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The Search for Purpose:
Henry Kissinger's Early Philosophy and American Foreign
Policy
Master's Thesis
Presented to
The Facutly of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
randeis !ni"ersity
#epartment of American History
#a"id Engerman$ Ad"isor
%n Partial Fulfillment
of the &euirements for
Master's #egree
(y
)auren Moseley
August *+,+
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AST&A-T
The Search for Purpose:
Henry Kissinger's Early Philosophy and American Foreign Policy
A thesis presented to the #epartment of American History
Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
randeis !ni"ersity
.altham$ Massachusetts
y )auren Moseley
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American foreign policy: optimism for human nature$ agency of the indi"idual$ the
struggle to0ards ideals 0ithin limits$ and purposeful action This thesis concludes that
Kissinger's early idealistic thoughts contrast sharply to his reputation as a practitioner of
Realpolitik
ii
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Table of Contents
%ntroduction,
-hapter ,:&eaching for %deals: Kissinger's Philosophy of the %ndi"idual4
-hapter *:%deals and Statesmanship: Kissinger's Philosophy of Statesmanship**
-hapter >:
%deals and American Foreign Policy: Kissinger's Philosophy of 8ational
Purpose?+
-onclusion:2*
i(liography:2@
iii
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Introduction
5There has (een no one li;e Henry Kissinger in a high go"ernmental position in
the !nited States at any time in its history$6 Stephen Grau(ard$ (iographer and colleague
of former national security ad"isor and Secretary of State$ Henry Kissinger$ once 0rote
The fact that Grau(ard 0rote this in ,2>$ only mid10ay through Kissinger's career in the
!S go"ernment$ further pro"es his point that Kissinger is one of the most uniue and
influential figures in modern American history, Kissinger's longe"ity in the go"ernment
from his appointment as President &ichard M 8i9on's national security ad"isor in ,234
to the end of his full1time go"ernmental career as President Gerald Ford's Secretary of
State in ,2$ as 0ell as his unusually high position of po0er Bone could argue that he
0as more po0erful than President 8i9on during the .atergate scandalC$ his presence in
the go"ernment through some of the most influential e"ents of the t0entieth century$ and
his unusual (ac;ground as a German =e0ish refugee ma;e Henry Kissinger a figure to
not only (e studied$ (ut understood
%n order to understand Kissinger$ one must consider his statement that 5%t is an
illusion to (elie"e that leaders gain in profundity 0hile they gain e9periencethe
con"ictions that leaders ha"e formed (efore reaching high office are the intellectual
capital they 0ill consume as long as they continue in office6* %f one agrees 0ith
Kissinger$ this means that 0hile Kissinger's decisions post1,234 0ere incredi(ly
important in shaping the !nited States' position in the 0orld as 0ell as his o0n
reputation$ these decisions are contingent upon the 5intellectual capital6 he de"eloped
, Stephen &ichards Grau(ard$Kissinger: Portrait of a MindB8e0 Dor;: 8orton$ ,2?C$ i9
* Henry A Kissinger$ White House Years$ ,st ed Boston: )ittle$ ro0n$ ,22C$ @3
,
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(efore 7oining the 8i9on administration Fortunately$ this material is 0ell1documented in
0ritten form and includes Kissinger's sophisticated undergraduate honors thesis at
Har"ard Bclose to ?++ pages in length and titled 5The Meaning of History$6 it 0as not the
typical undergraduate capstoneC$ his graduate dissertation later pu(lished as the (oo;A
World Restored$ and the numerous scholarly (oo;s and articles he 0rote on American
foreign policy (efore his appointment as 8i9on's national security ad"isor
%n this thesis % 0ill argue that Kissinger's early 0ritings re"eal an em(race of an
idealistic philosophy that o"ershado0ed the political realism he is more 0ell1;no0n for
His constant calls for "ision$ purpose$ inspiration and intuition 0ere not rhetorical de"ices
to garner domestic support %nstead$ these concepts 0ere deeply rooted in the idealistic
philosophy through 0hich Kissinger understood the 0orld and encouraged Americans to
percei"e the 0orld This idealistic philosophy 0as not idealism in the sense of political
utopianism rather it 0as the (elief in human purpose and creati"ity through action This
philosophy per"aded each of Kissinger's early 0or;s
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optimism for human nature .hile realism typically emphasies the negati"e aspects of
human nature$ Kissinger is optimistic a(out the capa(ility of humanity to stri"e to0ards
ideals %ndeed$ he trusts them 0ith the responsi(ility of morality Another of these strains
is the agency of the indi"idual &elated to optimism for human nature$ the agency of the
indi"idual in Kissinger's 0ritings represented a (elief in the capacity of men and 0omen
to do great things$ leading progressi"ely to a (etter 0orld Another strain of idealism
0ithin Kissinger's thought is the importance he gi"es to the struggle to0ards ideals 0ithin
limits .ithin this concept is the most apparent reconciliation of realistic and idealistic
thought %n all of Kissinger's early 0or;s$ he emphasied the importance first on the
definition of ideals$ and then on stri"ing to0ards those ideals His concern 0as not that
they (e reached$ (ut that they (e progressed to0ard$ prefera(ly in a strategically outlined
plan of action )astly$ Kissinger emphasied that ideals could only (e reached through
purposeful action The definition of purpose and acti"ism for this purpose 0ould ena(le
an indi"idual or nation to ma;e the most of its opportunities and pa"e the 0ay to0ards
long1term goals
The de"elopment and application of these concepts can (e traced through 5The
Meaning of History$6A World Restored$ and Kissinger's 0ritings on American foreign
policy Each era of these 0or;s is progressi"ely more concrete than the one preceding it$
yet each retains strong elements of the philosophical concepts first outlined in 5The
Meaning of History6 The failure of other historians to pic; up on this pattern has much
to do 0ith the typically casual consideration of 5The Meaning of History$6 either (ecause
of its philosophical comple9ity or its presumed irrele"ance to Kissinger's later thought
>
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Det % 0ill argue that the concepts first e9pressed in this 0or; 0ere ma7or components of
Kissinger's later 0ritings
ne ma7or point to note is that the ideas Kissinger deals 0ith in 5The Meaning of
History6 0ere not necessarily original to him Much of his thesis 0as a contri(ution to a
ongoing philosophical de(ate concerning the importance of metaphysics % deeply regret
my ina(ility to engage this de(ate on more than a surface le"el As my educational
(ac;ground does not allo0 me to del"e deeply into these concepts$ my analysis 0ill point
out the appearance of Kissinger's philosophical thought in his 0or;s (ut 0ill not de(ate
the the "alidity of these concepts or contri(ute to the con"ersation in 0hich Kissinger 0as
participating
%n this thesis % 0ill hold to the definitions of realism and idealism as outlined (y
Thomas G Paterson and and ruce . =entleson in theEncyclopedia of U.. !oreign
Relations %dealism is the idea 5that the purpose of !S foreign policy should (e the
promotion of uni"ersal human ideals6 and the 5(elief that foreign policy should (e
guided (yfundamental "alues6 Part of idealism is also 5the core (elief that the !nited
States has a special mission to reform the system of international relations: po0er is to (e
used for a moral purpose6 or in the 0ords of .oodro0 .ilson$ 5'America 0as
esta(lished not to create 0ealth (ut to realie a "ision$ to realie an ideal'6 >
Paterson and =entleson contrast the 5concept of transcendent national purpose6 in
idealism to the political philosophy of realism &ealism 5argues that morality should (e
made su(ser"ient to raison d"etreand national interest$ that in a contest (et0een principle
> -ouncil on Foreign &elations$Encyclopedia of U.. !oreign RelationsB8e0 Dor;: 9ford !ni"ersity
Press$ ,22C$ "*$ >?>1>?@
?
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and po0er$ po0er must (e paramount Ad"ocates of realism stress an o(ligation for the
!S go"ernment to put its national prosperity$ po0er$ and international position ahead of
the pursuit of uni"ersal "alues or any other grand ideal6 &ather than thin;ing of
international affairs in human terms$ 5&ealist thin;ers and statesmen regarded the state
essentially as a closed structure em(edded in a system of impersonal forces of contending
interests and po0er (alancesoth po0er and interest$ li;e physical forces$ 0ere
regarded as measura(le uantities that could ser"e as an o(7ecti"e (asis for political
calculation and policy formulation6 Most importantly$ realism is 5(ased on a conception
of human nature as (eing corrupt and self1centered6
?
.hile realists defined national interests in terms of po0er$ Kissinger defined the
national interest in terms of "alues and purposes !nli;e realist thin;ers$ Kissinger
(elie"ed that po0er could not (e purposeful 0ithout principle To him the national
interest eualed cooperation 0ith a nation's allies and the integrity of its people through
the purposefulness of its actions His early 0ritings sho0 that his political 0orld"ie0
0as not traditional realism it defined the 0orld in different terms$ used a different
language$ and concei"ed of different dimensions of interest Kissinger sa0 realism as
empiricism$ or the ad7ustment to facts$ and 7ust as one1sided and im(alanced as
utopianism &ather than follo0 the realist paradigm$ he promoted progress to0ards long1
term ideals through a plan of specific and concrete steps
Historians ha"e ta;en many atypical approaches to the comple9 figure of Henry
Kissinger =eremi Suri's most recent 0or;$ for e9ample$ places Kissinger in a glo(al
conte9t and ta;es a serious loo; at the connection (et0een Kissinger's up(ringing in 8ai
? %(id$ "*$ >?*1>?@ ">$ ?3*1?3@
@
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Germany and his political attitudes %n an older 0or;$ Har"ey Starr ta;es into account
Kissinger's perceptions and operational code using uantitati"e techniues to understand
his policies in the 8i9on administration Another historian$ ruce Malish$ attempted a
psychoanalysis of Kissinger to e9plain his actions and policies@ .hile these 0or;s
contri(ute to the understanding of Kissinger$ they ma;e little attempt to understand ho0
Kissinger's philosophical outloo; shaped his "ie0s Many ac;no0ledge Kissinger's
uniue 5philosophy of history$6 (ut fe0 lin; this philosophy to his political conceptions
ther historians ha"e ta;en a loo; at this fundamental lin; (et0een Kissinger's
ideas as e9pressed in his early 0ritings and his political philosophy A nota(le e9ample is
Peter #ic;son'sKissinger and the Meaning of History$ 0hich is a close1analysis of the
te9t of 5The Meaning of History$6 0ith an emphasis on Kissinger's perception of Kantian
concepts Another is Stephen & Grau(ard'sKissinger: Portrait of a Mind# 0hich is an
e9cellent companion tool for understanding Kissinger's pre1,234 0ritings Ho0e"er$
neither #ic;son nor Grau(ard dra0 out the continuities of philosophical thought (et0een
Kissinger's early te9ts #ic;son focuses too closely on the details of 5The Meaning of
History6 0hile Grau(ard loo;s more (roadly at Kissinger's 0or;s on American foreign
policy3 % am aiming to sho0 a continuity of Kissinger's philosophical thought in a 0ay
that neither of these historians ha"e ela(orated on
More important to the understanding of Kissinger than any other aspect of his life$
% (elie"e$ is a serious understanding of the philosophy 0hich he consciously created and
@ =eremi Suri$Henry Kissinger and the A$erican %enturyB-am(ridge$ Mass: el;nap Press of Har"ard
!ni"ersity Press$ *++C Har"ey Starr$Henry Kissinger: Perceptions of &nternational Politics
B)e9ington$ Ky: !ni"ersity Press of Kentuc;y$ ,24?C ruce Malish$Kissinger: 'he European Mind in
A$erican PolicyB8e0 Dor;: asic oo;s$ ,23C
3 Grau(ard$Kissinger Peter . #ic;son$Kissinger and the Meaning of HistoryB-am(ridge EngI:
-am(ridge !ni"ersity Press$ ,24C
3
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acti"ely follo0ed y analying Kissinger through the lens of his personal philosophy$ %
0ill sho0 that his political conceptions are contingent on the surprisingly optimistic and
often idealistic philosophy he first outlined in 5The Meaning of History6
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Chapter One:
Reaching for Ideals: Kissinger's Philosophy of the Individual
Henry Kissinger's earliest 0riting re"ealed his optimistic "ie0 of human nature
through a reconciliation of realist and idealist thought 8um(ering o"er three hundred
eighty pages in length$ his undergraduate honors thesis at Har"ard$ entitled 5The Meaning
of History$6 represented more than a capstone on a (achelor's degree He 0rote it as the
sum of the philosophy he de"eloped during the tragedies of his past t0enty1se"en years:
his childhood in Germany$ the 0retchedness of the holocaust$ the discomfort of (eing a
refugee in a foreign country$ and the horrors of fighting in the Second .orld .ar
#espite all of this suffering$ Kissinger's personal philosophy represented a surprisingly
optimistic 0orld"ie0 His 0riting displayed a (elief in the possi(ility of good in human
nature$ the importance of indi"idual action and choice$ and the necessity for constant
stri"ing to0ards ideals Kissinger hoped that humanity could continue to progress in
history through a recognition of (oth its freedom and its limits
Kissinger first introduced his 0orld"ie0 as a reconciliation of realism and
idealism in 5The Meaning of History6 He outlined the contradiction (et0een necessity$
or irre"oca(le action of the past$ and freedom$ the concept that action is conducted (y
choice A good illustration of the contradiction (et0een freedom and necessity is in -S
)e0is' description of a hero 0ho 5tra"eled into the past$ and there$ "ery properly$ found
raindrops that 0ould pierce him li;e (ullets and sand0iches that no strength could (ite
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(et0een necessity and freedom 0as also the pro(lem of con7ecture$ or the need yet
ina(ility to understand the future conseuences of one's actions He pro(ed this parado9
in order to understand the meaning of freedom in the midst of ine"ita(ility$ and in doing
so$ to disco"er meaning in history
Kissinger 0as certainly not the first to as; this uestion His thesis 0as a mere
footnote in the tradition of philosophy$ and German philosophy in particular German
philosophers such as Hegel and Kant as;ed similar uestions concerning purpose and
meaning in life$ and the tradition of German idealism posed the possi(ility that o(7ects in
reality are percei"ed (y the indi"idual and do not necessarily hold importance in
themsel"es This theory is often contrasted 0ith the philosophies of positi"ism$
pragmatism$ or empiricism$ 0hich loo; to the e9ternal reality$ rather than metaphysics$
for ;no0ledge
Kissinger separated his analysis into t0o le"els that represented the parado9 of
necessity and freedom ne le"el consisted of empiricism$ an analytical approach 0hich
0rested potential from human purpose (y suggesting that history 0as only a composite of
patterns and cycles The second le"el of historical analysis$ the ethical le"el$ promoted
history as a 5;ey to action6 and emphasied the po0er of indi"iduals to gi"e meaning to
their o0n e9istence Kissinger reflected these le"els of historical analysis in the structure
of his thesis$ 0hich he di"ided into sections titled 5History as %ntuition$6 analying the
philosophy of s0ald Spengler$ 5History as an Empirical1Science$6 analying the
philosophy of Arnold Toyn(ee$5History and Man's E9perience of Morality$6 in 0hich he
contemplated Kant's categorical imperati"e$ and 5The Sense of &esponsi(ility$6 in 0hich
2
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he made his o0n conclusions concerning meaning in history His definition of the le"els
of historical analysis and the corresponding sections of his thesis re"ealed a tension in
thought that he 0ould deal 0ith throughout his career as (oth a scholar and a
policyma;er %n this thesis and in later 0or;s$ he aimed to pro"e the efficacy of the
ethical le"el of historical analysis$ 0hich opposed the institutions of (ureaucracy and the
creation of policy through an empirical approach
%n 5History as an Empirical1Science$6 Kissinger put forth an argument against the
empirical approach to history He claimed that empiricists attempted to employ an
accumulation of ;no0ledge to find meaning in history$ neglecting the crucial dimension
of the human spirit As e9ternal reality is more than meets the eye and each indi"idual
constructs his o0n "ision of this reality$ so an empirical approach could not grasp all of
the elements that compose meaning in history4 History is not only the flo0 of time$ (ut
the composite of human interaction$ and thus the study of history should in"ol"e not only
an analysis of the e9ternal dimension of human (eha"ior$ (ut also a portrait of the in0ard
dimension of humanity ecause man is not solely a thin;ing (eing$ the essence of
human nature and therefore the meaning of history$ cannot (e defined (y reason$ science$
and empirical studies
Kissinger's distaste for empiricism re"ealed a (rea; 0ith realist thought His
philosophy esche0ed the immediate importance of e9ternal reality (y insisting that
meaning transcended ;no0ledge and history transcended facts He yearned for another
dimension to historical analysis that 0ould incorporate an element of human spirituality$
4 Henry A Kissinger$ 5The Meaning of History: &eflections on Spengler$ Toyn(ee and Kant6
B!ndergraduate honors thesis$ Har"ard !ni"ersity$ ,2@+C$ 3
,+
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0riting that a focus on e9ternal reality could 5ne"er satisfy the totality of man's desire for
meaning62 An understanding of the meaning of history$ and therefore the potential for
freedom and purposeful human action$ 0ould not focus on studies of concrete data or
historical e"ents$ (ut 0ould rather 5grasp of the totality of life$ instead of 7ust its
appearances6,+
Kissinger's argument against empiricism formed the foundation for his criticism
of modern policy1ma;ing systems %n 5The Meaning of History$6 he (riefly touched on
the connection (et0een his personal philosophy and the modern American political
system (y condemning political scientists for trying to find technical solutions to 5matters
of the soul6 and insisting that (ecause o(7ecti"e ;no0ledge is limited and cannot create
purpose or 5relie"e man from his ultimate responsi(ility$ from gi"ing his o0n meaning to
life$6 policy1ma;ers must also create policy as a reflection of an in0ard e9perience
through the pro7ection of a nation's purpose and long1term goals,, These criticisms
re"ealed a strain of idealism in Kissinger's (elief system$ and fell far from the typical
definition of realism His emphasis on the necessity of the in0ard e9perience 0ould later
lead him to ma;e similar claims 0hen criticiing American foreign policy during the
-old .ar His argument that American statesmen did not fully grasp the conseuences of
their actions (y contemplating ho0 they related to their "isions of the future lin;ed (ac;
to his emphasis on the concept of con7ecture and the futility of empiricism in 5The
Meaning of History6
Kissinger o"ercame the limits of empiricism (y gi"ing agency to the indi"idual
2 %(id$ **
,+ %(id$ ,,
,, %(id$ >?,1>?*
,,
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and the in0ard dimension in the study of history He (elie"ed that (ecause each action is
accomplished 0ith the con"iction of an indi"idual personality$ each person imposes their
o0n meaning on history through their actions %n order to understand history$ one must
peer into the in0ard realm of humanity Kissinger depicted this in0ard realm or 5in0ard
e9perience6 as the crucial part of the 5moments in e"ery person's life$ 0hen the tensions
fall a0ay and the unity of all creation appears as a sudden "ision These are the
occasions 0hen time stands still and man parta;es of eternity6,* His ac;no0ledgment of
the superiority of spirituality o"er matter$ that 5matter can defeat only those 0ho ha"e no
spirituality to impart to it$6 reinforced the spiritual dimension of his 0orld"ie0
,>
He
defined human;ind's a(ility to transcend the e9ternal reality through an in0ard
e9perience as the reuirement for the recognition of (oth freedom and limits
ne crucial pro(lem 0ith Kissinger's philosophy is that this in0ard e9perience
cannot (e easily defined or descri(ed The in0ard e9perience can only appro9imate
definition through a study (y analogy of o(7ects that 5utilie the infinite as a foil$6 such
as poetry$ physics$ or astronomy,? Kissinger's "agueness made it difficult or e"en
impossi(le to follo0 his personal philosophy or implement his "ersion of historical
analysis The am(iguity of his ideas further underscored the idealistic strain in his
philosophy for its lac; of realistic possi(ilities
Although Kissinger placed great importance on the in0ard e9perience$ he did not
intend it to dictate all meaning in history %n 5History as %ntuition$6 Kissinger found that
an o"eremphasis of the concept of intuiti"e perception 0ould muddle meaning in history
,* %(id$ >*?
,> %(id$ >>>
,? %(id$ *?2
,*
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7ust as much as it 0ould illuminate it An im(alanced focus on intuition and the internal
e9perience could only (e as percepti"e and 7ust as lac;ing as empiricism Kissinger
sought a layering of the t0o$ a reconciliation that 0ould allo0 him (oth a study of the
nature of the human spirit as 0ell as an analysis of human action o"er time that 0ould
represent a (alance (et0een facts and intuition$ the real and the ideal He found this
reconciliation (y encouraging indi"iduals to act purposefully in the e9ternal reality as a
reflection of their in0ard state
Kissinger's "ie0 of morality stemmed from this reconciliation of freedom and
necessity 5&esignation as to the purpose of the uni"erse ser"es as the first step to0ards
ethical acti"ity$6 he 0rote$ 5and the realiation ensues that the meaning of history is not
confined to its mere manifestations and that no causal analysis can a(sol"e Man from
gi"ing his o0n content to his o0n e9istence6,@ This meant that Kissinger's definition of
ethics and morality depended first on the recognition of limits$ and second on one's
responsi(ility to use one's freedom to gi"e meaning to his or her actions ecause his
idea of morality stemmed from the product of the in0ard e9perience$ Kissinger's
definition of moral la0 could only (e found in0ardly$ not in e9ternal reality$ and held
indi"iduals accounta(le for ta;ing part in history and recogniing the impact of their
actions on the flo0 of history through "ision and con7ecture
Kissinger's definition of morality ga"e agency to the indi"idual and presented an
optimistic "ie0 of human nature ecause his "ision of morality deri"ed from the in0ard
e9perience$ 5each man is (oth su(7ect and legislator6 of his morals and ideals The la0
that ;ept man's o0n definition of morals in chec;$ then$ 0as a recognition of limits
,@ %(id$ ,?
,>
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Kissinger ga"e the e9ample of the oracle of #elphi's ad"ice 5Kno0 thyself6 to mean
5Kno0 that you are a man and not God6,3 .hen man e9periences in0ard transcendence$
he also recognies that he is only a small part of a (igger picture This leads to tolerance$
the recognition of others' indi"iduality$ and morality
Kissinger's definition of freedom 0as rooted in the recognition of the limits of
humanity and of the ephemeral nature of life He claimed that morality could only (e
found through this ac;no0ledgment of freedom 0ithin limits ecause man is not God$
limits are essential Man can only triumph$ or e9perience true freedom$ through the
process of an in0ard e9perience$ for 5peace is not an e9ternal state of things$6 (ut an
in0ard reconciliation of limits and freedom, Kissinger concluded that the acceptance of
one's limits 0as the only 0ay to achie"e (oth freedom and morality
Kissinger's idea of tolerance as an ans0er to the pro(lem of ethics re"ealed an
almost (lindly optimistic "ie0 of human nature He defined the pro(lem of ethics as 5the
reconciliation of an ultimate$ (ut personal$ "ision 0ith uni"ersal applica(ility6,4 His
solution to this pro(lem 0as that a recognition of limits 0ould lead to tolerance for others
and compromise conflicting "isions He 0ould later pro"ide the same ans0er for the
pro(lem of conflicting national "isions in international relations (y insisting that only
through a peaceful ad7ustment of national "isions could the international structure remain
(oth sta(le and legitimate .hile he did recognie that 5differences (et0een ideologies or
political systems or indi"iduals may (e so fundamental as to (e un(ridgea(le$6 he ga"e
no other alternati"e for a resolution of conflict or guide to ethics ,2
,3 %(id$ *3
, %(id$ >>@
,4 %(id$ >?3
,2 %(id$ >? fn ,
,?
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Kissinger portrayed his reconciliation of the parado9 of limits and freedom not as
a passi"e acceptance of fate (ut an acti"e realiation of limits that ga"e po0er to the
indi"idual and portrayed optimism for man;ind's a(ility to accept this responsi(ility
According to his philosophy$ 0ithout the recognition of limits one could not truly (e free$
for freedom is to ;no0 one's potential and fulfill it Freedom ena(les humanity to (oldly
confront the unending flo0 of history and the limits of mortality (y pro"iding man;ind
0ith choice to use the resources in the physical reality to construct its "ision in the
e9ternal en"ironment Man;ind's freedom ena(les it to change the direction of e"ents
through "ision and action Actions that 0ill seem in the future to ha"e (een an ine"ita(le
and irre"ersi(le chain of e"ents are really actions that 0ere accomplished 0ith the
freedom of choice and intentional purpose y presenting purposeful choice as the
ans0er to the parado9 of freedom and necessity$ Kissinger displayed an optimistic "ie0
of the po0er of indi"idual action and the potential of human;ind to construct in reality its
internal "isions despite the limits of time and mortality
Kissinger's emphasis on purpose 0as part of his reconciliation of necessity and
freedom He defined purpose as the reflection of a soul's tas;s to (e completed 0hich
can 5descri(e the immanence of a soul$ the "isions that man imparts to his determined
surroundings$ the hopes 0hich condition acti"ity$ the dreams 0hich ma;e life possi(le6*+
Purposes are the e"idence of a transcendent e9perience and illuminate the meaning of
history outside of causal e"ents ecause they are the indi"idual's imposition of him or
herself on e"ents$ purposes also represented Kissinger's definition of meaning in history
Kissinger assumed that 0ithout the "isions$ hopes$ and dreams that allo0 the soul to
*+ %(id$ >*>1>*?
,@
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e9press its freedom through action in the ine"ita(le flo0 of history$ life 0ould (e
meaningless His reconciliation again trusted man;ind 0ith the responsi(ility to create
its o0n meaning in history
%n the conte9t of a nation$ as he 0ould e9pand upon in his later 0or;s$ Kissinger
defined purpose as the need for a nation to loo; in0ard to find its o0n "alues and "isions
for the future and to reflect this out0ard (y imposing its purposes through action and
choice y reflecting on its purpose$ a nation contemplates long1term policies$
considering 0hether or not each immediate action 0ill aid the achie"ement of these long1
term goals .ithout an in0ard reflection on its purpose$ the choices of a nation are
inconsistent and lac; an underlying strategic "ision and con7ecture of conseuences
Kissinger 0ould later ela(orate on this concept (y condemning the American nation for a
lac; of purpose in its actions %n this thesis$ ho0e"er$ he focused on the definitions of
these concepts
His concluding section$ entitled 5A -lue from Poetry$6 reenforced Kissinger's
optimism for human nature and the importance he placed on indi"idual freedom and
action Kissinger's definition of poetry as an e9pression of the in0ard state further
illuminated his assertion that meaning is found 0ithin man$ not in e9ternal e"ents
5Poetry is truer than history$6 he uoted Aristotle To Kissinger$ this meant the hopes of
man em(edded in poetry sho0 more a(out human nature than historical fact Poetry
encapsulates the most central elements of Kissinger's philosophy of history %t 5testifies
to humanity's longing in the face of the fatedness of e9istence$ to the uniue 0hich each
man imparts to his determined surrounding Poetry is truer than history for it e9hi(its the
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spirituality 0ith 0hich man meets the ine9ora(ility of e"ents6*, .ithin this statement$
Kissinger re"ealed the essence of his 0orld"ie0: (oth tragic and optimistic$ it implied
that human;ind is helpless in a uni"erse (ound (y time and in a nature fated to mortality$
0hile simultaneously gi"ing human;ind the ultimate po0er of choice and the freedom to
determine the direction of its steps on the path of history
Kissinger used tragedy and mythology$ a freuent topic in poetry$ to e9press his
fascination 0ith man;ind's struggle to0ards its ideals Tragedy in itself (ecame
representati"e of an ideal$ a reminder of the process of stri"ing 5Mythology$ ho0e"er$
descri(es an inner state$ not an o(7ecti"e condition$6 he 0rote$ 5it represents man's
attempt to apprehend the fatedness of life and in that recognition of necessity to transcend
it %t e9presses humanity's hope and not its actualiation$ man's creati"e essence not the
material conditions of success6** Kissinger considered tragedy to (e a(out an in0ard
struggle$ the recognition of choice and freedom$ creati"ity and personality$ and a(ility
and action in the face of limits %n their concentrations on human stri"ing$ mythology$
tragedy$ and poetry represented the essence of human nature and thus the essence of
history
Kissinger's emphasis on the po0er of stri"ing to0ards ideals related to his
insistence that peace is found in the in0ard e9perience He descri(ed the importance of
stri"ing for 5certain goals$ not dependent on immediate success6 0ith the story of #on
Jui9ote %deals are to humanity as )ady #ulcinea 0as to #on Jui9ote$ 5the moti"e1force
of his acti"ity$ the sym(ol of that purity for 0hich alone the dream of the Golden Age
*, %(id$ >>+
** %(id$ *@3
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(ecomes 0orth0hile6 The aspirations of humanity are$ therefore$ a part of the pursuit of
peace ut out0ard peace is not an attaina(le goal
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resulted in an optimistic "ie0 of human nature He uoted .hitehead in the last lines of
his thesis$ precisely descri(ing the essence of his philosophy: 5As soon as high
consciousness is reached$ the en7oyment of e9istence is ent0ined 0ith pain$ frustration$
loss$ tragedy Amid the passing of so much (eauty$ so much heroism$ so much daring$
Peace is then the intuition of permanence %t ;eeps "i"id the sensiti"eness to the tragedy
and it sees the tragedy as a li"ing agent persuading the 0orld to aim at fineness (eyond
the faded le"el of surrounding fact Each tragedy is the disclosure of an ideal: 1 .hat
might ha"e (een and 0hat 0as not: .hat can (e The tragedy 0as not in "ain This
sur"i"al po0er in moti"e force mar;s the difference (et0een the tragic e"il and the gross
e"il The inner feeling (elonging to this grasp of the ser"ice of tragedy is Peace the
purification of emotions6*@ .hitehead's 0ords suggest that Kissinger "ie0ed tragedies
not in the common sense$ (ut as the essence of stri"ing for ideals The 5ser"ice of
tragedy$6 then$ 0as to help humanity to understand that all indi"iduals are part of the
tragedy of mortality$ (ut in ma;ing peace 0ith limits they could fulfill their ultimate
potential through the freedom of choice and action
Kissinger's philosophy as he articulated it in 5The Meaning of History6 displayed
his (elief in the a(ility of humanity to impart its o0n meaning on history !ltimately$
Kissinger ac;no0ledged that (ecause each indi"idual acts (ased on his or her o0n
in0ard e9perience$ humanity is unpredicta(le Historians cannot assume human nature to
(e greedy or gi"ing$ acti"e or passi"e As 5man must act and each action represents his
(iography$6 each indi"idual shapes the 0orld in a different 0ay*3 .hile many realists
*@ %(id$ >?2
*3 %(id$ *@4
,2
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and idealists assume a uniform "ie0 of human nature$ human;ind cannot (e assumed to
act in a pattern (ecause there is no euation to predict its actions This is ho0 Kissinger
reconciled the t0o schools of thought in personal philosophy: he ac;no0ledged the
indi"iduality 0ithin humanity$ and accepted the notion of freedom of action and purpose
0ithin the realistic limits of mortality and human nature This made Kissinger's
0orld"ie0 (oth optimistic and tragic$ realistic and idealistic
These philosophical ideas remained deeply ingrained in Kissinger's 0orld"ie0$ as
they (ecame the foundation for his graduate dissertation$ A World Restored %n A World
Restored$ he played upon the concept of indi"idual action and choice (y employing the
historical figures Prince Metternich and )ord -astlereagh as a physical dichotomy
representing the dichotomy of realism and idealism His use of these philosophical ideas
as an interpreti"e frame0or; to impose on a historical topic suggests their importance to
his 0orld"ie0 and lends credence to the argument that the ideas he articulated in this
undergraduate thesis composed his personal philosophy
Although 5The Meaning of History6 is not specifically a(out foreign policy$ it is
the intellectual foundation upon 0hich Kissinger 0ould (oth 0rite and act as a scholar
and policyma;er He 0ould continue to employ the language of purpose$ creati"ity$ and
"ision that he formed in this thesis as a scholar and policyma;er These ideas so
fundamentally shaped his outloo; on foreign policy that he 0ould often repeat them
"er(atim in many of his pu(lications in the hopes that they 0ould influence the e9isting
policy1ma;ing structure He 0ould e"en go on as an ad"isor to president =ohn F
Kennedy to 0ea"e the essence of these ideas into his policy suggestions and critiues
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.hile historians often categorie Kissinger as a disciple of &ealpoliti;$ 5The
Meaning of History6 suggests that traditional political realism influenced his 0orld"ie0
much less than philosophical idealism His em(race of an idealistic "ision of human
nature pointed to a more nuanced 0orld"ie0 0hich recognied that an o"eremphasis on
realism$ pragmatism$ or empiricism 0ould result in conclusions 7ust as (lind as
utopianism y la(eling realists as merely 5dreamers 0ith materialistic hopes$6
Kissinger reconciled the constructs realism and idealism in his personal philosophy* He
sought to ta;e his 0orld"ie0 one step further than either of these perspecti"es through an
emphasis on the po0er of human indi"iduality 0ithin the frame0or; of limits
.hile Kissinger's philosophy may or may not ha"e represented a "alid
interpretation of history or the musings of a confused soul$ the interpreti"e frame0or;
outlined in 5The Meaning of History6 0ould go on to (ecome the map 0hich guided him
throughout his studies as a scholar and his 0or; as a policy1ma;er He used this
philosophy to na"igate the early -old .ar 0orld in 0ay that separated him from his
colleagues This 0orld"ie0 sho0ed that he (elie"ed that morality$ ideals$ creati"ity$
freedom of action$ hope$ spirituality$ and purpose had a place in policy$ for he defined
politics in the same 0ay he defined life and history?*
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Chapter Two
Ideals and Statesmanship:
Kissinger's Philosophy of Statesmanship
Kissinger's personal philosophy as he e9pressed it in 5The Meaning of History6
translated easily to his philosophy of statesmanship His most prominent 0or; on
statesmanship 0as his graduate dissertation$A World Restored Ho0e"er$ many of his
ideas of statesmanship first appeared in 5The Meaning of History6 These ideas
translated his philosophy of indi"idual action to statesmanship$ gi"ing 0eight to the
importance of the "isions$ purposes$ and actions of statesmen His portrayal of
statesmanship in this 0or; depicted statesmen as creati"e indi"iduals 0ith the authority
to guide their nations through an almost di"ine inspiration These indi"iduals appeared
infreuently in history$ (ut created e9traordinary change and inno"ation 0ithin their
societies They represented the essence of progress$ the 5lea"en 0hich gal"anies society
into creati"ity6 and mo"ement for0ard in history through their "ision and action *4
Kissinger presented the statesman's a(ility to see (eyond the present reality as the
elements of intuition and inspiration$ 0hich ena(led statesmen to en"ision the future they
0anted to create %ntuition$ he 0rote$ allo0ed statesmen to understand the
interrelatedness of e"ents$ the 5ma7estic unfolding6 of history Through his intuition$ the
statesman 0as connected to the 5e9tended$6 a realm transcending the natural 0orld and
seen only through the mindLs eye This connection permitted the statesman to step (ac;
*4 Henry A Kissinger$ 5The Meaning of History: &eflections on Spengler$ Toyn(ee and Kant6
B!ndergraduate honors thesis$ Har"ard !ni"ersity$ ,2@+C$ ,3
**
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and "ie0 the mechanics of time and the 0or;ings of history*2 This state of reflection$
much li;e the in0ard e9perience$ ga"e the statesman a more concrete understanding for
the creation of a strategy to reach his long1term goals
Kissinger freuently compared the great statesman to the masterful artist in order
to emphasie the necessity of "ision and inspiration in statesmanship The statesman
shared an acute perception of destiny and intuition 0ith the artist$ as destiny 5is felt (y
the great artist in his moment of contemplation$ it is em(odied (y the statesman in
action6>+ The artist senses destiny as he en"isions his masterpiece He feels the pull of
something un0orldly$ sees 0hat does not e9ist in reality$ and ;no0s the shape of 0hat he
0ill create (efore he creates it The artist uses inspiration to en"ision his ne9t series of
mo"es and to concei"e of the form that 0ill result from his actions He can translate his
"ision onto paper$ into mar(le$ or upon the 0alls of the Sistine -hapel
%n the same 0ay the artist ;no0s destiny in his moment of inspiration$ the
statesman em(odies destiny through his actions !nli;e the artist$ ho0e"er$ he does not
ha"e precise control o"er his medium The statesmanLs art is the construction of policy
his tas; is to sculpt the international structure and the destination of history through his
policies The statesman is the mode through 0hich history unfolds he is destinyLs
middleman He contemplates the interrelatedness of e"ents and the underlying current of
destiny (efore he ma;es decisions$ transforming his intuition of destiny into reality
through action ut as Michelangelo car"ed the struggle of his soul$ his 5yearning for
infinity6 into stone$ the statesman struggles to transcend the inertia of his circumstances
*2 %(id$ ,@
>+ %(id$ >3
*>
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He 0or;s to translate his "ision of the international structure into a policy that can (e
implemented in reality>,
KissingerLs depiction of the great statesman em(odied the intuition and
inspiration of the artist$ (ut also represented a person 0ho percei"ed the 0orld as a poet
The great statesman 0ould see the e"ents of history as a unified "ision in the same 0ay a
poet grasps the essence of a moment The statesman understood the relationships
(et0een occurrences and comprehended the danger of 7udging each e"ent 0ithout
ac;no0ledging its past and future connections His encompassing "ision ;ept him from
(ecoming shortsighted and entangled in details Kissinger 0rote that 5the ultimate
mysteries of life are perhaps not approacha(le (y dissection6 in the 0ay that a scientist
0ould analye e"ents$ 5(ut may reuire the poetLs "ie0 0ho grasps the unity of life$
0hich is greater than any$ ho0e"er painsta;ing analysis of its manifestations6>* The
statesman grasped this unity in his "ision of the future$ and sought to implement his
"ision through a plan of action that ac;no0ledged the deeper pattern of e"ents &ather
than sol"ing pro(lems as they arose$ he 0ould create a structure to pre"ent these
pro(lems The statesmanLs understanding of the interrelatedness of e"ents allo0ed him to
en"ision the conseuences of his actions and ma;e decisions 0ith confidence$ t0o
important elements of Kissinger's philosophy of the indi"idual
Kissinger "ie0ed the statesmanLs greatest struggle as articulating his "ision in a
0ay that the pu(lic could understand it This made politics the 5eternal conflict (et0een
(lood and concept$6 the tas; of interpreting an intangi(le "ision to those in the physical
>, %(id$ >2$>
>* %(id$ ,*
*?
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realm>> ecause the statesmanLs "ision could not (e directly discerned (y or translated to
his domestic supporters$ this struggle 0as often the cause of the statesmanLs tragic fate
Most importantly$ it represented the struggle (et0een the intangi(le and the physical
reality$ the necessity of transcending circumstances through (oth "ision and action )i;e
Kissinger's philosophy of the indi"idual$ Kissinger's philosophy of statesmanship made
"ision and action imperati"e and insepara(le
ecause Kissinger's ideal statesman had an acute intuition and ;een a(ility to see
a deeper pattern in e"ents$ he acted as a (ridge (et0een his people and the un;no0n
Kissinger's use of this (ridge image again represented his call for transcendence@ These lines illuminate ho0 Kissinger "ie0ed the
>> %(id$ 2+ *2+1*2,
>? Henry A Kissinger$ 5&eflections on American #iplomacy$6!oreign Affairs>@$ no , Bcto(er ,2@3C:
@>
>@ Henry A Kissinger$ 5The .hite &e"olutionary: &eflections on ismarc;$6)aedalus2$ no > BSummer
*@
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(urden of statesmanship and the tragedy that characteried the statesmanLs life
The tragedy inherent in statesmanship 0as insepara(le from the success of
statesmanship Statesmen could not predict the future or fully ;no0 the conseuences of
their actions Much li;e Kissinger's philosophy of the indi"idual$ 0hich emphasied the
possi(ilities of freedom 0ithin the tragedy of limits$ Kissinger's philosophy of
statesmanship ac;no0ledged the impossi(ility of fully succeeding in the statesman's tas;
!ltimately the statesman could only 0or; 0ith the materials he had$ and to Kissinger the
effort 0as more important than anything else He "ie0ed the statesman's tas; in the same
0ay that he sa0 humanity's struggle to0ards its ideals as more important than the
fulfillment of those ideals
Kissinger further defined his philosophy of statesmanship (y contrasting the
statesman to the philosopher and the prophet in his studies of nineteenth century
statesmen Kissinger sa0 the statesman as neither a philosopher nor a prophet$ (ut as his
o0n species The statesman had the intuition of an artist$ the soul of a poet$ and the
responsi(ility of a politician He 0ould prefer to contemplate truth li;e the philosopher$
(ut instead had to implement it>3 The statesmanLs (urden 0as greater than that of (oth
the philosopher and the prophet: he needed not only to contemplate$ (ut to create He did
not di"ine a "ision of the future in the 0ay that a prophet 0ould$ (ut 0as struc; 0ith
inspiration to create a "ision of the future in his imagination and to construct it in reality
The statesman$ philosopher$ and prophet all loo;ed to the future$ (ut the statesman
pursued his opportunities in the present He sought to influence his circumstances
,234C: 2**
>3 Henry A Kissinger$ 5The -onser"ati"e #ilemma: &eflections on the Political Thought of Metternich$6
'he A$erican Political cience Re*ie+?4$ no ? B#ecem(er ,2@?C: ,+**
*3
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through a "ision of the 0orld he 0ished to (ring a(out$ 0hich 0ould animate him to
action> He 0as concerned 0ith the possi(le the prophet and philosopher 0ere only
concerned 0ith 0hat 0as 5true6 This contrast again re"ealed Kissinger's common theme
of struggling to0ards ideals 0ithin limits The prophet and philosopher's ideal 0as
5truth6 in its purest essence the statesman could only attain 5truth6 0ithin the physical
reality He had to 0or; 0ith the materials at hand$ struggling to reach his ideals and
come as close to his "ersion of 5truth6 as he could 0ithin the limits of his reality
Kissinger 0rote his graduate dissertation$A World Restored$ as a historical
account of the statesmanship of t0o nineteenth century European statesmen$ )ord
-astlereagh of ritain and Prince Metternich of Austria These t0o men 0or;ed together
to re(uild the structure of Europe follo0ing the re"olution of 8apoleon Kissinger had
t0o aims in conducting this pro7ect ne 0as to ta;e a0ay lessons from this
re"olutionary point in history that politicians could selecti"ely apply to the -old .ar He
often euated re"olutionary France 0ith the So"iet !nion and uncommitted nineteenth1
century ritain 0ith t0entieth1century !nited States He sa0 Metternich's statesmanship
as 5continental statesmanship$6 0hich approached relations on the continent 0ith the idea
that Austria$ a nation in the middle of the European continent$ 0ould (e greatly
influenced (y the su(stance of continental decisions %n contrast$ -astlereagh at first
approached the situation through 5insular statesmanship$6 hoping only to sta(ilie
relations on the continent so that ritain 0ould not ha"e to inter"ene The actual
> Henry A Kissinger$A World Restored, Metternich# %astlereagh# and the Pro-le$s of Peace# /0100
Boston: Houghton Mifflin$ ,2>C$ 2+,
*
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su(stance of the agreement did not matter much to -astlereagh$ as long as the situation
did not threaten ritish security Metternich e"entually persuaded -astlereagh to see
matters through the continental perspecti"e$ ensuring him that continental affairs 0ould$
in the long run$ al0ays affect ritish security .ith this ne0 perspecti"e$ -astlereagh
created a fantastic "ision of ritish participation in continental affairs The ritish
people$ ho0e"er$ did not ha"e the same transformation of "ision as -astlereagh and
0ould not accept his attempts to tie ritain to continental affairs$ despite -astlereagh's
assurances that he 0as securing ritain's long1term 0ell1(eing
Many historians ha"e approached an analysis ofA World Restored(y focusing on
the contrast (et0een -astlereagh and Metternich's statesmanship as that (et0een the
5insular6 and 5continental6 perspecti"es %nstead$ % 0ill interpret the t0o characters using
concepts Kissinger first articulated in 5The Meaning of History6 that 0ere integral to his
personal philosophy>4 For e9ample$ inA World Restored$ Kissinger interpreted the
character of Metternich to represent not only continental statesmanship$ (ut also the
negati"e influence of empiricism on the formation of policy .hile many historians
portray Metternich as Kissinger's nineteenth1century 5hero$6 they are missing the
fundamental message ofA World Restored This account of the creation of a lasting
peace in Europe is meant not only as an e9ample of the creation of a structure of peace$
(ut also the fla0s in this particular structure Although Metternich succeeded in
esta(lishing a structure of peace$ he did not sol"e the underlying pro(lems that made the
structure necessary
>4 For ela(oration on this contrast$ see Gregory # -le"a$Henry Kissinger and the A$erican approach to
foreign policyBuc;nell !ni"ersity Press$ ,242C
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.hile Kissinger presented Metternich as an empiricist$ he depicted Metternich's
ritish counterpart$ -astlereagh$ as an idealist .here Metternich lac;ed "ision$
-astlereagh clung to his "ision so tightly that he failed to ta;e into account the force of an
opposing pu(lic opinion y sho0ing ho0 (oth of these approaches failed$ Kissinger
underscores that neither e9treme is the ans0er as an approach to international relations
%nstead$A World Restoredpromoted Kissinger's o0n (rand of creati"e realism$
highlighting the importance of long1term ideals achie"ed through the specific steps of a
constructed program
%n addition to (eing a 0or; of history and political theory$ Kissinger's second aim
forA World Restored0as to produce a 0ell thought out e9planation of his personal
philosophy He used the historical frame0or; of nineteenth century Europe to more
concretely sho0 the reasoning (ehind his philosophy Kissinger's in1depth analysis of
-astlereagh and Metternich and their nations led him to conclude that (oth approaches to
international relations 0ere too e9treme and failed in the long run y sho0ing the
failure of the t0o statesmen$ he in turn ad"ocated a reconciliation of the their approaches
to foreign policy This reconciliation suggested reaching for ideals in realistic steps
through the use of (ureaucracy for e"eryday tas;s and the employment of creati"e
leadership for more comple9 situations$ in essence the same conclusions he made in 5The
Meaning of History6
Kissinger's criticisms of Metternich had much to do 0ith Metternich's lac; of
underlying purpose$ an important theme in 5The Meaning of History6 5He 0as a &ococo
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figure$6 Kissinger 0rote$ 5comple9$ finely car"ed$ all surface$ li;e an intricately cut
prism His face 0as delicate (ut 0ithout depth$ his con"ersation (rilliant (ut 0ithout
ultimate seriousness6 This meant that Metternich's actions lac;ed a deeper purpose they
did not represent a "ision of the future or foresee opportunities in the un;no0n>2
Metternich fought "igorously to maintain the status uo in Europe and to prolong the
sta(ility of the Austrian empire %n order to do this$ he played the politics of Europe as a
chess game$ (asing his decisions on the s;ill of his maneu"ers and faith in his a(ility to
manipulate his ad"ersaries Det this method did not 0or; in a (attle 0ith re"olutionaries$
as Metternich soon realied He emphasied the futility of his rationality 0hen he
descri(ed communicating 0ith 8apoleon 5as if at a game of chess$ carefully 0atching
each other % to chec;mate him$ he to crush me together 0ith the chess figures6?+
Kissinger$ too$ understood that 0ithout an underlying purpose$ Metternich's policy 5for
all its intricate su(tlety0as as fragile as a spider's 0e($ as ephemeral as a house of
cards6?,
These s;ills of manipulation and maneu"er 0ould typically (e the strengths of a
good realist$ (ut Kissinger interpreted Metternich's s;ills as fla0s (ecause they (linded
him to intuition$ inspiration$ and a(ility to conceptualie MetternichLs 5genius 0as
instrumental$ not creati"e he e9celled at manipulation$ not construction6?* %nstead of
creating a ne0 reality to fulfill his purposes$ Metternich manipulated his present
circumstances .hile he could maneu"er tough situations (rilliantly$ his genius in tactics
could not su(stitute for an o"erarching conception of his purpose He conducted policy
>2 Kissinger$A World Restored$ 4
?+ %(id$ *3
?, %(id$ >,+
?* %(id$ ,,
>+
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artfully$ (ut did not ha"e the inspiration of an artist Kissinger called him 5a scientistL of
politics$ cooly and unemotionally arranging his com(inations6?> He lac;ed the "ision of
possi(ilities and spar; of inspiration that Kissinger held as integral to success
MetternichLs failure to act 0ith creati"ity and inspiration stemmed from his
ina(ility to conceptualie a "ision of the future that 0ould (ecome a ne0 path for the
Austrian empire 5)ac;ing in Metternich$6 Kissinger 0rote$ 5is the attri(ute 0hich has
ena(led the spirit to transcend an impasse at so many crises of history: the a(ility to
contemplate an a(yss$ not 0ith the detachment of a scientist$ (ut as a challenge to
o"ercome %(id$ >,2
?? %(id$ >**
>,
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of unimaginati"e statesmanship
-omplimenting Kissinger's argument against empiricism inA World Restored0as
his argument against the Austrian (ureaucracy He claimed that the Austrian (ureaucracy
0as una(le to deal 0ith the increasing pro(lems of industrialiation$ nationalism$ and
li(eralism %t confused success 0ith the management of mediocrity$ rather than the
progression to0ards long1term goals %t could not push its country through the ne0
re"olutionary era of self1determination and nationalism (ecause it lac;ed an underlying
conception ureaucracy 5prides itself on o(7ecti"ity 0hich is a denial of the necessity of
great conception6 and lac;ed the depth in "ision and a(ility to impose purpose on actions
of statesmanship?
.hile Metternich lac;ed conception$ he also li"ed during a generation in flu9 his
t0o hands could only do so much to shape the continent of Europe He succeeded in his
tas; 5to represent his country a(road$ to co"er its 0ea;nesses$ to delay the ine"ita(le as
long as possi(le6 Det at the same time his diplomacy 0as 5pure manipulationthat it
lac;ed ultimate stature 0as due as much to the force of circumstances as to the lac; of
creati"ity of Metternich6 5%n 0hat times ha"e % li"edN6 Metternich 0rote$ 5)et anyone
loo; at the situationsand let him as; himself 0hether one man's insight could ha"e
transformed these crises into help % claim to ha"e recognied the situation$ (ut also the
impossi(ility to erect a ne0 structure in our Empireand for this reason all my care 0as
directed to conser"ing that 0hich e9isted6 #espite Kissinger's complaints a(out
Metternich's de"iousness$ and his ina(ility to grasp a "ision of the future$ Kissinger also
recognied that Metternich had limits 5History is greater than the indi"idual$6 Kissinger
? %(id$ *,+
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0rote$ 5the statement also mar;s the limits of Metternich's a(ilities For statesmen
must (e 7udged not only (y their actions (ut also (y their conception of alternati"es6 The
pro(lem 0as that Metternich did not concei"e of alternati"es?4
Metternich 0as too caught up in the "ulnera(ilities of Austria to en"ision the
future possi(ilities of the nation He 0as$ to use one of Kissinger's fa"orite phrases$ a
5prisoner of circumstances6 5Metternich 0as a0are not of po0er$ nor of glory$ (ut of
0ea;ness$ of danger$ of impeding disaster!n0illing to adapt its domestic structure$
una(le to sur"i"e 0ith it in a century of nationalism$ e"en Austria's most successful
policies amounted to no more than a reprie"e$ to a desperate grasping to commit allies$
not to a 0or; of construction$ (ut to deflect part of the ine"ita(le holocaust6?2Metternich
could hold his finger in the di;e for only so long His policies left the underlying
pro(lems unsol"ed His diplomacy 50as sterile in an era of constant flu9.hene"er he
0as forced to create his o0n o(7ecti"es$ there 0as a(out him an aura of futility ecause
he sought tranuility in the manipulation of factors he treated as gi"en$ the statesman of
repose (ecame the prisoner of e"entsHe understood the forces at 0or;(ut this
;no0ledge pro"ed of little a"ail$ (ecause he used it almost e9clusi"ely to deflect their
ine9ora(le march$ instead of placing it into his ser"ice for a tas; of construction Thus the
last "estige of the eighteenth century had to pro"e the fallacy of one of the ma9ims of the
Enlightenment$ that ;no0ledge 0as po0er6@+ %ndeed$ Metternich's failure illustrated
Kissinger's ultimate claim in 5The Meaning of History6 that ;no0ledge in the form of
empirical facts 0as not enough to understand the 0orld Multi1dimensional human
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action reuired a more percepti"e understanding of different realities
Kissinger contrasted s;illful Metternich to a more aloof$ yet more "isionary$
-astlereagh 5%cy and reser"ed$6 he 0as 5as humanly unapproacha(le as his policy came
to (e incomprehensi(le to the ma7ority of his countrymen6 @, -astlereaghLs a0;0ard
personality ;ept him from communicating 0ell$ amplifying his dilemma of possessing an
intuition that transcended the e9perience of his countrymen 5Moti"ated (y an instinct
al0ays surer than his capacity for e9pression$6 -astlereagh struggled 0ith the ina(ility to
translate his "ision of the future to the pu(lic@* The ritish peopleLs insular conception of
international relations also inhi(ited them from comprehending the importance of
-astlereaghLs conceptions %nstead of ta;ing the easy 0ay out$ though$ -astlereagh
em(raced the courage to endure the 5tragic isolation of the hero$ 0ho (ecause he cannot
communicate$ must 0al; in solitude6@> This description e"o;es the same tragedy as
ismarc;Ls e9pression of the great statesman as a 5fallen angel6 and con"eys KissingerLs
sympathy for the 5tragic hero6
.hile -astlereagh had the courage to follo0 his intuition$ he did not ha"e the
domestic support to implement his plans !nli;e Metternich$ 0ho did not push his "ision
far enough$ -astlereaghLs "ision too far outran the e9perience of his people His strength
and failure 0as 5the proud assertion of responsi(ility$ not for the mechanical e9ecution of
the popular 0ill$ (ut for the e"aluation of interests not apparent to the multitude and the
refusal or ina(ility to influence the pu(lic sentiment6@? His distaste for concessions to
the pu(lic 0as a reflection of his "ie0 of the responsi(ility of a statesman$ 0hich he
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him to fulfill his conception of statesmanship -astlereaghLs e9perience represents the
relentless tension (et0een statesmen and the pu(lic that causes a country to stagnate and
(ecome irrele"ant in the international realm %f a country and its leaders cannot agree on
a common "ision and goal$ internal chaos 0ill distract them from see;ing to influence
international e"ents Kissinger condemned (oth -astlereagh and ritain for their failure
to cooperate 0ith each other Through this situation$ Kissinger sa0 the relationship
(et0een the domestic pu(lic and leadership to (e the ;ey to success in international
relations$ and 0ould later use this lesson to encourage Americans to conceptualie 0ith
their statesmen
Kissinger depicted -astlereaghLs fate as the more tragic of the t0o statesmen
)i;e Metternich$ -astlereagh resigned from his tas; Det he did not merely resign from
office$ he also too; his life .hen he failed to translate his "ision into a policy his
countrymen could comprehend$ -astlereagh felt that he could not fulfill his duty as a
statesman 5%t is necessary to say good1(ye to Europe$6 -astlereagh said four days (efore
he committed suicide$ 5no one after me understands the affairs of the -ontinent6@4
-astlereagh sa0 himself as ritainLs only hope$ the only one 0ho had the foresight to
;eep the country safe He could not (ear to 0atch it un;no0ingly seal its do0nfall
Kissinger e9plained his philosophy of history in the conte9t of his study of history
(y as;ing 5.hat then is the role of statesmanshipN A scholarship of social determinism
has reduced the statesman to a le"er on a machine called 'history$' to the agent of a fate
0hich he may dimly discern (ut 0hich he accomplishes regardless of his 0ill And this
(elief in the per"asi"eness of circumstance and the impotence of the indi"idual e9tends to
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the notion of policy1ma;ing ne hears a great deal a(out the contingency of planning
(ecause of the una"aila(ility of fact$ a(out the difficulty of action (ecause of the
limitation of ;no0ledge Ho0e"er 'self1e"ident' the national interest may appear in
retrospect$ contemporaries 0ere oppressed (y the multiplicity of a"aila(le policies$
counseling contradictory courses of action6 These assertions underscore Kissinger's
emphasis on the importance of indi"idual action and choice They also sho0 that
Kissinger percei"ed national interest as su(7ecti"e
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century history Follo0ing the pu(lication of his dissertation$ Kissinger (egan teaching at
Har"ard !ni"ersity as a professor of Go"ernment$ 0hile also 0riting scholarly (oo;s and
articles a(out contemporary politics These articles$ many of them harsh critiues of the
Eisenho0er and Kennedy administrations$ reflected the themes of "isionary
statesmanship and indi"idual action in 5The Meaning of History6 andA World Restored.
These (oo;s and articles pro"ide further e"idence that Kissinger's personal philosophy
included a reconciliation of realism and idealism$ as 0ell as an optimistic emphasis on
indi"idual "ision and action
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Chapter Three
Ideals and merican !oreign Policy:
Kissinger's Philosophy of "ational Purpose
Kissinger's personal philosophy as articulated in 5The Meaning of History6 and
his historical studies inA World Restored0ere the foundation of his critiues of
American foreign policy as a statesman and later an adi"sor to President =ohn F
Kennedy's administration Kissinger "ie0ed policy decisions through the lens of his
personal philosophy$ 0hich led him to criticie the lac; of purpose and indi"idual action
0ithin the American policy1ma;ing system Kissinger's main pro(lems 0ith the
American policy1ma;ing mindset 0ere that it la(eled peace as a static and achie"a(le
aim$ approached pro(lems pragmatically 0ith the certainty of a final solution$ and put off
long1term decisions in fa"or of ad1hoc crisis management These characteristics stood in
star; contrast to Kissinger's ideal of a creati"e and dynamic policy1ma;ing process
ma;ing progress to0ards a nation's ideals and led (y a "isionary leader rather than a
mediocre (ureaucracy Kissinger's emphasis on the need for statesmanship focused on
the attainment of American "alues and ideals again re"ealed a strain of optimism 0ithin
his 0orld"ie0 that he 0ould infuse in his policy critiues
Kissinger offered many suggestions to resol"e the pro(lems of American foreign
policy in the -old .ar He made his opinions and policy suggestions pu(lic in numerous
(oo;s and articles in hopes that they 0ould influence American policy1ma;ers to
approach the creation of policy in a more dynamic 0ay Four themes appear prominently
in his policy critiues First$ Kissinger encouraged Americans to de"elop a sense of the
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tragic in order to sympathie 0ith$ and therefore 0or; 0ith$ the rest of the 0orld %n
addition$ the precariousness of their o0n position as a nuclear po0er in the midst of a
-old .ar called for a more cautious and tragic attitude Second$ Kissinger emphasied
the importance of creati"e leadership$ free from the shac;les of the (ureaucracy$ ad"isers$
and an o"era(undance of data A release from these shac;les 0ould (roaden the leaders'
spectrum of choices and gi"e them the opportunity to conceptualie ne0 paths for the
nation and create inno"ati"e and inspired strategies for the future Third$ Kissinger
suggested that intellectuals (e incorporated into the policy1ma;ing system in a 0ay that
0ould allo0 them to aid leaders 0ithout losing their o0n creati"ity They could do this
(y ma;ing sure that leaders 0ere as;ing the right uestions in order to get the right
ans0ers Fourth$ Kissinger called for a clear conception of the nation's purpose and a
translation of this purpose into concrete terms This 0ould allo0 leaders to create
specific steps to reach these long1term ideals
Most of Kissinger's critiues of American foreign policy stemmed from its
grounding in an insular and e9ceptionalist mindset The American sense of
e9ceptionalism$ its youthfulness$ and lac; of tragic e9perience ena(led American
statesmen to (elie"e that pro(lems could (e sol"ed 0ith a sufficient application of
;no0ledge Kissinger associated this mindset 0ith an o"eremphasis on crisis
management$ as policy1ma;ers 0ould 0ait until 5all the facts are in6 to discuss a
pro(lem$ rather than create a strategy for pro(lem1sol"ing in ad"ance to pre"ent crises
The American reliance on crisis management hindered serious reflection upon long1term
goals and purposes .hile Americans generally had a sense of 0hat they stood for$ they
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refused to define their long1term goals or ha"e a strategy for reaching them .ithout
goals$ their actions 0ere purposeless &ather than acting as a stepping stone to0ards the
ultimate ideal$ each epiphenomenal decision had the potential of shifting policy in a
different direction
Further$ Americans' lac; of tragic e9perience ;ept them from understanding the
conseuences of their actions and the potential po0er of indi"idual action The failure to
understand the interrelatedness of e"ents also inhi(ited them from undergoing the process
of con7ecture$ or concei"ing of a "ision of the future$ (ecause they did not understand
ho0 their actions in the present 0ould shape the future As con7ecture formed a crucial
part of Kissinger's philosophy$ he (lamed many American foreign policy pro(lems on the
ina(ility of its statesmen to concei"e of a "ision of the future and ta;e purposeful steps
to0ards those ideals3+
Kissinger attri(uted the pragmatic tradition in American foreign policy partially to
the pre"alence of la0yers and (usinessmen in the policy1ma;ing system )a0yers and
(usinessmen generally approached pro(lem1sol"ing as a matter of applying ;no0ledge to
form solutions$ rather than understanding the interrelation of e"ents 0ithin the flo0 of
history These indi"iduals e9celled at sol"ing immediate pro(lems$ (ut their process did
not include a reflection upon the future conseuences of their decisions Their focus on
the present also meant that they understood negotiations and agreements 0ith other
nations to (e set in stone as in a la0 or (usiness contract$ and did not al0ays ta;e into
account the futility of rhetoric (et0een heads of state This assumption opened up
pro(lems 0ith the So"iets$ 0ho 0ould a(use this tendency (y ma;ing promises and not
3+ Henry A Kissinger$ 5&eflections on -u(a$6Reporter* B,23*C: *?
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follo0ing through 0ith them The (usiness1la0yer types of e9ecuti"es 0ould then
assume they had sol"ed a pro(lem$ (ut 0ould only (e left 0ith empty 0ords3,
Kissinger also related the pro(lems of the American tradition of foreign policy to
its reliance on (ureaucracy There 0ere many good reasons to employ a (ureaucracy For
e9ample$ it 0as e9cellent for dealing 0ith routine or mediocre pro(lems %f it could
efficiently ta;e care of day1to1day tas;s$ it 0ould free up leaders' time and mental space
and allo0 indi"idual leaders to deal 0ith larger pro(lems Det instead of ta;ing
ad"antage of these positi"es$ the American (ureaucracy tried to ma;e policy itself
Kissinger sa0 the spirit of (ureaucracy and the spirit of policy as diametrically opposed:
one reuired organiation$ the other inspiration .hen policy is created 0ithin a
(ureaucracy$ it (ecomes a hard1earned compromise$ rather than a representation of the
nation's goals .hen the (ureaucracy ta;es o"er the process of policy1ma;ing$ the leader
(ecomes the referee among his ad"isers He aims only for a compromise among
conflicting ideas$ rather than follo0ing his o0n intuition The leader's initial 7o($ 0hich is
to represent the nation through his o0n conceptions$ is negated (y those 0ho are
supposed to pro"ide him 0ith (ac;ground ;no0ledge and support This e9plains 0hy
Kissinger 0ould often say that leaders (ecome prisoners of ;no0ledge too much
;no0ledge$ too many accounts of e9periences$ can narro0 an indi"idual's conception of
options and alternati"es Facts$ 0hile important$ do not represent total reality An
o"era(undance of them in the policy1ma;ing process only ma;e the process more
cum(ersome3*
3, Henry A Kissinger$ 58e9t Summit Meeting$6Harper"s $aga2ine**, B,23+C: 3+133
3* For e9ample$ see Kissinger$ 5&eflections on -u(a$6 *?
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purposeful$ creati"e policies$ and reflected the American acceptance of its position as
leader of the free 0orld Eisenho0er$ (y shrugging (ac; from the international scene and
trying to 5(uy security on the cheap$6 0as allo0ing Americans to relinuish the initiati"e
in the -old .ar$ and the fight for their "alues$ to their communist enemy To remedy
this$ Americans needed to more clearly define their purposes and interests in the
international realm and acti"ely pursue their fulfillment
Kissinger's critiues of Eisenho0er's nuclear policies first launched his career as
an influential intellectual %n the mid1,2@+'s$ the -ouncil on Foreign &elations as;ed
Kissinger to compile its research into a (oo; on nuclear policy The final product$
3uclear Weapons and !oreign Policy#offered a cohesi"e critiue of the Eisenho0er's
nuclear policies as 0ell as suggestions for ho0 the administration should approach its
position in a nuclear age
ne of Kissinger's main pro(lems 0ith Eisenho0er's nuclear policy as outlined in
3uclear Weapons and !oreign Policy0as its contradictory slogans of 5massi"e
retaliation6 and 5no alternati"e to peace6 First$ Kissinger claimed that the assertion that
there 0as no alternati"e to peace amounted to the Americans 0riting the So"iets a (lan;
chec; to do 0hate"er they 0anted %f there 0as 5no alternati"e to peace$6 then no So"iet
action 0ould 0arrant "iolent conseuences Det at the same time$ Eisenho0er 0arned the
So"iets that any mis(eha"ior 0ould result in 5massi"e retaliation6 5Massi"e
retaliation$6 then$ 0as a near guarantee of nuclear 0ar Kissinger noted that$ in addition
to the contradictory nature of these policies$ each of these 0as an e9treme %f there 0as
no alternati"e to all1out nuclear 0ar$ or all1out 5peace6 in 0hich the So"iets could do as
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they 0ished 0ithout conseuence$ then there 0as no 5choice$6 no opportunity$ and no
option for progress
ne aspect of Kissinger's disli;e of massi"e retaliation 0as its implications of all1
out 0ar His definition of all1out 0ar 0as 0ar 0ithout political o(7ecti"es$ a di"orce
(et0een military policy and diplomacy Especially in the nuclear era$ the notion of all1
out 0ar 0as too dangerous to toy 0ith 58e"er ha"e the conseuences of all1out 0ar
(een so unam(iguous$ ne"er ha"e the gains seemed so out of relation 0ith the sacrifices$6
he 0rote in3uclear Weapons3> He related the tendency of Americans to thin; in terms
of all1out 0ar to se"eral factors: the democratic nature of its politics$ its history of (eing
in"ol"ed mainly in all1out 0ars$ and the American pragmatic mindset that searched for
final solutions or$ in this case$ total "ictory
Kissinger used the e9ample of the 0ar in Korea to demonstrate the failure of
massi"e retaliation and the need for a more fle9i(le strategy American policy1ma;ers
had not de"ised a strategy for dealing 0ith peripheral areas and had not defined 0hich
regions' security 0ould (e "ital to the fulfillment of the nation's goals ecause of this
lac; of forethought$ and despite its relati"e unimportance$ American policy1ma;ers
approached the Korean .ar as an all1out 0ar Kissinger noted that 5had the Korean .ar
not actually ta;en place$ 0e 0ould ne"er ha"e (elie"ed that it could$6 to sho0 the
a(surdity of all1out 0ar 0ithout political purposes3?
Kissinger also "ie0ed the concept of deterrence as a fatal fla0 in Eisenho0er's
policies As deterrence is a psychological concept$ its results cannot effecti"ely (e
3> Henry A Kissinger$3uclear Weapons and !oreign Policy$ .est"ie0 encore ed Boulder$ -olo:
Pu(lished for the -ouncil on Foreign &elations (y .est"ie0 Press$ ,24?C$ ,?>
3? %(id$ ?>
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measured Further$ deterrence 0as the result of the reliance on all1out 0ar as a threat
8ot only did deterrence not pre"ent such crises as the Korean .ar$ (ut it 0as also a
policy 0hich made American allies uncomforta(le #eterrence's lac; of concrete results
made those stuc; in (et0een the t0o superpo0ers$ especially Europe$ feel less protected
(y the !nited States and more li;ely to (e open to one1on1one negotiations 0ith the
So"iets3@
These criticisms demonstrate that Kissinger's underlying critiue of the
Eisenho0er administration's nuclear policy 0as its inherent lac; of a fle9i(le strategic
doctrine Strategic doctrine pro"ides a plan for action in ad"ance of crises so that most
pro(lems can (e dealt 0ith as a matter of routine$ 0hile more challenging pro(lems are
left to the leadership$ 0hich is freed up (y an efficient (ureaucracy33 .hile strategic
doctrine plans in ad"ance for typical situations$ it also 5ena(les us to act purposefully in
the face of challenges 0hich 0ill ine"ita(ly confront us$6 sho0ing the connection
(et0een Kissinger's call for a strategic doctrine and the de"elopment of purpose as
outlined in 5The Meaning of History6
Kissinger's insistence on the importance of strategic doctrine (ought him (ac; to
the issue of purpose in his critiue of the Eisenho0er administration The
administration's lac; of strategic doctrine and dependence on the threat of all1out 0ar to
deter its enemies led to a lac; of underlying purpose and constructi"e creati"ity y
threatening all1out 0ar the !nited States appeared the aggressor$ undermining its
alliances and gi"ing the So"iets the moral upperhand )astly$ the Eisenho0er
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administration hindered its progress to0ards peace (y assuming that there could (e a
final solution to such pro(lems as nuclear po0er %nstead of thin;ing creati"ely to
understand ho0 to use its ne0 po0er$ it 0as paralyed paralyed (y it The Eisenho0er
administration 5rested on its oars6 and allo0ed the So"iets to gain the strategic and moral
edge in the -old .ar
Kissinger's solution to Eisenho0er's nuclear pro(lems lay in the concept of
limited 0ar$ 0hich he discussed at length in3uclear Weaponsand in other scholarly
articles According to Kissinger$ limited 0ar 0ould pro"ide for local and regional
defense 0ithout reuiring all1out 0ar )imited 0ar reesta(lished the marriage (et0een
political and military strategies (y aiming for specific political o(7ecti"es rather than total
"ictory )eadership and diplomacy 0ere especially important during a limited 0ar
(ecause they acted as the "essels through 0hich these political o(7ecti"es and demands
0ere articulated$ and defined a concrete endpoint for the 0ar Further$ limited 0ar 0as
more fle9i(le than the reliance on the threat of all1out 0ar (ecause it made room for
multiple options of mode and means .hile (roadening the spectrum of options$ limited
0ar 0as simultaneously limiting Bhence its nameC A limited 0ar 0ould (e limited
geographically and instrumentally$ lessening the chance for a nuclear armageddon
%nstead of the total "ictory of all1out 0ar$ limited 0ar 0ould 5ma;e the conditions to (e
imposed more attracti"e than continued resistance$6 gi"ing limited 0ar a concrete
political dimension3
Kissinger's argument for limited 0ar relied on the rationality of the t0o opposing
forces to assure that the 0ar remained limited .hile he 0ould later amend his argument
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for nuclear 0ar (ased on this pro(lem$ it is still important to note that he supported
limited 0ar (oth for its (roadening of choices and opportunities$ as 0ell as its imposition
of limits on an other0ise e9tremely ris;y process %n addition$ the necessity of
diplomacy$ political leadership$ and the definition of concrete purposes and o(7ecti"es in
limited 0ar again referred (ac; to Kissinger's personal philosophy as 0ell as his main
critiue of American foreign policy .hether or not limited 0ar 0as an effecti"e tool for
the management of the nuclear age$ it represented the inadeuacies of massi"e retaliation
and deterrence$ including the lac; of fle9i(ility$ creati"ity$ and purpose in American
foreign policy
Kissinger's arguments in3uclear Weaponsspar;ed a heated de(ate o"er the future
direction of nuclear policy The greatest influence of Kissinger's thought 0as on
Kennedy's strategy of 5fle9i(le response$6 0hich allo0ed for a greater choice among
0eapons systems and placed more emphasis on con"entional forces and non1nuclear
methods of force .hile fle9i(le response represented the essence of Kissinger's idea of
limited 0ar$ it did not change much of Kissinger's criticisms of American foreign policy
The change in strategy did not reflect a change in the American attitude to0ards 0ar and
international relations 5nly the purposeful can (e fle9i(le$6 Kissinger e9plained34
Fle9i(le response lessened the reliance on all1out 0ar$ (ut it still failed to define
American purposes and political o(7ecti"es in its military offensi"es
%n addition to critiuing Eisenho0er's nuclear policy$ Kissinger also disagreed
0ith Eisenho0er's management of relations 0orld0ide These criticisms fell into three
34 Henry A Kissinger$ 5As !rgent as the Mosco0 Threat$63e+ York 'i$es 4/561%urrent file7$ March 4$
,2@2
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categories of relations: relations 0ith the So"iet !nion$ European allies$ and the
de"eloping 0orld Kissinger placed his analysis of Eisenho0er's relations 0ith these
areas 0ithin the conte9t of his paradigm of a re"olutionary period$ first outlined inA
World Restored
Kissinger's critiues of Eisenho0er's policies to0ards the So"iet !nion 0ere
rooted in his (elief that the So"iet !nion$ (ecause of its intentions to o"erthro0 the
current 0orld order$ 0as a re"olutionary po0er According to Kissinger$ So"iet leaders
percei"ed e"ents as part the ine"ita(le flo0 of history$ and human actors merely as
puppets in the scheme ecause of this$ they ga"e little importance to the process of
diplomacy$ e9cept to use it against the !nited States This made diplomatic negotiations
0ith the So"iets "irtually meaningless$ as the So"iets (elie"ed they merely 5ratified6 an
already present situation dictated (y history This also meant that the So"iets 0ere
unli;ely to ma;e concessions and li;ely to ta;e ad"antage of strategic opportunities
5The tas; of the -ommunist leadership is to tilt the scale (y constant if impercepti(le
pressure in the direction predetermined (y the forces of history$6 Kissinger 0rote He
repeatedly called this So"iet challenge intentionally 5am(iguous$6 an effort to ma;e
discreet gains as the .est reacted to only o"ert challenges32
Kissinger's argument that the So"iets 0ould not compromise appeared out of
place 0ith his insistence on the importance of negotiations His solution to this
contradiction 0as the idea that American leaders had to go into negotiations 0ith a clear
plan in mind$ rather than letting the So"iets dominate the direction of discussion This
0ould also pre"ent cele(ration o"er small and$ typically irrele"ant$ So"iet compromises
32 Kissinger$3uclear Weapons and !oreign Policy$ @
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and shift American focus to long1term goals
#espite Kissinger's (elief that negotiations meant little in reality to the So"iets$ he
stressed the importance of negotiations not only (ecause negotiations 0ould create the
space for possi(le agreement$ (ut also to display to the 0atching 0orld the American
desire for progress to0ards peace in the -old .ar The longer Americans allo0ed the
So"iets to ta;e the initiati"e in negotiations$ the more the So"iets could turn the ta(les
and accuse American statesmen of not compromising The practice of negotiating 0ould
also ma;e American foreign policy proacti"e and positi"e$ rather than reacti"e and
negati"e %t 0ould allo0 Americans to acti"ely stand for something$ rather than (e
passi"ely against something %t 0ould also reuire Americans to define this 5something$6
and in doing so$ come closer to achie"ing its ideals As an acti"ist foreign policy 0as
especially important in the nuclear age$ 0hen leaders could not lea"e matters to chance$
Kissinger encouraged Americans to acti"ely pursue conditions that 0ould result not only
in sta(ility and agreement$ (ut also in the representation of American purpose
Kissinger attri(uted So"iet gains in the -old .ar to the So"iet !nion's toughness
in propaganda and purpose$ rather than its economic or military might This again
connected (ac; to his personal philosophy and idealistic critiues of American foreign
policy+ He sa0 So"iet gains$ especially in the third 0orld$ as relating to the a(ility of
So"iet doctrine to acuire the interest of de"eloping nations The pro(lem 0ith the
philosophical challenge of the So"iet !nion$ then$ 0as a (attle of purposes Sur"eying
So"iet successes in the third 0orld$ Kissinger called the !nited States to not shir; from
its role in the international arena and to stand up for its "alues as leader of the free 0orld
+ %(id$ ***
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He 0anted the !nited States to ta;e the opportunity to support de"eloping nations not
only economically (ut also morally$ and