'Khoisan' kinship classifications: Geographical ... · 'Khoisan' kinship classifications:...
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'Khoisan' kinship classifications: Geographical distribution and
historical interpretation
Gertrud Boden Kalahari Basin Area CRP, IP 5
University of Edinburgh
With support from Alan Barnard, Falko Berthold, Martina Ernszt,
Linda Gerlach, Tom Güldemann, Blesswell Kure, Bill McGregor, Christfried Naumann, Lee James Pratchett.
Kinship classifications: - 'Kinship classifications' refers to the way how people group
their relatives terminologically into kin classes (e.g. English kin class ‘aunt’ comprises mother’s sisters, father’s sisters, uncles’ wives, etc.).
- The way how relatives are grouped into kin classes differs across cultures and languages (e.g. mother’s sisters can be in the same class as mother instead of being in the same class as father’s sister).
Features analyzed in this talk: - Sibling classifications - Cousin classifications - Classifications of parents’ siblings - Classifications of grandparents and grandchildren
Lineages and branches Language(s) or dialects (DC = Dialect Cluster, † = extinct) KHOE-KWADI Kwadi Khoe Khoekhoe
North
South
Kalahari Khoe
East Shua Tshwa
West Khwe
G||ana Naro
single language†
Eini†, Nama, Damara, ǂAkhoe-Hai||om !Ora†, Cape varieties†
Deti†, Cara, |Xaise, Danisi, Ts'ixa, etc. Shua, Kua, Cua, Tsua, etc.
Khwe, ||Ani, Buga, G|anda, etc. G||ana, G|ui, ǂHaba, etc. Naro, etc.
KX'A Eastern ǂHoan
Ju (DC) Northwest Southeast
single language
!Xun (Angola), !Xun (Ekoka)
Ju|'hoan, ǂKx'au||'en TUU Taa-Lower Nossob
Taa (DC) West East Lower Nossob (DC?)
!Ui
N|u||'en†, West !Xoon N|amani†, Kakia†, 'N|oha, East !Xoon, Tshasi, ǂHuan, etc. |'Auni†, |Haasi†
||Xegwi†; |Xam† (DC); ǂUngkue†; N||ng (DC)
Internal classification of 'Khoisan' (adapted from Güldemann 2008:98)
Language sample
Khoe Kx'a Tuu
||Xegwi
!Ora
|Xam
N||ng
Eastern ǂHoan
Ju|'hoan
Nama
!Xun Khwe
Shua
Damara Naro
E-!Xoon G|ui
ǂKx'au||ein
ǂAkhoe- Hai||om
!Xun
W-!Xoon 'N|oha Tshasi
ǂHuan
Angola !Xun Kx'a Hunter/Gatherers Bleek 1929, Fieldwork Boden (West Caprivi) 2012
Ekoka !Xun Kx'a Hunter/Gatherers Takada 2008
Ju|'hoan Kx'a Hunter/Gatherers Marshall 1957, Lee 1984, 1993, Dickens 1994
ǂKx'au-||ein Kx'a Hunter/Gatherers Bleek 1929, Fieldwork Boden/Pratchett 2011
ǂHoan Kx'a Hunter/Gatherers Gruber 1973, Fieldwork Barnard/Berthold/Boden/Gerlach/ Kure 2011
ǂAkhoe-Hai||om Khoe Hunter/Gatherers Widlok 1999, Haacke & Eiseb 2002
Damara Khoe Hunter/Gatherers/Pastoralists Lebzelter 1934, Barnard 1992, Haacke & Eiseb 2002
Khwe Khoe Hunter/Gatherers Köhler 1966, Kilian-Hatz 2003, Boden 2005, Fieldwork Boden 2012
Shua Khoe Hunter/Gatherers McGregor, IP1, KBA, Manuscript 2012
G|ui Khoe Hunter/Gatherers Ono 1996, 1997
Naro Khoe Hunter/Gatherers Barnard 1976
Nama Khoe Pastoralists Hoernlé 1985 [1925], Haacke & Eiseb 2002
!Ora Khoe Pastoralists Engelbrecht 1936
Taa-West !Xoon Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Fieldwork Boden 2004-2011
Taa-'N|oha Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Fieldwork Boden 2004-2011
Taa-East !Xoon Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Heinz 1994 [1966], Traill 1994, Fieldwork Boden 2010
Taa-Tshasi Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Fieldwork Boden 2010
Taa-ǂHuan Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Fieldwork Boden 2010
N||ng Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Bleek Notebooks, Bleek 1929, Fieldwork Boden/Ernszt/ Güldemann 2010
||Xegwi Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Potgieter 1955
|Xam Tuu Hunter/Gatherers Bleek 1924
Type Number of terms
Social Dimensions
Referents
1 2 Sex of referent sister (Z) brother (B)
2 2 Relative Age younger sibling (yG) elder sibling (eG)
3 3 Relative age Sex of referent
younger sibling (yG) elder sister (eZ) elder brother (eB)
4 4 Relative age Sex of referent
younger sister (yZ) elder sister (eZ) younger brother (yB) elder brother (eB)
5 3 Relative gender Relative age
opposite-sex sibling (osG) younger same-sex sibling (yssG) elder same-sex sibling (essG)
Feature 1: Sibling classifications
Sibling classification
1 = Z/B 2 = yG/eG 3 = yG/eZ/eB 4 = yZ/eZ/ yB/eB 5 = yssG/essG/ osG
Khoe Kx'a Tuu
1
1
1
1
2
3
1
4
5
4 4
4
4
4
4
2 2
2 2
2
4
Sibling classification
1 = yG/eG 2 = Z/B 3 = yG/eZ/eB 4 = yZ/eZ/ yB/eB 5 = yssG/essG/ osG
Khoe Kx'a Tuu
1
1
1
2
3
1
4
5
4 4
4
4
4
4
2 2
2 2
2
4
1
Sibling classifications: - Type 1 is shared by languages of the Khoe (Nama, !Ora) and Tuu (|
Xam, ||Xegwi, N||ng) families in the southern part of the area. - Type 2 is shared by the Taa dialects (Tuu) and Eastern ǂHoan (Kx'a)
family in a small central part of the area. - Type 3 is exceptional in Ju|'hoan (Kx'a), surrounded by type 4
terminologies, intermediary stage between types 2 and 4. - Type 4 is shared by languages or dialects of the Khoe (Khwe, Naro, G|
ui, ǂAkhoe-Hai||om, Damara) and Kx'a (Ekoka !Xun, Angola !Xun, ǂKx'au||ein) families in in the northern part of the area.
- Type 5 is exceptional among the Shua as sole representatives of the Kalahari Khoe East branch, described as „acculturated“ in the anthropological literature; possibly effect of contact with Tswana.
- All possible combinations of language families: Tuu-Khoe (type 1), Tuu-Kx'a (type 2), Khoe-Kx'a (type 4).
- In the KBA, types of sibling classifications do not trace language family boundaries (contra Murdock 1968).
- Some sort of relative age distinction (types 2-5) in most groups with a (formerly) predominantly hunter/gather economy except for the Tuu languages spoken in South Africa which were already close to extinction when first documented.
- Note that even the hunter/gatherer societies who speak a variety of Khoekhoe, a language otherwise spoken by pastoralists have a type 4 sibling terminology.
Feature 2: Cousin classifications
Parallel cousins: Children of parents' same-sex siblings (PssGC) Mother's sisters' children (MZC)
Father's brothers' children (FBC) Cross cousins: Children of parents' opposite-sex siblings (PosGC) Mother's brothers' children (MBC)
Father's sisters' children (FZC)
Type Type Name
Terms Equivalence
1 Generational Same terms for siblings and cousins
G = PGC
2 Lineal/ Collateral
Siblings distinguished from cousins
G ≠ PssGC = PosGC
3 Cross/ Parallel
Siblings and parallel cousins distinguished from cross cousins
G = PssGC ≠ PosGC
Cousin classification
1: G=PGC
2: G≠PssGC= PosGC
3: G=PssGC≠ PosGC
Khoe Kx'a Tuu
3 (?)
3
1
2
3
2
3
3
3
3 3
3
1 (?)
3
1
3 3
3 3
3
1
Cousin classification
1: G=PGC
2: G≠PssGC= PosGC
3: G=PssGC≠ PosGC
Khoe Kx'a Tuu
3 (?)
3
1
2
3
2
3
3
3
3 3
3
1
3
1
3 3
3 3
3
1
Cousin classifications - Type 1 is to be found in most Ju dialects (Kx'a) and |Xam (Tuu). - Type 2 is found in Ju|'hoan (Kx'a) and N||ng (Tuu). - Type 3 is shared by all Khoe languages plus Eastern ǂHoan (Kx'a), all
Taa varieties and ||Xegwi (Tuu); ||Xegwi: data only available for MBC and FBC.
- Kx'a: Generational type is possibly proto-Kx'a type; Ju|'hoan type again exceptional both, within the dialect cluster/language family and the neighborhood; isolated Eastern ǂHoan language shares type 3 with neighbors.
- Khoe: Cross/parallel type seems to be common ancestry of the whole family.
- Tuu: 3 different types in 4 languages do not allow to suggest a proto-Tuu type; Taa shares cross/parallel type with neighbors; N||ng possibly adopted lineal/collateral type from Afrikaans.
- KBA cousin classifications trace language boundaries at least better than sibling classifications.
- Terms for cross cousins in Taa and Eastern ǂHoan seem to be secondary recruitments: loan terms (Eastern ǂHoan, ǂHuan), terms for CEP (West !Xoon), term „friend“ ('N|oha, East !Xoon, Tshasi). This might be seen as evidence that these languages did formerly not distinguish cross cousins. Note: not true for ||Xegwi terms (and N||ng cousin terms).
Feature 3: Classifications of parents' siblings
Type Type name Formula
0 Descriptive e.g. „mother's sister”, „father’s brother”
1 Lineal/Collateral P ≠ PssG=PosG (≠ PP)
2 Bifurcate/Collateral P ≠ PssG ≠ PosG (= PP)
3 Cross/Parallel Variety of P=PssG ≠PosG a) ‘classic’: P(marker)=PssG ≠ PosG=PP b) ‘split nuncle’: P(marker)=PyssG ≠ PessG=PosG=PP c) ‘asymmetric‘ (Khoekhoe): F(marker)=FB ≠ MB=PF; M(marker)=MZ ≠ FZ=separate term d) ‘asymmetric‘ (Khwe): F(marker)=FB ≠ MB=PF M(marker)MZ=FZ e) ‘unskewed‘ (Shua) P(marker)=PssG ≠ PosG ≠ PP
Classification of parents‘ siblings
0: Descriptive 1: P ≠ PssG=PosG 2: P ≠ PssG ≠ PosG=PP
3a: P=PssG ≠PosG=PP 3b: P=PyssG ≠ PessG=PosG=PP 3c: F=FB≠MB=PF M=MZ≠FZ≠PM 3d: F=FB ≠ MB M=MZ=FZ 3e: P=PssG ≠ PosG ≠ PP
Khoe Kx'a Tuu
0
3c
1
0
3b
1
3c
3d
3e
3c 3a
3b
1
3c
?
3a 3b
3a 3b
3b
2a
Classification of parents‘ siblings
0: Descriptive 1: P ≠ PssG=PosG 2: P ≠ PssG ≠ PosG=PP
3a: P=PssG ≠PosG=PP 3b: P=PyssG ≠ PessG=PosG=PP 3c: F=FB≠MB=PF M=MZ≠FZ≠PM 3d: F=FB ≠ MB M=MZ=FZ 3e: P=PssG ≠ PosG ≠ PP
Khoe Kx'a Tuu
0
3c
1
0
3b
1
3c
3d
3e
3c 3a
3b
1
3c
?
3a 3b
3a 3b
3b
2a
Classifications of parents' siblings: - Kx'a: data for Angola !Xun ambiguous; Ju|'hoan and ǂKx'au||ein share
lineal/collateral type; Ekoka !Xun exceptional in having bifurcate/colla-teral type and PosG/PP equivalence as do many Khoe terminologies; Eastern ǂHoan shares cross/parallel sub-type with Taa (Tuu) and G|ui (Khoe) neighbors.
- Khoe: some sort of cross/parallel principle present in all Khoe PG terminologies; great internal variety; unclear whether PosG/PP equivalence feature of the proto-language; Khwe shares asymmetrical sub-type with Mbukushu (Bantu) neighbors, PP term literally means „old-parent“; Shua type exceptional; G|ui shares sub-type with Taa (Tuu) and Eastern ǂHoan (Kx'a) neighbors; Naro is the only Khoe language with a pervasive cross/parallel type, only one term for all joking relatives, shares the type of classification with some Taa varieties (Tuu). Note that all Khoekhoe varieties share same type irrespective whether (formerly) hunter/gatherers or pastoralists;
- Tuu: Some Taa varieties share sub-type with Naro (Khoe), others share sub-type with G|ui (Khoe) and Eastern ǂHoan (Kx'a); ||Xegwi and N||ng descriptive; data for |Xam unclear.
- Khoe terminologies seems to have had effect on Kx'a and Tuu terminologies (Ekoka !Xun, Taa, Eastern ǂHoan).
- High diversity of this feature within Khoe family suggests that it is particularly susceptible to change.
Feature 4: Grandparent-grandchild term equivalence
Type Explanation Formula
0 No equivalence a) different terms for CC b) descriptive terms for CC
1 Equivalence a) according to sex of referent CC=PP (CD=PM, CS=PF) b) grandmother term used for all grandchildren CC=PM (CD=PM, CS=PM) c) according to sex of speaker CC=PM (female speaker CC=PF (male speaker)
Khoe Kx'a Tuu
?
0a
0b
0b?, 1c?
2b
1a
0
0a
0a
0a 1a
0a
0a
0a
1a
1c 1c
1c 1c
1c
1b
Grandparent-Grandchild Equivalence
0: No equivalence 0a: different terms for CC 0b: descriptive terms for CC
1: Equivalence 1a: CD=PM, CS=PF 1b: CC=PM 1c: CC=PM (ws), CC=PF (ms)
Khoe Kx'a Tuu
?
0a
0b
0b?, 1c?
1b
1a
0a
0a
0a
0a 1a
0a
0a
0a
1a
1c 1c
1c 1c
1c
1b
Grandparent-Grandchild Equivalence
0: No equivalence 0a: different terms for CC 0b: descriptive terms for CC
1: Equivalence 1a: CD=PM, CS=PF 1b: CC=PM 1c: CC=PM (ws), CC=PF (ms)
Grandparent/grandchild equivalence: - Kx'a: one sub-type of PP/CC equivalence shared by Angola !Xun and
Ju|'hoan probably related to PP>CC naming rules (Note: Ju|'hoan & Angola !Xun terms for PF & CS literally mean „big/small name“); another sub-type shared by Ekoka !Xun and Eastern ǂHoan where no PP>CC naming rules; ǂKx'au||ein exceptional and Khoe-like.
- Khoe: no PP/CC equivalence except for Naro which uses same term for PP, PosG, PosGC, osGC, CC.
- Tuu: Taa varieties show different sub-type than Kx'a languages although Taa has similar naming rules like Ju|'hoan; for N||ng, data in Bleek‘s diaries suggest that they might also have had sub-type 1c, nowadays they use descriptive terms as were also recorded for |Xam; unfortunately no data for ||Xegwi CC terms.
- Feature traces language family boundaries quite close: Khoe terminologies distinct from those of Kx'a and Tuu languages with respect to basic type; Kx'a and Tuu terminologies differ with respect to sub-type.
- Note: Taa (Tuu) and Eastern ǂHoan (Kx'a) neighbors do not share same sub-type.
Summary and general conclusions - Some features of kinship classifications trace language boundaries better
than others; in KBA sibling classifications show a very weak fit with language family boundaries (contra Murdock 1968), all other features show better fits > check for other language families.
- Individual features do not change in lockstep > general types („Eskimo“, „lineal/collateral“) are unsuitable for the study of historical processes.
- The kinship classification of the most prominent San in anthropological literature (Ju|'hoansi) is anomalous in several respects not only within the Kalahari Basin Area but even within the Ju dialect cluster > pan-dialectal research necessary to discuss Khoisan kinship systens and understand historical developments.
- The most highly endangered languages (Eastern ǂHoan, N||ng) share highest number of features with neighbors > be careful in using data from highly endangered languages for reconstruction of kinship classifications.
- Diverse similarities with neighboring Bantu and Indo-European kinship classifications suggest historically more recent contact effects beyond ‚simple‘ loan terms > kinship classifications are less conservative than often claimed in kinship studies (contra e.g. Trautmann 2008: 310). > untangling historical relationships in 'Khoisan' kinship systems cannot be successful without taking into account contact effects in the more recent history.
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