Julius CaesarJulius Caesar

Plutarch’s Life of CaesarPlutarch’s Life of Caesar

Course OutlineCourse Outline

Background InformationBackground Information The Cursum HonorumThe Cursum Honorum Roman religionRoman religion Caesar’s career before his campaigns in GaulCaesar’s career before his campaigns in Gaul The Wars in Gaul (58 BC – 51 BC)The Wars in Gaul (58 BC – 51 BC) Importance of the Wars in GaulImportance of the Wars in Gaul The Civil WarsThe Civil Wars Brutus and the Death of CaesarBrutus and the Death of Caesar

The First TriumvirateThe First Triumvirate

Pompey Caesar Crassus

Aspects of CaesarAspects of Caesar How Caesar got powerHow Caesar got power Daily life in Rome in 1Daily life in Rome in 1stst century BC century BC EntertainmentEntertainment Public work and administrationPublic work and administration The Roman ArmyThe Roman Army Descriptions of Caesar by Plutarch and Descriptions of Caesar by Plutarch and

SuetoniusSuetonius InfluenceInfluence

Political alliancesPolitical alliances

Caesar was clever to Caesar was clever to

use family and friends touse family and friends to

make political alliances.make political alliances.

He gave his daughter He gave his daughter

Julia to Pompey inJulia to Pompey in

marriage.marriage.

The Wars in GaulThe Wars in Gaul Lasted from 58 BC to 51 BCLasted from 58 BC to 51 BC Defeat of the Tiguirini and HelvetiiDefeat of the Tiguirini and Helvetii Defeat of Ariovistus, king of the Germani Defeat of Ariovistus, king of the Germani

(Germans)(Germans) Defeat of the Belgae (Belgians)Defeat of the Belgae (Belgians) Defeat of the Nervii (Tribe in North Belgium)Defeat of the Nervii (Tribe in North Belgium) Caesar crosses the Rhine in pursuit of Usipes Caesar crosses the Rhine in pursuit of Usipes

and Teneritaeand Teneritae 55 BC & 54 BC: Caesar crosses to Britian from 55 BC & 54 BC: Caesar crosses to Britian from

GaulGaul => end of First Triumvirate (deaths of Julia & => end of First Triumvirate (deaths of Julia &

Crassus)Crassus) Gaul revolts – some Roman armies wiped outGaul revolts – some Roman armies wiped out

13. Campaigns in Gaul seen as a fresh 13. Campaigns in Gaul seen as a fresh startstart

Begins to be compared with great Begins to be compared with great generalsgenerals

Shown to be a compassionate generalShown to be a compassionate general Soldiers respected him and fought with Soldiers respected him and fought with

extreme courage for himextreme courage for him He fought for his soldiers (eg: saved He fought for his soldiers (eg: saved

them from barbarians in Britian)them from barbarians in Britian)

Caesar’s braveryCaesar’s bravery1717. . Willingly exposed Willingly exposed

himself to dangerhimself to danger Money gained from war Money gained from war

used as a public fund, used as a public fund, not for personal gainnot for personal gain

Appeared weak (pale, Appeared weak (pale, skinny, epileptic) but skinny, epileptic) but endured great hardship endured great hardship in warin war

During these wars he During these wars he taught himself to be taught himself to be able to dictate letters able to dictate letters from horsebackfrom horseback

18. Defeat of the Helvetii & Tigurini18. Defeat of the Helvetii & Tigurini They had burnt down their own 12 towns and They had burnt down their own 12 towns and

four hundred villagesfour hundred villages Planned to march towards Roman province in Planned to march towards Roman province in

GaulGaul Labenius, under Caesar’s Labenius, under Caesar’s

instructions, brought them to instructions, brought them to

near the river Ararnear the river Arar Helvetians surprised Caesar Helvetians surprised Caesar

and jumped him while he was and jumped him while he was

moving his army to a moving his army to a

confederate townconfederate town

However, he managed However, he managed to overcome the to overcome the HelvetiansHelvetians

His horse was brought His horse was brought to him, but he famously to him, but he famously saidsaid

“ “ When I have won the When I have won the

battle, I will use my battle, I will use my horse horse

for the chase, but at for the chase, but at

present let us go present let us go against against

the enemy” & charged the enemy” & charged

them on foot.them on foot.

End of the HelvetiiEnd of the Helvetii

Drove army out of the fieldDrove army out of the field Women and children also defended Women and children also defended

carriages and ramparts and were cut to carriages and ramparts and were cut to piecespieces

Forced barbarians to Forced barbarians to re-occupy deserted landre-occupy deserted land He feared the Germani He feared the Germani would take it while it was would take it while it was uninhabiteduninhabited

GermaniGermani Ariovistus, the king of the Germans had Ariovistus, the king of the Germans had

previously been recognised in Rome as an previously been recognised in Rome as an ally.ally.

However, now Caesar defended Gaul against However, now Caesar defended Gaul against them, as it was likely they would march them, as it was likely they would march against Gaul.against Gaul.

Ariovistus did not expect the Gauls to march Ariovistus did not expect the Gauls to march against the Germani.against the Germani.

Their holy women saw bad omens and told Their holy women saw bad omens and told them not to march before the new moon.them not to march before the new moon.

Caesar saw that they Caesar saw that they were hesitating, and were hesitating, and chose to attack at chose to attack at this time.this time.

After pushing them After pushing them out of their out of their strongholds, he strongholds, he chased them as far chased them as far as the Rhine and as the Rhine and there slayed an there slayed an estimated 80,000 estimated 80,000 soldiers.soldiers.

The BelgaeThe Belgae

Caesar now had to deal with Roman affairs.Caesar now had to deal with Roman affairs. He went to the area of Gaul that lies on the He went to the area of Gaul that lies on the

River Po.River Po. The Belgae were the most powerful of all the The Belgae were the most powerful of all the

Gauls, and inhabited a third of the country.Gauls, and inhabited a third of the country. Caesar heard that they were revolted, and so Caesar heard that they were revolted, and so

gathered a large army and soon defeated gathered a large army and soon defeated them. them.

They had a large army, but proved little match They had a large army, but proved little match for Caesar.for Caesar.

Plutarch says that the RomansPlutarch says that the Romanswere able to cross the marshes were able to cross the marshes and deep rivers by the sheer and deep rivers by the sheer amount of dead Belgae bodies amount of dead Belgae bodies in them.in them.

He led his army against the Nervii, who were He led his army against the Nervii, who were the fiercest tribe of the Belgae. Caesar the fiercest tribe of the Belgae. Caesar compared them to The Spartans.compared them to The Spartans.

They jumped Caesar unawares while he was They jumped Caesar unawares while he was setting up camp.setting up camp.

Caesar’s army was in deep trouble,Caesar’s army was in deep trouble,and had Caesar himself not forcedand had Caesar himself not forcedhis way through his own men, and then his way through his own men, and then been backed up the tenth legion who came been backed up the tenth legion who came down from the hills where they lay, it is down from the hills where they lay, it is highly likely that Caesar’s army would have highly likely that Caesar’s army would have been decimated.been decimated.

It is said that only 500/60,000 It is said that only 500/60,000 of the Nervii’s men, and only of the Nervii’s men, and only 3/400 of their senators survived 3/400 of their senators survived the battle.the battle.

Celebrations…Celebrations… The Roman Senate was The Roman Senate was

overjoyed, and ordered that sacrifices and overjoyed, and ordered that sacrifices and festivals to the gods be observed for 15 days, festivals to the gods be observed for 15 days, the longest period ever dedicated for a the longest period ever dedicated for a victory.victory.

He returned back to the Po, and was visited He returned back to the Po, and was visited by the most powerful men in Rome; Pompey, by the most powerful men in Rome; Pompey, Crassus, Appius and Nepos.Crassus, Appius and Nepos.

BriberyBribery

Those running for office received money Those running for office received money from him to corrupt the people and buy their from him to corrupt the people and buy their votes.votes.

When they were elected, those who had When they were elected, those who had received his help now helped him to received his help now helped him to advance his power.advance his power.

It was decided that Crassus and Pompey It was decided that Crassus and Pompey should be consuls for the forthcoming year, should be consuls for the forthcoming year, and that Caesar should get new funds, and and that Caesar should get new funds, and that he be put in command for five more that he be put in command for five more years.years.

The Usipes & TenteritaeThe Usipes & Tenteritae

Caesar returned to Caesar returned to his troops in Gaul his troops in Gaul and found the and found the country in a war.country in a war.

Two Germani tribes, Two Germani tribes, the Usipes and the the Usipes and the Tenteritae, had Tenteritae, had recently crossed the recently crossed the Rhine to conquer it.Rhine to conquer it.

TreatyTreaty

He made a treaty with the barbarians, but then, He made a treaty with the barbarians, but then, according to Caesar, they set upon him during according to Caesar, they set upon him during the treaty.the treaty.

When they returned to renew the same treaty, When they returned to renew the same treaty, he kept the ambassadors and set upon the he kept the ambassadors and set upon the barbarians.barbarians.

Cato declared that Caesar should be given up Cato declared that Caesar should be given up to the barbarians to atone for the breach in the to the barbarians to atone for the breach in the treaty. treaty.

Crossing of the RhineCrossing of the Rhine

Caesar invaded the Germani, and became the Caesar invaded the Germani, and became the first man to cross the Rhine with an army.first man to cross the Rhine with an army.

He carried a bridge across it by driving great He carried a bridge across it by driving great piles of wood into the bottom of the river.piles of wood into the bottom of the river.

He completed the bridge in an astounding ten He completed the bridge in an astounding ten days.days.

The SueviThe Suevi He met with no He met with no

opposition crossing the opposition crossing the river.river.

The Suevi, who were The Suevi, who were the most warlike of the the most warlike of the Germans, fled into the Germans, fled into the wooded valleys.wooded valleys.

He spent 18 days in He spent 18 days in Germania, and burnt Germania, and burnt the enemy country, then the enemy country, then returned to Gaul.returned to Gaul.

BritanniaBritannia

By far, his expedition into Britannia, was his By far, his expedition into Britannia, was his greatest, and bravest, endeavour.greatest, and bravest, endeavour.

He was the first man to bring an army into the He was the first man to bring an army into the Western ocean.Western ocean.

The existence of Britannia was at this point The existence of Britannia was at this point debatable.debatable.

This is the point where he is said to have This is the point where he is said to have extended the limits of the Roman Empire extended the limits of the Roman Empire beyond the known world.beyond the known world.

His battles with Britain caused more harm to His battles with Britain caused more harm to the people than it did benefit him, because it the people than it did benefit him, because it was at that time, so poor that they had nothing was at that time, so poor that they had nothing worth stealing.worth stealing.

He eventually contented himself with taking He eventually contented himself with taking hostages from the king, and imposing a tribute hostages from the king, and imposing a tribute before leaving.before leaving.

Death of JuliaDeath of Julia

When he returned to When he returned to Gaul, he learned Gaul, he learned that his daughter that his daughter Julia had died in Julia had died in childbirth.childbirth.

Many rightly feared Many rightly feared that this would see that this would see the end of his the end of his alliance with alliance with Pompey.Pompey.

23. Gaul revolts23. Gaul revolts

Caesar’s army had become Caesar’s army had become

very largevery large Caesar returned to ItalyCaesar returned to Italy While he was gone, war broke out right While he was gone, war broke out right

across Gaulacross Gaul Large armies marched across Gaul and Large armies marched across Gaul and

Roman camps were attackedRoman camps were attacked

Strongest group of rebels were under the Strongest group of rebels were under the command of Abriorixcommand of Abriorix

Some Roman armies were wiped outSome Roman armies were wiped out His army of 60,000 attacked Cicero’s legion His army of 60,000 attacked Cicero’s legion They were almost beaten until Caesar They were almost beaten until Caesar

gathered together 7,000 mengathered together 7,000 men Abriorix was so sure of a certain victory over Abriorix was so sure of a certain victory over

such a small number that they went to meet such a small number that they went to meet himhim

Caesar held his men off fighting until they had Caesar held his men off fighting until they had camped and barricaded the rampartscamped and barricaded the ramparts

They had a certain victory over AbriorixThey had a certain victory over Abriorix

24. WAR24. WAR This calmed most of the fighting in GaulThis calmed most of the fighting in Gaul

Caesar visited every part of the country that Caesar visited every part of the country that winter to ensure further revolt would not occurwinter to ensure further revolt would not occur

Pompey sent him more men to make up for Pompey sent him more men to make up for those lostthose lost

Despite Caesar’s precautions, a huge war Despite Caesar’s precautions, a huge war broke outbroke out

Many tribes worked together Many tribes worked together The Arvemi, Carnuntini and Aedui revolt The Arvemi, Carnuntini and Aedui revolt

under Vergentorixunder Vergentorix

25: Vergentorix planned to involve all of Gaul 25: Vergentorix planned to involve all of Gaul in the warin the war

Had he done so at a different time, when Had he done so at a different time, when Caesar was engaged in the civil war in Italy, Caesar was engaged in the civil war in Italy, he may have succeededhe may have succeeded

But as soon as Caesar heard of the revolt, he But as soon as Caesar heard of the revolt, he turned on his heels and attacked the turned on his heels and attacked the barbariansbarbarians

25. The Sequani25. The Sequani

The Edui had been an ally of the RomansThe Edui had been an ally of the Romans However, they now changed their allegiances However, they now changed their allegiances

and joined the rebels and joined the rebels His army were discouraged at thisHis army were discouraged at this He thus moved on towards the land of the He thus moved on towards the land of the

Sequani, his alliesSequani, his allies The enemy attacked, but he overcame them allThe enemy attacked, but he overcame them all

AlesiaAlesia

Alesia was located at Alesia was located at modern-day Alise-modern-day Alise-Sainte-Reine, in the Sainte-Reine, in the Bourgogne Bourgogne (Burgundy) region of (Burgundy) region of France, on the CFrance, on the Côte ôte d’Ord’Or..

26. Battle of Alesia26. Battle of Alesia

Those who had escaped fled into Alesia, which Those who had escaped fled into Alesia, which Caesar then attacked.Caesar then attacked.

Because it was so well barricaded, Because it was so well barricaded,

Caesar faced the greatest danger Caesar faced the greatest danger

he ever had.he ever had. The best of all Gaul’s men, The best of all Gaul’s men,

numbering at least 300,000 came numbering at least 300,000 came

to Alesia’s help.to Alesia’s help.

Reconstruction of Alesia’s Reconstruction of Alesia’s fortificationsfortifications

Within the walls of the city was Within the walls of the city was an army of at least 170,000.an army of at least 170,000.

Caesar was forced to protect Caesar was forced to protect himself between two walls himself between two walls against these two forces.against these two forces.

Amazingly, Caesar overcame this huge army, Amazingly, Caesar overcame this huge army, and gained huge spoils of war.and gained huge spoils of war.

He won so quick a victory that those left He won so quick a victory that those left surrendered, and surrendered, and Vergentorix, Vergentorix, the chief the chief commander, rode out on his horse, made a turn commander, rode out on his horse, made a turn around Caesar, threw off his armour and around Caesar, threw off his armour and surrendered at his feet.surrendered at his feet.

28. The Final Countdown28. The Final Countdown

Both Caesar and Pompey had long since Both Caesar and Pompey had long since decided on bringing about the other’s decided on bringing about the other’s downfall.downfall.

Crassus’ unity with them both had kept them Crassus’ unity with them both had kept them at peace, but when he was killed in Parthia, at peace, but when he was killed in Parthia, they both knew that all they had to do to they both knew that all they had to do to become the greatest man in Rome was to kill become the greatest man in Rome was to kill the other.the other.

Rome had practically been left with no Rome had practically been left with no government at all, because bribery was used to government at all, because bribery was used to gain office and many times men were killed on gain office and many times men were killed on the spot of the election. the spot of the election.

Some people declared that the government Some people declared that the government could only be fixed by putting a monarchy in could only be fixed by putting a monarchy in place.place.

Pompey strived to Pompey strived to become dictator.become dictator.

Cato tried to make him sole consul, thinking this Cato tried to make him sole consul, thinking this would stop him trying to become dictator.would stop him trying to become dictator.

29. Pompey continued to have under his 29. Pompey continued to have under his command the provinces of Spain and all of command the provinces of Spain and all of Africa (Cartage).Africa (Cartage).

Caesar also petitioned for the consulship and Caesar also petitioned for the consulship and continued command over his provinces continued command over his provinces (Gaul).(Gaul).

Caesar bribed many prominent men in Caesar bribed many prominent men in Rome.Rome.

Pompey, worried, set about trying to appoint Pompey, worried, set about trying to appoint a successor for Caesar, and ordered back the a successor for Caesar, and ordered back the troops he had sent out to Caesar in Gaul.troops he had sent out to Caesar in Gaul.

Caesar returned them, and gave each man a Caesar returned them, and gave each man a present of 250 drachmas.present of 250 drachmas.

Their officer came back with Their officer came back with

negative reports about Caesar, negative reports about Caesar,

his command and how the army his command and how the army

felt towards him.felt towards him.

He flattered Pompey, falsely saying that He flattered Pompey, falsely saying that Caesar’s army desired Pompey as their leader, Caesar’s army desired Pompey as their leader, and were tired of Caesar’s endless campaigns and were tired of Caesar’s endless campaigns and feared he was trying to bring about a and feared he was trying to bring about a monarchy in Rome.monarchy in Rome.

Pompey grew confident, and didn’t make any Pompey grew confident, and didn’t make any preparations for war as he feared no danger preparations for war as he feared no danger from Caesar.from Caesar.

It is said that one of his captains, sent by It is said that one of his captains, sent by Caesar to Rome, was told that the Senate Caesar to Rome, was told that the Senate would not give Caesar longer time in would not give Caesar longer time in government.government.

He put his hand to his sword He put his hand to his sword

and said, “But this shall.”and said, “But this shall.”

30.30. Caesar proposed to lay down his arms, and Caesar proposed to lay down his arms, and

said Pompey should do the same.said Pompey should do the same.

He said they should leave politics and He said they should leave politics and become private men.become private men.

It is ironic that those who wanted rid of It is ironic that those who wanted rid of Caesar and to put Pompey in power, were Caesar and to put Pompey in power, were only effectively replacing one tyrant with only effectively replacing one tyrant with another.another.

Marcus Antonius (Mark Anthony) read a letter Marcus Antonius (Mark Anthony) read a letter from Caesar to the Senate. from Caesar to the Senate.

Scipio, Pompey’s father-in-law, stated that if Scipio, Pompey’s father-in-law, stated that if Caesar did not lay down his arms, he should Caesar did not lay down his arms, he should be declared an enemy of the state.be declared an enemy of the state.

Anthony again proposed that bothAnthony again proposed that both

should lay down their arms.should lay down their arms.

Scipio became very violent.Scipio became very violent.

30. Letters home…30. Letters home…

Caesar sent more letters, for he had decided to Caesar sent more letters, for he had decided to give up everything else and keep only Gaul give up everything else and keep only Gaul within the Alps, Illyricum and two legions, until within the Alps, Illyricum and two legions, until he was to stand as consul for the second time.he was to stand as consul for the second time.

Pompey was willing to comply in most things, Pompey was willing to comply in most things, but would not give him the soldiers.but would not give him the soldiers.

Lentulus, the consul, drove Antony and Curio Lentulus, the consul, drove Antony and Curio out of the senate-house.out of the senate-house.

They were forced to escape and flee Rome in They were forced to escape and flee Rome in a hired carriage dressed as slaves.a hired carriage dressed as slaves.

31: Caesar had at that time only 300 horses 31: Caesar had at that time only 300 horses and 5,000 infantry, as the rest of his army and 5,000 infantry, as the rest of his army was left behind in the Alps and were to follow was left behind in the Alps and were to follow after him.after him.

AriminumAriminum

AriminumAriminum He sent Hortensius with a force to take over He sent Hortensius with a force to take over

Ariminum, a large city of Gaul, in modern Italy.Ariminum, a large city of Gaul, in modern Italy.

He followed himself after and when he arrived at the He followed himself after and when he arrived at the River Rubicon, he began to realise the danger that River Rubicon, he began to realise the danger that faced him.faced him.

He hesitated for a long time, changed his mind often, He hesitated for a long time, changed his mind often, but eventually threw caution to the winds and took to but eventually threw caution to the winds and took to the river saying, “The die is cast”.the river saying, “The die is cast”.

Before the next morning, he had reached Ariminum Before the next morning, he had reached Ariminum and conquered it.and conquered it.

River RubiconRiver Rubicon

32. Civil War32. Civil War

Once Ariminum was taken, war broke Once Ariminum was taken, war broke out.out.

Rome was overrun.Rome was overrun. There was no government.There was no government. Some blamed Pompey Some blamed Pompey

for having armed Caesar.for having armed Caesar. Others blamed him for not Others blamed him for not

taking up Caesar’s offer of peace.taking up Caesar’s offer of peace.

Run!Run!

At that time, he still had more forces At that time, he still had more forces than Caesar.than Caesar.

He received all sorts of different reports and He received all sorts of different reports and feared the enemy was closing in on him.feared the enemy was closing in on him.

He declared Rome to be in a state of He declared Rome to be in a state of anarchy.anarchy.

Flees Rome, ordering the Senate to follow.Flees Rome, ordering the Senate to follow. Said no one should stay behind who did not Said no one should stay behind who did not

prefer tyranny to their country and liberty.prefer tyranny to their country and liberty.

TraitorsTraitors

The consuls and most of their senators fled.The consuls and most of their senators fled.

Some who had supported Caesar, now fled as Some who had supported Caesar, now fled as well along with everyone else.well along with everyone else.

Even Labenius, who had been a lieutenant, Even Labenius, who had been a lieutenant, and dear friend, of Caesar’s during the wars in and dear friend, of Caesar’s during the wars in Gaul, now deserted him.Gaul, now deserted him.

Pompey fleesPompey flees

Caesar took into his army any men he found in Caesar took into his army any men he found in towns on the way back to Rome who were towns on the way back to Rome who were enlisted for Pompey’s service.enlisted for Pompey’s service.

Now stronger, he advanced towards Pompey, Now stronger, he advanced towards Pompey, who had fled to Brundisium.who had fled to Brundisium.

As Caesar came, he ran off to sea.As Caesar came, he ran off to sea.

BrundisiumBrundisium

DictatorDictator Caesar now headed for Spain, and defeated Caesar now headed for Spain, and defeated

Pompey’s lieutenants Afranius and Varro and made Pompey’s lieutenants Afranius and Varro and made himself leader of their provinces.himself leader of their provinces.

Upon Caesar’s return to Rome, his father-in-law Piso Upon Caesar’s return to Rome, his father-in-law Piso advised him to once again try to make peace with advised him to once again try to make peace with Pompey.Pompey.

Caesar was named dictator by Senate.Caesar was named dictator by Senate.

He calls home those who had fled, gave back the He calls home those who had fled, gave back the rights of citizenship to the children of those who’d rights of citizenship to the children of those who’d suffered under Sylla and relieved debts.suffered under Sylla and relieved debts.

Caesar would have followed him but as he Caesar would have followed him but as he needed supplies, he returned to Rome, needed supplies, he returned to Rome, having made himself leader of all of Italy having made himself leader of all of Italy without fighting in 60 days.without fighting in 60 days.

He arrived in Rome, finding the city a lot He arrived in Rome, finding the city a lot quieter than he expected.quieter than he expected.

He treated the senators he found there with He treated the senators he found there with respect in the hope that they would convince respect in the hope that they would convince Pompey to come to a peaceful agreement.Pompey to come to a peaceful agreement.

Nobody would, either because they were Nobody would, either because they were afraid of Pompey or because they didn’t afraid of Pompey or because they didn’t believe Caesar was genuine.believe Caesar was genuine.

rr

After eleven days of dictatorship, he resigned After eleven days of dictatorship, he resigned and declared himself consul, with Isauricus.and declared himself consul, with Isauricus.

He headed back to war.He headed back to war.

Took Oricum and Apollonia.Took Oricum and Apollonia.

aa Caesar at this time was posted in Apollonia, Caesar at this time was posted in Apollonia,

but had not got a big enough army to fight but had not got a big enough army to fight Pompey, who had taken a long time to come Pompey, who had taken a long time to come from Brundisium.from Brundisium.

In a few months Caesar subdued Pompey’s In a few months Caesar subdued Pompey’s supporters.supporters.

In January 48 he turned his attention towards In January 48 he turned his attention towards Greece, where Pompey had gathered a large Greece, where Pompey had gathered a large army. army.

48 BC Battle of Pharsalus 48 BC Battle of Pharsalus The final battle took place at Pharsalus, in Thessaly.The final battle took place at Pharsalus, in Thessaly.

The Optimates, including Metellus Scipio and Cato The Optimates, including Metellus Scipio and Cato the Younger, fled to the south, having little the Younger, fled to the south, having little confidence in the newly raised troops especially since confidence in the newly raised troops especially since so many cities in northern Italy had voluntarily so many cities in northern Italy had voluntarily surrendered. surrendered.

Pompey was defeated and sought refuge in Egypt, Pompey was defeated and sought refuge in Egypt, the last large Mediterranean country which had not the last large Mediterranean country which had not yet been touched by the Roman expansion.yet been touched by the Roman expansion.

Pharsalus, GreecePharsalus, Greece

ss Caesar decided to chase Pompey even there. With a Caesar decided to chase Pompey even there. With a small army he landed in Alexandria.small army he landed in Alexandria.

The rhetorician Theodotos of Chios had persuaded The rhetorician Theodotos of Chios had persuaded Ptolomy to kill Pompey, thus violating the laws of Ptolomy to kill Pompey, thus violating the laws of hospitality, to gain Caesar's support in his quarrel with hospitality, to gain Caesar's support in his quarrel with his sister and wife Cleopatra. his sister and wife Cleopatra.

Upon Caesar’s arrival in Alexandria, Ptolomy offered Upon Caesar’s arrival in Alexandria, Ptolomy offered him the head of Pompey.him the head of Pompey.

Caesar was disgusted and is said to have wept at the Caesar was disgusted and is said to have wept at the sight.sight.

Ptolomy and Cleopatra had been Ptolomy and Cleopatra had been left as co-rulers of Egypt, and they left as co-rulers of Egypt, and they engaged in civil war for the throne.engaged in civil war for the throne.

Cleopatra, who wished to become the sole Cleopatra, who wished to become the sole ruler of Egypt, was however advised by ruler of Egypt, was however advised by Caesar to marry another brother (Ptolomy Caesar to marry another brother (Ptolomy XIII).XIII).

Caesar tried to reconcile Cleopatra and Caesar tried to reconcile Cleopatra and Ptolomy, but eventually, after falling in love Ptolomy, but eventually, after falling in love with Cleopatra who apparently bore him a with Cleopatra who apparently bore him a child (Caesarion), he sided with her and child (Caesarion), he sided with her and defeated Ptolomy. defeated Ptolomy.

The Love AffairThe Love Affair

Caesar and Cleopatra never married, as Roman Law Caesar and Cleopatra never married, as Roman Law only recognised between two Roman citizens. only recognised between two Roman citizens.

Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasted 14 years - throughout his last marriage, which lasted 14 years - in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery - and in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery - and possibly fathered a son called possibly fathered a son called CaesarionCaesarion. .

Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.the Tiber.

The Son of CaesarThe Son of Caesar

Caesarion later Caesarion later became known as became known as Ptolomy XIV.Ptolomy XIV.

He was son of He was son of Cleopatra of Egypt Cleopatra of Egypt and supposedly and supposedly Julius Caesar.Julius Caesar.

I came, I saw, I conqueredI came, I saw, I conquered

After spending the first months of 47 BC in After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East.Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East.

He easily beat King He easily beat King PharnacesPharnaces II of II of PontusPontus in the Battle of Zela, in just five in the Battle of Zela, in just five

days.days.

Because of this swift victory, he coined the Because of this swift victory, he coined the phrase phrase Veni Vidi Vici (I came, I saw, I Veni Vidi Vici (I came, I saw, I conquered)conquered) to celebrate this win. to celebrate this win.

Pompey’s sonsPompey’s sons

He quickly gained a significant victory at He quickly gained a significant victory at ThapsusThapsus in 46 BC over Metellus Scipio (who in 46 BC over Metellus Scipio (who died in the battle) and Cato the Younger (who died in the battle) and Cato the Younger (who committed suicide).committed suicide).

Nevertheless, Pompey's sons Nevertheless, Pompey's sons Gnaeus PompeiusGnaeus Pompeius and and Sextus PompeiusSextus Pompeius, , together together with with Titus LabienusTitus Labienus, Caesar’s , Caesar’s

second in command in the Gallic second in command in the Gallic War, escaped to Hispania. War, escaped to Hispania.

ConsulConsul

Caesar gave chase and defeated the last Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the remnants of opposition in the Battle of MundaBattle of Munda in March 45 BC.in March 45 BC.

During this time, Caesar was elected to his During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with Marcus Aemilius LepidusMarcus Aemilius Lepidus) and 45 BC (alone).) and 45 BC (alone).

Aftermath of civil warAftermath of civil war While he was still campaigning in While he was still campaigning in HispaniaHispania, the , the

Senate began bestowing honours on Caesar Senate began bestowing honours on Caesar in in absentiaabsentia. .

Caesar had not Caesar had not proscribedproscribed his enemies, but his enemies, but pardoned nearly all of them instead, and there was pardoned nearly all of them instead, and there was no serious public opposition to him.no serious public opposition to him.

Games were held in honour of Caesar’s victory.Games were held in honour of Caesar’s victory.

Many thought this was bad form, as those who had Many thought this was bad form, as those who had been killed in the Battle of Munda were fellow been killed in the Battle of Munda were fellow Romans, not foreigners.Romans, not foreigners.

Caesar’s heirCaesar’s heir

On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will.BC, he filed his will.

He named his grand-nephew He named his grand-nephew GaiusGaius OctaviusOctavius (Octavian) as the heir to everything, including (Octavian) as the heir to everything, including his name. his name.

Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before Caesar did, Caesar did, Marcus Marcus JuniusJunius Brutus Brutus would be the would be the next heir in succession.next heir in succession.

  

 

 

 

 

‘‘The’ BrutusThe’ Brutus

The Julian CalendarThe Julian Calendar

In 63 BC Caesar had been elected In 63 BC Caesar had been elected PontifexPontifex MaximusMaximus, and one of his roles was settling the , and one of his roles was settling the calendar. calendar.

He completely overhauled the Roman He completely overhauled the Roman calendar. calendar.

In 46 BC, Caesar established a 365-day year In 46 BC, Caesar established a 365-day year with a leap year every fourth year.with a leap year every fourth year.

46 BC was made 445 days long to bring 46 BC was made 445 days long to bring Caesar’s calendar into line with the seasons.Caesar’s calendar into line with the seasons.

In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII modified this In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII modified this calendar into the Gregorian Calendar that we calendar into the Gregorian Calendar that we use today.use today.

Dictator in perpetuumDictator in perpetuum

In February 44 BC, Caesar named himself In February 44 BC, Caesar named himself dictator dictator in perpetuum, in perpetuum, meaning dictator for meaning dictator for life.life.

The Senate felt he was becoming too The Senate felt he was becoming too powerful, acting like a king and making powerful, acting like a king and making decisions without consulting them.decisions without consulting them.

A group of conspirators known A group of conspirators known as the Liberatores planned to as the Liberatores planned to assassinate him. assassinate him.

The Plot The Plot Many ideas were put forward as to where the Many ideas were put forward as to where the

assassination would take place.assassination would take place.

They included along the Sacred Way, where They included along the Sacred Way, where he liked walking alone, at the elections and at he liked walking alone, at the elections and at a gladiatorial show.a gladiatorial show.

They decided on the Senate itself because They decided on the Senate itself because non-Senators would not be allowed in and the non-Senators would not be allowed in and the Senators could hide their daggers beneath Senators could hide their daggers beneath their togas.their togas.

FearsFears Rumours were of course Rumours were of course

abound and many of his abound and many of his friends tried to stop him friends tried to stop him going to the Senate that day.going to the Senate that day.

His wife, Calpurnia, had bad dreams about it His wife, Calpurnia, had bad dreams about it and also tried to stop him going.and also tried to stop him going.

His doctors tried to stop him as he was His doctors tried to stop him as he was having one of his dizzy spells. (Epilepsy? having one of his dizzy spells. (Epilepsy? Malaria?)Malaria?)

CowardCoward Marcus Junius Brutus was a close friend of Caesar’s Marcus Junius Brutus was a close friend of Caesar’s

and had even been named in his will as his second and had even been named in his will as his second successor.successor.

Unbeknownst to Caesar, Brutus was one of those Unbeknownst to Caesar, Brutus was one of those plotting to kill him.plotting to kill him.

He chided Caesar for his fears, saying:He chided Caesar for his fears, saying: 'What is this, Caesar? Are you a man to pay attention 'What is this, Caesar? Are you a man to pay attention

to a woman's dreams and the idle gossip of stupid to a woman's dreams and the idle gossip of stupid men, and to insult the Senate by not going out, men, and to insult the Senate by not going out, although it has honored you and has been specially although it has honored you and has been specially summoned by you? But listen to me, cast aside the summoned by you? But listen to me, cast aside the forebodings of all these people, and come. The forebodings of all these people, and come. The Senate has been in session waiting for you since Senate has been in session waiting for you since early this morning.'early this morning.'

The Ides of MarchThe Ides of March A certain soothsayer (prophet/ seer) had A certain soothsayer (prophet/ seer) had

already warned Caesar to be on his guard already warned Caesar to be on his guard against a great peril on the day of the month against a great peril on the day of the month of March which the Romans call the Ides.of March which the Romans call the Ides.

When the day had come and Caesar was on When the day had come and Caesar was on his way to the senate-house, he greeted the his way to the senate-house, he greeted the seer with a jest and said: "The Ides of March seer with a jest and said: "The Ides of March has come," and the seer said to him softly: has come," and the seer said to him softly: "Aye, Caesar, but not gone.” "Aye, Caesar, but not gone.”

The The Ides of MarchIdes of March ( (LatinLatin: : Idus MartiaeIdus Martiae) is the ) is the Roman calendar. Roman calendar.

The term The term idesides was used for the 15th day of was used for the 15th day of the months of March, May, July, and October, the months of March, May, July, and October, and the 13th day of the other eight months.and the 13th day of the other eight months.

In Roman times, the Ides of March was a In Roman times, the Ides of March was a festive day dedicated to the god festive day dedicated to the god MarsMars and a and a military parade was usually held. military parade was usually held.

Marc AntonyMarc Antony The Liberators called Caesar to the forum for the The Liberators called Caesar to the forum for the

purpose of reading a petition written by the senators, purpose of reading a petition written by the senators, asking him to hand power back to the Senate. asking him to hand power back to the Senate.

However, the petition was a fake.However, the petition was a fake.

Marc Antony, having vaguely learned of the plot the Marc Antony, having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrified night before from a terrified LiberatorLiberator named Servilius named Servilius Casca, and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar Casca, and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar off at the steps of the forum.off at the steps of the forum.

However, the group of senators intercepted Antony However, the group of senators intercepted Antony just as he was passing the just as he was passing the Theatre of PompeyTheatre of Pompey and and directed him to a room adjoining the east portico. directed him to a room adjoining the east portico.

This is violence!!This is violence!! As Caesar began to read the false petition, As Caesar began to read the false petition,

TilliusTillius CimberCimber, who had handed him the , who had handed him the petition, pulled down Caesar's tunic. petition, pulled down Caesar's tunic.

While Caesar yelled at Cimber "But that is While Caesar yelled at Cimber "But that is violence!" ("violence!" ("IstaIsta quidem vis est! quidem vis est!"), the "), the aforementioned Casca produced his dagger aforementioned Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. neck.

Caesar turned around quickly and caught Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm, saying in Latin "Casca, Casca by the arm, saying in Latin "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?" you villain, what are you doing?"

Casca, frightened, shouted "Help, brother" in Casca, frightened, shouted "Help, brother" in Greek ("ἀδελφέ, βοήθει!", "Greek ("ἀδελφέ, βοήθει!", "adelphe, boethei!adelphe, boethei!") ") as he was stabbed with a pen by the as he was stabbed with a pen by the unarmed Caesar. unarmed Caesar.

Within moments, the entire Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. striking out at the dictator.

Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay prone on continued stabbing him as he lay prone on the lower steps of the portico. the lower steps of the portico.

The lethal wound…The lethal wound…

Around sixty or more men participated in Around sixty or more men participated in the assassination. the assassination.

He was stabbed 23 times, but according He was stabbed 23 times, but according to Suetonius, a physician later to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal. second one to his chest, had been lethal.

Et tu, Brute?Et tu, Brute? Caesar's last words are Caesar's last words are

not known with certainty not known with certainty and are a contested and are a contested subject among scholars subject among scholars and historians alike. and historians alike.

The version best known The version best known in the English-speaking in the English-speaking world is the Latin phrase world is the Latin phrase Et tu, Brute?Et tu, Brute?, which , which derives from derives from William ShakespeareWilliam Shakespeare's 's Julius CaesarJulius Caesar, where it , where it actually forms the first actually forms the first half of the line: "half of the line: "Et tu, Et tu, Brute?Brute? Then fall, Then fall, Caesar." Caesar."

To speak or not to speak...?To speak or not to speak...?

Suetonius, reports that others have claimed Caesar's Suetonius, reports that others have claimed Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase "last words were the Greek phrase "καὶ σὺ τέκνον;καὶ σὺ τέκνον;“ “ (transliterated as "(transliterated as "Kai su, teknon?Kai su, teknon?": "You too, my ": "You too, my child?" in English or "Tu quoque, Brute, fili mi" in Latin) child?" in English or "Tu quoque, Brute, fili mi" in Latin) - though he himself claims Caesar said nothing as he - though he himself claims Caesar said nothing as he died. died.

This translation has led to some believing that Brutus This translation has led to some believing that Brutus was another of Caesar’s illegitimate sons.was another of Caesar’s illegitimate sons.

Plutarch reports that Caesar said nothing and merely Plutarch reports that Caesar said nothing and merely pulled his toga over his head when he saw Brutus pulled his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators.among the conspirators.

InterpretationInterpretation

While the words are usually understood as an expression of While the words are usually understood as an expression of shock and betrayal towards Brutus, it has recently been shock and betrayal towards Brutus, it has recently been argued that the phrase was instead uttered as a curse and argued that the phrase was instead uttered as a curse and threat.threat.

One theory states Caesar adapted the words of a Greek One theory states Caesar adapted the words of a Greek sentence which to the Romans had long since become sentence which to the Romans had long since become proverbial.proverbial.

The complete phrase is said to have been "You too my son, The complete phrase is said to have been "You too my son, will have a taste of power," of which Caesar only needed to will have a taste of power," of which Caesar only needed to invoke the opening words to foreshadow Brutus’ own invoke the opening words to foreshadow Brutus’ own violent death, in response to his assassination.violent death, in response to his assassination.

In a similar vein, Caesar's words have been interpreted to In a similar vein, Caesar's words have been interpreted to mean "Your turn next."mean "Your turn next."

Friends, Romans, Friends, Romans, Countrymen…Countrymen…

Asides from the debate over Caesar’s last Asides from the debate over Caesar’s last words, Marc Antony has also been attributed words, Marc Antony has also been attributed with the famous “Friends, Romans, with the famous “Friends, Romans, Countrymen, lend me your ears…” speech.Countrymen, lend me your ears…” speech.

This was, of course, not actually spoken by This was, of course, not actually spoken by him, but by his character in Shakespeare’s him, but by his character in Shakespeare’s play.play.

AftermathAftermath

The assassination of Caesar was intended to restore The assassination of Caesar was intended to restore the Roman Republic and the power of the Senate.the Roman Republic and the power of the Senate.

However, it had the opposite effect and effectively However, it had the opposite effect and effectively brought about the end of the Republic.brought about the end of the Republic.

Caesar had been extremely popular, especially with the Caesar had been extremely popular, especially with the middle and lower classes, and they were outraged that middle and lower classes, and they were outraged that their leader had been murdered by a small group of their leader had been murdered by a small group of aristocrats.aristocrats.

The First Emperor of The First Emperor of RomeRome

Caesar’s adoptive son, Caesar’s adoptive son, Octavius, inherited both the Octavius, inherited both the empire and the title of empire and the title of Caesar at the age of 19, Caesar at the age of 19, thus becoming Caesar thus becoming Caesar Octavian.Octavian.

When Caesar was deified as When Caesar was deified as Divius IuliusDivius Iulius in 42 BC, he in 42 BC, he became became Divi filiusDivi filius (Son of a (Son of a god)god)

Civil WarCivil War

While Octavian was establishing his power, While Octavian was establishing his power, Marc Antony set about dealing with Brutus, Marc Antony set about dealing with Brutus, Cassius and the Optimates, in what was to be Cassius and the Optimates, in what was to be the new civil war.the new civil war.

Brutus was offered an amnesty the day after Brutus was offered an amnesty the day after the assassination, which he accepted, with the the assassination, which he accepted, with the stipulation that he was to leave Rome.stipulation that he was to leave Rome.

Octavian had Caesar’s killers declared Octavian had Caesar’s killers declared murderers and enemies of the state.murderers and enemies of the state.

The Second Triumvirate re-introduced The Second Triumvirate re-introduced proscription.proscription.

Antony and Octavian defeated the Optimates at Antony and Octavian defeated the Optimates at Philippi.Philippi.

Brutus fled to the hills where he committed Brutus fled to the hills where he committed suicide.suicide.

Cassius ordered his freedman Pindarus to kill Cassius ordered his freedman Pindarus to kill him.him.

According to Plutarch, among his last words According to Plutarch, among his last words were, “By all means we must fly, not with our feet were, “By all means we must fly, not with our feet however, but with our hands.”however, but with our hands.”

Death of BrutusDeath of Brutus

Antony and Cleopatra…Antony and Cleopatra…

Antony moved to Egypt and married Antony moved to Egypt and married Caesar’s lover, Cleopatra, intending to Caesar’s lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the wealthy country as a base to use the wealthy country as a base to dominate Rome.dominate Rome.

However, this erupted a Third Civil War However, this erupted a Third Civil War between Octavian and the two newly-between Octavian and the two newly-weds.weds.

The First Emporer of The First Emporer of RomeRome

Octavian defeated them.Octavian defeated them.

This established his permanent seat of This established his permanent seat of power. power.

He became the First Emperor of Rome.He became the First Emperor of Rome.

He became known as Caesar Augustus.He became known as Caesar Augustus.

What did Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Genghis Khan, Napoleon, Mussolini and Hitler have in common?

Apart from a lust for world domination, they were all

supposed to suffer from ailurophobia, the fear of cats.