma;ers must also create policy as a reflection of an in0ard e9perience

    through the pro7ection of a nation's purpose and long1term goals,, These criticisms

    re"ealed a strain of idealism in Kissinger's (elief system$ and fell far from the typical

    definition of realism His emphasis on the necessity of the in0ard e9perience 0ould later

    lead him to ma;e similar claims 0hen criticiing American foreign policy during the

    -old .ar His argument that American statesmen did not fully grasp the conseuences of

    their actions (y contemplating ho0 they related to their "isions of the future lin;ed (ac;

    to his emphasis on the concept of con7ecture and the futility of empiricism in 5The

    Meaning of History6

    Kissinger o"ercame the limits of empiricism (y gi"ing agency to the indi"idual

    2 %(id$ **

    ,+ %(id$ ,,

    ,, %(id$ >?,1>?*

    ,,

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    and the in0ard dimension in the study of history He (elie"ed that (ecause each action is

    accomplished 0ith the con"iction of an indi"idual personality$ each person imposes their

    o0n meaning on history through their actions %n order to understand history$ one must

    peer into the in0ard realm of humanity Kissinger depicted this in0ard realm or 5in0ard

    e9perience6 as the crucial part of the 5moments in e"ery person's life$ 0hen the tensions

    fall a0ay and the unity of all creation appears as a sudden "ision These are the

    occasions 0hen time stands still and man parta;es of eternity6,* His ac;no0ledgment of

    the superiority of spirituality o"er matter$ that 5matter can defeat only those 0ho ha"e no

    spirituality to impart to it$6 reinforced the spiritual dimension of his 0orld"ie0

    ,>

    He

    defined human;ind's a(ility to transcend the e9ternal reality through an in0ard

    e9perience as the reuirement for the recognition of (oth freedom and limits

    ne crucial pro(lem 0ith Kissinger's philosophy is that this in0ard e9perience

    cannot (e easily defined or descri(ed The in0ard e9perience can only appro9imate

    definition through a study (y analogy of o(7ects that 5utilie the infinite as a foil$6 such

    as poetry$ physics$ or astronomy,? Kissinger's "agueness made it difficult or e"en

    impossi(le to follo0 his personal philosophy or implement his "ersion of historical

    analysis The am(iguity of his ideas further underscored the idealistic strain in his

    philosophy for its lac; of realistic possi(ilities

    Although Kissinger placed great importance on the in0ard e9perience$ he did not

    intend it to dictate all meaning in history %n 5History as %ntuition$6 Kissinger found that

    an o"eremphasis of the concept of intuiti"e perception 0ould muddle meaning in history

    ,* %(id$ >*?

    ,> %(id$ >>>

    ,? %(id$ *?2

    ,*

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    7ust as much as it 0ould illuminate it An im(alanced focus on intuition and the internal

    e9perience could only (e as percepti"e and 7ust as lac;ing as empiricism Kissinger

    sought a layering of the t0o$ a reconciliation that 0ould allo0 him (oth a study of the

    nature of the human spirit as 0ell as an analysis of human action o"er time that 0ould

    represent a (alance (et0een facts and intuition$ the real and the ideal He found this

    reconciliation (y encouraging indi"iduals to act purposefully in the e9ternal reality as a

    reflection of their in0ard state

    Kissinger's "ie0 of morality stemmed from this reconciliation of freedom and

    necessity 5&esignation as to the purpose of the uni"erse ser"es as the first step to0ards

    ethical acti"ity$6 he 0rote$ 5and the realiation ensues that the meaning of history is not

    confined to its mere manifestations and that no causal analysis can a(sol"e Man from

    gi"ing his o0n content to his o0n e9istence6,@ This meant that Kissinger's definition of

    ethics and morality depended first on the recognition of limits$ and second on one's

    responsi(ility to use one's freedom to gi"e meaning to his or her actions ecause his

    idea of morality stemmed from the product of the in0ard e9perience$ Kissinger's

    definition of moral la0 could only (e found in0ardly$ not in e9ternal reality$ and held

    indi"iduals accounta(le for ta;ing part in history and recogniing the impact of their

    actions on the flo0 of history through "ision and con7ecture

    Kissinger's definition of morality ga"e agency to the indi"idual and presented an

    optimistic "ie0 of human nature ecause his "ision of morality deri"ed from the in0ard

    e9perience$ 5each man is (oth su(7ect and legislator6 of his morals and ideals The la0

    that ;ept man's o0n definition of morals in chec;$ then$ 0as a recognition of limits

    ,@ %(id$ ,?

    ,>

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    Kissinger ga"e the e9ample of the oracle of #elphi's ad"ice 5Kno0 thyself6 to mean

    5Kno0 that you are a man and not God6,3 .hen man e9periences in0ard transcendence$

    he also recognies that he is only a small part of a (igger picture This leads to tolerance$

    the recognition of others' indi"iduality$ and morality

    Kissinger's definition of freedom 0as rooted in the recognition of the limits of

    humanity and of the ephemeral nature of life He claimed that morality could only (e

    found through this ac;no0ledgment of freedom 0ithin limits ecause man is not God$

    limits are essential Man can only triumph$ or e9perience true freedom$ through the

    process of an in0ard e9perience$ for 5peace is not an e9ternal state of things$6 (ut an

    in0ard reconciliation of limits and freedom, Kissinger concluded that the acceptance of

    one's limits 0as the only 0ay to achie"e (oth freedom and morality

    Kissinger's idea of tolerance as an ans0er to the pro(lem of ethics re"ealed an

    almost (lindly optimistic "ie0 of human nature He defined the pro(lem of ethics as 5the

    reconciliation of an ultimate$ (ut personal$ "ision 0ith uni"ersal applica(ility6,4 His

    solution to this pro(lem 0as that a recognition of limits 0ould lead to tolerance for others

    and compromise conflicting "isions He 0ould later pro"ide the same ans0er for the

    pro(lem of conflicting national "isions in international relations (y insisting that only

    through a peaceful ad7ustment of national "isions could the international structure remain

    (oth sta(le and legitimate .hile he did recognie that 5differences (et0een ideologies or

    political systems or indi"iduals may (e so fundamental as to (e un(ridgea(le$6 he ga"e

    no other alternati"e for a resolution of conflict or guide to ethics ,2

    ,3 %(id$ *3

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    ,2 %(id$ >? fn ,

    ,?

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    Kissinger portrayed his reconciliation of the parado9 of limits and freedom not as

    a passi"e acceptance of fate (ut an acti"e realiation of limits that ga"e po0er to the

    indi"idual and portrayed optimism for man;ind's a(ility to accept this responsi(ility

    According to his philosophy$ 0ithout the recognition of limits one could not truly (e free$

    for freedom is to ;no0 one's potential and fulfill it Freedom ena(les humanity to (oldly

    confront the unending flo0 of history and the limits of mortality (y pro"iding man;ind

    0ith choice to use the resources in the physical reality to construct its "ision in the

    e9ternal en"ironment Man;ind's freedom ena(les it to change the direction of e"ents

    through "ision and action Actions that 0ill seem in the future to ha"e (een an ine"ita(le

    and irre"ersi(le chain of e"ents are really actions that 0ere accomplished 0ith the

    freedom of choice and intentional purpose y presenting purposeful choice as the

    ans0er to the parado9 of freedom and necessity$ Kissinger displayed an optimistic "ie0

    of the po0er of indi"idual action and the potential of human;ind to construct in reality its

    internal "isions despite the limits of time and mortality

    Kissinger's emphasis on purpose 0as part of his reconciliation of necessity and

    freedom He defined purpose as the reflection of a soul's tas;s to (e completed 0hich

    can 5descri(e the immanence of a soul$ the "isions that man imparts to his determined

    surroundings$ the hopes 0hich condition acti"ity$ the dreams 0hich ma;e life possi(le6*+

    Purposes are the e"idence of a transcendent e9perience and illuminate the meaning of

    history outside of causal e"ents ecause they are the indi"idual's imposition of him or

    herself on e"ents$ purposes also represented Kissinger's definition of meaning in history

    Kissinger assumed that 0ithout the "isions$ hopes$ and dreams that allo0 the soul to

    *+ %(id$ >*>1>*?

    ,@

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    e9press its freedom through action in the ine"ita(le flo0 of history$ life 0ould (e

    meaningless His reconciliation again trusted man;ind 0ith the responsi(ility to create

    its o0n meaning in history

    %n the conte9t of a nation$ as he 0ould e9pand upon in his later 0or;s$ Kissinger

    defined purpose as the need for a nation to loo; in0ard to find its o0n "alues and "isions

    for the future and to reflect this out0ard (y imposing its purposes through action and

    choice y reflecting on its purpose$ a nation contemplates long1term policies$

    considering 0hether or not each immediate action 0ill aid the achie"ement of these long1

    term goals .ithout an in0ard reflection on its purpose$ the choices of a nation are

    inconsistent and lac; an underlying strategic "ision and con7ecture of conseuences

    Kissinger 0ould later ela(orate on this concept (y condemning the American nation for a

    lac; of purpose in its actions %n this thesis$ ho0e"er$ he focused on the definitions of

    these concepts

    His concluding section$ entitled 5A -lue from Poetry$6 reenforced Kissinger's

    optimism for human nature and the importance he placed on indi"idual freedom and

    action Kissinger's definition of poetry as an e9pression of the in0ard state further

    illuminated his assertion that meaning is found 0ithin man$ not in e9ternal e"ents

    5Poetry is truer than history$6 he uoted Aristotle To Kissinger$ this meant the hopes of

    man em(edded in poetry sho0 more a(out human nature than historical fact Poetry

    encapsulates the most central elements of Kissinger's philosophy of history %t 5testifies

    to humanity's longing in the face of the fatedness of e9istence$ to the uniue 0hich each

    man imparts to his determined surrounding Poetry is truer than history for it e9hi(its the

    ,3

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    spirituality 0ith 0hich man meets the ine9ora(ility of e"ents6*, .ithin this statement$

    Kissinger re"ealed the essence of his 0orld"ie0: (oth tragic and optimistic$ it implied

    that human;ind is helpless in a uni"erse (ound (y time and in a nature fated to mortality$

    0hile simultaneously gi"ing human;ind the ultimate po0er of choice and the freedom to

    determine the direction of its steps on the path of history

    Kissinger used tragedy and mythology$ a freuent topic in poetry$ to e9press his

    fascination 0ith man;ind's struggle to0ards its ideals Tragedy in itself (ecame

    representati"e of an ideal$ a reminder of the process of stri"ing 5Mythology$ ho0e"er$

    descri(es an inner state$ not an o(7ecti"e condition$6 he 0rote$ 5it represents man's

    attempt to apprehend the fatedness of life and in that recognition of necessity to transcend

    it %t e9presses humanity's hope and not its actualiation$ man's creati"e essence not the

    material conditions of success6** Kissinger considered tragedy to (e a(out an in0ard

    struggle$ the recognition of choice and freedom$ creati"ity and personality$ and a(ility

    and action in the face of limits %n their concentrations on human stri"ing$ mythology$

    tragedy$ and poetry represented the essence of human nature and thus the essence of

    history

    Kissinger's emphasis on the po0er of stri"ing to0ards ideals related to his

    insistence that peace is found in the in0ard e9perience He descri(ed the importance of

    stri"ing for 5certain goals$ not dependent on immediate success6 0ith the story of #on

    Jui9ote %deals are to humanity as )ady #ulcinea 0as to #on Jui9ote$ 5the moti"e1force

    of his acti"ity$ the sym(ol of that purity for 0hich alone the dream of the Golden Age

    *, %(id$ >>+

    ** %(id$ *@3

    ,

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    (ecomes 0orth0hile6 The aspirations of humanity are$ therefore$ a part of the pursuit of

    peace ut out0ard peace is not an attaina(le goal

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    resulted in an optimistic "ie0 of human nature He uoted .hitehead in the last lines of

    his thesis$ precisely descri(ing the essence of his philosophy: 5As soon as high

    consciousness is reached$ the en7oyment of e9istence is ent0ined 0ith pain$ frustration$

    loss$ tragedy Amid the passing of so much (eauty$ so much heroism$ so much daring$

    Peace is then the intuition of permanence %t ;eeps "i"id the sensiti"eness to the tragedy

    and it sees the tragedy as a li"ing agent persuading the 0orld to aim at fineness (eyond

    the faded le"el of surrounding fact Each tragedy is the disclosure of an ideal: 1 .hat

    might ha"e (een and 0hat 0as not: .hat can (e The tragedy 0as not in "ain This

    sur"i"al po0er in moti"e force mar;s the difference (et0een the tragic e"il and the gross

    e"il The inner feeling (elonging to this grasp of the ser"ice of tragedy is Peace the

    purification of emotions6*@ .hitehead's 0ords suggest that Kissinger "ie0ed tragedies

    not in the common sense$ (ut as the essence of stri"ing for ideals The 5ser"ice of

    tragedy$6 then$ 0as to help humanity to understand that all indi"iduals are part of the

    tragedy of mortality$ (ut in ma;ing peace 0ith limits they could fulfill their ultimate

    potential through the freedom of choice and action

    Kissinger's philosophy as he articulated it in 5The Meaning of History6 displayed

    his (elief in the a(ility of humanity to impart its o0n meaning on history !ltimately$

    Kissinger ac;no0ledged that (ecause each indi"idual acts (ased on his or her o0n

    in0ard e9perience$ humanity is unpredicta(le Historians cannot assume human nature to

    (e greedy or gi"ing$ acti"e or passi"e As 5man must act and each action represents his

    (iography$6 each indi"idual shapes the 0orld in a different 0ay*3 .hile many realists

    *@ %(id$ >?2

    *3 %(id$ *@4

    ,2

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    and idealists assume a uniform "ie0 of human nature$ human;ind cannot (e assumed to

    act in a pattern (ecause there is no euation to predict its actions This is ho0 Kissinger

    reconciled the t0o schools of thought in personal philosophy: he ac;no0ledged the

    indi"iduality 0ithin humanity$ and accepted the notion of freedom of action and purpose

    0ithin the realistic limits of mortality and human nature This made Kissinger's

    0orld"ie0 (oth optimistic and tragic$ realistic and idealistic

    These philosophical ideas remained deeply ingrained in Kissinger's 0orld"ie0$ as

    they (ecame the foundation for his graduate dissertation$ A World Restored %n A World

    Restored$ he played upon the concept of indi"idual action and choice (y employing the

    historical figures Prince Metternich and )ord -astlereagh as a physical dichotomy

    representing the dichotomy of realism and idealism His use of these philosophical ideas

    as an interpreti"e frame0or; to impose on a historical topic suggests their importance to

    his 0orld"ie0 and lends credence to the argument that the ideas he articulated in this

    undergraduate thesis composed his personal philosophy

    Although 5The Meaning of History6 is not specifically a(out foreign policy$ it is

    the intellectual foundation upon 0hich Kissinger 0ould (oth 0rite and act as a scholar

    and policyma;er He 0ould continue to employ the language of purpose$ creati"ity$ and

    "ision that he formed in this thesis as a scholar and policyma;er These ideas so

    fundamentally shaped his outloo; on foreign policy that he 0ould often repeat them

    "er(atim in many of his pu(lications in the hopes that they 0ould influence the e9isting

    policy1ma;ing structure He 0ould e"en go on as an ad"isor to president =ohn F

    Kennedy to 0ea"e the essence of these ideas into his policy suggestions and critiues

    *+

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    .hile historians often categorie Kissinger as a disciple of &ealpoliti;$ 5The

    Meaning of History6 suggests that traditional political realism influenced his 0orld"ie0

    much less than philosophical idealism His em(race of an idealistic "ision of human

    nature pointed to a more nuanced 0orld"ie0 0hich recognied that an o"eremphasis on

    realism$ pragmatism$ or empiricism 0ould result in conclusions 7ust as (lind as

    utopianism y la(eling realists as merely 5dreamers 0ith materialistic hopes$6

    Kissinger reconciled the constructs realism and idealism in his personal philosophy* He

    sought to ta;e his 0orld"ie0 one step further than either of these perspecti"es through an

    emphasis on the po0er of human indi"iduality 0ithin the frame0or; of limits

    .hile Kissinger's philosophy may or may not ha"e represented a "alid

    interpretation of history or the musings of a confused soul$ the interpreti"e frame0or;

    outlined in 5The Meaning of History6 0ould go on to (ecome the map 0hich guided him

    throughout his studies as a scholar and his 0or; as a policy1ma;er He used this

    philosophy to na"igate the early -old .ar 0orld in 0ay that separated him from his

    colleagues This 0orld"ie0 sho0ed that he (elie"ed that morality$ ideals$ creati"ity$

    freedom of action$ hope$ spirituality$ and purpose had a place in policy$ for he defined

    politics in the same 0ay he defined life and history?*

    *,

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    Chapter Two

    Ideals and Statesmanship:

    Kissinger's Philosophy of Statesmanship

    Kissinger's personal philosophy as he e9pressed it in 5The Meaning of History6

    translated easily to his philosophy of statesmanship His most prominent 0or; on

    statesmanship 0as his graduate dissertation$A World Restored Ho0e"er$ many of his

    ideas of statesmanship first appeared in 5The Meaning of History6 These ideas

    translated his philosophy of indi"idual action to statesmanship$ gi"ing 0eight to the

    importance of the "isions$ purposes$ and actions of statesmen His portrayal of

    statesmanship in this 0or; depicted statesmen as creati"e indi"iduals 0ith the authority

    to guide their nations through an almost di"ine inspiration These indi"iduals appeared

    infreuently in history$ (ut created e9traordinary change and inno"ation 0ithin their

    societies They represented the essence of progress$ the 5lea"en 0hich gal"anies society

    into creati"ity6 and mo"ement for0ard in history through their "ision and action *4

    Kissinger presented the statesman's a(ility to see (eyond the present reality as the

    elements of intuition and inspiration$ 0hich ena(led statesmen to en"ision the future they

    0anted to create %ntuition$ he 0rote$ allo0ed statesmen to understand the

    interrelatedness of e"ents$ the 5ma7estic unfolding6 of history Through his intuition$ the

    statesman 0as connected to the 5e9tended$6 a realm transcending the natural 0orld and

    seen only through the mindLs eye This connection permitted the statesman to step (ac;

    *4 Henry A Kissinger$ 5The Meaning of History: &eflections on Spengler$ Toyn(ee and Kant6

    B!ndergraduate honors thesis$ Har"ard !ni"ersity$ ,2@+C$ ,3

    **

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    and "ie0 the mechanics of time and the 0or;ings of history*2 This state of reflection$

    much li;e the in0ard e9perience$ ga"e the statesman a more concrete understanding for

    the creation of a strategy to reach his long1term goals

    Kissinger freuently compared the great statesman to the masterful artist in order

    to emphasie the necessity of "ision and inspiration in statesmanship The statesman

    shared an acute perception of destiny and intuition 0ith the artist$ as destiny 5is felt (y

    the great artist in his moment of contemplation$ it is em(odied (y the statesman in

    action6>+ The artist senses destiny as he en"isions his masterpiece He feels the pull of

    something un0orldly$ sees 0hat does not e9ist in reality$ and ;no0s the shape of 0hat he

    0ill create (efore he creates it The artist uses inspiration to en"ision his ne9t series of

    mo"es and to concei"e of the form that 0ill result from his actions He can translate his

    "ision onto paper$ into mar(le$ or upon the 0alls of the Sistine -hapel

    %n the same 0ay the artist ;no0s destiny in his moment of inspiration$ the

    statesman em(odies destiny through his actions !nli;e the artist$ ho0e"er$ he does not

    ha"e precise control o"er his medium The statesmanLs art is the construction of policy

    his tas; is to sculpt the international structure and the destination of history through his

    policies The statesman is the mode through 0hich history unfolds he is destinyLs

    middleman He contemplates the interrelatedness of e"ents and the underlying current of

    destiny (efore he ma;es decisions$ transforming his intuition of destiny into reality

    through action ut as Michelangelo car"ed the struggle of his soul$ his 5yearning for

    infinity6 into stone$ the statesman struggles to transcend the inertia of his circumstances

    *2 %(id$ ,@

    >+ %(id$ >3

    *>

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    He 0or;s to translate his "ision of the international structure into a policy that can (e

    implemented in reality>,

    KissingerLs depiction of the great statesman em(odied the intuition and

    inspiration of the artist$ (ut also represented a person 0ho percei"ed the 0orld as a poet

    The great statesman 0ould see the e"ents of history as a unified "ision in the same 0ay a

    poet grasps the essence of a moment The statesman understood the relationships

    (et0een occurrences and comprehended the danger of 7udging each e"ent 0ithout

    ac;no0ledging its past and future connections His encompassing "ision ;ept him from

    (ecoming shortsighted and entangled in details Kissinger 0rote that 5the ultimate

    mysteries of life are perhaps not approacha(le (y dissection6 in the 0ay that a scientist

    0ould analye e"ents$ 5(ut may reuire the poetLs "ie0 0ho grasps the unity of life$

    0hich is greater than any$ ho0e"er painsta;ing analysis of its manifestations6>* The

    statesman grasped this unity in his "ision of the future$ and sought to implement his

    "ision through a plan of action that ac;no0ledged the deeper pattern of e"ents &ather

    than sol"ing pro(lems as they arose$ he 0ould create a structure to pre"ent these

    pro(lems The statesmanLs understanding of the interrelatedness of e"ents allo0ed him to

    en"ision the conseuences of his actions and ma;e decisions 0ith confidence$ t0o

    important elements of Kissinger's philosophy of the indi"idual

    Kissinger "ie0ed the statesmanLs greatest struggle as articulating his "ision in a

    0ay that the pu(lic could understand it This made politics the 5eternal conflict (et0een

    (lood and concept$6 the tas; of interpreting an intangi(le "ision to those in the physical

    >, %(id$ >2$>

    >* %(id$ ,*

    *?

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    realm>> ecause the statesmanLs "ision could not (e directly discerned (y or translated to

    his domestic supporters$ this struggle 0as often the cause of the statesmanLs tragic fate

    Most importantly$ it represented the struggle (et0een the intangi(le and the physical

    reality$ the necessity of transcending circumstances through (oth "ision and action )i;e

    Kissinger's philosophy of the indi"idual$ Kissinger's philosophy of statesmanship made

    "ision and action imperati"e and insepara(le

    ecause Kissinger's ideal statesman had an acute intuition and ;een a(ility to see

    a deeper pattern in e"ents$ he acted as a (ridge (et0een his people and the un;no0n

    Kissinger's use of this (ridge image again represented his call for transcendence@ These lines illuminate ho0 Kissinger "ie0ed the

    >> %(id$ 2+ *2+1*2,

    >? Henry A Kissinger$ 5&eflections on American #iplomacy$6!oreign Affairs>@$ no , Bcto(er ,2@3C:

    @>

    >@ Henry A Kissinger$ 5The .hite &e"olutionary: &eflections on ismarc;$6)aedalus2$ no > BSummer

    *@

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    (urden of statesmanship and the tragedy that characteried the statesmanLs life

    The tragedy inherent in statesmanship 0as insepara(le from the success of

    statesmanship Statesmen could not predict the future or fully ;no0 the conseuences of

    their actions Much li;e Kissinger's philosophy of the indi"idual$ 0hich emphasied the

    possi(ilities of freedom 0ithin the tragedy of limits$ Kissinger's philosophy of

    statesmanship ac;no0ledged the impossi(ility of fully succeeding in the statesman's tas;

    !ltimately the statesman could only 0or; 0ith the materials he had$ and to Kissinger the

    effort 0as more important than anything else He "ie0ed the statesman's tas; in the same

    0ay that he sa0 humanity's struggle to0ards its ideals as more important than the

    fulfillment of those ideals

    Kissinger further defined his philosophy of statesmanship (y contrasting the

    statesman to the philosopher and the prophet in his studies of nineteenth century

    statesmen Kissinger sa0 the statesman as neither a philosopher nor a prophet$ (ut as his

    o0n species The statesman had the intuition of an artist$ the soul of a poet$ and the

    responsi(ility of a politician He 0ould prefer to contemplate truth li;e the philosopher$

    (ut instead had to implement it>3 The statesmanLs (urden 0as greater than that of (oth

    the philosopher and the prophet: he needed not only to contemplate$ (ut to create He did

    not di"ine a "ision of the future in the 0ay that a prophet 0ould$ (ut 0as struc; 0ith

    inspiration to create a "ision of the future in his imagination and to construct it in reality

    The statesman$ philosopher$ and prophet all loo;ed to the future$ (ut the statesman

    pursued his opportunities in the present He sought to influence his circumstances

    ,234C: 2**

    >3 Henry A Kissinger$ 5The -onser"ati"e #ilemma: &eflections on the Political Thought of Metternich$6

    'he A$erican Political cience Re*ie+?4$ no ? B#ecem(er ,2@?C: ,+**

    *3

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    through a "ision of the 0orld he 0ished to (ring a(out$ 0hich 0ould animate him to

    action> He 0as concerned 0ith the possi(le the prophet and philosopher 0ere only

    concerned 0ith 0hat 0as 5true6 This contrast again re"ealed Kissinger's common theme

    of struggling to0ards ideals 0ithin limits The prophet and philosopher's ideal 0as

    5truth6 in its purest essence the statesman could only attain 5truth6 0ithin the physical

    reality He had to 0or; 0ith the materials at hand$ struggling to reach his ideals and

    come as close to his "ersion of 5truth6 as he could 0ithin the limits of his reality

    Kissinger 0rote his graduate dissertation$A World Restored$ as a historical

    account of the statesmanship of t0o nineteenth century European statesmen$ )ord

    -astlereagh of ritain and Prince Metternich of Austria These t0o men 0or;ed together

    to re(uild the structure of Europe follo0ing the re"olution of 8apoleon Kissinger had

    t0o aims in conducting this pro7ect ne 0as to ta;e a0ay lessons from this

    re"olutionary point in history that politicians could selecti"ely apply to the -old .ar He

    often euated re"olutionary France 0ith the So"iet !nion and uncommitted nineteenth1

    century ritain 0ith t0entieth1century !nited States He sa0 Metternich's statesmanship

    as 5continental statesmanship$6 0hich approached relations on the continent 0ith the idea

    that Austria$ a nation in the middle of the European continent$ 0ould (e greatly

    influenced (y the su(stance of continental decisions %n contrast$ -astlereagh at first

    approached the situation through 5insular statesmanship$6 hoping only to sta(ilie

    relations on the continent so that ritain 0ould not ha"e to inter"ene The actual

    > Henry A Kissinger$A World Restored, Metternich# %astlereagh# and the Pro-le$s of Peace# /0100

    Boston: Houghton Mifflin$ ,2>C$ 2+,

    *

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    su(stance of the agreement did not matter much to -astlereagh$ as long as the situation

    did not threaten ritish security Metternich e"entually persuaded -astlereagh to see

    matters through the continental perspecti"e$ ensuring him that continental affairs 0ould$

    in the long run$ al0ays affect ritish security .ith this ne0 perspecti"e$ -astlereagh

    created a fantastic "ision of ritish participation in continental affairs The ritish

    people$ ho0e"er$ did not ha"e the same transformation of "ision as -astlereagh and

    0ould not accept his attempts to tie ritain to continental affairs$ despite -astlereagh's

    assurances that he 0as securing ritain's long1term 0ell1(eing

    Many historians ha"e approached an analysis ofA World Restored(y focusing on

    the contrast (et0een -astlereagh and Metternich's statesmanship as that (et0een the

    5insular6 and 5continental6 perspecti"es %nstead$ % 0ill interpret the t0o characters using

    concepts Kissinger first articulated in 5The Meaning of History6 that 0ere integral to his

    personal philosophy>4 For e9ample$ inA World Restored$ Kissinger interpreted the

    character of Metternich to represent not only continental statesmanship$ (ut also the

    negati"e influence of empiricism on the formation of policy .hile many historians

    portray Metternich as Kissinger's nineteenth1century 5hero$6 they are missing the

    fundamental message ofA World Restored This account of the creation of a lasting

    peace in Europe is meant not only as an e9ample of the creation of a structure of peace$

    (ut also the fla0s in this particular structure Although Metternich succeeded in

    esta(lishing a structure of peace$ he did not sol"e the underlying pro(lems that made the

    structure necessary

    >4 For ela(oration on this contrast$ see Gregory # -le"a$Henry Kissinger and the A$erican approach to

    foreign policyBuc;nell !ni"ersity Press$ ,242C

    *4

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    .hile Kissinger presented Metternich as an empiricist$ he depicted Metternich's

    ritish counterpart$ -astlereagh$ as an idealist .here Metternich lac;ed "ision$

    -astlereagh clung to his "ision so tightly that he failed to ta;e into account the force of an

    opposing pu(lic opinion y sho0ing ho0 (oth of these approaches failed$ Kissinger

    underscores that neither e9treme is the ans0er as an approach to international relations

    %nstead$A World Restoredpromoted Kissinger's o0n (rand of creati"e realism$

    highlighting the importance of long1term ideals achie"ed through the specific steps of a

    constructed program

    %n addition to (eing a 0or; of history and political theory$ Kissinger's second aim

    forA World Restored0as to produce a 0ell thought out e9planation of his personal

    philosophy He used the historical frame0or; of nineteenth century Europe to more

    concretely sho0 the reasoning (ehind his philosophy Kissinger's in1depth analysis of

    -astlereagh and Metternich and their nations led him to conclude that (oth approaches to

    international relations 0ere too e9treme and failed in the long run y sho0ing the

    failure of the t0o statesmen$ he in turn ad"ocated a reconciliation of the their approaches

    to foreign policy This reconciliation suggested reaching for ideals in realistic steps

    through the use of (ureaucracy for e"eryday tas;s and the employment of creati"e

    leadership for more comple9 situations$ in essence the same conclusions he made in 5The

    Meaning of History6

    Kissinger's criticisms of Metternich had much to do 0ith Metternich's lac; of

    underlying purpose$ an important theme in 5The Meaning of History6 5He 0as a &ococo

    *2

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    figure$6 Kissinger 0rote$ 5comple9$ finely car"ed$ all surface$ li;e an intricately cut

    prism His face 0as delicate (ut 0ithout depth$ his con"ersation (rilliant (ut 0ithout

    ultimate seriousness6 This meant that Metternich's actions lac;ed a deeper purpose they

    did not represent a "ision of the future or foresee opportunities in the un;no0n>2

    Metternich fought "igorously to maintain the status uo in Europe and to prolong the

    sta(ility of the Austrian empire %n order to do this$ he played the politics of Europe as a

    chess game$ (asing his decisions on the s;ill of his maneu"ers and faith in his a(ility to

    manipulate his ad"ersaries Det this method did not 0or; in a (attle 0ith re"olutionaries$

    as Metternich soon realied He emphasied the futility of his rationality 0hen he

    descri(ed communicating 0ith 8apoleon 5as if at a game of chess$ carefully 0atching

    each other % to chec;mate him$ he to crush me together 0ith the chess figures6?+

    Kissinger$ too$ understood that 0ithout an underlying purpose$ Metternich's policy 5for

    all its intricate su(tlety0as as fragile as a spider's 0e($ as ephemeral as a house of

    cards6?,

    These s;ills of manipulation and maneu"er 0ould typically (e the strengths of a

    good realist$ (ut Kissinger interpreted Metternich's s;ills as fla0s (ecause they (linded

    him to intuition$ inspiration$ and a(ility to conceptualie MetternichLs 5genius 0as

    instrumental$ not creati"e he e9celled at manipulation$ not construction6?* %nstead of

    creating a ne0 reality to fulfill his purposes$ Metternich manipulated his present

    circumstances .hile he could maneu"er tough situations (rilliantly$ his genius in tactics

    could not su(stitute for an o"erarching conception of his purpose He conducted policy

    >2 Kissinger$A World Restored$ 4

    ?+ %(id$ *3

    ?, %(id$ >,+

    ?* %(id$ ,,

    >+

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    artfully$ (ut did not ha"e the inspiration of an artist Kissinger called him 5a scientistL of

    politics$ cooly and unemotionally arranging his com(inations6?> He lac;ed the "ision of

    possi(ilities and spar; of inspiration that Kissinger held as integral to success

    MetternichLs failure to act 0ith creati"ity and inspiration stemmed from his

    ina(ility to conceptualie a "ision of the future that 0ould (ecome a ne0 path for the

    Austrian empire 5)ac;ing in Metternich$6 Kissinger 0rote$ 5is the attri(ute 0hich has

    ena(led the spirit to transcend an impasse at so many crises of history: the a(ility to

    contemplate an a(yss$ not 0ith the detachment of a scientist$ (ut as a challenge to

    o"ercome %(id$ >,2

    ?? %(id$ >**

    >,

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    of unimaginati"e statesmanship

    -omplimenting Kissinger's argument against empiricism inA World Restored0as

    his argument against the Austrian (ureaucracy He claimed that the Austrian (ureaucracy

    0as una(le to deal 0ith the increasing pro(lems of industrialiation$ nationalism$ and

    li(eralism %t confused success 0ith the management of mediocrity$ rather than the

    progression to0ards long1term goals %t could not push its country through the ne0

    re"olutionary era of self1determination and nationalism (ecause it lac;ed an underlying

    conception ureaucracy 5prides itself on o(7ecti"ity 0hich is a denial of the necessity of

    great conception6 and lac;ed the depth in "ision and a(ility to impose purpose on actions

    of statesmanship?

    .hile Metternich lac;ed conception$ he also li"ed during a generation in flu9 his

    t0o hands could only do so much to shape the continent of Europe He succeeded in his

    tas; 5to represent his country a(road$ to co"er its 0ea;nesses$ to delay the ine"ita(le as

    long as possi(le6 Det at the same time his diplomacy 0as 5pure manipulationthat it

    lac;ed ultimate stature 0as due as much to the force of circumstances as to the lac; of

    creati"ity of Metternich6 5%n 0hat times ha"e % li"edN6 Metternich 0rote$ 5)et anyone

    loo; at the situationsand let him as; himself 0hether one man's insight could ha"e

    transformed these crises into help % claim to ha"e recognied the situation$ (ut also the

    impossi(ility to erect a ne0 structure in our Empireand for this reason all my care 0as

    directed to conser"ing that 0hich e9isted6 #espite Kissinger's complaints a(out

    Metternich's de"iousness$ and his ina(ility to grasp a "ision of the future$ Kissinger also

    recognied that Metternich had limits 5History is greater than the indi"idual$6 Kissinger

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    0rote$ 5the statement also mar;s the limits of Metternich's a(ilities For statesmen

    must (e 7udged not only (y their actions (ut also (y their conception of alternati"es6 The

    pro(lem 0as that Metternich did not concei"e of alternati"es?4

    Metternich 0as too caught up in the "ulnera(ilities of Austria to en"ision the

    future possi(ilities of the nation He 0as$ to use one of Kissinger's fa"orite phrases$ a

    5prisoner of circumstances6 5Metternich 0as a0are not of po0er$ nor of glory$ (ut of

    0ea;ness$ of danger$ of impeding disaster!n0illing to adapt its domestic structure$

    una(le to sur"i"e 0ith it in a century of nationalism$ e"en Austria's most successful

    policies amounted to no more than a reprie"e$ to a desperate grasping to commit allies$

    not to a 0or; of construction$ (ut to deflect part of the ine"ita(le holocaust6?2Metternich

    could hold his finger in the di;e for only so long His policies left the underlying

    pro(lems unsol"ed His diplomacy 50as sterile in an era of constant flu9.hene"er he

    0as forced to create his o0n o(7ecti"es$ there 0as a(out him an aura of futility ecause

    he sought tranuility in the manipulation of factors he treated as gi"en$ the statesman of

    repose (ecame the prisoner of e"entsHe understood the forces at 0or;(ut this

    ;no0ledge pro"ed of little a"ail$ (ecause he used it almost e9clusi"ely to deflect their

    ine9ora(le march$ instead of placing it into his ser"ice for a tas; of construction Thus the

    last "estige of the eighteenth century had to pro"e the fallacy of one of the ma9ims of the

    Enlightenment$ that ;no0ledge 0as po0er6@+ %ndeed$ Metternich's failure illustrated

    Kissinger's ultimate claim in 5The Meaning of History6 that ;no0ledge in the form of

    empirical facts 0as not enough to understand the 0orld Multi1dimensional human

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    action reuired a more percepti"e understanding of different realities

    Kissinger contrasted s;illful Metternich to a more aloof$ yet more "isionary$

    -astlereagh 5%cy and reser"ed$6 he 0as 5as humanly unapproacha(le as his policy came

    to (e incomprehensi(le to the ma7ority of his countrymen6 @, -astlereaghLs a0;0ard

    personality ;ept him from communicating 0ell$ amplifying his dilemma of possessing an

    intuition that transcended the e9perience of his countrymen 5Moti"ated (y an instinct

    al0ays surer than his capacity for e9pression$6 -astlereagh struggled 0ith the ina(ility to

    translate his "ision of the future to the pu(lic@* The ritish peopleLs insular conception of

    international relations also inhi(ited them from comprehending the importance of

    -astlereaghLs conceptions %nstead of ta;ing the easy 0ay out$ though$ -astlereagh

    em(raced the courage to endure the 5tragic isolation of the hero$ 0ho (ecause he cannot

    communicate$ must 0al; in solitude6@> This description e"o;es the same tragedy as

    ismarc;Ls e9pression of the great statesman as a 5fallen angel6 and con"eys KissingerLs

    sympathy for the 5tragic hero6

    .hile -astlereagh had the courage to follo0 his intuition$ he did not ha"e the

    domestic support to implement his plans !nli;e Metternich$ 0ho did not push his "ision

    far enough$ -astlereaghLs "ision too far outran the e9perience of his people His strength

    and failure 0as 5the proud assertion of responsi(ility$ not for the mechanical e9ecution of

    the popular 0ill$ (ut for the e"aluation of interests not apparent to the multitude and the

    refusal or ina(ility to influence the pu(lic sentiment6@? His distaste for concessions to

    the pu(lic 0as a reflection of his "ie0 of the responsi(ility of a statesman$ 0hich he

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    him to fulfill his conception of statesmanship -astlereaghLs e9perience represents the

    relentless tension (et0een statesmen and the pu(lic that causes a country to stagnate and

    (ecome irrele"ant in the international realm %f a country and its leaders cannot agree on

    a common "ision and goal$ internal chaos 0ill distract them from see;ing to influence

    international e"ents Kissinger condemned (oth -astlereagh and ritain for their failure

    to cooperate 0ith each other Through this situation$ Kissinger sa0 the relationship

    (et0een the domestic pu(lic and leadership to (e the ;ey to success in international

    relations$ and 0ould later use this lesson to encourage Americans to conceptualie 0ith

    their statesmen

    Kissinger depicted -astlereaghLs fate as the more tragic of the t0o statesmen

    )i;e Metternich$ -astlereagh resigned from his tas; Det he did not merely resign from

    office$ he also too; his life .hen he failed to translate his "ision into a policy his

    countrymen could comprehend$ -astlereagh felt that he could not fulfill his duty as a

    statesman 5%t is necessary to say good1(ye to Europe$6 -astlereagh said four days (efore

    he committed suicide$ 5no one after me understands the affairs of the -ontinent6@4

    -astlereagh sa0 himself as ritainLs only hope$ the only one 0ho had the foresight to

    ;eep the country safe He could not (ear to 0atch it un;no0ingly seal its do0nfall

    Kissinger e9plained his philosophy of history in the conte9t of his study of history

    (y as;ing 5.hat then is the role of statesmanshipN A scholarship of social determinism

    has reduced the statesman to a le"er on a machine called 'history$' to the agent of a fate

    0hich he may dimly discern (ut 0hich he accomplishes regardless of his 0ill And this

    (elief in the per"asi"eness of circumstance and the impotence of the indi"idual e9tends to

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    the notion of policy1ma;ing ne hears a great deal a(out the contingency of planning

    (ecause of the una"aila(ility of fact$ a(out the difficulty of action (ecause of the

    limitation of ;no0ledge Ho0e"er 'self1e"ident' the national interest may appear in

    retrospect$ contemporaries 0ere oppressed (y the multiplicity of a"aila(le policies$

    counseling contradictory courses of action6 These assertions underscore Kissinger's

    emphasis on the importance of indi"idual action and choice They also sho0 that

    Kissinger percei"ed national interest as su(7ecti"e

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    century history Follo0ing the pu(lication of his dissertation$ Kissinger (egan teaching at

    Har"ard !ni"ersity as a professor of Go"ernment$ 0hile also 0riting scholarly (oo;s and

    articles a(out contemporary politics These articles$ many of them harsh critiues of the

    Eisenho0er and Kennedy administrations$ reflected the themes of "isionary

    statesmanship and indi"idual action in 5The Meaning of History6 andA World Restored.

    These (oo;s and articles pro"ide further e"idence that Kissinger's personal philosophy

    included a reconciliation of realism and idealism$ as 0ell as an optimistic emphasis on

    indi"idual "ision and action

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    Chapter Three

    Ideals and merican !oreign Policy:

    Kissinger's Philosophy of "ational Purpose

    Kissinger's personal philosophy as articulated in 5The Meaning of History6 and

    his historical studies inA World Restored0ere the foundation of his critiues of

    American foreign policy as a statesman and later an adi"sor to President =ohn F

    Kennedy's administration Kissinger "ie0ed policy decisions through the lens of his

    personal philosophy$ 0hich led him to criticie the lac; of purpose and indi"idual action

    0ithin the American policy1ma;ing system Kissinger's main pro(lems 0ith the

    American policy1ma;ing mindset 0ere that it la(eled peace as a static and achie"a(le

    aim$ approached pro(lems pragmatically 0ith the certainty of a final solution$ and put off

    long1term decisions in fa"or of ad1hoc crisis management These characteristics stood in

    star; contrast to Kissinger's ideal of a creati"e and dynamic policy1ma;ing process

    ma;ing progress to0ards a nation's ideals and led (y a "isionary leader rather than a

    mediocre (ureaucracy Kissinger's emphasis on the need for statesmanship focused on

    the attainment of American "alues and ideals again re"ealed a strain of optimism 0ithin

    his 0orld"ie0 that he 0ould infuse in his policy critiues

    Kissinger offered many suggestions to resol"e the pro(lems of American foreign

    policy in the -old .ar He made his opinions and policy suggestions pu(lic in numerous

    (oo;s and articles in hopes that they 0ould influence American policy1ma;ers to

    approach the creation of policy in a more dynamic 0ay Four themes appear prominently

    in his policy critiues First$ Kissinger encouraged Americans to de"elop a sense of the

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    tragic in order to sympathie 0ith$ and therefore 0or; 0ith$ the rest of the 0orld %n

    addition$ the precariousness of their o0n position as a nuclear po0er in the midst of a

    -old .ar called for a more cautious and tragic attitude Second$ Kissinger emphasied

    the importance of creati"e leadership$ free from the shac;les of the (ureaucracy$ ad"isers$

    and an o"era(undance of data A release from these shac;les 0ould (roaden the leaders'

    spectrum of choices and gi"e them the opportunity to conceptualie ne0 paths for the

    nation and create inno"ati"e and inspired strategies for the future Third$ Kissinger

    suggested that intellectuals (e incorporated into the policy1ma;ing system in a 0ay that

    0ould allo0 them to aid leaders 0ithout losing their o0n creati"ity They could do this

    (y ma;ing sure that leaders 0ere as;ing the right uestions in order to get the right

    ans0ers Fourth$ Kissinger called for a clear conception of the nation's purpose and a

    translation of this purpose into concrete terms This 0ould allo0 leaders to create

    specific steps to reach these long1term ideals

    Most of Kissinger's critiues of American foreign policy stemmed from its

    grounding in an insular and e9ceptionalist mindset The American sense of

    e9ceptionalism$ its youthfulness$ and lac; of tragic e9perience ena(led American

    statesmen to (elie"e that pro(lems could (e sol"ed 0ith a sufficient application of

    ;no0ledge Kissinger associated this mindset 0ith an o"eremphasis on crisis

    management$ as policy1ma;ers 0ould 0ait until 5all the facts are in6 to discuss a

    pro(lem$ rather than create a strategy for pro(lem1sol"ing in ad"ance to pre"ent crises

    The American reliance on crisis management hindered serious reflection upon long1term

    goals and purposes .hile Americans generally had a sense of 0hat they stood for$ they

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    refused to define their long1term goals or ha"e a strategy for reaching them .ithout

    goals$ their actions 0ere purposeless &ather than acting as a stepping stone to0ards the

    ultimate ideal$ each epiphenomenal decision had the potential of shifting policy in a

    different direction

    Further$ Americans' lac; of tragic e9perience ;ept them from understanding the

    conseuences of their actions and the potential po0er of indi"idual action The failure to

    understand the interrelatedness of e"ents also inhi(ited them from undergoing the process

    of con7ecture$ or concei"ing of a "ision of the future$ (ecause they did not understand

    ho0 their actions in the present 0ould shape the future As con7ecture formed a crucial

    part of Kissinger's philosophy$ he (lamed many American foreign policy pro(lems on the

    ina(ility of its statesmen to concei"e of a "ision of the future and ta;e purposeful steps

    to0ards those ideals3+

    Kissinger attri(uted the pragmatic tradition in American foreign policy partially to

    the pre"alence of la0yers and (usinessmen in the policy1ma;ing system )a0yers and

    (usinessmen generally approached pro(lem1sol"ing as a matter of applying ;no0ledge to

    form solutions$ rather than understanding the interrelation of e"ents 0ithin the flo0 of

    history These indi"iduals e9celled at sol"ing immediate pro(lems$ (ut their process did

    not include a reflection upon the future conseuences of their decisions Their focus on

    the present also meant that they understood negotiations and agreements 0ith other

    nations to (e set in stone as in a la0 or (usiness contract$ and did not al0ays ta;e into

    account the futility of rhetoric (et0een heads of state This assumption opened up

    pro(lems 0ith the So"iets$ 0ho 0ould a(use this tendency (y ma;ing promises and not

    3+ Henry A Kissinger$ 5&eflections on -u(a$6Reporter* B,23*C: *?

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    follo0ing through 0ith them The (usiness1la0yer types of e9ecuti"es 0ould then

    assume they had sol"ed a pro(lem$ (ut 0ould only (e left 0ith empty 0ords3,

    Kissinger also related the pro(lems of the American tradition of foreign policy to

    its reliance on (ureaucracy There 0ere many good reasons to employ a (ureaucracy For

    e9ample$ it 0as e9cellent for dealing 0ith routine or mediocre pro(lems %f it could

    efficiently ta;e care of day1to1day tas;s$ it 0ould free up leaders' time and mental space

    and allo0 indi"idual leaders to deal 0ith larger pro(lems Det instead of ta;ing

    ad"antage of these positi"es$ the American (ureaucracy tried to ma;e policy itself

    Kissinger sa0 the spirit of (ureaucracy and the spirit of policy as diametrically opposed:

    one reuired organiation$ the other inspiration .hen policy is created 0ithin a

    (ureaucracy$ it (ecomes a hard1earned compromise$ rather than a representation of the

    nation's goals .hen the (ureaucracy ta;es o"er the process of policy1ma;ing$ the leader

    (ecomes the referee among his ad"isers He aims only for a compromise among

    conflicting ideas$ rather than follo0ing his o0n intuition The leader's initial 7o($ 0hich is

    to represent the nation through his o0n conceptions$ is negated (y those 0ho are

    supposed to pro"ide him 0ith (ac;ground ;no0ledge and support This e9plains 0hy

    Kissinger 0ould often say that leaders (ecome prisoners of ;no0ledge too much

    ;no0ledge$ too many accounts of e9periences$ can narro0 an indi"idual's conception of

    options and alternati"es Facts$ 0hile important$ do not represent total reality An

    o"era(undance of them in the policy1ma;ing process only ma;e the process more

    cum(ersome3*

    3, Henry A Kissinger$ 58e9t Summit Meeting$6Harper"s $aga2ine**, B,23+C: 3+133

    3* For e9ample$ see Kissinger$ 5&eflections on -u(a$6 *?

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    purposeful$ creati"e policies$ and reflected the American acceptance of its position as

    leader of the free 0orld Eisenho0er$ (y shrugging (ac; from the international scene and

    trying to 5(uy security on the cheap$6 0as allo0ing Americans to relinuish the initiati"e

    in the -old .ar$ and the fight for their "alues$ to their communist enemy To remedy

    this$ Americans needed to more clearly define their purposes and interests in the

    international realm and acti"ely pursue their fulfillment

    Kissinger's critiues of Eisenho0er's nuclear policies first launched his career as

    an influential intellectual %n the mid1,2@+'s$ the -ouncil on Foreign &elations as;ed

    Kissinger to compile its research into a (oo; on nuclear policy The final product$

    3uclear Weapons and !oreign Policy#offered a cohesi"e critiue of the Eisenho0er's

    nuclear policies as 0ell as suggestions for ho0 the administration should approach its

    position in a nuclear age

    ne of Kissinger's main pro(lems 0ith Eisenho0er's nuclear policy as outlined in

    3uclear Weapons and !oreign Policy0as its contradictory slogans of 5massi"e

    retaliation6 and 5no alternati"e to peace6 First$ Kissinger claimed that the assertion that

    there 0as no alternati"e to peace amounted to the Americans 0riting the So"iets a (lan;

    chec; to do 0hate"er they 0anted %f there 0as 5no alternati"e to peace$6 then no So"iet

    action 0ould 0arrant "iolent conseuences Det at the same time$ Eisenho0er 0arned the

    So"iets that any mis(eha"ior 0ould result in 5massi"e retaliation6 5Massi"e

    retaliation$6 then$ 0as a near guarantee of nuclear 0ar Kissinger noted that$ in addition

    to the contradictory nature of these policies$ each of these 0as an e9treme %f there 0as

    no alternati"e to all1out nuclear 0ar$ or all1out 5peace6 in 0hich the So"iets could do as

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    they 0ished 0ithout conseuence$ then there 0as no 5choice$6 no opportunity$ and no

    option for progress

    ne aspect of Kissinger's disli;e of massi"e retaliation 0as its implications of all1

    out 0ar His definition of all1out 0ar 0as 0ar 0ithout political o(7ecti"es$ a di"orce

    (et0een military policy and diplomacy Especially in the nuclear era$ the notion of all1

    out 0ar 0as too dangerous to toy 0ith 58e"er ha"e the conseuences of all1out 0ar

    (een so unam(iguous$ ne"er ha"e the gains seemed so out of relation 0ith the sacrifices$6

    he 0rote in3uclear Weapons3> He related the tendency of Americans to thin; in terms

    of all1out 0ar to se"eral factors: the democratic nature of its politics$ its history of (eing

    in"ol"ed mainly in all1out 0ars$ and the American pragmatic mindset that searched for

    final solutions or$ in this case$ total "ictory

    Kissinger used the e9ample of the 0ar in Korea to demonstrate the failure of

    massi"e retaliation and the need for a more fle9i(le strategy American policy1ma;ers

    had not de"ised a strategy for dealing 0ith peripheral areas and had not defined 0hich

    regions' security 0ould (e "ital to the fulfillment of the nation's goals ecause of this

    lac; of forethought$ and despite its relati"e unimportance$ American policy1ma;ers

    approached the Korean .ar as an all1out 0ar Kissinger noted that 5had the Korean .ar

    not actually ta;en place$ 0e 0ould ne"er ha"e (elie"ed that it could$6 to sho0 the

    a(surdity of all1out 0ar 0ithout political purposes3?

    Kissinger also "ie0ed the concept of deterrence as a fatal fla0 in Eisenho0er's

    policies As deterrence is a psychological concept$ its results cannot effecti"ely (e

    3> Henry A Kissinger$3uclear Weapons and !oreign Policy$ .est"ie0 encore ed Boulder$ -olo:

    Pu(lished for the -ouncil on Foreign &elations (y .est"ie0 Press$ ,24?C$ ,?>

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    measured Further$ deterrence 0as the result of the reliance on all1out 0ar as a threat

    8ot only did deterrence not pre"ent such crises as the Korean .ar$ (ut it 0as also a

    policy 0hich made American allies uncomforta(le #eterrence's lac; of concrete results

    made those stuc; in (et0een the t0o superpo0ers$ especially Europe$ feel less protected

    (y the !nited States and more li;ely to (e open to one1on1one negotiations 0ith the

    So"iets3@

    These criticisms demonstrate that Kissinger's underlying critiue of the

    Eisenho0er administration's nuclear policy 0as its inherent lac; of a fle9i(le strategic

    doctrine Strategic doctrine pro"ides a plan for action in ad"ance of crises so that most

    pro(lems can (e dealt 0ith as a matter of routine$ 0hile more challenging pro(lems are

    left to the leadership$ 0hich is freed up (y an efficient (ureaucracy33 .hile strategic

    doctrine plans in ad"ance for typical situations$ it also 5ena(les us to act purposefully in

    the face of challenges 0hich 0ill ine"ita(ly confront us$6 sho0ing the connection

    (et0een Kissinger's call for a strategic doctrine and the de"elopment of purpose as

    outlined in 5The Meaning of History6

    Kissinger's insistence on the importance of strategic doctrine (ought him (ac; to

    the issue of purpose in his critiue of the Eisenho0er administration The

    administration's lac; of strategic doctrine and dependence on the threat of all1out 0ar to

    deter its enemies led to a lac; of underlying purpose and constructi"e creati"ity y

    threatening all1out 0ar the !nited States appeared the aggressor$ undermining its

    alliances and gi"ing the So"iets the moral upperhand )astly$ the Eisenho0er

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    administration hindered its progress to0ards peace (y assuming that there could (e a

    final solution to such pro(lems as nuclear po0er %nstead of thin;ing creati"ely to

    understand ho0 to use its ne0 po0er$ it 0as paralyed paralyed (y it The Eisenho0er

    administration 5rested on its oars6 and allo0ed the So"iets to gain the strategic and moral

    edge in the -old .ar

    Kissinger's solution to Eisenho0er's nuclear pro(lems lay in the concept of

    limited 0ar$ 0hich he discussed at length in3uclear Weaponsand in other scholarly

    articles According to Kissinger$ limited 0ar 0ould pro"ide for local and regional

    defense 0ithout reuiring all1out 0ar )imited 0ar reesta(lished the marriage (et0een

    political and military strategies (y aiming for specific political o(7ecti"es rather than total

    "ictory )eadership and diplomacy 0ere especially important during a limited 0ar

    (ecause they acted as the "essels through 0hich these political o(7ecti"es and demands

    0ere articulated$ and defined a concrete endpoint for the 0ar Further$ limited 0ar 0as

    more fle9i(le than the reliance on the threat of all1out 0ar (ecause it made room for

    multiple options of mode and means .hile (roadening the spectrum of options$ limited

    0ar 0as simultaneously limiting Bhence its nameC A limited 0ar 0ould (e limited

    geographically and instrumentally$ lessening the chance for a nuclear armageddon

    %nstead of the total "ictory of all1out 0ar$ limited 0ar 0ould 5ma;e the conditions to (e

    imposed more attracti"e than continued resistance$6 gi"ing limited 0ar a concrete

    political dimension3

    Kissinger's argument for limited 0ar relied on the rationality of the t0o opposing

    forces to assure that the 0ar remained limited .hile he 0ould later amend his argument

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    for nuclear 0ar (ased on this pro(lem$ it is still important to note that he supported

    limited 0ar (oth for its (roadening of choices and opportunities$ as 0ell as its imposition

    of limits on an other0ise e9tremely ris;y process %n addition$ the necessity of

    diplomacy$ political leadership$ and the definition of concrete purposes and o(7ecti"es in

    limited 0ar again referred (ac; to Kissinger's personal philosophy as 0ell as his main

    critiue of American foreign policy .hether or not limited 0ar 0as an effecti"e tool for

    the management of the nuclear age$ it represented the inadeuacies of massi"e retaliation

    and deterrence$ including the lac; of fle9i(ility$ creati"ity$ and purpose in American

    foreign policy

    Kissinger's arguments in3uclear Weaponsspar;ed a heated de(ate o"er the future

    direction of nuclear policy The greatest influence of Kissinger's thought 0as on

    Kennedy's strategy of 5fle9i(le response$6 0hich allo0ed for a greater choice among

    0eapons systems and placed more emphasis on con"entional forces and non1nuclear

    methods of force .hile fle9i(le response represented the essence of Kissinger's idea of

    limited 0ar$ it did not change much of Kissinger's criticisms of American foreign policy

    The change in strategy did not reflect a change in the American attitude to0ards 0ar and

    international relations 5nly the purposeful can (e fle9i(le$6 Kissinger e9plained34

    Fle9i(le response lessened the reliance on all1out 0ar$ (ut it still failed to define

    American purposes and political o(7ecti"es in its military offensi"es

    %n addition to critiuing Eisenho0er's nuclear policy$ Kissinger also disagreed

    0ith Eisenho0er's management of relations 0orld0ide These criticisms fell into three

    34 Henry A Kissinger$ 5As !rgent as the Mosco0 Threat$63e+ York 'i$es 4/561%urrent file7$ March 4$

    ,2@2

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    categories of relations: relations 0ith the So"iet !nion$ European allies$ and the

    de"eloping 0orld Kissinger placed his analysis of Eisenho0er's relations 0ith these

    areas 0ithin the conte9t of his paradigm of a re"olutionary period$ first outlined inA

    World Restored

    Kissinger's critiues of Eisenho0er's policies to0ards the So"iet !nion 0ere

    rooted in his (elief that the So"iet !nion$ (ecause of its intentions to o"erthro0 the

    current 0orld order$ 0as a re"olutionary po0er According to Kissinger$ So"iet leaders

    percei"ed e"ents as part the ine"ita(le flo0 of history$ and human actors merely as

    puppets in the scheme ecause of this$ they ga"e little importance to the process of

    diplomacy$ e9cept to use it against the !nited States This made diplomatic negotiations

    0ith the So"iets "irtually meaningless$ as the So"iets (elie"ed they merely 5ratified6 an

    already present situation dictated (y history This also meant that the So"iets 0ere

    unli;ely to ma;e concessions and li;ely to ta;e ad"antage of strategic opportunities

    5The tas; of the -ommunist leadership is to tilt the scale (y constant if impercepti(le

    pressure in the direction predetermined (y the forces of history$6 Kissinger 0rote He

    repeatedly called this So"iet challenge intentionally 5am(iguous$6 an effort to ma;e

    discreet gains as the .est reacted to only o"ert challenges32

    Kissinger's argument that the So"iets 0ould not compromise appeared out of

    place 0ith his insistence on the importance of negotiations His solution to this

    contradiction 0as the idea that American leaders had to go into negotiations 0ith a clear

    plan in mind$ rather than letting the So"iets dominate the direction of discussion This

    0ould also pre"ent cele(ration o"er small and$ typically irrele"ant$ So"iet compromises

    32 Kissinger$3uclear Weapons and !oreign Policy$ @

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    and shift American focus to long1term goals

    #espite Kissinger's (elief that negotiations meant little in reality to the So"iets$ he

    stressed the importance of negotiations not only (ecause negotiations 0ould create the

    space for possi(le agreement$ (ut also to display to the 0atching 0orld the American

    desire for progress to0ards peace in the -old .ar The longer Americans allo0ed the

    So"iets to ta;e the initiati"e in negotiations$ the more the So"iets could turn the ta(les

    and accuse American statesmen of not compromising The practice of negotiating 0ould

    also ma;e American foreign policy proacti"e and positi"e$ rather than reacti"e and

    negati"e %t 0ould allo0 Americans to acti"ely stand for something$ rather than (e

    passi"ely against something %t 0ould also reuire Americans to define this 5something$6

    and in doing so$ come closer to achie"ing its ideals As an acti"ist foreign policy 0as

    especially important in the nuclear age$ 0hen leaders could not lea"e matters to chance$

    Kissinger encouraged Americans to acti"ely pursue conditions that 0ould result not only

    in sta(ility and agreement$ (ut also in the representation of American purpose

    Kissinger attri(uted So"iet gains in the -old .ar to the So"iet !nion's toughness

    in propaganda and purpose$ rather than its economic or military might This again

    connected (ac; to his personal philosophy and idealistic critiues of American foreign

    policy+ He sa0 So"iet gains$ especially in the third 0orld$ as relating to the a(ility of

    So"iet doctrine to acuire the interest of de"eloping nations The pro(lem 0ith the

    philosophical challenge of the So"iet !nion$ then$ 0as a (attle of purposes Sur"eying

    So"iet successes in the third 0orld$ Kissinger called the !nited States to not shir; from

    its role in the international arena and to stand up for its "alues as leader of the free 0orld

    + %(id$ ***

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    He 0anted the !nited States to ta;e the opportunity to support de"eloping nations not

    only economically (ut also morally$ and