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1. History of Computers

This chapter is a brief summary of the history of Computers. It is supplemented by the two PBS documentaries video tapes "Inventing the Future" And "The Paperback Computer". The chapter highlights some of the advances to look for in the documentaries.

In particular, when viewing the movies you should look for two things:

The progression in hardware representation of a bit of data: 1. Vacuum Tubes (1950s) - one bit on the size of a thumb; 2. Transistors (1950s and 1960s) - one bit on the size of a fingernail; 3. Integrated Circuits (1960s and 70s) - thousands of bits on the size of a hand 4. Silicon computer chips (1970s and on) - millions of bits on the size of a finger

nail. The progression of the ease of use of computers:

1. Almost impossible to use except by very patient geniuses (1950s); 2. Programmable by highly trained people only (1960s and 1970s); 3. Useable by just about anyone (1980s and on).

to see how computers got smaller, cheaper, and easier to use.

First Computers

The first substantial computer was the giant ENIAC machine by John W. Mauchly and J.

Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania. ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator

and Calculator) used a word of 10 decimal digits instead of binary ones like previous

Eniac Computer

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automated calculators/computers. ENIAC was also the first machine to use more than 2,000

vacuum tubes, using nearly 18,000 vacuum tubes. Storage of all those vacuum tubes and the

machinery required to keep the cool took up over 167 square meters (1800 square feet) of

floor space. Nonetheless, it had punched-card input and output and arithmetically had 1

multiplier, 1 divider-square rooter, and 20 adders employing decimal "ring counters," which

served as adders and also as quick-access (0.0002 seconds) read-write register storage.

The executable instructions composing a program were embodied in the separate units of

ENIAC, which were plugged together to form a route through the machine for the flow of

computations. These connections had to be redone for each different problem, together with

presetting function tables and switches. This "wire-your-own" instruction technique was

inconvenient, and only with some license could ENIAC be considered programmable; it was,

however, efficient in handling the particular programs for which it had been designed.

ENIAC is generally acknowledged to be the first successful high-speed electronic digital

computer (EDC) and was productively used from 1946 to 1955. A controversy developed in

1971, however, over the patentability of ENIAC's basic digital concepts, the claim being

made that another U.S. physicist, John V. Atanasoff, had already used the same ideas in a

simpler vacuum-tube device he built in the 1930s while at Iowa State College. In 1973, the

court found in favor of the company using Atanasoff claim and Atanasoff received the

acclaim he rightly deserved.

Progression of Hardware

In the 1950's two devices would be invented that would improve the computer field and set in motion the beginning of the computer revolution. The first of these two devices was the transistor. Invented in 1947 by William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain of Bell Labs, the transistor was fated to oust the days of vacuum tubes in computers, radios, and other electronics. The vacuum tube, used up to this time in almost all the

computers and calculating machines, had been

invented by American physicist Lee De Forest in

1906. The vacuum tube, which is about the size of a

human thumb, worked by using large amounts of

electricity to heat a filament inside the tube until it was

cherry red. One result of heating this filament up was

the release of electrons into the tube, which could be

Vaccum Tubes

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controlled by other elements within the tube. De Forest's original device was a triode, which

could control the flow of electrons to a positively charged plate inside the tube. A zero could

then be represented by the absence of an electron current to the plate; the presence of a small

but detectable current to the plate represented a one.

Vacuum tubes were highly inefficient, required a great

deal of space, and needed to be replaced often.

Computers of the 1940s and 50s had 18,000 tubes in

them and housing all these tubes and cooling the

rooms from the heat produced by 18,000 tubes was not

cheap. The transistor promised to solve all of these

problems and it did so. Transistors, however, had their

problems too. The main problem was that transistors,

like other electronic components, needed to be

soldered together. As a result, the more complex the circuits became, the more complicated

and numerous the connections between the individual transistors and the likelihood of faulty

wiring increased.

In 1958, this problem too was solved by Jack St. Clair Kilby of Texas Instruments. He

manufactured the first integrated circuit or chip. A chip is really a collection of tiny

transistors which are connected together when the transistor is manufactured. Thus, the need

for soldering together large numbers of transistors was practically nullified; now only

connections were needed to other electronic components. In addition to saving space, the

speed of the machine was now increased since there was a diminished distance that the

electrons had to follow.

Transistors

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Circuit Board Silicon Chip

Mainframes to PCs

The 1960s saw large mainframe computers become much more common in large industries

and with the US military and space program. IBM became the unquestioned market leader in

selling these large, expensive, error-prone, and very hard to use machines.

A veritable explosion of personal computers occurred in the early 1970s, starting with Steve

Jobs and Steve Wozniak exhibiting the first Apple II at the First West Coast Computer Faire

in San Francisco. The Apple II boasted built-in BASIC programming language, color

graphics, and a 4100 character memory for only $1298. Programs and data could be stored on

an everyday audio-cassette recorder. Before the end of the fair, Wozniak and Jobs had

secured 300 orders for the Apple II and from there Apple just took off.

Also introduced in 1977 was the TRS-80. This was a home computer manufactured by Tandy

Radio Shack. In its second incarnation, the TRS-80 Model II, came complete with a 64,000

character memory and a disk drive to store programs and data on. At this time, only Apple

and TRS had machines with disk drives. With the introduction of the disk drive, personal

computer applications took off as a floppy disk was a most convenient publishing medium for

distribution of software.

IBM, which up to this time had been producing mainframes and minicomputers for medium

to large-sized businesses, decided that it had to get into the act and started working on the

Acorn, which would later be called the IBM PC. The PC was the first computer designed for

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the home market which would feature modular design so that pieces could easily be added to

the architecture. Most of the components, surprisingly, came from outside of IBM, since

building it with IBM parts would have cost too much for the home computer market. When it

was introduced, the PC came with a 16,000 character memory, keyboard from an IBM

electric typewriter, and a connection for tape cassette player for $1265.

By 1984, Apple and IBM had come out with new models. Apple released the first generation

Macintosh, which was the first computer to come with a graphical user interface(GUI) and a

mouse. The GUI made the machine much more attractive to home computer users because it

was easy to use. Sales of the Macintosh soared like nothing ever seen before. IBM was hot on

Apple's tail and released the 286-AT, which with applications like Lotus 1-2-3, a spreadsheet,

and Microsoft Word, quickly became the favourite of business concerns.

That brings us up to about ten years ago. Now people have their own personal graphics

workstations and powerful home computers. The average computer a person might have in

their home is more powerful by several orders of magnitude than a machine like ENIAC. The

computer revolution has been the fastest growing technology in man's history.

2. A Brief History of the Windows Operating System

Windows has been a mainstay in the computer market for so long that it's nearly impossible to imagine life without it. As the world's most popular operating system, it enjoys huge success, but that success wasn't easily attained. Bumps along the way are what helped Windows move from an obscure operating system to the dominating power in computers it is today. Check out some of the past versions and features that paved the road to Windows 8.

Windows 1.0: The very first version of Windows, Windows 1.0, was a basic interface that used "gadgets," like the calendar and calculator, but it gained little popularity. Released in 1985, the system had basic functionality and introduced the first version of MS Paint and a primitive word processor.

Windows 2.0: Released in 1987, the next version of Windows wasn't much better than the first. While it did introduce two current staples – Excel and Word – to users, this version came under fire when Macintosh sued Microsoft for mimicking the look and feel of their current operating system. The lawsuit was eventually dropped.

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Windows 3.0: The third time's the charm, they say, and that adage was proven with Windows' third release. The introduction of virtual memory, improved graphics, and the ability to multitask helped propel Windows to sell 10 million copies. In fact, while it was released in 1990, Windows 3.0 wasn't discontinued until 2001.

Windows 3.1: A pseudo-release for Microsoft, Windows 3.1 contained necessary fixes and improved font functionality. Meanwhile, Microsoft continued to develop a new release, Windows NT, hoping it could be released as a continuation of Windows 3.0 and 3.1. Unfortunately, issues with driver support and software meant that it was time for a new version altogether.

Windows 95: Marking the change from 16-bit to 32-bit, Windows 95 was designed for increased compatibility and ultimate user-friendliness. As it became clear that consumer computers would become the future, Windows 95 was offered on newer computers only because it lacked some backwards compatibility at first. Newer releases and patches later made the version easier to use on older machines, but by 1995, Microsoft had achieved a more widespread interest in home computers.

Windows 4.0: The follow-up to Windows 3.0, Windows 4.0 was released in 1996 with minor improvements and is not considered a major Windows release.

Windows 98: As consumer computers became more widespread, Windows 98 included improved hardware and hardware drivers, Internet Explorer, and eventually, Internet connection sharing. Released in 1998, with a new release in 1999, Microsoft 98 was the first release designed specifically for

consumers, as opposed to the business or technology set.

Windows 2000: Windows 2000 made everyone's lives easier by increasing the number of plug and play devices compatible with the operating system. Windows ME (Millennial Edition) was also released, offering the system recovery tool to help return a crashed computer to its last

known operating settings.

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Windows XP: The system designed for ease and stability, Windows XP was released in 2001, offering plenty of ease and functionality for laptop and desktop users. The operating system was designed to offer users help through a comprehensive help center, and it gave users the ability to consume a number of different types of media.

Windows Vista: Widely considered a flop in technology circles, Windows Vista was released in 2006. It had high system requirements and suffered issues with performance

and security. The operating system also tended to drain laptop batteries. The version lasted only for three years, during which some users downgraded back to XP to avoid the pitfalls of Vista.

Windows 7: For this current release of Windows, Microsoft learned its mistakes with Vista and created an operating system with speed, stability and minimal system requirements. Microsoft ditched the gadget bar from Vista, replacing it with a cleaner feel. This version was released in 2009.

Windows 8: This latest Windows release is getting a lot of attention. With its redesigned Metro-style user interface and Windows Store, this version is, once again,

redefining what Windows is. It also comes with integrated antivirus protection, a virtual hard disk and a new platform based on HTML5 and JavaScript. It promises faster boot time, touchscreen compatibility and the ability to create a bootable USB flash drive. It may not be enough to get people to switch from Windows 7, but at least it's a glimpse into the future of the Windows operating system

- See more at: http://windows-operating-system-reviews.toptenreviews.com/a-brief-history-of-the-windows-operating-system.html#sthash.ANh29CnL.dpuf

Windows 10—The best Windows yet

Windows 10 Start menu

Windows 10 arrives early in 2015—but not all at once. Microsoft makes early versions of the

operating system available to enthusiasts via the Windows Insider Program, inviting customers to

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contribute to the development and future of Windows 10. Devices worldwide are super-connected

and sharing content at incomparable speeds, and Windows 10 works to make that collaboration

seamless and delightful.

The Windows Insider Program plays an important part in making Windows 10 great. Insiders explore

and respond to preview builds, which means Microsoft can develop solutions in response to direct

feedback from the consumers who use Windows every day.

Beyond the box

This is the first time that a Windows upgrade is offered free to customers. Only one month after

launching, 75 million devices are running Windows 10. Microsoft hopes to see Windows 10 installed

on one billion devices by 2018.

The operating system delivers an upgraded Windows interface, focusing on the iconic Start menu

and building an intuitive experience from there. Windows 10 introduces a new Microsoft voice that's

more conversational and approachable than before. Cortana—the first digital personal assistant

from Microsoft—makes her first appearance on a PC with Windows 10, following her successful

introduction on the Windows 8.1 phone. Learning from the behaviors and preferences of each

person she interacts with, Cortana creates a personalized experience that carries across Windows

PCs, tablets, and phones. She’s intelligent, witty, and a huge step forward in the journey toward a

more personal Windows.

Windows 10 also introduces Windows as a service. It moves away from big releases with long

timelines, opting instead for frequent, automatic advancements. Windows 10 seeks to evolve and

advance human lives, uninterrupted.