JRD 1 2011 - National Institute of Rural Developmentnirdpr.org.in/NIRD_Docs/jrd/Sept.2011.pdf ·...

Journal ofRural Development

Vol. 30 July - September 2011 No. 3

CONTENTS

1. Cropping Systems And Training Needs of Citrus Farmers In 263

Southwestern Nigeria

– O.O. Oyedele and M.K. Yahaya

2. Khadi & Village Industry : A Case Study of Khadi Institutions in India 273

– Pesala Busenna and A. Amarender Reddy

3. Strategising Innovations in Rural Housing Using Bamboo 291

– Smita Chugh, Valentina, P.Sinha, B.Pandey, S. Tuli and P. Sudhakar

4. Social Transition in Dairying – A Case Study from Anand District of Gujarat 307

– Jignesh Shah and PC Meena

5. Government Initiative for Promoting Micro-enterprises 321

in Rural India : A Case of SGSY in Uttar Pradesh

– Jabir Ali

6. SHG Linked Micro-Enterprises - The Kerala Experience 331

– Santhosh Kumar S.

7. Feminisation of Agriculture : What Do Survey Data Tell Us? 341

– Nisha Srivastava

8. Inverse Farm Size-Productivity Relationship : A Test Using 361

Regional Data Across Two Time-Points

– Subrata Kundu

9. Problems of the Deprived Potential Beneficiaries to Avail of 373

Social Assistance : An Evaluation in Chamarajanagar District

– B.S. Krishna Prasad, K.V.Aihanna and Chikkarangaswamy

BOOK REVIEWS

1. India Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises Report 2011 385

Editors : P.M. Mathew, S.Sridhar and Ram Venuprasad

– B.K. Swain

2. Agro-Afforestation Management on Wastelands (Village Level Study), 386

Hridai R. Yadav, 2011

– V. Suresh Babu

3. Sustainable Resource Development: Policy, Problem and Prescription 387

by Udai Prakash Sinha

– R. Murugesan

4. Sardar Sarovar Project on the River Narmada 388

Edited by R. Parthasarathy, Ravindra H. Dholakia

– S.N. Rao

5. Sardar Sarovar Project on the River Narmada-Impacts 390

so far and Ways Forward

Edited by R. Parthasarathy and Ravindra H. Dholakia

– C. Dheeraja

O.O. Oyedele* and M.K. Yahaya**

CROPPING SYSTEMS AND TRAININGNEEDS OF CITRUS FARMERS INSOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA

Journal of Rural Development, Vol. 30, No. (3) pp. 263 - 272NIRD, Hyderabad.

* Department of Farming Systems and Extension, National Horticultural Research Institute, P.M.B. 5432,Idi-Ishin, GRA, Ibadan, Nigeria.

* * Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT

A lot of well meaning training programmes organised for farmers to boost thelevel of productivity have not achieved the desired results because farmers’ felt needswere not addressed in the training content. The study investigated the training needsand cropping systems of citrus farmers in Southwestern Nigeria. Three hundred andtwenty one citrus farmers (CFs) from Oyo(76), Osun(76), Ondo(79) and Ekiti (90) wereselected through multistage sampling technique. Data were analysed usingfrequency, percentage, chi –square and ANOVA. The result revealed that land used forcitrus production by majority of the CFs (72.3 per cent) was inherited. Moreover, 40.2,32.1 and 10.9 per cent of the CFs planted citrus trees in orchard, boundary andhomestead forms, respectively. Majority (65.4 per cent) of the respondents useunbudded seedlings to set up their farms. Citrus trees were intercropped with othertree crops (43 per cent), arable crops (28.6 per cent) and vegetables (12.5 per cent). Ahigh training need in pre-nursery activities exists for homestead (74.3 per cent) andboundary (59.2 per cent) citrus farmers. Also, significant relationship exists betweencropping systems and training needs of respondents. Due consideration should begiven for specific citrus based training programmes to address the identified gaps.Also, citrus technologies should fit into the uniqueness of farmers cropping system toencourage its adoption.

Introduction

Citrus is one of the most important fruittree crops in Nigeria. It is utilised both for freshconsumption and industrial processing. Theyare subtropical to tropical in nature. Citrus israted to be among the ten most important fruittree crops in Nigeria, and so it is widelycultivated. Within a category of these types oforanges, there are many different varieties andthe flavours vary a great deal. Each variety has

a different flavour, texture, sweetness,tanginess, peel thickness and quality (MSDTI,2005; Adigun, 1992). Citrus trees are bothpermanent and cash crops with a lot ofeconomic potentials. Citrus peel is a source ofessential oils, useful flavour essences andperfumery. It also provides pectin, which isused to achieve setting in jams andmarmalades. Citrus oil is useful inaromatherapy to uplift and relieve stress aswell as surface conditioning of wooden

264 O.O. Oyedele and M.K. Yahaya

Journal of Rural Development, Vol. 30, No. 3, July - September : 2011

JRD 2 (6)

furniture, grease removal and as a hand –cleansing agent.The Presidential Initiative onTropical Fruits launched in 2005 and the recentfocus of the Federal Government on non-oilexports further stresses the importance of thiscrop. However, there is a need to strengthenthe human capital base because disseminationof citrus based technologies by extensionagents has not enjoyed the kind of attentiongiven to arable crops,thus there are trainingneeds which have to be addressed to assistthe Nigerian citrus industry meet up withcurrent standards of citrus production globally.Farmers’ needs are crop and locality specificand as such a high premium should be placedon their assessment before embarking onprogrammes to meet such needs so thatresources invested in training programmes arenot only justifiable, but that expected outcomefrom such programmes in terms of knowledgeand skill development are achieved. Citrus asan economic crop requires the right kind ofcropping system so as to maximise all theseimmense potentials since cropping systemsaffect productivity.Cropping systems inNigeria vary within the different agro-ecologies that exist in the country. Citrus as afruit tree is either planted as sole or intercrop.Food culture, age of orchard and agro-ecologyinfluence the choice of intercrop. Types ofintercrops include cereal, legumes, root andtuber crops, and even permanent crops likecocoa and coffee (Kintomo, 2000).

This study therefore, was to examine thecropping systems of citrus farmers anddetermine their training needs,which wasachieved by the following objectives.

1. To analyse the existing cropping systemsin citrus production

2. To determine the training needs offarmers in improved citrus nurserytechniques, orchard establishment andmanagement

3. To identify the social and personalcharacteristics of citrus farmers

Hypotheses of the Study : The followingthree null hypotheses were tested:

Ho1 : There is no significant relationshipbetween the cropping systems of citrusfarmers and their training needs.

Ho2 : There is no significant relationshipbetween the socio-personal characteristics ofcitrus farmers and their training needs.

Ho3 : There is no significant difference inthe training needs of homestead, boundaryand orchard citrus farmers.

Methodology

Area of Study : This study was conductedin the southwestern part of Nigeria. The Statesof coverage include Delta, Edo, Lagos, Ondo,Ogun, Ekiti, Osun and Oyo which fall withinsouthwestern agricultural zone lying betweenlatitudes 50 and 90 N and longitude 20 and 70 E.The southwest zone has an area of 114,271km2 representing12 per cent of thecountry’s total land area. Rainy season lasts upto 9 months with variation in the mean annualrainfall which varies from 2,600mm in thecoastal areas of Delta, Edo,Lagos and OgunStates to nearly 1200mm in the northern areasof Ondo, Oyo and Osun States. There aredistinct wet and dry seasons, and meanmonthly temperature ranges during rainy anddry seasons are 18 - 240 C and 30 - 350 C,respectively (Shaib et al,1997).The zone alsohas four distinct ecologies: swamp mangroveforest,moist and dry lowland forest, derivedsavannah and southern guinea savannah.Agriculture is the main source of livelihood ofrural people in the zone, and the arablecropping systems are predominant. Largequantities of melon, okro, tomato,cocoyam,plantain, oilpalm and rubber are also producedin the zone.


Cropping Systems and Training Needs of Citrus Farmers in Southwestern Nigeria 265

JRD 2 (6)

Study Population, Sampling Procedureand Sample Size : Four States (Ondo, Ekiti, Oyoand Osun) out of the eight States insouthwestern zone were purposively selectedbecause 60 – 70 per cent of citrus producedin the zone come from those States.Citrusfarmers from selected four States made up thestudy population. The existing zoning systemof the national extension outfit (AgriculturalDevelopment Programme – ADP) wasemployed to draw the sample. The zoningsystem has classified each State in the countryinto zones, blocks and cells. Thus, a multistagesampling procedure was used to select 321citrus farmers randomly from Ondo (79), Ekiti(90), Osun (76) and Oyo (76) States.

Measurement of Variables : Thedependent variable for this study is trainingneeds of citrus farmers. This was measured interms of knowledge, skill and attitude.Knowledge was measured by using jobanalysis. Skill was measured by using taskanalysis while attitude was measured bypositive and negative attitudinal statementson a 5-point Likert scale. Independent variablesmeasured were cropping system and personalcharacteristics of respondents which includeage, educational attainment, marital status, andmembership of social organisation. Inmeasuring cropping system, respondentswere asked to mention type of citrus farmingpractised, whether homestead, boundary ororchard. Also, respondents were asked toindicate type of citrus seedlings planted,whether budded or unbudded, as well aswhether planted as sole or intercrop. Farmerswere requested to list intercrops grown withcitrus. This was later grouped into treecrops,vegetables and arable crops.

Method of Data Collection and Analysis:Primary data used in the study were collectedwith interview schedule while secondary datawere obtained from literature.Descriptive andinferential statistics were used in analysing the

data collected which include frequency count,percentages, chi-square and ANOVA.

Results and Discussion

Personal Characteristics of Respondents:Findings on personal characteristics reveal that96 per cent of citrus farmers are married, whileonly very few are either divorced or single.Farm families provide labour for farmoperations. Since citrus is perennial in naturewith potential for revenue generation, it willrequire continuous and constant managementwhich the family labour can supply.

Results presented in Table 1 also revealthe age of respondents as ranging from 21years to above 60 years. Majority of the farmers(58.3 per cent) are between 51 to above 60years of age. The mean age of respondents is50 years. Earlier findings by NIHORT (1995)revealed that the average age of existing citrustrees ranges between 40 and 45 years. Thisimplies that younger generation of farmers arenot actively involved in citrus production. Thistrend is not good enough for the citrus industrybecause the older generation will graduallyease out of the system. Adeola (1998) affirmsthat increase in farmers’ age reduces theirability to cope with many farm operations. Thiscalls for the encouragement of youngergeneration of farmers to ensure continuity andsustenance of the citrus industry.

Education assists in broadening thescope of learning of an individual. Table 1shows that farmers who had no formaleducation were 38.3 per cent while those whohad some form of formal education up tosecondary school were 48.9 per cent. Thoseexposed to higher level of formal educationin tertiary institutions were only 12.8 per cent.The level of literacy may affectcomprehension during training programmes.

Social organisations are avenues wherefarmers can focus on common interests



JRD 2 (6)

affecting them as it relates to farming. Asshown in Table 1, citrus farmers who belongto one or more social organisations were 51.4per cent. The organisations most of thefarmers belong to include Cooperative Society(16.5 per cent), Farmers’ Congress (15.9 percent) and Growers’ Association (19.0 per cent).Membership of social organisations could assistfarmers pool their resources together to attractexternal intervention.

Table 1 : Personal Characteristicsof Citrus Farmers (N = 321)

Variable Frequency Percentage

Marital status

Single 2 0.6

Married 309 96.3

Widowed/Divorced 7 2.2

No response 3 0.9

Age (in years)

< 40 39 12.1

41-50 63 19.6

51-60 84 26.2

>60 103 32.1

No response 32 10.0

Educational attainment

No formal education 123 38.3

Completed secondary 157 48.6school

Tertiary education 41 12.8

Membership of social organisation

Cooperative Society 53 16.5

Farmers’ Congress 51 15.9

Growers Association 61 19.0

No response 156 48.6

Type of Citrus Farming Practised : Citrusfarming being practised are of different types

and combinations. The three main types ofcitrus farming are homestead, boundary andorchard. Figure 1 shows that citrus growerswho have citrus trees at the backyard of theirhouses and practised homestead gardeningwere only 10.9 per cent of the farmers. Thosewho had citrus trees grown along farmboundaries for plot demarcation constitute32.1 per cent. Citrus farmers who plantedcitrus trees in orchard form were 40.2 per centof the total citrus growers, while the remaining16.8 per cent of the farmers combined thepractice of the three types of citrus farming.Citrus trees planted within the homestead areused to satisfy subsistence needs, while treesgrown on bigger farmlands are committed tocommercial purpose. Kintomo (2000) affirmsthat citrus features within cropping systemssuch as food plots, small scale plantations andmultistoried homestead.

Figure 1: Percentage Distributionof Farmers Showing Type of Citrus

Farming Practised

Land Tenure Status : Figure 2 shows thata higher proportion of citrus farmers (72.3 percent) had obtained their land throughinheritance. Some of the farmers (22.7 percent) bought the land being used for citrusproduction and 5 per cent leased land for citrusproduction. Akande and Lawal (2004) statedthat land tenure system influences the use towhich land is put for economic and socialdevelopment. This suggests that the extent ofcitrus cultivation is influenced by the kind ofprevailing land tenure status since citrus treesare permanent cash crops.



JRD 2 (6)

Figure 2: Percentage Distribution ofFarmers Showing Land Tenure System

Types of Citrus Seedlings Planted : Citrusseedlings can either be budded or unbudded.Table 2 shows that a greater percentage ofcitrus farmers (65.4 per cent) grow citrus treesfrom unbudded seedlings. Another 13.1 percent of farmers had both budded andunbudded trees on their farms, while only 21.5per cent of citrus farmers planted only buddedcitrus seedlings. The planting material used toestablish a citrus farm to a large extent willdetermine productivity. Farmers who plantedunbudded seedlings do not take advantage ofthe desirable qualities of the budded citrusseedling which include high yield, earlinessof fruiting, reduced tree size and regularfruiting pattern (Olaniyan, 2000). Aiyelaagbeet al., (1999) stated that farmers in thesouthwest zone obtain their seedlings fromsources other than established nurseries ofgovernment agencies. Many of the existingcitrus orchards were established several yearsago with seedling trees, hence prevalence ofunbudded seedlings and the resultant effectof low yielding trees.

Type of Citrus Planting : Citrus as a fruittree can either be planted sole or intercrop.Results in Table 2 reveal that intercropping ofcitrus trees with other crops was favoured bymost of the farmers (78.2 per cent). Farmerswho planted citrus trees as sole crops wereonly 16.2 per cent ,while 5 per cent of thefarmers practised both sole and intercropping.

Table 2 : Type of Citrus Seedlings Plantedand Citrus Cropping System (N = 321)

Variable Frequency Percentage

Type of citrus seedlings

Budded 69 21.5

Unbudded 210 65.4

Both 42 13.1

Type of citrus planting

Sole 52 16.2

Intercrop 251 78.2

Both 16 5.0

No response 2 0.6

Intercrop grown with citrus

Cocoa,oilpalm 138 43.0

Yam, cassava,cocoyam 92 28.6

Tomatoes, pepper, 40 12.5

Celosia, Amaranthus,

Corchorus olitorius

No response 51 15.9

Sole planting of citrus is a concept which thefarmers have not really embraced. Citrus,being a permanent crop spur farmers to plantother intercrops to both generate cash andprovide food security for the farm familybefore the trees come into fruiting.Intercropping also encourage the farmers tomaintain the young trees and serve as a bufferin instances of crop failure (Kintomo, 2000).Tree crops such as cocoa and oilpalm wereintercropped with citrus by 43 per cent of thefarmers, while 28.6 per cent intercroppedcitrus with yam, cassava and cocoyam (Table2). This farmers’ practice is not in line withrecommendation on choice of intercrops forcitrus production reported by Kintomo (2000)which include vegetable and specified arablecrops. Citrus farmers who planted vegetable



JRD 2 (6)

crops such as tomatoes, pepper, Celosia,Amaranthus and Corchorus olitorius within thealleys were 12.5 per cent. The prevalentcropping system which is either yam or cassavabased is also connected to the food culture ofthe farmers. Aiyelaagbe et al., (1999) affirmsthat agro-ecology and culture of farmersinfluence preference of intercrops by farmers.

Training Needs of Citrus Farmers:Homestead (74.3 per cent) and boundary(59.2 per cent) citrus farmers have high needfor training in pre-nursery activities. Fifty sevenpoint four per cent of orchard farmers havelow training need in pre-nursery techniquessuggesting that most orchard farmers may notbe interested in pre-nursery activities. Thus,orchard farmers should be encouraged toembrace pre-nursery.This will help to ensurethat farmers use good citrus seedlings asfoundation stock for their farms becauseperformance of citrus seedlings is linked towhether or not the seedlings were poorlyraised.

Furthermore, homestead (60 per cent),boundary (52.4 per cent) and orchard (62.8per cent) citrus farmers have high need fortraining in citrus main nursery techniques. Thissuggests that any training programmestargeted at citrus farmers should placeemphasis on main nursery techniques. Table 3also shows that majority of citrus farmers,whether homestead, boundary or orchardfarmers have a low need for training in orchardpractices. The probable explanation for thiscould be that farmers have been managingthe citrus trees over the years and may nothave seen the need for new thinking inorchard management. Thus, they may havedevised various management strategies. Also,more technologies in orchard practices havebeen disseminated to farmers by extensionagents (South West Zonal ExtensionProceedings, 1995-2002).

Table 3 : Training Needs of Categories ofCitrus Farmers in Nursery and Orchard

Practices (N = 321)

Categories of farmers Level oftraining needs

Low High

Pre-nursery

Homestead 9 26(25.7)* (74.3)

Boundary 42 61(40.8) (59.2)

Orchard 74 55(57.4) (42.6)

Homestead + 29 25Boundary+ Orchard (53.7) (46.3)

Main nursery

Homestead 14 21(40.0)* (60.0)

Boundary 49 54(47.6) (52.4)

Orchard 48 81(37.2) (62.8)

Homestead+ 33 21Boundary+ Orchard (61.1) (38.9)

Orchard

Homestead 22 13(62.9)* (37.1)

Boundary 59 44(57.3) (42.7)

Orchard 97 32(75.2) (24.8)

Homestead + 37 17Boundary+ Orchard (68.5) (31.5)

* Figures in parentheses are percentages.



JRD 2 (6)

Test of Hypotheses

Ho1 : There is no significant relationshipbetween cropping systems of citrus farmersand their training needs.

As shown in Table 4 there is a significantrelationship between cropping systems andtraining needs. This implies that type of citrusfarming the farmer practises will influence histraining needs. A farmer who plants in thehomestead may have different training needscompared to the one who has a citrus orchard.This could be because, their purpose of goinginto production, whether subsistence orcommercial, may differ. The homestead citrusgrower may grow citrus mainly for subsistence

while the orchard grower maintains an orchardfor pure economic/commercial purpose.Choice of intercrops used within the alleys byfarmers differ, so also are the requirements ofsuch intercrops. Intercrops could be cereals,legumes, vegetables and even tree crops. Thedifferent requirements of growing specificcrops may influence the training needs ofcitrus farmers. Citrus seedlings could bebudded or unbudded. Land tenure system andtype of planting, whether as sole crops or withintercrops, did not significantly affect citrusfarmers’ training needs. This implies that themode of land procurement for citrusproduction does not influence training needs.Land does not differ in terms of whether it isleased, rented or bought.

Ho2 : There is no significant relationshipbetween the selected personal characteristicsand training needs of citrus farmers in thestudy area.

In Table 5, only age of respondents wassignificantly related to farmers’ training needs.Farmers still in their active years may have

Table 4 : Chi – square and Contingency Analysis Showing Relationship BetweenCropping Systems and Training Needs of Citrus Farmers in the Study Area

Variables X2 df p cc

Type of citrus cropping systems 19.49 3 0.0002 0.24

Significant : p < 0.05

cc – Contingency coefficient

more need for training to boost theirproductivity whereas an ageing farmer mayfeel training is of little use with advancementin age. Other personal characteristics of thecitrus farmers such as marital status,educational attainment and land tenuresystem practised were not significantly relatedto their training needs.



JRD 2 (6)

Table 5 : Chi – square and Contingency Analysis Showing Relationship BetweenSelected Personal Characteristics and Training Needs of Citrus Farmers in the Study Area

Variables X2 df p cc

(i) Land tenure system 1.22 2 0.54 NS 0.14

(ii) Marital status 1.901 2 0.39 NS 0.018

(iii) Age 10.37* 3 0.02* S 0.18

(iv) Educational attainment 0.47 2 0.79 NS 0.04

(v) Membership of farm organisation 0.86 1 0.35 NS 0.05

* Significant; p < 0.05

NS = Not significant; p > 0.05

cc – Contingency coefficient

Ho3 : There is no significant differencein the training needs of homestead, boundaryand orchard citrus farmers in the study area.

The results presented in Table 6 showthat significant difference exists in the training

needs of homestead, boundary and orchardcitrus farmers. Duncan Multiple Range Test(DMRT) was used to further determine whichgroup means are different from one another.Results imply that differences exist, and typeof training needs differ.

Table 6 : One-way Analysis of Variance Showing Difference in the Training Needs ofHomestead, Boundary and Orchard Citrus Farmers

Training Needs Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p

Between groups 53693.72 3 17897.91 4.35 0.005*

Within groups 1299179.83 316 4111.33

Total 1352873.55 319

Duncan Rating of Means

Orchard 158.95a

Homestead+Boundary+Orchard 150.11ab

Boundary 132.97bc

Homestead 126.17c

* Significant; p < 0.0



JRD 2 (6)

Conclusions and Recommendations

The following conclusions were drawnbased on the findings of the study:

1) Majority of respondents are married, hadsome level of formal education and aremembers of different farmorganisations. Mean age of respondentsis 50 years.

2) Three main forms of citrus farming beingpractised are homestead, boundary andorchard.

3) Farmland used for citrus production bymajority of the farmers are inherited.

4) Majority of the respondents establishedtheir citrus farms with unbuddedseedlings.

5) Citrus was planted as intercrop bymajority of the respondents. Intercropsgrown with citrus include cocoa, oilpalm,yam, cassava and cocoyam.

6) Homestead and boundary citrus farmershave high need for training in pre-nursery activities.

7) Significant relationship exists betweencropping systems and training needs ofcitrus farmers.

8) Significant relationship exists betweenage and training needs of respondents.

9) Significant differences exist in thetraining needs of homestead, boundaryand orchard farmers.

Based on the outcome of the study, thefollowing recommendations are made:

1) Farmers in their active years should beencouraged to produce citrus.

2) Citrus farmers need enlightenment onchoice of compatible crops forintercropping to ensure maximumreturns from the crop mixture withoutany deleterious effect on the main cropwhich is citrus.

3) Capacity building programmes shouldbe organised for farmers to train themon technicalities needed for growingimproved varieties as well as todemonstrate superiority of buddedseedlings in order to encourage itsadoption.

4) Budded seedlings should bepopularised through exhibitions, printand electronic media, and also seedlingsshould be readily available for purchase.

5) Training programme modules should bedrawn up based on specific identifiedneeds of each category of farmers.

6) More trainings should be concentratedon farmers who are still in their activeyears.

References

1. Adigun, O.O. (1992), Citrus Production in Nigeria, NIHORT Occasional Paper No 28A.

2. Aiyelaagbe, I.O.O., A.A. Kintomo, O.M.O. Odeleye, L.O. Ogungbaigbe, K.O. Alasiri, J.A. Adetunji, B.Giginyu, S.O. Afolayan, A.O. Olufolaji, C.A. Amih, V.C. Umeh and J.A. Kolade (1999), “CitrusProduction in Nigeria : A State of the Art”, Unpublished Research Monograph No. 1. NationalHorticultural Research Institute.

3. Akande J. A. and T. E. Lawal (2004), Rural People and the Sustainability of Agricultural Systems,Bowen Journal of Agriculture, Vol. 1 (1) : 11-20.



JRD 2 (6)

4. Kintomo, A.A. (2000), “Citrus Based Farming Systems in Nigeria”, In : Oyedele, O.O. andM.A Adejoro (eds) : Fruit Tree Nursery Techniques and Orchard Management, NationalHorticultural Research Institute, Training Manual Series No. 11 p5-6.

5. Marijuana, Com Marijuana Seeds & Drug Test Information (MSDTI) (2005), http://www.marijuana. com/wiki/Orange (fruit).

6. NARSP(1997), National Agricultural Research Strategy Plan: 1996 -2010, B. Shaib, A. Aliyuand J.S. Bakshi (eds), Department of Agricultural Sciences, Federal Ministry of Agriculture,Abuja.

7. Olaniyan, A.A. (2000), “Citrus Production in Nigeria”, In : Oyedele, O.O. and M.A. Adejoro(eds) Fruit Tree Nursery Techniques and Orchard Management, National HorticulturalResearch Institute, Training Manual Series, No. 11.

8. South- West Zonal Extension Proceedings (1995-2002), South- West Zonal REFILSWorkshops Held at Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Moor Plantation, Ibadan,Nigeria.

Pesala Busenna* and A. Amarender Reddy**

ABSTRACT

Khadi constitutes an important segment of the textile sector. Khadi has beendefined as any cloth woven on handlooms in India from cotton, silk or woollen yarnhandspun in India or from a mixture of any two or all of such yarns. The main objectivesof the study are to assess the employment generation potential of the Khadiinstitutions. Secondly, the study focuses on identification of problems faced by theselected institutions. Data presented related to the period 2003-08, and projection ofproduction and requirement of spinners and weavers by 2012. The study also collecteddata on all khadi institutions and assessed their capabilities, projection of theirrequirement in terms of spinning and weaving infrastructure, upgradation of skills ofartisans and supervisory workers. Totally, 200 khadi institutions were identified. Allthe A+ & A category institutions were surveyed. The paper focuses on employmentgeneration of Khadi sector during study period and projections for 2012.


KHADI & VILLAGE INDUSTRY :A CASE STUDY OF KHADIINSTITUTIONS IN INDIA

Introduction

Khadi constitutes an important segmentof the textile sector. Khadi has been definedas any cloth woven on handlooms in India fromcotton, silk or woollen yarn handspun in Indiaor from a mixture of any two or all of suchyarns. Due to the artistic nature of khadiproducts and with sustained efforts, gooddemand of khadi products can be created inthe international market. KVIC (Khadi andVillage Industries Commission) has beencreating employment opportunities forspinners, weavers, and other allied artisans. Alarge number of women artisans are coveredin the spinning segment. Khadi activities are

* Was a Project Consultant, Administrative Staff College of India, Hyderabad.

* * Was an Associate Professor, Administrative Staff College of India, Hyderabad.Contact Email : [email protected] [email protected]

supported by 30 State Khadi & Village IndustryBoards (KVIBS), 2000 khadi institutionsaffiliated to KVIC and State KVIBs, 7050 salesoutlets of khadi bhandars / bhawans and anextensive network of 250 training centres ofKVIC / state KVIBs spread throughout thecountry. Khadi products, being environmentaland user-friendly, are ideal for the present daymarket both within the country and outside.

Khadi has the unique property ofkeeping the wearer warm in winter as well ascool in summer season. This fabric on washingis more enhanced, thus, the more you wash it,better the look. Khadi easily lasts yearstogether, at least for 4-5 years. Very attractive

274 Pesala Busenna and A. Amarender Reddy


JRD 2 (2)

and designer apparel can also be made fromdoing handwork on the khadi garments. Theweaving of khadi is preceded by the spinningof the thread on the charkha after which itgoes on to the robbin winder, warper, sizer,and finally the weaver. The khadi boardorganises spinning while weaving is done bythe weavers (mostly men) at their home in anindividual capacity. Spinning is mostly done bythe women in villages. During spinning ofkhadi, the threads are interwoven in such amanner that it provides passage of aircirculation in the fabric.

Among all types of fibres i.e, cotton, silkand woollen, cotton khadi is more popular inboth domestic and export markets. Cottonkhadi is required to be starched so that it doesnot get easily crumpled. It comes in manycolours and is not harmful to the skin assynthetic fabrics. This cotton khadi is verycomforting in summer season as ampleamount of air ventilation is there; it has thecapacity to absorb moisture. Therefore, it easilysoaks the sweat, and keeps the wearer cooland dry. Cotton khadi comes in plain as well asin printed fabrics. The most common outfitmade from khadi is the ’Kurta’. Many types ofapparel are made from khadi like sarees, salwarsuits, fabric yarns, western tops, shirts, trousers,skirts, handkerchief, etc. All are having exportdemand potential. It is a very durable fabric.The khadi wearer gets a royal anddistinguishable look due to its historicsignificance and style. It symbolises luxury anduniqueness.

In silk-khadi, the ratio of cotton khadi andsilk fabric is 50:50. This fabric requires drycleaning. It shrinks by about 3 per cent afterthe first wash. It is quite an expensive fabric.Silk-khadi provides a royal and rich look. Thevarious types of apparels made from khadi silkare salwar kameez, kurta paijama, sarees,dupattas, shirts, vest and jackets. Apparels likekurta, jacket, saree blouses require lining tobe given to ensure its longevity. Previously,

khadi was dyed in earthy colour tones, and wasused to make traditional garments; but, now,designers are experimenting by dyeing khadiwith striking colours like limegreen, violet, babypink, turquoise blue, carpets, etc. Stylishgarments like mini skirts, halter neck tops, racertops, tunics, etc. are made from khadi. Woollenkhadi products are also famous for its aestheticappearance at the same time keeping the bodyworm. The most common outfit made fromwoollen khadi is the ’Kurta’. Many types ofapparel are made from khadi like sarees, salwarsuits, fabric yarns, western tops, shirts, trousers,skirts, carpets, etc.

History of Khadi Dates Back to FreedomMovement

The Father of the Nation, MahatmaGandhi, urged the people of India to wear khadigarments. It was not only a call to create self-reliance but also a call to wear something thatcould demonstrate the unity of India. Khadiwas given an important status by Gandhiji afterhis return from South Africa. While in searchof the Charkha, Gandhiji felt that for a nationto turn to mass production, it had to return toindigenously produced goods. Most of thekhadi cloth is of pure white (bleached orunbleached), and most of the people wearthem based on their “ideology”. Khadi has anextremely important connection with Indianfreedom movement, and has become virtuallysymbolic of the struggle for freedom.

Alexander the Great, when he invadedthe country in 327 BC, was dazzled by the artof fabric making and printing, as also wasMarco polo, the Venetian traveller. It was in1921 that Gandhiji launched the movementof 'spin your own cloth and buy hand spuncloth', which gained momentum makingkhadi, the fabric of the freedom struggle. In1953 when the Khadi and Village IndustriesBoard was established, it had only 156registered institutions. Today every village,either remote or small, has its own khadi


Khadi & Village Industry : A Case Study of Khadi Institutions in India 275

JRD 2 (2)

institution. Initially weaving of khadi was ratherdifficult, as it was impossible to weave a fulllength of cotton with the uneven khadi thread.Today the range of khadi products is unlimitedfrom garments to household linen tofurnishing, etc.

Fashion in Indian clothing dates back toancient times, when the Aryan’s in the Vedicperiod produced their own cloth. In fact khadihad a most religious role in marriages whenbrides in India were presented with a khadicharkha in their wedding trousers toencourage spinning of the yarn. The currentsituation is that the demand is more than thesupply. Earlier the type of khadi available waskhadi cotton, which had very coarse textureand feel. However, many varieties of khadi likekhadi silk, khadi wool and khadi cotton areavailable now, which makes it a fashionablefabric. In order to change with the times andto compete with other sectors, the KVIC/ khadiinstitutions have made necessary

improvements in the spinning wheel with theirown research. The salient features of newtechnology are to enhance production capacityand to increase the employment potential. Theinstitutions have developed six spindle, eightspindle, ten spindle and 24-spindle spinningwheel and that are hand-operated.

Performance of Khadi Sector

The annual production value of khadisector increased from ` 453.00 crore in 2003-04 to ` 491.5 crore in 2006-07, while salesincreased from ` 587 crore to ` 663.2 croreduring the same period, compound annualgrowth rate (CAGR) for production marks outto 2.7 per cent and for sales 4.1 per cent. Onthe other hand, employment increasedmarginally as employment elasticity toproduction is 0.19 i.e., for a one per centincrease in production, there is only 0.19 percent increase in employment (Table 1).

Table 1 : Performance of Khadi Sector (2003-07)

S.No. Details 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 Projections forMarch 2012

assuming 9%growth rate per

annum

1. Production (` crore) 453.5 461.5 467 491.5 688.2

2. Sales (` crore) 587.1 617.8 627 663.2 928.5

3. Employmen (lakh persons) 8.6 8.6 8.7 8.8 12.4

4. Earnings (` crore) 253.8 258.3 260.2 283.2 396.4

5. Production(` crore) 5267.1 5341.9 5380 5560 5560.2

6. Sales (` )/employee 6818.2 7150.9 7224 7502 7502.1

7. Earnings (` )/employee 2947.9 2989.7 2997 3203 3203.2

Source : KVIC Reports-various issues.



JRD 2 (2)

Table 2 reveals that in 2006-07, the shareof cotton yarn was about 73 per cent of totalkhadi yarn production followed by woollenyarn (18 per cent) and silk yarn (8.8 per cent),

while in the production of cloth, the share ofcotton khadi cloth was 58 per cent, followedby silk cloth (26 per cent) and woollen (17 percent).

Table 2 : Khadi Production According to Variety (2004-07)

Name Yarn Production Khadi Fabric Productionof theProduct Quantity Value Quantity Value

(lakh kgs) (` crore) (million sqr. meters) (` crore)

2004- 2005- 2006- 2004- 2005- 2006- 2004- 2005- 2006- 2004- 2005- 2006-05 06 07 05 06 07 05 06 07 05 06 07

Cotton 162.0 162.15 168.88 139.7 141.59 149.92 59.03 58.65 60.09 266.1 280.00 295.76

Woollen 34.8 34.82 36.84 35.3 35.02 37.29 6.42 6.40 6.86 76.5 72.28 76.31

Silk 2.6 2.59 2.74 16.8 16.74 17.83 4.44 4.89 4.93 119.0 116.02 119.45

Total 199.4 199.56 208.46 191.8 193.35 205.04 69.89 69.94 71.88 461.5 468.30 491.52

Source : KVIC Report-various issues.

There are several States engaged in Khadiproduction. It could be seen from Table 3, thatin cotton khadi production, the major Statesare UP (45 per cent), followed by Gujarat andHaryana (each contributing about 6.5 percent), and TN (6 per cent), while the major

woollen producing States are Haryana (24 percent), followed by UP (19 per cent), Rajasthan(18 per cent) and Karnataka (10 per cent). Themajor silk khadi producing States are WB (32per cent), TN (31 per cent), Karnataka (8 percent), and Gujarat (6 per cent).

Table 3 : Major States Contributing for Khadi Production (2006-07)

(Percentage share in relation to all India total)

Cotton Woollen Silk

Rank State % Share State %Share State % Share

1 UP 45.36 Haryana 23.48 W.B 31.48

2 Gujarat 6.74 U.P. 19.12 T.N. 31.02

3 Haryana 6.41 Rajasthan 18.48 Karnataka 7.69

4 T.N. 5.59 Karnataka 10.22 Gujarat 6.13

Source : KVIC - Various Reports.



JRD 2 (2)

Employment and Labour Productivity inKhadi

Khadi sector employs about 8.84 lakhpersons. Table 4 indicates that of total khadisector employment, spinners’ share is about80 per cent, followed by weavers (12 per cent),and others (9 per cent). However, earningsshare of spinners is lower at 24 per cent, whilethe share of others (49 per cent) and weavers(27 per cent) are higher than that of spinners.The women artisans covered under khadi

programme represented 64.9 per cent of thetotal employment. The per capita earnings ofspinners is about Rs.1021, while for weavers itis about Rs. 8,683 and Rs.15272 for others.Employment in the cotton segment is nearly75 per cent of total khadi employment, interms of total earnings and per capita earnings,silk shares the number one position, followedby woollen as second, and cotton the third ascotton khadi is spread almost in all parts ofthe country, while silk and wool are confinedto a few states.

Table 4 : Employment and Labour Productivity (2006-07)

S.No. Particulars Cotton Woollen Silk Total khadi % Total

Employment in khadi sector (lakh persons)

1 Spinners 5.43 1.07 0.51 7.01 79.3

2 Weavers 0.56 0.2 0.27 1.03 11.7

3 Others 0.59 0.11 0.1 0.8 9.1

Total 6.58 1.38 0.88 8.84 100

Earnings (` crore)

1 Spinners 44.61 11.45 15.48 71.54 25.3

2 Weavers 41.33 15.33 32.78 89.44 31.6

3 Others 82.2 16.6 23.38 122.18 43.1

Total 168.14 43.38 71.64 283.16 100

Per capita earnings (` /annum)

1 Spinners 822 1070 3035 1021 31.9

2 Weavers 7380 7665 12141 8683 271.1

3 Others 13932 15091 23380 15272 476.8

Total 2555 3143 8141 3203 100

Source : KVIC Reports - various issues.



JRD 2 (2)

Methodology, Approach andObjectives of the Study

The study also collected data on all khadiinstitutions and assessed their capabilities,projection of their requirement in terms ofspinning and weaving infrastructure,upgradation of skills of artisans and supervisoryworkers. Totally, 200 khadi institutions wereidentified. All the A + & A category institutionswere surveyed with a pre-testedquestionnaire, and the best among them areselected for a detailed study based on anobjective criterion. The number of khadiinstitutions selected in each State are given inTable 5. The pre-tested questionnaire wasadministered with the institutions selected forthe study, and the production potential ofkhadi institutions based on production of the

last three years, sales, and number of weaversand spinners, and product categories weregathered. As far as possible all institutions withannual market size of more than Rs.50 lakhwere selected. Each state/zone is equallyrepresented in the selection of khadiinstitutions based on the states’ share in theproduction of cotton khadi, woollen khadi, andsilk khadi. KVIC made necessary adjustments/changes in the selected institutions taking intoaccount the geographical spread. The mainobjective of the study is to assess theemployment generation potential of the Khadiinstitutions. Secondly, the study focuses onidentification of problems faced by theselected institutions. Data presented relatedto the period 2003-08, and projection ofproduction and requirement of spinners andweavers by 2012.

Table 5 : Zone-wise and State-wise Performance of Khadi ProductionCategory-wise (2006-07) and Number of Selected Khadi Institutions

State/UT Quantity Value Value Qty No. of(lakhs square meters) (` lakh) % % institutions

selectedCotton Woollen Silk Total Cotton Woollen Silk Total

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)

Chandigarh 0 0 0 0 0.4 0 0 0.4 0 0 0

Delhi 4 0.9 0 4.9 166.1 13.5 0 179.5 0.4 0.7 1

Haryana 34.9 13.6 0 48.5 1895.5 1791.5 0 3687 7.5 6.7 15

Himachal Pradesh 0.9 2.1 0 2.9 69.8 286.7 0 356.5 0.7 0.4 1

Jammu & Kashmir 0.2 3 0 3.1 9.3 710 0.3 719.5 1.5 0.4 3

Punjab 12.7 10.7 0 23.4 793.4 215.9 0 1009.3 2.1 3.3 4

Rajasthan 24.9 12.7 0 37.6 1479.5 1408.5 0 2888 5.9 5.2 12

North Zone 77.5 42.8 0 120.4 4413.9 4426 0.3 8840.2 18 16.7 36

Bihar 8.2 0.6 0.8 9.5 462 128.2 174.1 764.3 1.6 1.3 3

Jharkhand 1 0 0.9 1.9 43.5 15.1 253.3 311.8 0.6 0.3 1

Orissa 1.3 0 1 2.3 55.3 0 196.7 252 0.5 0.3 1

West Bengal 11.8 0 23.5 35.3 1095.7 0 3759.7 4855.4 9.9 4.9 20

(Contd.)



JRD 2 (2)

East Zone 22.3 0.6 26.2 49.1 1656.5 143.2 4383.7 6183.4 12.6 6.8 25

Arunachal Pradesh 0 0 0 0 0.6 0 6.2 6.8 0 0 0

Assam 0.5 0 3.6 4.1 51 0 439.9 490.9 1 0.6 2

Manipur 0.5 0 0.2 0.7 23.2 0 39.3 62.5 0.1 0.1 0

Meghalaya 0 0 0 0 1 1.1 2.1 4.2 0 0 0

Mizoram 0 0 0 0.1 0.3 0 59.5 59.8 0.1 0 0

Nagaland 0 0.2 0.2 0.3 0 10 64.9 74.9 0.2 0 0

Sikkim 0.1 0 0 0.1 4.1 2.1 0 6.3 0 0 0

Tripura 0.2 0 0 0.2 8.5 0 0 8.5 0 0 0

North East Zone 1.3 0.2 4 5.5 88.7 13.2 611.8 713.7 1.5 0.8 3

Andhra Pradesh 15.1 0.3 0.8 16.1 1100.6 23.4 415.9 1539.8 3.1 2.2 7

Karnataka 35.8 6.1 4.9 46.7 1748.4 778.2 919.1 3445.7 7 6.5 14

Kerala 21.6 0 0.3 21.9 1457.3 0 54.9 1512.2 3.1 3.1 6

Pondicherry 0 0 0 0 0.1 0 6.5 6.6 0 0 0

Tamil Nadu 38.9 0 6.2 45.1 2540.3 0 3705.1 6245.4 12.7 6.3 25

South Zone 111.3 6.3 12.2 129.8 6846.6 801.6 5101.4 12750 25.9 18.1 52

Gujarat 29.5 1.4 0.1 31 1992.8 182.8 732.7 2908.3 5.9 4.3 12

Maharashtra 4.7 0 0 4.7 287.2 0 5 292.2 0.6 0.7 1

West Zone 34.2 1.4 0.1 35.7 2280 182.8 737.7 3200.5 6.5 5 13

Chhattisgarh 1.2 0 3.2 4.4 61.1 4.3 632.1 697.5 1.4 0.6 3

Madhya Pradesh 2.4 1.7 1.3 5.4 143.5 218.8 199.1 561.4 1.1 0.8 2

Uttarakhand 15.9 2.4 0 18.3 670.1 381.5 0 1051.7 2.1 2.5 4

Uttar Pradesh 334.2 13.2 2.4 349.7 13416 1459 278.9 15153.6 30.8 48.7 62

Central Zone 354.2 17.3 6.8 378.3 14291 2063.5 1110.1 17464.1 35.5 52.6 71

All India 602.8 68.6 49.3 720.7 29577 7630.3 11945 49152 100 100 200

Source : KVIC Various Reports.

Table 5 : (Contd.)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)



JRD 2 (2)

Figure 1 indicates that the proportion ofselected khadi institutions is higher in centralzone, followed by south zone, north zone, andeastern zone. This also indicates that in central,south and north India, khadi institutions arestrong in financial and other parameters. Khadiinstitutions in west and north-eastern zonesare financially weak, and their annual turnoveris mostly less than ` 30 lakh.

Figure 1 : Zone-wise Distribution of Selected Khadi Institutions

Figure 2 indicates that cotton khadiproducing institutions are concentrated incentral zone, north zone, south zone, and westzone, while cotton and polyvastra producinginstitutions are also dominating in these zones.While woollen khadi producing institutions arelocated in north zone and west zone, silk khadiproducing institutions are located in central,eastern, north-eastern, and south zones.

Figure 2 : Distribution of Khadi Institutions Zone-wise and Product Category-wise



JRD 2 (2)

The trends in employment growth inkhadi sector are given in Table 6. Even thoughthe employment figures constitute both full-time and part-time employment, they reflectgeneral pattern of employment in the sector.KVIC and ministry of small-scale industriesequate 30 per cent of part-time employmentas one full-time employment in khadi sector.However, this does not fully capture thedifferences in earnings and duration ofemployment. To address this problem in aproper perspective, we have converted part-time employment to Full-Time Equivalentemployment (FTE) based on earnings of part-time and full-time worker per year, using thestatistics available in KVIC annual reports. One

full-time worker ’s annual earnings isequivalent to 13 part-time workers.Accordingly the current FTEs in the khadisector are about 5.39 lakhs, of which full-timeemployees are 4.47 lakh and part-timeemployees are 5.39 lakh. The past performancerecord indicates that khadi sector historicallyhad modest employment growth, and onlyduring the Sixth Plan period, khadi sector couldachieve 1.85 lakh net additional employment(both part-time and full-time). Spinnersaccount for 84 per cent and weavers 9.5 percent of total employment. Cotton khadi shareis more than 75 per cent, and woolen sector’sshare is about 17 per cent, with silk and muslinmaking up the rest.

Table 6 : Year-wise Production, Sale and Expenditure per Employee

Year Per Production/ Production/ Sales Earnings Earningsemployee FTE FTE (in per unit per worker per worker

exp. in (Cloth in rupees) of FTE (full-time) (Part-time)rupees) sq.m) (in rupees)

2003 5058 202 11512 12607 5479.1 487.9

2004 5734 201 12395 14198 6225.4 508.3

2005 6123 189 13773 17349 6721.8 549.1

2006 7091 206 17408 18913 7595.6 646

2007 6353 207 19756 18328 8219.5 736.1

Table 6 shows that per employeeexpenditure increased from ` 5058 in 2003to ` 6353 in 2007. Khadi production in termsof sq. meters of cloth per FTE (Full TimeEmployee) remained stagnant, though thevalue of production shows an increase of 1.7times, and sales per FTE increased by 1.5 timesduring the same period. However, a PlanningCommission study reveals that the resourcesare not the main binding constraint toemployment generation in khadi. And they find

that there is no particular relationship betweenfinancial resources and employmentgeneration in the khadi sector.

It is apparent that except khadi silk, forcotton, woollen and muslin khadi products,production (quantity-wise) declined in recentyears. The main reasons for dismalperformance of khadi sector are inflation,escalation of raw material value and shortageof working capital. Besides production



JRD 2 (2)

shortfalls, the major problem encounteredwith KVIC products is regarding marketing andsales. The HPC (High Power Committee)recommended replacing rebate withMarketing Development Assistance (MDA) tostreamline marketing. It is apparent that thereis no relationship between production, salesand earnings, as sales of a given year are forthe accumulated production stocks over theyears.

Descriptions of Selected Khadi Institutions

In this paper, we will present techno-socio-economic characteristics of selected 200khadi institutions. Weavers and spinners areessential part of khadi institutions. The khadiinstitutions are mostly providing employmentto women in their major activity, spinning. Mostof the spinning work is going on in worksheds,which are equipped with New ModelCharkhas, while weaving activity is mostlydone at home. All the spinners are women,while men do most of the weaving. Most ofthe workers are literate. There is no child labour

in the khadi sector. Only a few institutions haveprofessional designers who are degree/diploma holders. And most of the khadiinstitutions also do not have permanenttechnical personnel who can take care ofrepair and maintenance of charkhas and looms.It emphasises that there is a need for engagingtechnical personnel both in design of clothsand maintenance and repair of hardware atkhadi institutions. All the institutions aremaintaining employees’ passbook withphotographs. All the artisans are coveredunder Janashree Bima Yojana. Payment forspinning and weaving is made in cash tospinners and weavers. Every institution iscontributing to the State Level Artisans WelfareTrust. Khadi institutions are also maintainingtheir accounts and records as per KVIC norms.Currently, most of the institutions are notexporting directly, however there is anindication that most of the institutions areselling frequently to foreign visitors from theiroutlets. Some foreigners are also purchasingfrom the major departmental outlets in Delhi,Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai.

Table 7 : Gender-wise Number of Employees in a Typical Khadi Institution

Sex Total Literate

No. Percentage No. Literacy Rate

Male 141 29.1 96 68.1

Female 344 70.9 234 68.0

Total 485 100.0 330 68.0


Table 7 reveals that on an average,female employees constituted 70.9 per centof the total employees in a typical khadiinstitute. Similarly, the percentage of literacywas more or less equal at about 68 for bothmen and women.

All khadi institutions are maintainingdetails of employees along with passbooks andphotographs. Maintenance and updating ofpassbooks were carried out for 97.0 per centmales and 95.9 per cent females (Table 8).Details of average annual turnover of khadiinstitutions are presented in Table 9.



JRD 2 (2)

Table 8 : Maintenance and Updating of Employees’ Passbooks with Photographs

Sex No. of Maintained Percentageemployees

Male 141 135 95.9

Female 344 336 97.8

Total 485 472 97.2


Table 9 : Average Annual Turnover of Khadi Institutions (2007-08)

(Amount in ` lakh)

Type of Production Retail Wholesale Stockproduct

Amount Per Amount Per Amount Per Amount Percent cent cent cent

Cotton 75.0 49.3 47.0 37.81 31.0 44.10 47.0 49.68

Silk 53.5 35.2 24.9 20.03 24.0 34.14 18.6 19.66

Muslin 12.3 8.1 11.8 9.50 13.0 18.49 10.3 10.89

Wool 7.3 4.8 36.5 29.36 1.8 2.56 14.7 15.54

Polyvastra 3.9 2.5 4.1 3.30 0.5 0.71 4.0 4.23

Total 151.9 100.0 124.3 100.00 70.3 100.00 94.6 100.00


Table 10 gives details of productionpotential and sales of khadi institutions in2007-08, and the future projected supply for2012. All the institutions have goodproduction potential as the averageproduction is ` 116 lakh and average sales` 135 lakh in FY 2007-08. The average numberof weavers and spinners are 141 and 548,respectively for the selected khadi institutions(Table10), which indicates the sound positionof selected khadi institutions on both financial

and production infrastructure. The expectedproduction potential increased by 50 per cent,while the number of spinners and weavers willbe increased by 30 per cent by 2012. Thenumber of khadi institutions which producecotton; cotton & polyvastra; and cotton &woollen are higher in number compared tosilk and polyvastra. The average production perinstitute varies between ` 76 lakh to ` 256lakh in 2007-08, and it is projected to increaseto ` 117 lakh to ` 384 lakh by 2012.



JRD 2 (2)

Table 10 : Production and Marketing Strength of SelectedKhadi Institutions in 2007-08 and Forecast for 2012

Product Number Mean Mean No. of No. of Mean Spinners/ Weavers/of firms Production Retail Spinners/ Weavers/ production Institutes Institute

in 2007-08 sale in Institutes Institutes Potential by 2012 by 2012(` Lakh) 2007-08 in 2012 (` Lakh)

Cotton 38 122.1 180.7 759.2 97.6 183.1 987 126.9

Cotton & 37 113.4 155.4 649 146.5 170.1 843.7 190.5Polyvastra

Cotton & 25 89.4 87.8 672.7 107.7 134.1 874.4 140.1Woollen

Silk 16 84.3 70.5 144.8 75.3 126.4 188.3 97.9

Silk & 11 81.5 66.9 215.5 93.9 122.2 280.2 122.1Muslin

Cotton, Silk 9 216.7 119.3 557.9 578.6 325 725.3 752.2& Polyvastra

Cotton 8 90.6 115.9 647.9 191.3 135.9 842.2 248.7& Muslin

Cotton 8 98.9 103 178.8 91.4 148.3 232.4 118.8& Silk

Woollen 8 166.3 97.6 449.9 34 249.4 584.8 44.2

Cotton, 7 145.6 278.4 503.6 253.3 218.4 654.6 329.3Muslin &Polyvastra

Cotton, Silk 5 107.4 107.6 96.8 138.8 161.1 125.8 180.4& Polyvastra

All types 3 256 266.7 1100 334 384 1430 434.2

Cotton, Silk 2 125 125 337 189.5 187.5 438.1 246.4& Muslin

Woollen & 2 78 112.5 107 100 117 139.1 130Polyvastra

Polyvastra 1 171 238 700 150 256.5 910 195

Total 180 116.8 135.1 548.5 141.8 175.1 713.1 184.4

The authors calculated on the data source of KVIC- various Reports.



JRD 2 (2)

It could be seen from Table 11 that inmajority of the khadi institutions, once in aweek, technicians come to worksheds, andinspect the charkhas and looms (63.3 per cent).

Table 11 : The Frequency of MachinesChecked by Technicians for Maintenance

Duration Percentage

Once a week 63.3

Every month 26.7

Every year 5.0

When needed 5.0

Total 100

It could be seen from Table 12 that 93per cent of the artisans were insured underthe Janashree Bima Yojana, and there is nochild labour working in the selected khadiinstitutions.

Table 12 : Details of Child Labour andCoverage of Employees under Janashree

Bima Yojana

Particulars Yes No

Artisans covered under 93% 7.0%Janashree Bima Yojana

Child labour 0% 100 %

Around 70 per cent of the khadiinstitutions contributed to State Level Artisans'Welfare Trust Fund. Most of the khadiinstitutions are contributing more than ̀ 2 lakhper annum to the Artisans Welfare Trust Fund.Institutions that contributed above `10 lakh

per annum comprise about 14.5 per cent ofthe total institutions (Table 13).

Table 13 : Contribution to the State LevelArtisans Welfare Fund Trust 2006-07

(`lakh)

Amount (` lakh) Percentage

Up to 1.0 8.1

1.1 - 2.0 24.2

2.1 - 10.0 22.6

Above 10.0 14.5

No contribution 30.6

Total 100

The average working capital utilisationof a typical khadi institution is given in Table15. The average working capital expensesincurred by a typical khadi institution is`110.62 lakh in the year 2006-07. About 56per cent of the working capital expenses arespent on cotton khadi production, while 17per cent on silk production, 13 per cent onmuslin production, 10 per cent on woolproduction and only 4 per cent on polyvastra.Out of total working expenses, share of wagesand other production aspects is about 58 percent, while 38 per cent of working expensesis spent on raw material, and only 5 per centspent on marketing expenses (Table 14). Rawmaterial component cost is much higher incase of wool, muslin, and silk when comparedto cotton. In case of cotton and polyvastra,wage component occupies the dominantposition. Marketing cost is in the range of 4 to6 per cent in most categories. In wool, it islower.



JRD 2 (2)

Table 14 : Working Capital Spent during 2006-07 (` In lakh)

Particulars Raw Material Wages/Production Marketing Total

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Cotton 14.80 43.50 3.65 61.95(23.9) (70.2) (5.9) (100)(56.0)

Silk 9.03 8.69 0.75 18.47(48.9) (47.0) (4.1) (100)(16.7)

Wool 9.34 1.75 0.13 11.22(83.2) (15.6) (1.2) (100)(10.1)

Muslin 7.89 6.33 0.63 14.85(53.1) (42.6) (4.2) (100)(13.4)

Polyvastra 0.39 3.47 0.26 4.12(9.5) (84.2) (6.3) (100)(3.7)

Total 41.46 63.74 5.42 110.62(37.5) (57.6) (4.9) (100)(100)

Note : Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to row totals. In addition, in column 5, anotherfigure is given in parentheses denoting percentage to column total.


Most of the selected khadi institutionsadopted improved spinning and weavingmachinery. Most of the institutions (79 percent) are equipped with new model charkhas,while 18 per cent have traditional charkhasand only 3 per cent have e-charkhas. Similarly,about 75 per cent of the institutions own pedallooms, and the remaining 25 per cent ownhandlooms (Table 15).

Most of the institutions are well equippedwith in-house spinning and weaving facilities(more than 80 per cent), whereas in-housestitching, dyeing and printing facilities areavailable in very few khadi institutions, i.e.,59.7, 24.2 and 24.2 per cent, respectively(Table 16).

Table 15 : Machinery Available atProduction Unit

Spinning machinery % of spinningmachines

New model charkha 79

Traditional charkha 18

E-charkha 3

Total 100

Weaving machinery % of weavingmachines

Handloom 25

Pedal loom 75

Total 100



JRD 2 (2)

We have also considered the availabilityof in-house skilled manpower in spinning,weaving, stitching, dyeing and printing whichare essential for better quality and timelydelivery of khadi products. It is evident fromTable17 that most of the khadi institutions have

Table 16 : Availability of Facilities in the House

Particulars Well equipped Partial Not available Blank Total

Spinning 83.9 3.2 0.0 12.9 100.0

Weaving 87.1 1.6 0.0 11.3 100.0

Stitching 59.7 0.0 1.6 38.7 100.0

Dyeing 24.2 3.2 4.8 67.7 100.0

Printing 8.1 1.6 8.1 82.3 100.0

in-house manpower with strong spinning andweaving skills. However, availability ofmanpower with strong stitching, dyeing andprinting skills were seen in only 51.6, 27.4and 11.3 per cent of the institutions,respectively.

Table 17 : Skill Availability of the Khadi Institutions

Skill type Strong Average Not available Blank Total

Spinning 88.7 1.6 0.0 9.7 100.0

Weaving 87.1 1.6 0.0 11.3 100.0

Stitching 51.6 1.6 1.6 45.2 100.0

Dyeing 27.4 1.6 3.2 67.7 100.0

Printing 11.3 0.0 6.5 82.3 100.0

From Table 18 it can be found that 62.9per cent of the khadi institutions have toiletsand children park, etc. within the premiseswhereas 27.4 per cent do not have propertoilets and children park within theirworksheds.

About 92 per cent of the selectedinstitutions are maintaining suggestion/feedback/complaint record books, and takensteps to implement suggestions received fromthe workers to improve the working conditionsof the khadi institutions. However, a few (about6.5 per cent) of them do not have provisionfor taking the feedback of the employees(Table 19).

Table 18 : Proper Toilets and Children Parkin the Worksheds of the Institution

Particulars Percentage

Excellent 62.9

Good 8.1

Average 1.6

Below average 0.0

Poor 0.0

Blank 27.4

Total 100



JRD 2 (2)

Table 19 : Maintenance of Records forTaking Suggestions/Feedback/Complaints

of the Artisans

Particulars Percentage

Yes 91.9

No 6.5

Blank 1.6

Total 100

Most of the khadi institutions sought helpin financing working capital (73 per cent), skillupgradation (60 per cent), marketing support(33 per cent), and infrastructure support (33per cent)(Table 20).

Table 20 : Help/Support Required forInstitutions

Type of Support %

Financial side 73.4

Employee side/ skill upgradation 60.0

Marketing side 33.4

Infrastructure side 33.4

Conclusion

The study identified 200 khadiinstitutions which have high potential forfuture growth. The average production ofselected institutions is ̀ 116 lakh and averagesales `135 lakh in 2007-08. The averagenumber of weavers and spinners are 141 and548, respectively for the selected khadiinstitutions which indicates the sound positionof selected khadi institutions on both financialand production infrastructure. The expectedproduction potential increased by 50 per cent,while number of spinners and weavers will beincreased by 30 per cent by 2012.

Most of the institutions are suffering fromshortage of working capital. Institutions alsorequire financial help for improvement of retail

outlets, for quality testing labs, anddevelopment of worksheds for spinning andweaving. Most of the artisans are not satisfiedwith the performance of the existing charkhasand looms. Khadi institutions require financialsupport to upgrade/improve charkhas andlooms, which will enhance labour productivityand quality substantially to meet exportstandards. Grants are required to build/improvement of Khadi Bhandars and Bhavansin big cities and tourist spots. There is a needto renovate and improve the khadi outlets.There is a need for construction of commonfacilities for dyeing/processing, printing,stitching, and cleaning at appropriate locationswithin the reach of the selected khadiinstitutions. Financial support is also requiredfor purchasing computers with Internetconnection; fax machines, new modelcharkhas, improved looms and yarn quality-testing equipments for each khadi institution.Replacement of traditional charkhas and loomswith pedal looms and 8 spindle new modelcharkhas is an urgent requirement forincreasing productivity of workers. Commonworking sheds have to be developed forspinners and weavers for maintaining uniformquality of cloth, which is a pre-requisite forexports. Proper training and performancebased incentives to be given to spinners andweavers. Well-furnished worksheds to bedeveloped for both spinners and weavers withgood infrastructure and common facilities likeworkers club, children’s garden, etc. which willincrease productivity of workers, also help inuniform quality of yarn and cloth.

Even though most of the selected khadiinstitutions are within clusters, some falloutside the clusters. Institutions falling outsidethe clusters need special arrangements formarketing and other managerial areas ofsupport.

There is an urgent need for wideradoption of improved technology like newmodel charkhas, and pedal operated looms



JRD 2 (2)

among selected 200 khadi institutions and alsoto develop new types of tools, equipment andmachines to reduce drudgery and increaseproductivity of labour. Secondly, EffectiveManagement Information System (MIS) whichintegrates supply of raw material, workerspayments and sales (domestic and exports)and it should be linked to the KVIC throughadequate networking and finally the KVIC andthe proposed corporation should encourageproducing institutions to form federations at

the State level and provide common servicesincluding marketing. Considering that nearlyabout 75 per cent of cotton khadi is now beingsold in the form of printed, dyed and fabricatedproducts, there is a need for development ofcommon processing units for dyeing, printingand finishing at State level, facilities likebleaching, dyeing, mercerising, wash-in-wear,anti-shrink, printing, perma-press, tailoring,embroidery etc. to be developed at commonservice centres.

Smita Chugh*, Valentina**, P.Sinha***,B.Pandey***, S. Tuli**** and P. Sudhakar*

STRATEGISING INNOVATIONSIN RURAL HOUSING USINGBAMBOO


* Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi.

* * National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad.

* * * Jharkhand Education Project Council, Ranchi.

**** Centre for Applied Research in Electronics, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi.

Email of Corresponding author : [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Bamboo as a substitute to timber, in housing, has occupied the attention ofresearchers due to concerns of deforestation and the consequent impact onenvironment. The use of bamboo as a load distributor is well accepted in rural areas.Replacing timber with bamboo as a structural load bearing element could have farreaching consequences for rural housing. This in turn would have implications forgreening wastelands and earning carbon credits. However, introduction ofinnovations is more than a technology issue. The paper deals with a possible approachwhich could entail acceptability and sustainability of the innovation. Based on fieldinputs from the State of Jharkhand, the study brings to light that, for better acceptance,it is preferable that minimal changes are introduced in the existing houses, only onthose aspects, where constraints and limitations are felt. Thus, going in for a totallynew model of innovative housing is not a preferred option. The present paper proposesa participatory approach involving awareness building, through grassrootsorganisation, supported with skill development to transfer the technology in the ruralhousing structure.

Introduction

Shelter has occupied the innovativegenius of man since times immemorial. Theearly man depended on the locally availableraw materials for his shelter. Later with theneed to build large housing complexes,materials which could be standardised andreplicated were preferred by the builders. Thecountry side however is still replete with self-built houses using local materials. Since thesehouses are self-built, the need for replacementof certain degradable materials in these houses

have been accepted by the villagers withoutmuch ado, and preferred over the so calledstandardised materials, which requireconsiderable ingenuity to procure in theseremote locations. However, with the growingconcern on deforestation and the consequentimplications on global warming, availability oftimber, which played a major role in suchhouses, especially as the main load bearingelement for roofs is increasingly becoming aconstraint. Therefore, there is a need to identifyalternatives, using locally available rawmaterials. Bamboo is an appropriate alternative

292 Smita Chugh, Valentina, P.Sinha, B.Pandey, S. Tuli and P. Sudhakar


JRD 2 (5)

to timber since unlike long gestation trees,bamboo culms require regular harvesting, fromthe time it becomes 3-4 years old, to keep thebush healthy. Thus, availability of bamboo is agreen option for housing. Sudhakar et al. (2007)and Chugh et al. (2009) have brought out thetechnical viability of substituting timber withbamboo as a structural load bearing elementin rural houses. While, identifying the righttechnology as per the need is an area requiringresearch, an equally important issue is themethodology of introduction of innovationsin technology interventions in the rural areas,with the involvement of the house owners sothat it is sustainable and replicable. Jain andNaizi (2005) have discussed at length theparticipatory rural habitat process using casestudies. The framework for technologyinterventions in rural areas, using thecompetiveness tools of analysis brings out theissues and the prevalent models of technologydissemination (Chugh, 2008). The cultural andsocio-econmic issues including the effect ofhabit patterns while introducing newtechnologies in villages have been discussedby Chugh (2009). The World Habitat Awardswebsite list of finalists and winners gives thebest practices in these areas. Drawing on theseand field studies in the State of Jharkhand, themethodolgy for introduction of technologyinterventions, to provide an alternative totimber as the main load bearing element inrural houses, using locally available bamboo,is discussed in this paper.

Objectives of the Study

1. To assess the need of bamboo basedtechnology interventions substitutingtimber as a green option in rural housing.

2. To identify the best possible vehicles forfacilitating introduction of theinnovations as identified above.

3. To arrive at a sustainable and replicable

methodology for dissemination of thetechnology interventions identified.

Selection of the Study Area : The State ofJharkhand was selected in view of thepotential of bamboo and its scope in ruralhousing in the State. Three districts, Ranchi,Hazaribagh and East Singhbhum were selectedfor the pupose. All three were districts wherethe Jharkhand Education Project (JEPC) hadundertaken constructions of school buildingsusing innovative technologies and design. Soit was felt that learnings from their experiencecould be drawn upon.

Ranchi district had a good field presenceof the Rama Krishna Mission, a grassrootsorganisation, involved in bamboo plantationactivities in private lands apart from facilitatingtraining in bamboo based products. They havea good partnership with the State’s BirsaAgriculture University. This governed thechoice of Ranchi district for a field visit.

The choice of East Singhbhum districtwas governed by the fact that the district isknown for private initiatives in cultivation andtrade in bamboo based product. The otherconsideration was that bamboo plantationactivities were undertaken by the forestdepartment in the district, apart from activebamboo based research by the Krishi VigyanKendra.

Hazaribagh district was selected in viewof the information through JEPC sources, ofexistence of houses with more than 50 yearold bamboo in roofs.

Sample Framework : Response on thequestionnaire was obtained using multistagesampling. Sample selection was random -purposive. Villages preferred were thosewhere the JEPC constructed school buildingswith innovative technologies. This criterion wasused so that informed inputs on the learning


Strategising Innovations in Rural Housing Using Bamboo 293

JRD 2 (5)

from the JEPC experience could be obtained.In the district of Ranchi three blocks namely,Ormanjhi, Angada and Bero were selected asthese were the areas of operation of RamaKrishna Mission. Eighteen villages wereincluded in the sample, eight from Ormanjhi,five from Bero and five Angara blocks.

In East Singhbhum district, Ghatsila andChuklia blocks were selected as they wereknown for various private initiatives likebamboo plantations, bamboo artefacts andbamboo trade. Ten villages were covered, fivefrom Ghatshila and five from Chakulia blocks.

In Hazaribagh district, Barkatha block wasselected, as there were houses in this areawhere more than 50 year old bamboo was stillfound in good condition in roofs. Also, bamboowas used for roof construction even in thehouses of the local landlords/zamindars. Fivevillages from Barkhatta block were includedin the sample.

From each of the 33 villages so selected,data were collected from around fiverespondents in each village. 170 respondentsparticipated. A meeting was called of all thevillagers, and five respondents were picked atrandom giving preference to those who hadbeen associated with the training andconstruction process of the school building soconstructed through JEPC using innovativedesign and technologies.

Methodology

Technology dissemination based on feltneed assesment and perceptions enablesacceptability and sustainabilty of thetechnology disseminated. Therefore, themethodology used was a mix of direct andindirect evidence through the collection ofprimary and secondary data.

Primary data were collected throughfield visits to the State of Jharkhand to assessthe technology interventions required in view

of concerns of deforestation limiting theavailability of timber and the use of bambooin the rural areas and its availability, as well asthe likely areas where limitation of supply oftimber is faced. In addition, data werecollected through a structured questionnairebased on multi-stage purposive samplingframework. The cluster and elements wereselected as detailed above. The questionnairewas supplemented by open ended interviewsand focus group discussions.

Training on the technology to a smallsample group followed by reflection in aparticipatory workshop was adopted to assessthe receptivity and thus ease of disseminationthrough trainings. In addition, it was thussought to get an insight on the issues involvedand to firm up the methodology of technologydissemination. As a test case, possiblemodules were developed for communitymobilisation and training with the involvementof the participants which includedrepresentation of the major stakeholders.

Apart from direct assessment based onfield visits, secondary data were relied uponfor assessing the potential of the State ofJharkhand for dissemination of the bamboobased technology.

Literature survey was conducted to drawupon the initiatives in introducing innovationsin rural housing. Key learnings from theseinterventions were valuable inputs in firmingup the dissemination strategy.

Competitiveness tool – StrategyDiamond was used as a strategy for analysis,since this tool enables consideration of allpieces of a strategy in combination rather thanin isolation.

Potential of Bamboo and its Scope in RuralHousing in the State of Jharkhand

As per Bamboo Resource Survey in theState of Jharkhand undertaken in 2005 by the



JRD 2 (5)

Institute of Forest Productivity (IFP), Jharkhandwith 29.61 per cent of its landmass under forestcover has tremendous bamboo resourcespread over its hilly tracts. Jharkhand StateForest Development Corporation (JSFDC)project proposal states that the total areaunder bamboo forest in Jharkhand is 842 sq.kms., mainly confined to the drier parts of theState. The total Geographical Area of the Stateas per NRSA – Wasteland Atlas of Jharkhand is79706 sq. kms. 14 per cent of which iswastelands. Considering the tremendouspotential of the State, JSFDC submitted to theNational Bamboo Mission (NBM) a projectspanning over five years, 2007-2012 with aproject cost of `4655.37 lakh of which thefirst instalment of `100 lakh was received on7.12.2007. The Project envisages developmentof nurseries, certification of planting materials,plantation development works, research anddissemination for enhancing productivity,capacity building of farmers and entrepreneursfor better returns from bamboo products. Thusenhancing production and productivity ofbamboo based forestry and farming systemare the objectives of this project. The bambooresources in the State would be highlyaugmented under the project making usbelieve that shortage of this raw materialwould not be a constraint in advocating its usein housing in a big way. A detailed bamboobased livelihood survey by Krishi Gram VikasKendra brings out marketing as the majorproblem of the bamboo handicrafts producedby artisans for decorative and functionalpurpose. Supply chain management is an issuewhich requires attention as per this study. Thefocus of these efforts however overlooks thepotential of bamboo as a building material.Even though the NABARD (2003) report statesthat housing uses 20 per cent of the bamboogrown in the country, yet utilisation of bamboofor housing as an economic activity has yet tobe tapped by the State. This new focus wouldhave far reaching implications on the supplychain management of bamboo in the State.

The trade, transit and harvesting policiesof Bamboo are governed by a series ofGovernment Rules and Regulations.Confederation of Indian Industries and IndiaDevelopment Foundation (2007) has dealt ingreat detail how the forest regulations in thecountry are counter-productive toindustrialisation of the bamboo sector in thecountry. If bamboo is used in housing and ruralschool buildings as a commercial activity tobe taken up on a large scale, then theconsumption of bamboo would be nearer tothe areas of production and the transit rulesmeant to safeguard the bamboo plantationsagainst unscientific exploitation would reallynot be a deterrent to its use as pointed out.

Thus, secondary data bring to light that :

1. The State has a rich potential for bamboobased applications.

2. The availability of bamboo is likely toincrease in view of the bamboo basedproject funded to JSFDC by NBM.

3. Housing is an untapped area wherebamboo could be profitably employedwith implications on its supply chainmanagement.

In view of the potential of Jharkhand forintroduction of bamboo based technologiesin building construction, the State of Jharkhandwas selected for indepth study.

Innovations in the Study Area-Initiative ofJharhand Education Project Council in SchoolBuilding Constructions : An important initiativein the State as regards introduction ofinnovations in building construction was theinterventions of the Jharkhand EducationProject Council ( JEPC ). The JEPC used theparticipatory methodology for constructingschool building using innovative technologies.

As has been documented by Pailwar andMahajan (2005), Kapur (2006), Dayal (2006),



JRD 2 (5)

community mobilsation and participatoryapproach have been the strength of the JEPC.The JEPC has a rich tradition of innovativeschool building construction through theactive participation of the village educationcommittee. These committees are constitutedfrom among the villagers for ensuringparticipatory management of schools. Villageeducation committees have been formed fromamong the villagers through a communitymobilsation exercise. The members of thecommmitte comprise functionariesdesignated as a President and Vice-president.Jointly with the Head Teacher of the schoolthe functionaries of the committee could drawfunds placed at its disposal for the constructionof the schools. The JEPC, through the activeparticipation of the village educationcommittees of the school consisting of localvillagers/stakeholders, had trained andconstructed school buildings using innovativetechnologies.

As pointed above, the JEPC usedinnovative technologies in School BuildingConstruction. The design and development ofthe school buildings and the innovativefeatures was undertaken through workshopsconducted, focussing on use of local materials,cost-effective technologies and child-friendlyfeatures. The innovations introduced includedusing stub foundation, damp proofing throughuse of waste mobile, rat trap bond brickworkfor thermal comfort, filler slabs for cost-effectiveness while maintaining the strengthof the structure, arches on doors and windows,as well as hexagonal construction of theclassrooms instead of rectangular classroomsto make the room more spacious and child-friendly. The construction manual had beenprepared and revised through involvement ofstakeholders (JEPC, 2003). These constructionshad been undertaken with full people’sparticipation after due training to constructionworkers, VEC menbers and volunteers fromamong the community. Jointly with the Head

Teacher of the school the functionaries of thecommittee could draw funds placed at itsdisposal for the construction of the schools.So they were trained not only in constructionwork but also on accounting aspects.

Initiatives in Introduction of Innovation inHousing :

Initiatives in introduction of innovationsin housing are many. However, study of a fewbrings out the key learnings from theseexperiences which could be beneficial forarriving at a strategy.

The National Housing Programme ofCosta Rica (1986-1990) : This programme wasthe winner of World Habitat Awards in the year1990. It focussed on the use of bamboo forsocial housing.Therefore, it was studied. It wasstarted with the aid of Dutch Government inCosta Rica. It was an integrated projectinvolving cultivation of bamboo as well astraining for self-built houses (Chaves andGuteierrez, 1988). The houses had theadvantage of being low cost, supported withtechnology interventions. The NationalFoundation of the Bamboo (Funbambu) carrieson the activities. However, the programmecould not sustain itself with the initialmomentum. This was because the level ofactivity of the Foundation in the constructionarea totally depends on Government policiesin regard to popular housing (Adamsons andLopez 2001).

Ashraya Reconstruction Project-Orissa :Ashraya was recognised by UN-Habitat as oneof the ten best Indian habitat projects for theyear 2000-2001. This project was initiated byCARE India in response to the 1999 Orissacyclone. The key features were communitymanaged Core House project and setting upof the Building Material Services Bank (BMSB).Technology innovations were introduced tomake the houses cyclone resistant. Apart fromidentification and adoption of cost-effective



JRD 2 (5)

technologies the design building processeswere envisaged to be adaptable andacceptable to the community. The BMSBsfunctioned as supply nodes for buildingmaterials and skills. Training and communityinvolvement was an integral part of the project.The BMSBs set up networks with local artisansto provide a continuous upgrading of skillsthrough training. The project brings forth theadvantage of the tri-sectoral partnershiplinking the corporate sector, the developmentsector and the Government. It also highlightsthat community processes take time toestablish. Transportation of building materialsis the biggest hurdle (Jain and Naizi, 2005).

Owner Driven Housing Processes-Gujarat:Jain and Naizi (2005), documented the ownerdriven housing project initiative by an NGO,UNNATI undertaken as a reconstructionprogramme in response to the earthquake inthe State of Gujarat in 2001. They brought outthat an owner driven process factors the needsand preferences of the families in designingthe houses and determining the technologieswhich would be adopted for subsequentsustainability. Awareness camps, trainingprogrammes and technical support are anintegral part of this strategy.

Innovative Rural Housing and HabitatDevelopment in Kuthambakkam Village : Thisinitiative was a finalist in the year 2005 list ofWorld Habitat Awards (World Habitat Awardswebsite, 2009). It seeks to improve housingconditions in the Kuthambakkam villagethrough the use of innovative, appropriatetechnologies such as stabilised compressedearth blocks, to replace thatched huts in thevillage with safe durable housing. The projectwas initiated by Trust for Village Self-Governance ( T VSG), a charitable trustestablished in 2001. Training of masons andvillagers in the new technology was anintegral part of the project. However, one ofthe key barriers was the initial resistance bythe local village community towards the new

building techniques. However, effective useof Gram Sabhas to discuss and take collectivedecisions and encourage local people to takeownership of the process of development,helped overcome the barrier.

Azadpura Rural Housing Project, MadhyaPradesh : The Project was awarded the HUDCO– Sir M. Viswesvarayya award in 1997. A finalistfor the World Habitat Awards in the year 1999,it was implemented under Government ofIndia’s Indira Awas Yojna(IAY) among thesahariya tribals by TARAgram, a DevelopmentAlternative building centre. It sought toupgrade vernacular building systems usinglocal materials, local skills with theinvolvement of local community. Built withconcrete blocks, compressed earth and mudmortar, micro-concrete roofing tiles were usedfor each building. Awareness raising, regulartechnology orientation, training of localartisans and design development of houseswith owner participation were the keyprocesses adopted. Jain and Naizi (2005)pointed out that in terms of sustainability andscaleability, the initiative performed well as itcould involve the families to make themcontribute more than the stipulated minimumfor the project, in spite of their poorbackground. Also masons guilds could beformed with the new technologies. However,since the scheme was grant based and supplydriven, its replicability is limited. The guidelinesof IAY give flexibility in terms of design andtechnology choices to the family and thusdovetailing with this scheme could beprofitably used in introducing innovations.

The key learnings from the aboveexperiences are :

1. For innovations to be acceptable,participation and ownership of thecommunity are a must.

2. Owner driven interventions arepreferable.



JRD 2 (5)

3. Government partnership while desirable,dependence on government fundingwould entail vulnerability to changes inGovernment policies. However,dovetailing with Government schemeslike IAY could be profitably used as astarting point.

4. Community ownership is a long drawnprocess and requires sustained efforts.

5. Training of construction workers as wellas householders is an essentialingredient for successful technologytransfer.

6. Innovations based on local materials aredesirable as transportation of materialsto rural areas is a hurdle.

Need Assessment of Technology InputRequirements

The study was conducted in the State ofJharkhand to understand and assess theavailability and use of bamboo in theconstruction of houses in the State and needassessment as regards technology gaps. Fieldinvestigations revealed that the rural peopleprimarily use bamboo as load distributors onroofs with timber as the main load bearingelement. Due to the long gestation period oftrees and growing concern on deforestation,availability of timber becomes a limitation insuch construction. Timber is used for makingdoors and windows also but this is not alimitation as villagers are able to locallyinnovate with available materials. Most of thehouses were made of mud walls with slopingroofs made with earthern tiles.

While responding to the questionnaire,66 per cent of the respondents indicated thatavailability of bamboo is easy. Only 34 percent of the respondents indicated that woodavailability is easy. Though bamboo requiresreplacement after a couple of years, thishowever is not a constraint as the material and

expertise is locally available. Further, it wasclarified during discussions that only certainbamboo pieces as per requirement are to bereplaced and enmass replacement of theentire bamboo in the structure is not normallydone. This input gives insight into the fact that,when we think of introducing an innovationin rural housing sector, we have to designstructures which can be easily replaced andmaintained using local materials and expertise.Focus group discussions further revealed thatthe availability of bamboo is easy as comparedto timber. The villagers are very comfortableusing bamboo in their houses as loaddistributors. However, in the absence ofknowhow on using bamboo as replacementfor timber as a load bearing element, theirdependence on timber continues.

The type of roof preferred, whethersloping or flat, was considered an importantinput for development of the bamboo basedload bearing structure for roof. Hence inputson this were specifically taken, 74 per cent ofthe respondents preferred sloping roofs.During interaction with villagers it emergedthat both alternatives, sloping and flat roofwould need to be given in demo constructions.Some preferred sloping roof as it drains therain water while others prefer flat roofs as thatenables multistoried constructions.

Regarding the expertise employed forhouse constructions 91 per cent use localexpertise for technical support, 98 per centrespondents preferred self-constructedhouses, yet 92 per cent of the respondentsreported employing labour for masonary work,83 per cent would prefer brick walls if given achoice. Yet during interaction it was revealedthat for self-built houses they still go in formud walls as availability of bricks could be aproblem.

One very significant finding during thefield visit came to light with the visit of villageGungapecho, Block Barkatta in the district of



JRD 2 (5)

Hazaribagh. Three houses all belonging to thelocal landlord. The roof was built with closelyspaced layer of thin round bamboo lathi bas/pahari bas in the local parlance which wasidentified as Dendrocalamus strictus. Toppingthis layer was a thin layer of Khajoor leavesand then a mud plaster. The bamboo was tiedtogether with natural fibres and the walls wereof mud and cattle dung plaster. The main loadbearing element was the timber beams towhich the bamboo was tied with natural fibres.This roof served as the floor for the upperstorey storage space for keeping grains. Closerlook revealed, one house constructed in 1985,another more than 50 years old, and anotherwhich was constructed more than 80 yearsago. Interaction with house owners broughtout that non-availability of timber oftenbecomes a problem in the constructions.

The management of the forests in theState rests with the village forest committeeconstituted with Government Resolution. Thecommittee has rights on allocation of theproceeds from the forests. Interaction withvillage forest committee members in thevillage Moota and Banlotwa of tana Sikri inAngara block, close to the forest areas,revealed that in such villages, availability oftimber is not a constraint. The committee isable to allocate timber as per the housingneeds of the villagers, through scientificharvesting of the trees in the forest under theirmanagement. However, the availability oftimber in villages further from the forest is alimitation.

Under the aegis of Rama Krishna Missionin Angara block bamboo plantation was up onprivate lands. This is apart from the ubiquitouspresence of bamboo in and around the villagesof the three districts where the field visit wasundertaken. The State is rich in bambooresources with bamboo bushes nearhabitation, villages and in homesteads.

It was evident from field inputs that

1. There is huge potential for use ofbamboo as a housing material in viewof its availability close to the villages,and, comfort level of villagers regardingits use in rural housing.

2. Scientifically harvested bamboo bushesin and around houses in habitationscould play an important role in the yearround supply of mature bamboo timbereven while maintaining green ecologyand attendant multiple benefits.

3. The availability of timber is a constraintin those villages which are away fromthe forest areas. Though there is no suchlimitation in villages close to the forestwhere the management rests with thevillage forest committees.

4. Villagers are very comfortable with usingbamboo in houses as a load distributorthough they still depend on timber asthe main load bearing element inhouses.

5. The knowhow on replacing timber withbamboo as a structural load bearingelement in roofs in houses whileaddressing a felt need would requiretraining and awareness building beforeit is accepted by the villagers.

6. Since most of the houses are self-built,an owner-driven approach to trainingand contruction is desirable.

7. Skill building of construction workers inthe innovation is also a requirement,since local expertise is drawn upon inhouse constructions.

Dissemination Methodology Issues forAcceptability and Sustainability ofInnovations

The JEPC used innovative technologiesin school building construction using the



JRD 2 (5)

participatory approach. Whether a similarmethodology as adopted by JEPC could berecommended or were there gaps? Coulddissemination take place with the schoolbuilding as a model? Learnings from the JEPCexperience were therefore, consideredessential to identify the issues while firmingup the dissemination methodology.

The extent to which JEPC training wasimbibed by the VEC members was animportant question requiring inputs.Regarding the training imparted by JEPC onschool building construction, 24 per cent ofthe respondents had undergone the processout of whom 72 per cent of the respondentsidentified the knowledge of use of rat trapmasonary and filler slabs and felt that thistechnology was of advantage for the schoolbuilding so constructed. Regarding theperceived benefits derived from the newtechnology, several respondents indicatedmultiple benefits. Thus they were counted as305 responses and percentage worked outaccordingly. Twenty three per cent of therespondents indicated that the technologyresulted in cost savings, 27 per cent indicatedmaterial saving and 18 per cent labour savingwhile 19 per cent identified the strength ofthe structure as a benefit. Fourteen per centindicated other benefits like thermal comforts,spacious design etc. During interaction, themasons and the skilled labourers, who builtthe school buildings with the new technology,could explain the features as well as thebenefits, fairly accurately.

Regarding adoption of the innovativefeatures of the technology, used by JEPC forschool buildings, in construction of houses, itwas revealed that some used the filler slabs. Itwas indicated that the innovations requireconstruction of pucca houses, which theeconomic conditions of many in thecommunity did not permit. Also the responsesspecify lack of awareness and difficulty inmustering the expertise and materials for

house constructions using the innovationsincorporated in school building. Responsesalso indicate lack of a reason to adopt thesetechniques in view of an existing house whichwas serving their needs. However, during focusgroup discussions it emerged that even wherethere was awareness of the use of newtechnology and design in the school buildingsconstructed by the JEPC, yet adoption in theirown houses was not significant as the villagerswere not convinced of the appropriateness oftheir use in their own dwellings.

By and large, the requirements of theState funded school building were perceivedto be as distinct from the requirements of thevillagers for their own house. Thus, ownershipof the technology was not felt by thecommunity and the construction workers soas to adopt it in their own houses. Further, itemerged that the villager has a strong mindsetof their own on what is good for them and sosolutions have to factor in the factor ofacceptability for adoption. So change has tobe minimal and not large scale. Thus, replacingpresent methods of construction by new oneswould be acceptable only as regards thosefeatures as will fill in the gaps and satisfy a feltneed. The felt need however would require apre-requisite of awareness generationexercise, through facilitated discussions, forthe need to emerge from the users. Thevillager finds it difficult to accept a newtechnology, more so in housing, till it is triedand tested for its safety. So it may take someyears for any technology to be adopted in alarge scale.

Another factor which emerged was thatskills imparted to labour for construction doesnot necessarily mean that it will facilitateacceptability of the technology by thecommunity for construction of their ownhouses. However, it is essential to train theconstruction workers in the new technologiesso that this resource is at hand when a



JRD 2 (5)

householder undertakes construction of theirhouses.

With the spurring of constructionactivities in the rural areas under Sarva ShikshaAbhiyan, Indira Awas Yojna etc. the need tolook into local materials to sustain suchactivities becomes imperative. Bamboo basedstructural element could be one suchalternative. Inputs from Jharkhand EducationProject Council (JEPC) sources revealed thatthere is acute shortage of bricks in the districtof Ranchi itself so much so that therequirement of bricks for construction workunder the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is becominghard to meet. Against a requirement of27978200 bricks in a year the total availabilityin the district is 27600000 bricks. Thus takinginto account the demand for SSA alone theshortfall is to the extent of 378200. This has tobe further viewed in the context ofrequirement of .0204 cubic metre of soil forone brick totaling to a requirement of 570755cu.m. of soil in a year to meet therequirements of SSA alone. This hasimplications in terms of land degradation too.Considering that the brick based consumptionhas its adverse impact on the ecology, JEPChas been looking for alternative technologiesin line with the mandate of SSA. Thus, bamboobased construction of buildings in such areascould help overcome this constraint and couldbe an effective alternative. That apar t,interaction with the JEPC experts revealed,that a number of school buildings had beenbuilt in the past with foundation for singlestorey constructions. Shortage of land andincrease in enrolment requires verticalexpansion by construction using light weightmaterials like bamboo. Thus, the JEPC wouldrequire whole bamboo structures. Theirrequirements would be therefore, differentfrom that of house owners who prefer minimalchanges to the existing structures only to theextent of addressing the limitations due todifficulty in getting timber.

Thus, field investigations reveal that:

1. In order for a technology to be adoptedby the community, change has to beminimal, addressing felt needs of thecommunity. Unless there is a felt need,a new technology even if perceived asa better one, need not be adopted inthe construction of the houses by thecommunity.

2. Technology innovations in Stateconstructed school buildings, even ifintroduced with proper training and fullparticipation of the community, do notnecessarily lead to ownership of thesetechnologies by the community, for theirown housing need.

3. Economic conditions also determine theextent to which new technologies inState funded pucca buildings is adoptedby the community for its own houses.

4. Skills imparted to construction workersdo not trigger introduction of a newinnovation in construction technologiesof houses in rural areas. However, this isan essential requirement forintroduction of any innovation.

5. The bamboo based technologyrequirements in school buildingconstructions could be different fromthat in the house constructions. Thus,different strategies and technologicalinterventions may be required for thetwo building types, viz, houses andschool buildings. Therefore, introductionof innovations in school buildings maynot always have the desireddemonstration effect so as to trigger andfacilitate introduction of technologyintervention in the construction ofhouses.



JRD 2 (5)

Evolution of a Methodology forIntroduction of Innovation in Houses

Evolving a methodology of introducingthe innovation in the field was undertakenthrough participatory workshops. To get anidea of the ease of dissemination andacceptability of the innovation using parabolicshape of the bamboo arch, a five-day longhands-on training was conducted at Divyayan,the rural technology centre at Rama KrishnaMission (RKM), Ranchi. The trainers weremaster artisans from IIT Delhi. The expertiseof RKM was also drawn upon. The trainees wereyouth from the rural areas, undergoing holistictwo-year long capacity building at Divyayan,RKM, with the objective of infusingentrepreneurship and other related skills. Theyhad a rural background and their own housesin their village employed bamboo.

Using the methodology prevalent ininterventions taken up by the JEPC, thetraining was followed up with a reflection cummodule preparation exercise with theinvolvement of the trainees and the variousstakeholders. The stakeholders whoparticipated were rural people involved inbamboo work, bamboo artisans, as well as theusers of bamboo application including housing.The expertise available with the JharkhandEducation Project Council (JEPC), the StateForest Department, Jharkhand State ForestDevelopment Corporation (JSFDC), RamaKrishna Mission (RKM) were also drawn upon.This workshop was of four-day duration. Thetrainees shared their learning from the hands-on training with other participants. The variousissues involved were discussed and modulesfor training and community mobilisation wereprepared with the participation of the trainees,experts and the stakeholders. A consensusemerged on the following points:

1. Technologies can be effectivelydisseminated to a community only whenthere is a felt need for it.

2. The felt need in a community emergesthrough informed awareness buildingusing scientific community mobilisationtechniques.

3. The needs in a community have to factorin availability of resources- materials andmanpower.

4. Since change is dislocating,identification of technology needs startsfrom what is existing. Those gaps in anexisting technology are required to beidentified which are to be bridgedthrough technology interventions inorder to address the needs. Thus,minimal change should be effected.Bringing in a totally new housingstructure is therefore, notrecommended.

5. Additionally, skill transfer is essential toprovide the services and technicalinputs. This requires training.

6. The output and input linkages could beprovided by grassroots basedorganisations with closer link to thecommunity and with infrastructure forwider networking. For the State ofJharkhand, Rama Krishna Mission with itsRural Technology wing was found to bemost appropriate for this purpose.

7. Partnership of JEPC and JSFDC wasconsidered desirable for drawing upontheir resources both in terms ofexpertise and initial financial support.

8. Dovetailing with IAY wherever possiblewas also considered desirable tosupplement the resources.

The outcome of the workshop was thepreparation of modules for training andcommunity mobilisation by the participants.This exercise also gives a measure ofconfidence in the ownership of the



JRD 2 (5)

methodology evolved by the participants. Thekey features of these modules are givenbelow.

Module for Community Mobilisation : Thiswould involve

1. Facilitators making entry into thecommunity through conversation, dancedrama troupes – kala jhatha,participation in activities of the villagersto engage them in conversation. Doorto door contact could also be anessential feature of establishing contact.

2. Preparation of nazri naksha throughParticipatory Rapid Assessment (PRA)exercise (Kumar 2002). However, inareas where there is resistance tomapping as was indicated in certain ultradominated areas, this step could bedispensed with. This would not beessential in areas where the RamaKrishna Mission has a good grassrootbase but could be used even there as atool for self-assessment of the needs bythe villagers.

3. Organising group meetings with thecommunity for discussions could takeplace on availability of bamboo, use ofbamboo in houses and the possibility ofusing it as a main load bearing elementand thus reduce dependence on timber.Audio visual aids could be employed tobuild up awareness and confidence onits use as a load bearing element inhouses. Discussion would also cover thepossible advantages. The prevalentpractice and the limitations need to bebrought out by the community throughfacilitated discussions by experts.Information given by experts is alsovalued by the community, so expertsshould also be involved in thesediscussions.

4. During the workshop the participantsdevoted a session in preparing mockconversations, small skits/drama, stories,songs to bring home the key issuesinvolved. These could be used as tools,but more importantly, the villagers couldbe encouraged to similarly preparesongs, dramas and stories which wouldbe shared with the group. This exerciseis expected to improve the involvementof the villagers.

5. During the community mobilisationexercise participants for the training andpotential sites and householders fordemo construction would be identified.It was felt that two houses for villagersfrom among the participants should beconstructed during the process oftraining. These would serve well as ademonstration effect, which would bemore effective than demonstrationthrough State funded and ownedbuildings.

Training Module : The training would behands-on, in which two demo houses fromthose of among the participants would beconstructed. It would be of five-day durationand involve

1. Prior to the training certain preparatoryexercise would have to be done.Scientific harvesting of bamboo andtreating it through leaching for nearly45 days would have to be undertaken.Thus the training would have to beplanned at least two months in advance.Prior identification of skilled trainers,listing of tools and materials also needto be done before the training isscheduled. The trainers should includeskilled artisans as well as experts with agood knowledge of bamboo especialyits scientific harvesting and treatment.



JRD 2 (5)

2. The training would be focussed only onto the gap area of substituting timberwith bamboo parabolic arches as themain load bearing element. Constructionof bamboo based doors, windows androof would also be included in thetraining. However, construction of mud/brick wall will have to precede thetraining.

3. The training should be undertaken justafter Holi, in the months of April toSeptember. This is recommended sincebamboo clearing starts soon after rainsin the month of October and goes on tillMarch.

4. A group of 32 participants wasconsidered to be best, so that they couldbe split into four groups of eightparticipants each. The participantsshould be identified during thecommunity mobilsation exercise toinclude 15 progressive householdersinterested in getting their houseconstructed with the new technology, 4farmers engaged in private bamboocultivation, 7 construction workers and6 bamboo artisans.

5. Before the hands-on training on theactual construction of bamboo arches isundertaken, a session with bambooexperts should be scheduled. This wouldinvolve discussion on the advantages ofbamboo over that of timber, scientificharvesting of bamboo, treatment ofbamboo and its maintenance and care.

6. A session on the existing houseconstruction and the gaps in technologyis also required to be scheduled so thatthe trainees approach the hands-ontraining with full understanding.

7. The hands-on training have to involvedemonstration of the load bearing

capacity of the parabolic shape and thetypes of bamboo which would be bestfor this application.

8. The assembly of the structure on to thehouse is an important component of thetraining.

9. During the training those participantswho can function as helpers to mastertrainer in future trainings would beidentified.

Analysis of the Strategy

Hambrik and Fredrickson introduced theStrategy Diamond in 2001. It highlights thechoices and the choice gaps in the proposedstrategy. It enables consideration of all piecesof a strategy in combination rather than inisolation. It suggests that a good strategyshould include answers to questions of thefour facets of the diamond as in Fig. 1 ( Hambrikand Fredrickson in www.provenmodels.com)

Fig. 1 : Strategy Diamond

Chugh (2008) used the strategy diamondas a tool for analysis from the competitivenessperspective to arrive at a framework fortechnology interventions in the rural areas. Thistool can also be used to summarise strategyand strategy intent regarding introduction of



JRD 2 (5)

technology innovation, as proposed in theforegoing discussions, in rural housing, usingthe four corners of the diamond as below:

Arenas : Where will we be active?

For acceptability of any new interventionand thus its sustainability, change has to beminimal. Chugh (2009) brought out how longestablished habit patterns can be a deterrentto introducing innovations in a rural setting.Innovations in housing are therefore, acceptedonly if they address a felt need with minimalchanges as to effect living patterns. In thecurrent situation in the State of Jharkhandwhere bamboo is available within the villagepremises and availabilty of timber a constraint,it is the need of substituting timber withbamboo which requires to be addressed. Thusinstead of going for a completely innovativedesign of a house, it is best to introduce onlythe innovation which seeks to overcome thislimitation. The primary use of timber in ruralhousing is as the main load bearing elementin roofs. Bamboo parabolic arches as structuralload bearing elements can effectively replacetimber in such houses (Sudhakar et al. , 2007and Chugh et al., 2009).

Vehicles: How will we get there?

State driven interventions are not ableto generate ownership by the community. Soit is best that these innovations are driven byorganisation with good grassroot contact. Atthe same time the organisation should havethe capacity to provide the input and outputlinkages. For the State of Jharkhand, RamaKrishna Mission was found to be most apt. Ithas a long track record of working in the ruralareas around Ranchi. It has a good ruraltechnology centre. It has worked in partnershipwith the Birsa Agricultural University in thecountry side. It was felt that supported by theJEPC and the JSFDC it can be an effectivevehicle. The technology support could beprovided by the researchers and technical

hands in the bamboo unit at the Indian Instituteof Technology, Delhi, with whose support theinitial hands-on training was conducted atRKM. In due course RKM could develop ruralentrepreneurs to make the process self-sustaining and replicable.

Differentiators: What are our strengths toaccomplish goals? how will we win?

Since the innovation is expected to meetthe felt needs of the community and addressesa technology gap it is expected to be acceptedby them in due course. The ease ofconstruction with minimal processinggives the confidence to believe thatreplication and technology dissemination formass production would be relatively simple.

Since value added use of bamboo inhousing is in the vicinity of the area wherethey are grown, therefore, trade and transitrestrictions on transport of bamboo elsewherewould not apply. Moreover, unlike longgestation trees bamboo culms require regularharvesting from the time the culms become3-4 yrs old, to keep the bush healthy. Thus,continuous availability of bamboo for housingpurposes is an eco-friendly option. Thistherefore, would be a good means of greeningthe wasteland and earning carbon credits aswell. The consequent increase in demand forbamboo for such constructions could have farreaching consequences for economics of bamboo in the rural areas as well as on thesupply chain management, once, high valueadded returns could be generated due to localmarket potential instead of the need totransport bamboo to distant areas for furthervalue addition. This apart, use of locallyavailable bamboo, thus doing away withtransportation of building materials fromdistant areas, is also an energy saving measureresulting in an eco-friendly utilisation system.The use of bamboo parabolic arches as loadbearing elements in roofs is thus a ‘green’option for housing.



JRD 2 (5)

Staging: How will we obtain our results? Whatwould be our speed?

Systematic programmes of communitymobilisation and training would be the meansof achieving the results. Construction of demohouses of some of the participants, during thetraining, would generate confidence in thepeople to adopt the technology for their ownhouses. Upgrading the skills of the constructionworkers and bamboo artisans would furtheraid the process as it would give them addedlivelihood opportunities. Involvement ofbamboo cultivators in the training develops inthem the confidence of ready market due tohousing activities. Since change requires timefor its acceptability, therefore, continous andsustained presence and support of RKM wouldbe an essential ingredient in ensuringsustainability and replicability. Moreover, it willalso ensure continous support for technologyinputs as well as input and output linkages.The modules for community mobilsation andtraining would be further refined with usage.For further trainings, trainers would bedeveloped from among the trainees. Thus, aseries of community mobilisation exercisesfollowed by trainings would be an essentialingredient. In the process a group of ruralentrepreneurs could be developed for furthersustainability and replicability of theintervention. Though the intervention wouldnot depend on State support, yet programmeslike the IAY which offer flexibility for adoptionof a new technology, while enabling the houseowner to have financial support fromGovernment could be dovetailed with theprogramme. Where financial constraint maybe a factor in finding volunteers for such

construction, this dovetailing could be helpfulin building the initial demo structures andthereafter sustaining the intervention amongthis category of house owners.

Conclusion

The study brings out that substitutingtimber with bamboo based load bearingstructural elements in roofs of rural housesaddresses a felt need in areas where supply oftimber is a constraint. However, introductionof innovation in rural housing would be mostacceptable when change is minimal, only onthose aspects where limitations are felt.Demonstration through State funded buildingconstructions may not always be viewed witha sense of ownership by the community. Forsustainability it is best to depend onorganisations with good grassroot presence ofsustained interaction with the community. Thissupplemented with owner driven constructionof demo houses is essential for involementand confidence building in the householder.Skill upgradation of house owners,construction workers and related stakeholderslike bamboo artisans is also an essentialingredient. The consequent increase indemand for bamboo for such constructionscould have far reaching positive consequencesfor rural economy and ecology through propersupply chain management, avoiding the longdistance transportation of bamboo. It wouldhave also implications for greening ofwastelands and earning carbon credits. Theintroduction of innovation will also encouragerural entrepreneurship leading to prosperityof the area.



JRD 2 (5)

References

1. Chaves A. C., Guteierrez Jorge A. (1988), The Costa Rican Bamboo National Project’, In : Proceedingsof the International Bamboo Workshop, Bamboo Current Research, November 14-18,1998.

2. CII (Confederation of Indian Industries) and IDF (India Development Foundation), (2007),‘Industrialisation of the Bamboo Structure’.

3. Chugh Smita, (2008), Technology Interventions in Rural Areas - A Competitive Framework,In : Selected Readings, A National Consultation on Technology Bank Held at National Instituteof Rural Development, Hyderabad, October 20-21.

4. Chugh Smita, (2009), ‘Sojourn - In the Soul of India’. www.serenewoods.com

5. Chugh Smita, Kandya A., Singh S., Korde C., Sudhakar P. (2009), Bamboo as a Green EngineeringMaterial for Rural Housing- a New Perspective, Presented in Bhartiya Vigyan Sammelan ( BVS2009), Dec 1-3, Indore, India.

6. Dayal H. (2006), Community Participation in DPEP Districts of Jharkhand - Report Submittedto Jharkhand Education Project Council and UNICEF.

7. Hambrick D. C. and Fredrickson J. W.. Strategy Diamond, Accessed on 21/02/2010 from http://www.provenmodels.com/598/strategy-diamond/donald-c.-hambrick—james-w.-fredrickson/

8. Jain. D, Naizi. Z (2005), Participatory Rural Habitat Processes : Emerging Trends, Vol 1;Development Alternatives, Building Social Housing Foundation; New Delhi, India.

9. Jharkhand Education Project Council (2003), ‘Construction Manual for Building DevelopmentProgramme’.

10. Kapur A. (2006), Final Report, Review of the Joint Programme Implementation in India : Janshala,Submitted to UNDGO, New York.

11. Kumar S. (2002), Methods for Community Participation, Complete Guide for Practitioners,Vistaar Publications. 333p.

12. Adamson M and Lopez D., (2001), Final Report, Socio-Economic Study for the Bamboo Sectorin Costa Rica, Working Paper, International Network for Bamboo and Rattan.

13. NABARD - National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (2003), The Bamboos inIndia, A Policy Document, NABARD, India.

14. NRSA – Wastelands Atlas of India - Jharkhand, accessed on 26/03/2009 from http://dolr.nic.in/fwastecatg.htm

15. Pailwar V.K. and Mahajan V. (2005), Janshala in Jharkhand, An Experiment with CommunityInvolvement in Education, International Education Journal, 6(3), 373-385.

16. Sudhakar, P. Gupta, S. Bhalla, S. Korde, C. Satya, S. (2007), Conceptual Development of BambooConcrete Composite Structures in a Typical Tribal Belt, India, In : Y.Xiao, M.Inoue and S.K.Palidel(Eds.), Modern Bamboo Structures : Proceedings of First International Conference on ModernBamboo Structures (ICBS- 2007), Changsha, China. 28-30 October : 65-73.

17. World Habitat Awards Website, accessed on 31/3/2009 from http://www.worldhabitatawards.org.

Jabir Ali*

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVE FORPROMOTING MICRO-ENTERPRISESIN RURAL INDIA: A CASE OF SGSYIN UTTAR PRADESH

ABSTRACT

This study analyses the process of micro-enterprise development based onsocial capital created under a government initiative i.e. Swarnjayanti Gram SwarozgarYojana (SGSY) - a rural self-employment scheme - through establishing self-helpgroups (SHGs) for sustainable development in India. In particular, the study discussesthe process of enterprise development and highlights how self-employmentprogrammes can help Indian poor to bring them above the poverty line by buildingtheir capacity in terms of technical and entrepreneurial skills. The study is based on aprimary survey of 107 self -help groups (SHGs) in the State of Uttar Pradesh, byadministering a structured questionnaire. The study also identifies critical issues ateach stage of the programme development, starting from the process of groupformation to initiation of economic activities. Findings of the study suggest practicalinsights for developing SHG based micro-enterprises in profitable and sustainablemanner.


* Assistant Professor, Centre for Food and Agribusiness Management, Indian Institute of Management,Sitapur Road, Prabandh Nagar, Lucknow-226013. Email: [email protected]

This paper is part of an externally funded project “Development of Micro-enterprises through Self-Help Groups

under the Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY ) in Uttar Pradesh” by the Department of Rural

Development, Government of Uttar Pradesh.

Introduction

Development planning in India hasadopted several approaches for generatingemployment and alleviating poverty under theFive Year Plans (Kakwani and Subbarao, 1990;Gaiha et al., 2001), which can broadly becategorised into two parts (i) schemes for self-employment generation by enhancing theskills and capabilities of beneficiaries forundertaking economic activities, and (ii)schemes for wage employment generation byundertaking labour intensive activities in ruralareas and creating sustainable rural

infrastructure. Several government schemeson self-employment were initiated to assistselected families of target groups in rural areasto bring them above the poverty line by takingup entrepreneurial ventures (Dreze, 1990;Vyas and Bhargava, 1995), but failed to achievetheir goals due to limited coverage in overallprocess of enterprise development. In theprocess of self-employment generation, mostof the schemes aimed at providing eithertraining or limited financial assistance to theselected beneficiaries without properguidance for starting new entrepreneurialventures.

322 Jabir Ali


JRD 2 (4)

Based on the vast experience andanalysis of various development programmes,a comprehensive self-employment generationinitiative named as the Swarnjayanti GramSwarojgar Yojana (SGSY), was launched in April1999 as an integrated programme for self-employment of the rural poor to bring themabove poverty line in three years time byorganising them into Self-Help Groups (SHGs)and building their capacity in terms oftechnical and entrepreneurial skills forestablishing micro-enterprises/ incomegenerating activities through bank credit andgovernment subsidy. While formulating theprogramme, due emphasis was laid on processorientation and avoidance of design-deficiencies with respect to identification ofkey activities, planning for activity clusters,building the entrepreneurial capacity ofswarozgaris, ensuring adequate credit support,establishment of forward and backwardlinkages, and market and technology supports.A group based approach was envisaged forimproving the effectiveness of the schemethrough the formation of social capital in theform of Self-Help Groups (SHGs).

The SHG model, as of today, has becomethe preferred intervention for a variety ofdevelopment programmes, especially formicro-credit, micro-enterprise developmentand poverty reduction (Adams, 1996; Creevey,1996; Fisher and Sriram, 2002; Lahiri-Dutt andSamanta, 2006). All over the world, micro-enterprise development initiative has receiveda lot of attention for being a participatorystrategy that can potentially alleviate povertyby including the disadvantaged groups in theprocess of development (Bhatt, 1997;Banerjee, 1998; Gaiha, 2000; Premchander,2003). Inayatullah and Birley (1997) arguedthat the most important aspect ofdevelopment lies in economicallyempowering the individuals by enhancingtheir entrepreneurial skills for managingsustainable enterprises. They further argued

that micro-enterprise is one of the mostimportant means by which vast numbers ofpeople throughout the world seek to improvetheir well-being. It is observed that the processof micro-enterprise development by involvingpoor has great potential for increasing bottom-up citizen participation, empoweringcommunities with economic opportunities,and bringing social and political changes atthe grassroots level (Holt and Ribe, 1991;Hulme and Mosley, 1996; Seelos and Mair,2006). Self-help groups were introduced as ameans to reduce poverty and to promotecapacity building for assisting ruralcommunities in their efforts to utiliseresources, access information and to gainbetter access to savings and credit (Mandal,2005; Moyle et al., 2006).

Besides Swarnjayanti Gram SwarozgarYojana (SGSY) several other agencies havetaken up programmes for supporting SHGmovement, including National Bank forAgriculture and Rural Development(NABARD), Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK, anautonomous organisation promoted byDWCD), Swa-Shakti Project of the Departmentof Women & Child Development (DWCD) andWatershed Development Projects of Ministryof Rural Development, Mahila Samakhya of theDepartment of Education, Jeevika Project ofGovernment of Gujarat etc. Therefore, itbecomes imperative to understand theprocess of enterprise development based onself-help group initiatives in a holistic manner.

Methodology

Objectives of the Study : The study aims atanalysing the process of micro-enterprisedevelopment under Swarnjayanti GramSwarozgar Yojana (SGSY) based on a primarysurvey of 107 self-help groups (SHGs) in theState of Uttar Pradesh, by administering astructured questionnaire. The study identifiescritical issues at each stage of the programmedevelopment, starting from the process of


Government Initiative for Promoting Micro-Enterprises in Rural India ... 323

JRD 2 (4)

group formation to initiation of economicactivities in a profitable and sustainablemanner. Finally, the study suggests practicalinsights for organising entrepreneurialactivities for sustainable development in thelong-run and discusses how the governmentinitiative can help Indian poor to cross thepoverty line by building their capacities interms of technical and entrepreneurial skillsfor establishing micro-enterprises/ incomegenerating activities.

Sample Data and Analysis : This paper isbased on purposively selected 107 SHGs withworking micro-enterprises in the area of foodprocessing, textiles, furniture and furnishingunder the Swarnjayanti Gram SwarojgarYojana (SGSY) in the State of Uttar Pradesh. Inthe process of selecting working SHGs,discussions were conducted with the officialsof the Department of Rural Development,Government of Uttar Pradesh to identify thepotential distr icts. The selected SHGsbelonging to 26 districts of Uttar Pradesh werethen contacted for personal interviews withthe help of a structured questionnaire. Thegroups were surveyed to collect theirresponses on the process of group formation,linkage with banks, nature of business andconstraints faced by them in undertaking theentrepreneurial activities. The collected datawere analysed with simple analysis using theStatistical Package for the Social Sciences(SPSS).

Profile of Self - Help Groups (SHGs) : Theprofile of SHGs were analysed in terms of ageof the group, membership, gendercomposition, member composition by aboveand below poverty line and age and educationprofile of the respondents. The profile analysisclearly indicates that most of the groups weremore than three years old and started theireconomic activities after receiving loan-cum-subsidy from the bank. In terms ofmembership, 54 per cent were females and93 per cent were below poverty line members,

with average membership of 11 persons (Table1). As SHGs are the primary unit of analysis,most of the responses were collected fromthe office-bearers/group leaders of these SHGsand majority of them belong to the age groupof 26-45 years with an average age of 37 years.The educational profile of the respondentsindicates that most of them were literate andnearly one-third have higher school and above.

Table 1 : Profile of Surveyed SHGs (N=107)

S.No. Profile N %

1. Age of groups (years)

d”3 10 9.4

4-7 72 67.3

>7 25 23.4

Average 5.9

2. Size of groups and gender composition

Total male members 543 45.7

Total female members 644 54.3

Average size of group 11

3. Members by living of standard

APL members 84 7.1

BPL members 1103 92.9

4. Age of group leader (years)

<25 8 7.5

26-35 38 35.5

36-45 46 43.0

46-55 15 14.0

Average 37.4

5. Educational profile of group leader

Illiterate 29 27.2

Primary 26 24.3

Jr. High School 15 13.6

High School 12 11.7

Intermediate 17 15.5

Graduate /PG 8 7.8

324 Jabir Ali


JRD 2 (4)

Results and Discussion

Process of SHGs Formation : TheSwarnjayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY) iswell designed and well documented with clearcut objectives of self-employment generationthrough entrepreneurial and skilldevelopment which ultimately lead toestablishment of micro-enterprise at thegrassroots level. The scheme emphasisesgroup formation by creating networks thatbuild social capital which accumulates at eachstage of group development/ evolution. Eachstage of SHG evolution has been given dueimportance and a time-frame for promotingsustainable employment and incomegeneration for people living below povertyline. The results across the country have shownthat group formation and development is nota spontaneous process in most of the cases, asgroup formation is largely motivated by NGOsand block level officials. Therefore, for properdevelopment of group activities, the schemeenvisages the provision of involving supportorganisations i.e. Non-GovernmentOrganisations (NGOs) to work at the grassrootslevel. These support organisations have beenassociated from group formation stage topromotion of micro-enterprises. In general,District Rural Development Agency (DRDA)has taken the help of the NGOs, mainly up togroup formation and social mobilisation stage.

The process of group formation leadingto micro-entrepreneurship developmentcreates networks of people who learn to trusteach other within the group. The social capitalarises from norms of reciprocity and networksthat the programme creates both betweenindividuals and institutions such as bank andgovernment agencies, fosters relationshipsbetween entities and institutions that werepreviously disconnected. Further, developmentof human capital through training and skillupgradation enables members to workeffectively towards attaining the economic

goal of group formation i.e. initiatingsustainable and profitable micro-enterprises.

Table 2 shows some important findingsof the survey with regard to group formationand management. As the scheme has beenimplemented through DRDA with the supportof block office, majority of groups wereformed as a result of the motivation of blockemployees in a target based approach.Generation of self-employment is consideredto be the most important objective of groupformation. Most of the groups have formalrules and regulations to direct the groupmembers. Majority of the groups undertakeregular monthly saving of a fixed amount, asdecided by the group. Further, most of thegroups meet regularly and exerciseparticipatory decision-making for group’sinterest or to resolve any disputes amonggroup members. The economic transactioni.e. crediting is considered to be the primeconcern for most of the groups. Training is animportant aspect for entrepreneurialorientation of the group’s activities. About 52per cent of the groups reported that inductiontraining has been provided by the supportorganisations and were linked with banksthrough which they availed of subsidy-cum-loan facility.

Table 2 : Process of Group Formation andStabilisation (N=107)

S.No. Processes N %

(1) (2) (3) (4)

1. Community mobilisation& group formation

1.1 Motivation for group formation

Friends/relatives 6 6.0

Block Employees/ NGOs 88 82.0

Gram Pradhan 7 7.0

Self 5 5.0

(Contd.)



JRD 2 (4)

1.2 Objectives of group formation

Employment generation 73 68.2

Income generation 10 9.3

Village development 2 1.9

Others 22 20.6

1.3 Rules & Regulations of group

Yes 91 85.0

No 16 15.0

2. Group stabilisation andcapacity building

2.1 Regular saving

Yes 84 78.5

No 23 21.5

2.2 Regular meeting

Yes 88 82.2

No 19 17.8

2.3 Decision-making process

Participatory decision 79 73.5

Based on majority 23 21.7

President/secretary 4 3.6

Others 1 1.2

2.4 Major issues raised in meeting

Monetary transactions 75 70.4

Production related 12 11.1

Personal problem of members 8 7.4

Others 12 11.1

2.5 Induction training

Yes 56 52.3

No 52 47.7

2.6 Source of training

Experienced members/labourer 7 12.5

Training camp by NGOs 21 37.5

Government Camp 8 14.3

Prior knowledge 17 30.4

Others 3 5.4

2.7 Bank linkage

Yes 107 100.0

No 0 0.0

Development of Micro-enterprises : Micro-enterprise development forms an essentialelement for promoting the well-being of thepoor by providing significant income andemployment generating opportunities, and byencouraging indigenous investment forgreater sustainability. Given the high start-upand exit rates of micro-enterprises, there is aneed for continuous assistance in terms offinancing, assurance of raw materialavailability, premises and places for conductingbusiness, equipments and other physicalassets, technology, skills and access to markets,for increasing the chances of survival andgrowth of the micro-enterprises.

The stages of developing the micro-enterprises start from raw material sourcingto marketing of the final products. This sectionprovides a detailed analysis on functioning ofSHG based micro-enterprises. Importantconsiderations involve product development,market research, storage of raw material, useof technology, training and skill upgradation,quality control standards, product packagingand branding, participation in organisedexhibitions/fairs and other activities related toproduct development. It is clear from Table 3that in the process of micro-enterprise

Table 2 : (Contd.)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

(Contd.)

Table 2 : (Contd.)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

326 Jabir Ali


JRD 2 (4)

development, very few groups performmarket research in order to identify themarketing potential of the products and todevelop their products as per the consumertastes. About 50 per cent of the groupsmaintain raw material buffer and source it fromthe nearby market. Further, about 43 per centof the groups seek financial support to investin their micro-enterprises.

The level of technology usage is lowamong the group enterprises due to high costof technology. The products of 11 per centgroups are registered particularly in FoodProduct Order (FPO) for food processinggroups, whereas majority of the groups havenot registered their products. About 26 percent groups have adopted quality controlmeasures, whereas majority of the groups arenon-adopters. Product packaging issignificantly practised by majority (53 percent) of the groups. However, most (71 percent) of the groups sell their products as non-branded items. Market forces are the majordeterminants of product price in most of thegroups. About 40 per cent groups reportedparticipation in exhibitions/fairs to increase themarket penetration of their products on onehand and promotion and advertising on theother.

Table 3 : Activities by Groups inDeveloping Micro-enterprises (N=107)

S.No. Processes N %

1. Product development

Yes 32 29.9

No 75 70.1

2. Market research

Yes 28 26.2

No 79 73.8

3. Storage of raw materials

Yes 54 50.5

No 53 49.5

4. Source of raw materials

Local village 10 9.7

Nearby market 49 45.8

Distant market 25 23.6

Self-produce 1 1.4

Others 21 19.4

5. Financial support from anywhere

Yes 46 43.0

No 61 57.0

6. Use of Technology

Yes 70 65.4

No 37 34.6

7. Registration of the products

Yes 12 11.2

No 95 88.8

8. Quality control standardsfor the products

Yes 28 26.2

No 79 73.8

9. Product packaging

Yes 57 53.3

No 50 46.7

10. Branding of the products

Yes 31 29.0

No 76 71.0

11. Basis of Product Pricing

Market based 73 68.1

Minimum possible price 7 6.9

Quality based 9 8.3

Cost based 18 16.7

12. Participation in exhibition/fares

Yes 43 40.2

No 64 59.8



JRD 2 (4)

Constraints in Developing Micro-enterprises : The major constraints as reportedby the members of SHGs have beendocumented, beginning from raw materialsourcing to marketing of their products (Table4). In case of raw material sourcing, which isthe major cost component, majority of thegroups reported lack of working capital as amajor constraint. A number of groups (54 percent) do not even consider raw materialstorage as an important business preposition.However, lack of working capital, high carryingcost and non-availability of storage place arecommon problems in procurement of rawmaterials. In using modern technology, lack oftechnical know-how is another problem facedby the groups followed by the problemsassociated with lack of capital and non-availability of technology. Importantly, thegroups reported training needs regardingtechnical, managerial, production andmarketing related activities. Poor packagingand product prices are the areas where thegroups face market competition.

Table 4 : Constraints in DevelopingMicro-enterprises (N=107)

S.No. Constraints N %

1. Constraints in sourcing of raw materials

Lack of working capital 44 41.3

Transportation 37 34.8

Non-availability/ seasonality 19 17.4

High cost of raw material 5 4.3

Non-cooperation of members2 2.2

2. Constraints in storage of raw materials

Not important 57 53.6

Lack of storage place 11 10.7

High cost of carrying 19 17.9

Lack of working capital 19 17.9

3. Constraints in using moderntechnologies

Lack of capital 33 30.6

Lack of technical know-how 48 44.4

Lack of power/electricity 12 11.1

Non-availability of technology15 13.9

4. Training needs for skills upgradation

Technical 79 73.9

Managerial 19 17.4

Financial 5 4.3

Marketing 5 4.3

5. Types of competitionfaced in the market

Quality 39 36.7

Packaging 29 26.7

Market price 30 28.3

Others 9 8.3

Conclusions and Implications

The approach of group based initiativesin various developmental programmes acrossdeveloping countries has generated enormousenthusiasm among government and non-government organisations (NGOs) forachieving their goals. These initiatives havebeen proved significantly successful increating social capital for betterment of thesociety at large. The idea of attempting povertyreduction through the provision ofuncollateralised loans-cum-subsidy to self-help groups (SHGs) for establishing micro-enterprises has gained momentum in therecent decade.

The Swarnjayanti Gram SwarojgarYojana (SGSY) is one of the systematicallydesigned programmes for self-employment ofthe rural poor, by organising them into Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and building their capacityin terms of technical and entrepreneurial skillsfor establishing micro-enterprises/ incomegenerating activities through bank credit andgovernment subsidy. The analysis of responsesfrom SHGs with micro-enterprises indicatesthat the scheme has been very successful in

328 Jabir Ali


JRD 2 (4)

achieving social development through socialentrepreneurial action. Social capital in theform of SHGs generates mutual support amongthe members in promoting social enterprisein a sustainable manner. As the success ofenterprise depends on an efficient interactionbetween social, human and economic capital,a proper mix needs to be maintained in theprocess.

Analysis of the scheme indicates that theongoing practices in developing micro-enterprises through SHGs lay much emphasis

on provision of credit and subsidy and lessattention on enhancing human and economiccapital among the group enterprises such asprovision of business development services,entrepreneurial training and skill upgradation,technology acquisition and transfer andexpansion of market access and marketingassistance. The study makes an in-depthanalysis into these aspects, which need to beaddressed for developing successful micro-enterprises at the grassroots level by involvingpoor families for rendering the communityefforts viable, successful and sustainable.

References

1. Adams, R. (1996), Social Work and Empowerment, Macmillan, Basingstoke.

2. Banerjee, M. Mahasweta (1998), “Micro-Enterprise Development: A Response to Poverty,” Journalof Community Practice, 5 (1/2), 63 – 83.

3. Bhatt, N. (1997), “Micro-enterprise Development and the Entrepreneurial Poor : Including theExcluded?,” Public Administration and Development, 17, 371-386.

4. Creevey, L. (1996), Changing Women’s Lives and Work : An Analysis of the Impacts of EightMicroenterprise Projects, Intermediate Technology Publications, London.

5. Dreze, Jean (1990), “Poverty in India and the IRDP Delusion,” Economic and Political Weekly,25(39), A95-A104.

6. Fisher, T. and M. S. Sriram (2002), Beyond Micro-credit : Putting Development Back into Micro-finance, Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

7. Gaiha, R. (2000), “Do Anti-poverty Programmes Reach the Rural Poor in India?,” OxfordDevelopment Studies, 28(1), 71-95.

8. Gaiha, R., K. Imai, and P. Kaushik (2001), “On the Targeting and Cost-effectiveness of Anti-poverty Programmes in Rural India,” Development and Change, 32, 309–342.

9. Holt, S. L. and H. Ribe (1991), Developing Financial Institutions for the Poor and ReducingBarriers to Access for Women, World Bank, Washington, DC.

10. Hulme, D. and P. Mosley (1996), Finance Against Poverty, Vol. 1. London: Routledge.

11. Inayatullah, J and S Birley (1997), “The Orangi Pilot Project : The Evaluation of a Micro-enterpriseCredit Institution,” Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 9(4), 299-318.

12. Kakwani, N. and K. Subbarao (1990), “Rural Poverty and Its Alleviation in India,” Economic andPolitical Weekly, 25(13), A2-A16.

13. Lahiri-Dutt, K. and Gopa Samanta (2006), “Constructing Social Capital : Self-Help Groups andRural Women’s Development in India,” Geographical Research, 44(3), 285–295.



JRD 2 (4)

14. Mandal, A. (2005), “Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana and Self-Help Groups: An Assessment,”Kurukshetra, 4–9.

15. Moyle, T. L., M. Dollard, and S. N. Biswas (2006), “Personal and Economic Empowerment in RuralIndian Women: A Self-help Group Approach,” International Journal of Rural Management, 2 (2),245-266.

16. Premchander, S. (2003), “NGOs and Local MFIs—How to Increase Poverty Reduction ThroughWomen’s Small and Micro-enterprise,” Futures, 35, 361–378.

17. Seelos, C. and J. Mair (2006), “How Social Entrepreneurs Enable Human, Social, and EconomicDevelopment,” in Alleviating Global Poverty. Ed. Harvard Business School, Jossey-Bass: SanFransisco, CA.

18. Vyas, V. S. and P. Bhargava (1995), “Public Intervention for Poverty Alleviation: An Overview,Economic and Political Weekly,” 30(41/42), 2559-2572.

Santhosh Kumar S.*

SHG LINKED MICRO-ENTERPRISES -THE KERALA EXPERIENCE

ABSTRACT

Setting up of micro-enterprises or micro-businesses by women seekingmicrofinance has become a popular employment generation and poverty eradicationmodel in India. The exponential growth of women groups, microfinance institutionsand micro-businesses are solid evidences for the myriads of opportunities andadvantages the model presents. Different States in India with varied geographical,cultural and political environment are adopting their own modes of promotionalefforts in this regard. The Kudumbashree Mission – the poverty eradication missionof the State of Kerala - has been instrumental in facilitating the formation of womengroups, micro-enterprises, provision of administrative and financial aid, andmonitoring the microfinance activities in the State. The present micro study aboutthe Kudumbashree linked micro-enterprises in three panchayats of the Ernakulamdistrict of Kerala reveals the general and economic prospects of the enterprises alongwith different problems confronted by micro-entrepreneurs. It also advocates thestrategies to be adopted by the enterprises, and promotional agencies to overcomethe problems, and survive in the competitive environment.


* Lecturer (Selection Grade), Post Graduate Department of Commerce, St. Peter’s College, Kolenchery,Ernakulam, Kerala - 682 311. E mail – [email protected]

* * 302 million poor people in India - 27 per cent of the total population (India Development Report, 2008).

Entrepreneurship serves as a boon forpoor women in India** who find it difficult tomake both ends meet. They have beenencouraged to start micro-enterprises tobecome self-employed and self-sufficient.Microfinance is a strategic supportive tool formicro-enterprises development in the countryfor poverty reduction and employmentgeneration. Being fractions of a federalmechanism, the different States in India withvaried geographical, cultural and politicalenvironment have been adopting their own

modes for promotion of micro-enterprises intheir respective States in ally with the UnionGovernment. Despite the importance of thissector in India, it continues to struggle withdifficult business environment, viz., lack ofadequate credit, lack of management training,problems of marketing, poor technology etc.(Bhatnagar, 2008). Hence an in-depth analysisof the sector can reveal the current status ofmicro-enterprises, the constraints under whichthey are functioning and identify conditionsor interventions necessary for the growth and

332 Santhosh Kumar S.


JRD 2 (1)

development of this sector. Macro and microstudies about the micro-enterprises sector are,therefore, of great relevance to furtherstrengthen the sector.

The Background

Kerala is a narrow stretch of land locatedalong the southwest coast of the Indiansubcontinent comprising a total land area of38,863 sq. km. and a total population of 38.84million (Govt. of Kerala, 2005). The ruralhouseholds, as percentage of total households,in the State is 76.65 against the nationalaverage of 73.92 per cent (The Hindu BusinessLine, 2008). Poverty in the State is estimatedto be 13.2 per cent against the national ruralaverage of 28.7 per cent (Govt. of Kerala, 2007).However, these figures are reported to begross underestimates. Women constituting51.4 per cent of the total population of Kerala(2001) have a favourable sex ratio (1058compared to 933 for the country as a whole).The life expectancy at birth (76 years forwomen in Kerala while it is 61.8 years at theall India level), and infant mortality rate (14per thousand for Kerala while it is 58 at the allIndia level) are also favourable to women.Despite these achievements, the system ofpatriarchy has conditioned the majority womenof Kerala to play a secondary role to men insocial, economic and political activities. As aresult, they lag behind in empowermentdespite their achievements in education andhealth (Govt. of Kerala, 2007).

Beginning from the mid-eighties of thepast century, micro-credit has become a keystrategy for poverty alleviation andempowerment of women in Kerala (Anand,2002). Now, the women especially in ruralKerala are engaged in a freedom struggle. Theyare organising themselves into Self-HelpGroups (SHGs) to free themselves from theclutches of usurious moneylenders andperennial poverty. About 98 per cent of theself-help groups in Kerala are women groups.

On the growth parameter, it is evident thatthere is an exponential increase of micro-credit programmes in the State. As indicatedin NABARD’s (2009) publication, Status of MicroFinance in India 2008-09, progress of SHG-Banklinkage programme in Kerala by March 2009is as follows: number of SHGs formed(cumulative) 3.59 lakhs, savings account` 232.42 crore; bank loan disbursed during2008-09 in respect of 60,376 SHGs ` 516.74crore; bank loan outstanding in respect of176,153 SHGs by end March 2009 is ` 951crore. However, this rapid growth of womengroups in the State also opens great debatesas to whether provision of credit for womencould change the economic and socialequations in which this subset of thepopulation live. Most of the studies in Keralahave focused on the performance of SHGs,neglecting the assessment of real impact ofmicro-credit on empowerment of thebeneficiaries by generating livelihood fromincome generating activities. Setting-up ofmicro-enterprises availing of micro-credit bywomen is also becoming a popular mode ofgenerating income and employment in manyparts of the State.

“Kudumbashree”, the State PovertyEradication Mission (SPEM), was launched bythe Government of Kerala in 1998 with theactive support of Government of India andNABARD for wiping out absolute poverty withina period of 10 years. The project isimplemented through Local Self-Governmentsempowered by the 73rd and 74thConstitutional amendments. Within a shortspan of ten years, Kudumbashree could bringabout considerable change in the lives ofwomen of Kerala by converging resources,ideas and programmes. About 36 lakh womenof the State have been organised into 182,969grassroots level Self-Help Groups(Neighbourhood Groups). Apart from thriftmobilisation and informal banking, the missionhas given birth to 29,436 vibrant micro-


SHG Linked Micro-enterprises - The Kerala Experience 333

JRD 2 (1)

enterprises making around 54,949 womenowners of these units. Kudumbashree viewsmicro-enterprise development as anopportunity for providing gainful employmentto the people below poverty line, and therebyimproving their income and living standard.The present study is a pragmatic effort toelucidate the form, structure and functionaldetails of Kudumbashree l inked micro-enterprises in Kerala.

Methodology

The study is descriptive and analytical innature. It is limited to one of the 14 districts ofKerala, viz., Ernakulam. Ernakualm districtcomprises 88 gram panchayats, out of whichthree panchayats were selected at random toconstitute the sample. The three selectedpanchayats are Ikkarnad, Maneed, andAmbaloor. Altogether, there are 106Kudumbashree l inked micro-enterprisesoperating in the above three panchayats. Outof these, 45 micro-enterprises were selectedat random to constitute the sample units(Table 1). Micro-enterprises having at leasttwo years of continuous operation wereincluded in the sample. The data relating tothe financial year 2008-’09 were collected forthe study from micro-enterprises. The primarydata were collected using an interviewschedule. The opinion of the respondents onqualitative variables is collected on a three-point scale, and weighted mean score wasworked out for each variable. The secondarydata were collected from the KudumbashreeDistrict Mission Office - Ernakulam, Panchayatoffices, and published reports ofKudumbashree, Kerala State PovertyEradication Mission, Government reports andjournals. Tools like percentages, weightedaverages, and ranking techniques were usedfor data analysis.

Table 1 : Selection of Sample Enterprises

Panchayats Micro-enterprises

Population Sample

Ikkarnad 38 15

Maneed 36 15

Amballoor 32 15

Total 106 45

Objectives of the Study

1. To trace the form and structure ofKudumbashree l inked micro-enterprises;

2. To obtain the average sales generationand profit generation of Kudumbashreelinked micro-enterprises; and

3. To identify the major problems faced bymicro-enterprises in general.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

General Profile of Micro-enterprises

Form of Organisation : Group enterpriseswith combined ownership by womenmembers constitute 89 per cent of theselected micro-enterprises, and the rest 11 percent are individual enterprises (Table 2).

Table 2 : Form of Organisation

Type of No. of Percentageenterprise respondents

Individual 5 11enterprises

Group enterprises 40 89

Total 45 100

Source : Primary data.



JRD 2 (1)

Age of the Enterprises : Majority of theenterprises (51 per cent) have age less thanthree years; thirty-eight per cent have threeto five years; nine per cent have five to sevenyears; and the rest two per cent have age aboveseven years (Table 3).

Table 3 : Age of Enterprises

Year Number Percentage

< 3 years 23 51

3 - 5 years 17 38

5 - 7 years 4 9

> 7 years 1 2

Total 45 100


Nature of Activities of the Unit : Whilemanufacturing and processing enterprisesconstitute 47 per cent, trading, agricultural, anddairy farm enterprises figure 11 per cent each

(Table 4). Service enterprises account for 20per cent.

Table 4 : Nature of Activities

Nature Number Percentage

Manufacturing/ 21 47Processing

Trading 5 11

Service 9 20

Agriculture 5 11

Dairy Farm 5 11

Total 45 100


Initial Investment : The average initialinvestment in the case of individual enterprisesis ` 95,000, and for group enterprises`140,125 (Table 5). Majority of the enterprises(58 per cent) have investment rangingbetween ` one to two lakh each.

Table 5 : Initial Investment

Project cost (`) Individual Enterprise Group Enterprise Total Percentage

Up to 50,000 2 2 4 9

50,001- 100,000 - 8 8 18

100,001-150,000 3 10 13 29

150,001-200,000 - 13 13 29

Above 200,000 - 7 7 16

Total 5 40 45 100

Average (`) 95,000 140,125 - -




JRD 2 (1)

Sources of Finance : The sources of financeof micro-enterprises comprises own fund, loanfrom banks, subsidy from Kudumbashree, andother borrowings. Loan from banks (average

`126,667), and subsidy from Kudumbashree(average ` 41,667) constitute the majorsources (Table 6).

Asset Structure : The average fixed assetsin the enterprises is ` 96,006, and averagecurrent assets amounts to `117,140 (Table 7).Fixed assets position in majority of the

Table 6 : Sources of Finance

Amount (`) Own Fund Loan from Subsidy from OtherBank Kudumbashree Borrowings

No. % No. % No. % No. %

Up to 50,000 43 96 7 15 22 49 13 28

50,000-100,000 2 4 8 18 15 33 -

100,001-150,000 10 22 8 18 -

150,001-200,000 13 29 — - -

Above 200,000 7 16 - - -

Total 45 100 45 100 45 100 13 28

Average 27,212 126,667 41,667 17,600


enterprises (51 per cent) ranges between `50,000 to ` 90,000. Current assets position insignificant majority of the enterprises (89 percent) ranges between ` 80,000 to ` 120,000.

Table 7 : Asset Structure

Assets Range(`) Fixed assets Current assets

Number Percentage Number Percentage

Up to 50,000 8 18 20 44

50,001-100,000 15 33 8 18

100,001-150,000 10 22 12 27

150,001-200,000 10 22 5 11

Above 200,000 2 5 - -

Total 45 100 45 100

Average (`) 96,006 117,140




JRD 2 (1)

Economic Prospects

Sales/Revenue Generation : The averageannual sales generation of micro-enterprisesamounts to `176,667. Majority of theenterprises (55 per cent) could generate salesbetween `100,000 and `150,000 (Table 8).Annual sales generation above ̀ 200,000 waspossible only for nine per cent of theenterprises.

Table 8 : Annual Sales/RevenueGeneration

Sales (Rs.) Number Percentage

Up to 50,000 5 11

50,001-100,000 8 18

100,001-150,000 25 55

150,001-200,000 3 7

Above 200,000 4 9

Total 45 100

Average Sales 176,667


Profit Generation : Average annual profitgeneration before meeting interest onborrowed capital amounts to ` 33,417(operating profit), and after meeting allexpenses amounts to ` 24,733 (profit afterinterest payment). Majority of the enterprises(60 per cent) earned up to ` 20,000 a yearfrom the enterprise.

Table 9 : Annual Profit Generation

Annual Profit (`) Number Percentage

Up to10,000 17 38

10,000-20,000 10 22

20,000-30,000 6 14

30,000-40,000 2 4

40,000-50,000 1 2

Above 50,000 9 20

Total 45 100

Average Operating 33,417Profit/Enterprise (`)

Average Profit/ 24,733Enterprise (`)

Average Profit / 7,463Member (`)


Employment Generation : Employmentgeneration by enterprises reveals that while58 per cent generated full-time employmentup to 15 days in a month, 36 per centgenerated 16 to 25 days a month, and 7 percent generated 26 to 50 days. Part-timeemployment generation was also possible bythe enterprises (Table 10).

Table 10 : Employment Generation per Month

Days Full-time Part-time

No. % No. %

1-15 26 58 16 36

16-25 16 35 24 53

26-50 3 7 5 11

Total 45 100 45 100




JRD 2 (1)

Profitability : The profitability of micro-enterprises relating their average return toaverage investment and average sales aredepicted in Table 11. Return on sales/revenuegenerated figures 18.91 per cent, and returnon investment 15.67 per cent.

Table 11 : Profitability

S.No. Particulars Amount /%

1 Average Annual Operating 33,417Profit per Micro-enterprise (`)

2 Average Annual Profit 24,733per Micro-enterprise (`)

3 Average Annual Investment 213,146per Micro-enterprise

4 Average annual Sales per 176,667Micro-enterprise

5 Average Profitability on 15.67Total Investment (%)

6 Average Profitability on 18.91Sales (%)


Problems Observed

General Problems Faced : Problems facedby micro-enterprises ranked based on actualmean score ( Table 12) clearly reveal thatcompetition (score 2.33, rank 1), impropermanagement (score 2.27, rank 2), scarcity ofcapital (score 2.04, rank 3), poor technology(score 2.02, rank 4), and inter-personalproblems (score 2.02, rank 4) are the majorproblems faced by the micro-enterprises. Themean scores of these variables are higher thanthe expected mean score (score 2). The actualmean scores of other variables such as seasonalnature of business, untrained workforce, highcost of raw materials, lack of accounting skill,

and lack of education are lower than thecentral value of the expected score.

Table 12 : Problems Faced by Enterprises

S.No. Problems Weighted Mean RankScore Score

1 High Market 105 2.33 1Competition

2 Improper 102 2.27 2Management

3 Scarcity of Capital 92 2.04 3

4 Poor Technology 91 2.02 4

5 Inter-personal 91 2.02 4Problems

6 Seasonal Nature 88 1.95 5of Business

7 Untrained 84 1.86 6Workforce

8 High Cost of 80 1.77 7Raw Materials

9 Lack of Accounting 79 1.75 8Skill

10 Lack of Education 64 1.42 9


In A Nutshell

Setting up of micro-enterprises or micro-businesses, by women seeking microfinancehas become a popular employmentgeneration and poverty eradication model inIndia. The exponential growth of womengroups, microfinance institutions, and micro-businesses are solid evidences for the myriadsof opportunities and advantages the modelpresents. Different States in India with variedgeographical, cultural and political



JRD 2 (1)

environment are adopting their own modesof promotional efforts in this regard. TheKudumbashree Mission – the povertyeradication mission of the State of Kerala - hasbeen instrumental in facilitating the formationof women groups, micro-enterprises, provisionof administrative and financial aid, andmonitoring the microfinance activities in theState. The present micro-study about theKudumbashree linked micro-enterprises inthree panchayats of Ernakulam district ofKerala reveal the general and economicprospects of the enterprises along with

different problems confronted by micro-entrepreneurs. Average Return on Investment(ROI) of around 16 per cent per annum inaddition to full-time and part-timeemployment generation is found to be quiterewarding. High market competition, impropermanagement, scarcity of capital, poortechnology, and inter-personal problems arereported to be the major hindrances in theconduct of enterprises. Equipping theentrepreneurs to face competition bysynchronising technology and cost reductionefforts may further improve the situation.

References

1. Anand, Jaya S. (2002), ‘Self-Help Groups in Empowering Women: Case Study of Selected SHGsand NHGs’ - Discussion Paper No. 38, Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development,Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram.

2. Bhatnagar, Amitabh (2008), “Rural Microfinance and Microenterprises – Informal RevolutionOverview”, in Bhatnagar (ed.), “Rural Microfinance and Microenterprises – Informal Evaluation”:Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.

3. Beatriz Armendáriz de Aghion, Jonathan Morduch (2000), Microfinance Beyond Group Lending,The Economics of Transition 8 (2), 401–420.

4. Ghate, Prabhu (2006a), ‘State Assault on Micro-Finance’, Economic Times (May 18), New Delhi,2006.

5. Ghate, Prabhu (2006b), ‘Microfinance India – A State of the Sector Report, 2006’, AccessDevelopment Services in Association with Sage Publications, New Delhi.

6. Government of Kerala (2005), Economic Review 2005-06, State Planning Board,Thiruvananthapuram.

7. Government of Kerala (2007), Economic Review 2006-07, State Planning Board,Thiruvananthapuram.

8. NABARD (2009), Status of Micro Finance in India 2008-09, Microcredit Innovations Development,NABARD, Mumbai.

9. Pathak,N. (2004), ‘Operating Expenses in Micro Finance’, Sa-Dhan Newsletter, Vol. 5, Issue 1(Special Issue), New Delhi.

10. Punnoose, Abraham (2008), Micro Finance Scenario of Kerala, Southern Economist – August 1,2008: Bangalore.

11. Report of the Working Group on Competitive Microcredit Market in India (2007), DevelopmentPolicy Division, Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi.



JRD 2 (1)

12. Sinha, Sanjay et al. (2003), The Outreach/viability Conundrum ‘Can India’s Regional Rural BanksReally Serve Low Income Clients’, p.42-46, M-CRIL, Gurgaon.

13. Srinivasan, N. (2009), Microfinance India – A State Sector Report 2009, Access DevelopmentServices in Association with Sage Publications, New Delhi.

14. The Hindu Business Line, Editorial, November 12, 2008.

15. Thruman, Eric (2007), Microcredit is Effective for Women in Self-employment, The Hindu BusinessLine – November 8, 2007.

16. Vasudevan, P.N. (2009), Microfinance Needs Regulated Growth, The Hindu Business Line – January3, 2009.

Nisha Srivastava*

FEMINISATION OF AGRICULTURE :WHAT DO SURVEY DATA TELL US?


* Department of Economics, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh. Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

It is frequently asserted that there has been a feminisation of agriculture in Indiathough there has been little systematic effort to furnish evidence to support this. Ifindeed there has been feminisation, should it be viewed as a positive developmentfor women? This paper provides some evidence, based on NSSO surveys, of women’sgrowing participation in agriculture; it then argues that the entry of women in theworkforce can be empowering for women, but conditions must be conducive.

As more women enter the labour market, the opportunities for correcting genderasymmetries and empowering women open up, but the potential remains untappedbecause the conditions under which feminisation is taking place are loaded againstwomen. Not only do women farmers not have ownership rights to the land theycultivate, but very few women have the autonomy to take production relateddecisions. This emerges from the analysis of agricultural census data that show thata very small proportion of agricultural holdings are controlled by women. Thus thereis a clear disjunction between the growing number of women farmers and the limitednumber who have decision making powers in agriculture. Moreover, women are alsohandicapped on other fronts; disparities in wages and work days, low levels ofeducation and skills, constraints on access to loans, and training; and lack of acollective voice. If the increasing numbers of women entering the workforce are toimprove their own well-being and contribute to suffusing dynamism in agriculturemany measures need to be taken urgently.

With more than half of India’s workforceengaged in agriculture as the principaloccupation, agriculture retains its position asthe predominant sector of the economy.Women’s engagement and participation inagriculture has always been high even if it hasnot been adequately recognised or recorded.In recent years, however, with increasing out-migration of men, it is asserted that more andmore women are participating in agriculture

and as a result there has been a feminisationof agriculture (GoI, 11th Plan; NationalCommission for Farmers, II Report 2005).Although this view has acquired wideacceptance, there is little systematic attemptto furnish evidence to support this or tounderstand the extent to which this is takingplace. Moreover, if feminisation is indeedtaking place, what are the implications forwomen? Are there any lessons for policy?

342 Nisha Srivastava


JRD 2011 (1)

This paper examines this issue byanalysing the trends in women’s engagementin agriculture. The first part of the paperanalyses data from the National SampleSurveys (NSS) to show that the proportion ofwomen workers in agriculture is higher forwomen than it is for men. Moreover, inabsolute terms there has been an increase inthe number of women farmers. The secondpart of the paper notes that while feminisationhas the potential to be empowering forwomen and a catalyst for dynamic growth inagriculture, there are a number of factors thatlimit this potential. Women are constrainedbecause they have little or no decision makingin agriculture or control of holdings. Wherethey do have control it is largely over smallfixed holdings. Women agricultural workersreceive lower wages and fewer days of workcompared to men and have lower access toeducation and training.

One of the important constraints is thatwhile the number of women farmers hasincreased, very few have the autonomy to takedecisions regarding their holdings. This isshown by an analysis of gender disaggregateddata on holdings from the agricultural census.Thus there is a clear disjunction between thegrowing number of women farmers and thelimited number who exercise decision makingcontrol in agriculture. Another constraint is thedisparities in wages and workdays as shownby data from the NSS. Other handicaps facedby women are also discussed: low levels ofeducation and skills, constraints on access to

loans, and training; and lack of a collectivevoice. If the increasing numbers of womenentering the workforce are to contribute todynamism in agriculture it is important thattheir capabilities are enhanced, gender andsocial group disparities reduced and forms ofcollective action and assertion arestrengthened.

The analysis in this paper is based on datafrom the National Sample Survey and from theAgricultural Census. The most recent largesample data available from the NSS are fromthe 61st round (2004-05). We use data fromthis round and from the earlier rounds. Theagricultural census provides information onoperational holdings by gender but data areonly available for 1995-96 and 2000-01.However, this should not pose a problem,because the factors that would influencewomen’s share in holding alter very slowly andit is safe to presume that the change insubsequent years would be of the same smallmagnitude as that between the two censusyears that we have analysed.

Women in the Agricultural Workforce : theEvidence of Feminisation

Among women workers in rural areas,83 per cent were engaged in agriculture, ascompared to 67 per cent of men workers(NSSO 2004-05)1, showing that a largerproportion of women workers were inagriculture as compared to men. The annualgrowth rate of all male workers in rural areas

Table 1 : Growth Rate (Percentage) of UPSS Agricultural and Total Workers (Rural)

1983/94 1994/05 1983/05

Agriculture Total Agriculture Total Agriculture Total

Male 1.5 1.9 0.5 1.5 1 1.7

Female 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.7 1.3 1.5

Total 1.4 1.8 0.9 1.6 1.1 1.7

Source: Computed from NSS Employment and Unemployment Surveys.


Feminisation of Agriculture : What Do Survey Data Tell Us? 343

JRD 2011 (1)

was 1.5 per cent in the decade 1993-94 to2004-05, the growth rate of workers inagriculture was only 0.5 per cent. For femaleworkers the corresponding figures were 1.7and 1.4 per cent : illustrating that the growthof women workers was three times that ofmale workers.

Table 2 shows that although both menand women have been moving out ofagriculture to take up work in other sectors,

this movement away from agriculture hasbeen faster for men. The latter have movedout of agriculture to take up employment inhotels, construction and financing andinsurance sectors. Movement into non-farmjobs for women has been very slow.

This pattern observed at the national levelis replicated in most states. Table 3 shows theworkers in agriculture as a proportion of allrural workers by gender. In order to highlight

Table 2 : Distribution of Workers Across Industrial Category Within Gender Group (Rural)

Industry Men Women

1999-00 2004-05 1999-00 2004-05

Agriculture, Forestry &Fishery 71.4 66.5 85.4 83.3

Mining & Quarrying 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.3

Manufacturing 7.3 7.9 7.6 8.3

Electricity, Gas & Water 0.2 0.2 0 0

Construction 4.5 6.8 1 1.5

Trade & Hotels 6.8 8.3 2 2.5

Transport, Storage & Communication 3.2 3.8 0.1 0.2

Financing Insurance etc. 0.5 0.7 0.1 0.1

Community & Social 5.6 5.1 3.6 3.8

All 100 100 100 100

Source : Computed from NSS Employment and Unemployment Surveys, 1999-00 and 2004-05.

broad regional differences, without clutteringup the analysis, ten major states have beenexamined. These are Uttar Pradesh and MadhyaPradesh in the north, West Bengal and Orissain the east, Maharashtra and Gujarat in the westand Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in thesouth. Punjab and Kerala are included because,

as we shall see later in this paper, when weanalyse the data on operational holdings, theyrepresent two extreme poles. The Tablehighlights the fact that the proportion ofwomen workers in agriculture is higher thanthat for men in all states (except West Bengal).



JRD 2011 (1)

The proposition of feminisation ofagricultural workforce is supported by the datafrom the NSS which shows that while therehas been an increase in the absolute numberof both men and women in agriculture in theperiod under review, the number of womenhas increased more, so that the relativeproportion has moved in favour of women.

Table 3 : Percentage Share Of Agricultural Workers inTotal Rural Workforce in Selected States

States Males Females Difference in % shareof female and male

1999-00 2004-05 1999-00 2004-05 1999-00 2004-05

Punjab 63.7 54.7 90.6 89.7 27 35

Kerala 42.8 37.1 59.8 51.7 17 15

North

Uttar Pradesh 71.8 66.3 87.5 86.5 16 20

Madhya Pradesh 84.2 79.1 91.6 88.1 7 9

East

West Bengal 66.4 63.9 54.1 58.8 -12 -5

Orissa 77 65.9 80.4 74.6 3 9

West

Maharashtra 73.8 71.4 93.9 90.7 20 19

Gujarat 71.4 69.3 92 89.1 21 20

South

Tamil Nadu 62.2 58.7 75.9 73.8 14 15

Andhra Pradesh 74.4 66.4 84.3 78.5 10 12

India 71.4 66.5 85.4 83.3 14 16.8

Source : Computed from NSS Employment and Unemployment Surveys, 1999-00 and 2004-05.

As Table 4 shows, while there was anincrease in both the number of men (6.6million) and women (15.7 million) inagriculture, the increase was much more forwomen. Consequently, the ratio of men towomen that was 61:39 in 1999-00 moved upto 58:42 in 2004-05.



JRD 2011 (1)

People may be engaged in agricultureeither as self-employed workers (hereinafterreferred to as farmers in line with commonusage) or as agricultural labourers. Table 5shows that between 1999-00 and 2004-05, thenumbers of farmers, both male and female,

increased, but the number of agriculturallabourers declined marginally. Overall, whilemale workers in agriculture increased by 4.7per cent, the percentage increase for womenworkers was 17.5 per cent, that is, by morethan three times that of male workers.

Table 4 : Number of Farmers and Agricultural Labourand Percentage Distribution by Gender

Farmers (mln) Agricultural labour (mln) All workers (mln)

1999-2000 2004-2005 1999-2000 2004-2005 1999-2000 2004-2005

Male 85.3 96.8 55.7 50.8 141 147.6

Female 51.9 69.4 38 36.2 89.9 105.6

Total 137.3 166.2 93.7 87 231 253.2

Percentage Distribution by Gender

Male 62.1 58.2 59.4 58.4 61.0 58.3

Female 37.8 41.8 40.6 41.6 38.9 41.7

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Computed from NSS Employment and Unemployment Surveys, 1999-00 and 2004-05.

Table 5 : Change in the Number of Agricultural Workers by Type of Worker and Gender

Change in number Change in number Change in number Change in numberof farmers (mln) of ag labourers (mln) of all agricultural of all agricultural

workers (mln) workers (%)

2004-05 over 2004-05 over 2004-05 over 2004-05 over99-00 99-00 99-00 99-00

Male 11.5 -4.9 6.6 4.7

Female 17.5 -1.8 15.7 17.5

Total 28.9 -6.7 22.2 9.6

Source: Computed from NSS Employment and Unemployment Surveys, 1999-00 and 2004-05.



JRD 2011 (1)

The Context of Feminisation

The above analysis il lustrates thatfeminisation is indeed taking place, albeit at aslow pace. As males migrate to seek work,women are left to retain a foothold in landthat is crucial for the security it provides interms of food, livelihood and collateral.Feminisation has been taking place in a periodof agrarian crisis, neglect of agriculture anduncertainty as a result of opening up tointernational markets. Institutional credit toagriculture has been woefully inadequate,quantitative restrictions on imports have beenreduced or removed with deleteriousconsequences, public investment in irrigationand other infrastructure has been very low, andmany farmers faced crop failures. All this ledto stark agricultural distress. Women have beennegatively impacted upon by thesedevelopments which have added to theproblems and arduous work burden theyalready face on the domestic and work relatedfronts. There is no gainsaying that the incomeand consumption of many women in ruralareas would have deteriorated in this period.

On the positive side, as more womenenter the labour market, the opportunities forcorrecting gender asymmetries andempowerment open up. Earning an income,controlling expenses and taking productionrelated decisions can be stimulating andchallenging for women. IFAD’s report on ruralpoverty refers to a study from China to showthat male migration can increase women’sdecision making powers in the family and inthe community and states, “the rule is the moremen work off the farm, the more activelywomen participate in the village”(IFAD 2002,p 47). This enhancement of women’s agencyis something that women report they cherish.

However, the conditions under whichfeminisation is taking place are loaded againstwomen. Women are entering the workforce

hobbled. On the one hand, women have littleaccess to assets and resources, and their skillsand capabilities are low and on the other, theexternal environment is uncertain, threateningand unfavourable. If rural poverty has to comedown, and if women are to gain from thepossibilities that are opening up, the contextin which feminisation is taking place has tochange. Some of these constraints arediscussed below.

Constraints on Women in Agriculture

Lack of Ownership Rights Over Land : Inthe classic novel Gone with the Wind, anincredulous Gerald asks his daughter, “Youmean to tell me Katie Scarlett O’Hara, that landdoesn’t mean anything to you?”and addssagaciously, “Why land is the only thing in theworld worth working for, worth fighting for,because it’s the only thing that lasts.” More thana century after these words were famouslysaid in another context, land remains a covetedasset in India. However, the ownership andcontrol of land continues to elude women.Denying women independent right to landand the control of assets is integrally linked tostructures of patriarchy, both within the familyand in the community and is mediated by casteand class hierarchies. This has led to laying thematerial ground for relationships ofdependence and inequality, women’soppression and the perpetuation of poverty.

The arguments for women’s rights toland have been cogently highlighted inAgarwal’s seminal work on this issue (Agarwal1994). She has built her arguments on fourpremises; welfare, efficiency, equality, andempowerment. Following extensive advocacyit is now recognised that enhancing ofwomen’s rights and entitlements to landdeserves to be the first priority on theagricultural agenda (NCF, III Report). However,in most parts of the country, agricultural landremains largely in the name of men.



JRD 2011 (1)

This has manifold implications thatassume critical importance. Firstly it constrainswomen’s ability to take decisions and makeinvestments. Second, women cannot use it ascollateral for loans. Third, women are notperceived as farmers, but only as subsidiaryworkers or helpers because they are notowners of land. As a result, agriculturalextension and information on newtechnologies are almost exclusively directedto men. NSS data for 2004-05 show that 18.5per cent of women workers in agriculture inrural areas as opposed to 7 per cent of maleworkers are engaged in the livestock sector.However, when training is to be provided, it istargeted to males. Vegetable growing is asimilar area. If women were accepted asowners it is more likely that trainingprogrammes would be designed and targetedtowards them.

Fourthly, when women labour hard, butdo not exercise control on farm income thereis evidence that it leads to alienation ofwomen’s farm labour. This issue has not beenresearched in India, but a dramatic exampleof systematic differences in effort due todifferential entitlement structure on farmproductivity comes from Africa. A new maizetechnology introduced in Kenya involvedsignificant changes in weeding requirements.In the female headed households wherewoman controlled the proceeds of their ownlabour, yields increased by 56 per cent. In themale headed households women also did theweeding but they did not control the proceedsof the labour and yields increased by just 15per cent. “If the sample is representative ofrural Kenya the national maize loss from thisdisincentive effect is about equal to the maizegain from the application of phosphate andnitrogen fertilisers.”(IFAD 2002, p49).

The simple point is that in situations ofalienated labour, where people are notinvolved in decision making and have little orno control on the fruits of the labour, their

creativity and involvement is low. Ownershipentitles people to the “fruits of their ideas andefforts and…provides motivation for hard andimaginative work.” (IFAD 2002, p 49). This hardand imaginative work of women will perhapsnot surprisingly be related to the extent of theirownership.

The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act,2005 is a landmark that goes some way incorrecting gender inequality in property rightsover land (GoI, Planning Commission, 2007;Agarwal, 20052). However, there are manyconstraints to women exercising their legalclaims and the impact of this legislationremains to be seen.

Few Women Have Control OverOperational Holdings : Despite the manifestimportance of the issue, and the fact that Indiahas a system of data collection and a databasethat is internationally acclaimed, there are nodata available on the gender disaggregatedownership of land. The closest information thatis available is from the agricultural census thatcollects data on gender disaggregated controlover operational holdings. This information issignificant. It reflects the extent to whichwomen have authority or autonomy to makedecisions regarding agriculture. The data areanalysed in this paper to assess the extent towhich women have control on land, to see ifthere has been any change over time as wellas to examine the differences across states.

An operational holding in the agriculturalcensus is defined as one consisting of all landwhich is used for agricultural production andis operated as one unit by a person alone orwith others without regard to the title, legalform, size or location. An operational holdingcomprises i) land owned and self-operated,ii) land leased in and iii) land otherwiseoperated. An operational holder is the personwho has the responsibility for the operationof the agricultural holding and who exercisesthe technical initiative and is responsible for



JRD 2011 (1)

its operation. The person may have fulleconomic responsibility or may share it withothers. The operational holder may beindividual, joint or institutional. An individualholding is defined as one that is operatedeither by one person alone or by a group ofpersons who are the members of the samehousehold. By far the largest proportion ofagricultural holdings in the country is individualholdings.

A holding is joint if two or more personsbelonging to different households sharejointly as partners in the economic andtechnical responsibility for the operation of anagricultural holding. Holdings such asgovernment farms, sugarcane factory farms,cooperative farms, lands managed by trustswould be treated as institutional. Since wewish to see the extent and trend in women’scontrol over operational holdings, in this paperwe analyse only the data on individual holdings.Information on holdings is available for 1995-96 and 2000-01. Since we have taken the

period from 1999-00 to 2004-05 to showincreasing feminisation, ideally, data on femalecontrol of holdings for this period would havebeen helpful. However, cultural norms andattitudes towards women do not changerapidly; therefore, we can safely assume thatthe trends and information for the period1995-96 to 2000-01 will remain relevant forthe period till 2004-05 as well.

The total number of individualoperational holdings was 103.9 million in2000-01. Male operational holdingsconstituted about 88.4 per cent while thoseheld by women were just 11.6 per cent. In1995-96, the total number of holdings was100.5 million of which women controlled only10.2 per cent of all holdings. The points to noteare firstly, that women, who despite beingpredominantly engaged in agriculture actuallyexercise decision making over a very smallproportion of the holdings. Secondly, eventhough the proportion is low, it has beenincreasing, though very gradually, over theyears.

Table 6 : Number, Area and Distribution of Holdingsby Gender and Change Between Census Years

1995-96 2000-01 Per cent change

Number Area* Number Area* Number Area*

Male 9,03,72,477 12,54,44,748 9,18,56,264 12,04,00,557 1.6 -4.0

Female 1,02,08,217 1,04,35,065 1,20,90,328 1,20,17,200 18.4 15.2

Total 10,05,80,694 13,58,79,813 10,39,46,592 13,24,17,757 3.3 -2.5

Percentage distribution by gender Change in percentage points

Male 89.85 92.32 88.37 90.92 -1.5 -1.4

Female 10.15 7.68 11.63 9.08 1.5 1.4

Total 100 100 100 100

* Area in absolute hectares.Source: All India Report on Agricultural Census1995-96 and 2000-01.



JRD 2011 (1)

While the number of holdings increasedin this period, the area declined. Thus, the areaunder individual operational holdings was135.9 million hectares in 1995-96 whichdeclined to 132.4 million hectares in 2000-01. The percentage of operated area belongingto women was a mere 9.08 per cent whereasit was 90.9 per cent for men. This representedan increase in women’s share from thecorresponding figures of 7.7 and 92.3 per centin 1995-96.

Inter-state Variations in Women’s Share inOperational Holdings : Within this overalldistribution by gender at the national level,there are surprisingly sharp differencesbetween states. The position with regard to

individual operational holdings in someselected states is shown in Table 7. As given inTable 3 earlier, the data of ten states are givento show broad regional differences. Punjab andKerala are outliers and seem to represent twocontrasting poles.

Our interest in Punjab lies because it isagriculturally the most prosperous State. Doeseconomic prosperity also imply more genderequity in pattern of control over agriculturalholdings? The data for Punjab show that this isclearly not the case. In fact women’s share inholdings is much below the national average,and the lowest among the states. Not only is itlow, but women’s share in holdings has grownvery slowly between 1995-96 and 2000-01.

Table 7 : Share of Female Operational Holdings (%) by State

1995-06 2000-01 Change (% points)

State Number Area Number Area Number Area

Punjab 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.1 0.1

Kerala 23 18 21 16 -2 -2

North

Uttar Pradesh 6.4 5.8 7.6 6.5 1.2 0.7

Madhya Pradesh 6.8 4.8 6.6 5.1 -0.2 0.3

East

West Bengal 3.1 2.5 3.3 2.1 0.2 -0.4

Orissa 1.3 1.2 3 2.7 1.7 1.5

West

Maharashtra 13 11.1 15.5 13.6 2.5 2.5

Gujarat 8.8 7.4 9.4 8.2 0.6 0.8

South

Tamil Nadu 16.5 14.2 18.1 15.1 1.6 0.9

Andhra Pradesh 18 14 20 17 2 3

Source: Computed from All India Report on Agricultural Census 1995-96 and 2000-01.



JRD 2011 (1)

The other choice of State for enquiry isKerala. There is a large out-migration of menfrom the State, consequently it is expectedthat the women who are left behind wouldhave a larger control over land. The resultsshow that this indeed is the case. However,even here the share of male holdings farexceeds that of women. Male operationalholdings (individual holdings) constituted 77per cent while female operational holdingswere 23 per cent. Surprisingly, there was asmall decline in women’s share in holdingsover the period under examination.

The eastern states appear to have themost gender-skewed pattern. In West Bengal,while male operational holdings were 97 percent, female holdings were a mere 3 per centin 2000-01. Women’s share remained thesame over the five-year period. The figures forOrissa were the same as for West Bengal in2000-01, but were lower in the earlier period.For both States the share of women is belowthe national average. The results are somewhatsurprising for West Bengal where large scaleland reform has taken place. Clearly, women’srights to land do not form part of the agendafor land reform even for a left front ledgovernment. In terms of area under holdings,the pattern conforms to the pattern discussedfor the number of holdings.

The most interesting results emergefrom the two States from the south, Tamil Naduand Andhra Pradesh. The distribution, althoughfar from being just or equitable to women, stillshows that the share of women who controlagricultural holdings is higher than the nationalaverage. In Tamil Nadu, male holdingsconstituted 82 per cent of all holdings whilefemale operational holdings were 18 per centin 2000-01. The corresponding figures were80 and 20 per cent for Andhra Pradesh. Thegender distribution in terms of area underoperational holdings mirrors the pattern fornumber of holdings. Both States show someincrease in women’s share in holdings.

The pattern in the two large northernStates of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh isvery similar. In both States the share of womenholders is lower than the national average. InUttar Pradesh male holdings were 92.4 percent whereas female holdings constituted 7.6per cent. There was a slight increase inwomen’s share in holdings over time. InMadhya Pradesh, male holdings were 93.4 percent and female holdings 6.6 per cent in 2000-01, but unlike other states, there was a slightdecline in women’s share. In both States, thefemale share in the area operated was lowerthan their share in number of holdings,implying that women operate smaller holdingsthan men. Maharashtra and Gujarat in the westshow an interesting pattern. In both States theshare of women in operational holdings ishigher than the national average though lowerthan the southern states. Male operationalholdings were 91 per cent in Gujaratcompared to 9 per cent for women. InMaharashtra, male operational holdings were84 per cent compared to 16 per cent amongwomen.

There are many factors that explain thedifferences in the share of women acrossstates and these would include cultural norms,the socio-economic status of women, patternof male out-migration and non-farmemployment. However, an analysis of thecauses for inter-state differences is the subjectof further research. For the present we onlywish to highlight two conclusions. First, theproportion of women who exercise controlover agricultural holdings has grown therebydemonstrating a trend towards a slowfeminisation. Second, despite the smallincrease the fact remains that the proportionof women who have control over decisionmaking is very low thus constraining theirefficiency as farmers and agricultural workers.Thus, while the male: female ratio amongfarmers in the country is 58: 42; the same ratiois 88:12 if the indicator we consider is controlover agricultural holding.



JRD 2011 (1)

To summarise, the data show large inter-state variations in the extent of women’scontrol of operational holdings. The easternstates have the most gender skewed patternwith women having the lowest share. This shareis on the whole slightly higher in the northernstates, but is still lower than the nationalaverage. Gender disadvantage is relatively theleast in the southern states.

Women’s Control Declines with Size ofHoldings : Not only do very few womencontrol land, but chances are that even whenthey do exercise control it is more likely to be

a small sized holding, rather than a large one,and declines as the size of holding increases.

Table 8 shows that the proportion offemale holdings was 12.8 in the category ofmarginal holdings but came down to 5.7 inthe case of large holdings. If we compare overthe two periods of the census, there appearsto be a marginal upward shift in the share ofwomen across all sizes of holdings, both inthe number of holdings and in the areaoperated, but relatively the most increase hastaken place in small holdings.

Table 8 : Percentage Share of Women in Operational Holdings by Size of Holding

All social groups 1995-06 2000-01 Change (percentage points)

Size of holding Number Area Number Area Number Area

Marginal 11.4 10.2 12.8 11.7 1.4 1.5

Small 9.3 9.2 10.9 10.9 1.6 1.7

Semi-medium 7.7 7.6 9.1 9 1.4 1.4

Medium 6.1 6 7.1 7 1 1

Large 4.9 5.1 5.7 5.6 0.8 0.5

Total 10.1 7.7 11.6 9.1 1.5 1.4

Source: Computed from All India Report on Agricultural Census 1995-96 and 2000-01.

In its recent report, A Special Programmefor Marginal and Small Farmers, the NCEUS(2008), has highlighted the multipledisadvantages faced by small and marginalfarmers, a large proportion of who are womenfarmers. Thus, 39 per cent of all marginalfarmers are women; among large farmers, 34.5per cent are women. Poverty among marginaland small farmers is higher. For womenfarmers these problems get magnifiedparticularly in a context of increasing marketintegration and globalisation.

The Eleventh Plan notes, “For growth tobe at all inclusive, the agricultural strategy mustfocus on the 85 per cent of farmers who aresmall and marginal, increasingly female andwho find it difficult to access inputs, credit andextension or to market their output.” (GoI, 11th

Five Year Plan,Vol III, p8). On the same lines,the World Development Report (WDR, 2008),states that the role of women is mostimportant in small and marginal farms, whichare the basis of economic growth inagriculture and calls for a “productivity revolu-tion in smallholder farming” (WDR 2008, p1).



JRD 2011 (1)

Lower Share of Women from MarginalisedSocial Groups : Within the overall situationwhere women control only a small share ofholdings, do women from the marginal socialgroups face any greater discrimination? Table9 shows that overall, women’s share, both in

terms of number of holdings and in terms ofarea cultivated, is lower among SCs and thenSTs, compared to ‘others’. Thus, it does seemthat women from the socially discriminatedsocial groups fare worse.

Table 9 : Percentage Share of Women in Operational Holdings by Caste

Percentage share of women

1995-06 2000-01 Change in % pts

Number Area Number Area Number Area

SC 9.4 7.5 10.4 8.7 1 1.2

ST 7.2 6.4 9 7.8 1.8 1.4

Others 10.6 7.9 12.1 9.3 1.5 1.4

Total 10.1 7.7 11.6 9.1 1.5 1.4

Source : Computed from All India Report on Agricultural Census 1995-96 and 2000-01.

Table 10 shows the number and area ofwomen’s holdings as well as the increase overthe two time periods by social group. The mostrapid increase has been for ST women.However, as Table 9 shows the share of womenin holdings is lowest for ST women.

Among SCs, women’s share in holdingshas grown very little over time; femaleholdings were 10.4 per cent in 2000-01, upfrom 9.4 per cent in 1995-96. In the sameperiod, ST female holdings increased from 7.2to 9 per cent, and among ‘others’ it increasedfrom 10.6 to 12 per cent of all holdings.

Table 10 : Number and Area of Female Holdingsand Percentage Variation 2000-01 over 1995-96

1995-96 2000-01 % change

Social group Number Area * Number Area* Number Area*

SC 1214211 850203 1388695 972780 14.4 14.4

ST 623336 961645 777276 1149825 24.7 19.6

Others 8370670 8623217 9924357 9894595 18.6 14.7

Total 10208217 10435065 12090328 12017200 18.4 15.2

* Area given in absolute hectares.




JRD 2011 (1)

Among all social groups, women aremore likely to have control on land if it is small,

with the men more likely to take over as thesize of a holding goes up.

Table 11 : Percentage Share of Women in Number ofOperational Holdings By Size 0f Holding and Caste

Scheduled Castes Scheduled Tribes Others

Size of holding 1995- 2000- Change 1995- 2000- Change 1995- 2000- Change96 01 96 01 96 01

Marginal 10 10.9 0.9 8 9.9 1.9 11.4 12.8 1.4

Small 8.1 9.5 1.4 6.8 8.7 1.9 9.3 10.9 1.6

Semi medium 7.1 8.5 1.4 6.6 8 1.4 7.7 9.1 1.4

Medium 5.7 6.6 0.9 6.1 7.1 1 6.1 7.1 1

Large 4.8 5.6 0.8 5.1 6 0.9 4.9 5.7 0.8

All 9.4 10.4 1 7.2 9 1.8 10.1 11.6 1.5


The average size of holding for SCsdeclined over the period: it was 0.86 hectarein 2000-01 against 0.91 hectare in 1995-96.For male holdings the average size was 0.88hectare and for women it was 0.71 hectare in2000-01 as compared to 0.93 hectare and 0.71hectare, respectively in 1995-96. Among STs,the average size of holdings was 1.76 hectarein 2000-01 against1.84 hectares in 1995-96.For male holdings the average size was 1.78hectare and for women it was 1.53 hectare in2000-01 as compared to 1.86 hectare and 1.62hectare, respectively in 1995-96.

Among all social groups, the average sizeof holding declined from 1.40 hectares in1995-96 to 1.32 hectares in 2000-01; for malesthe decline was from 1.44 hectares to 1.35hectares, and for women from 1.06 hectaresto 1.03 hectares in the same period.

Wrapping up our analysis, it is fair to statethat as more women enter the agricultural

workforce they do so with their hands tied.Very few women have the autonomy to takedecisions related to agriculture; the situationbeing worse for women from the marginalsocial groups: thus women from scheduledtribes have the lowest share in operationalholdings, followed by scheduled castes.Women belonging to the general castes haverelatively the highest share in holdings. Theaverage size of holdings has been decliningfor all social groups, both for men and forwomen.

Low Wages and Gender Disparities : Thefeminisation of agriculture must be seen inthe context of other related developments, inparticular workdays declined in this periodreflecting the stark signs of agrarian distress.Data from the NSSO show that between 1999-00 and 2004-05, the number of days of workdeclined for rural labour; by 8 days for menand 15 days for women.



JRD 2011 (1)

Agricultural wages for casual labourwere low and almost stagnant. A number ofstudies (Srivastava and Singh 2005 and 2006,Unni 1997) bring out the stagnation andgender disparities in wages. Wages grew at avery slow rate of just 1.3 per cent per yearbetween 1999-00 and 2004-05. This showeda sharp deceleration from the earlier periodwhen they grew at 2.9 per cent per year. Wagesfor women are consistently lower than formen. Male wages are on an average 1.4 timeshigher than female wages indicated by thefact that the ratio of female to male wages incasual agricultural labour remained at about0.7 since 1993-94.

These developments, that is, thestagnation in wages and the lesser number ofdays of work both for men and women,

suggest that demand for labour has beensluggish. With low demand for labour inagriculture, it is likely that many labourers mayhave migrated to urban areas to seek work.There has been a widening of the gapbetween agricultural and non-agriculturalwages for casual labour, with the latter beingabout 1.5 times higher. At the same time, withincreasing fragmentation of holdings, morepeople report themselves as farmers, but asthe size of holdings declines, the number ofsmall and marginal farmers grows. The reportsof the National Farmers Commission (2005)and the NCEUS (2009) bring out vividly theplight and the worsening conditions for smalland marginal farmers in this period. They alsoreinforce the view that distress has grown inthis period, a grim outcome of which was thelarge number of suicides in rural areas.

Table 12 : Wage Employment Days for Casual Rural Agricultural Labourers

Days of work Change

1993-94 1999-00 2004-05 1999-00 2004-05 2004-05over over over

1993-94 1999-00 1999-00

Male 244 235 227 -9 -8 -17

Female 196 199 184 3 -15 -12

Total 224 220 209 -4 -11 -15

Source: NSSO various rounds.

Table 13 : Wages and Growth in Wages of Casual Agricultural Workers

Wage Rate (Rs./ Person day) Growth Rate (per cent per year)

1993-94 1999-00 2004-05 1999-00 2004-05 2004-05over over over

1993-94 1999-00 1993-94

Male 37.9 44.8 48.1 2.8 1.4 2.2

Female 26.5 31.6 33.4 3 1.1 2.1

Total 33.7 40 42.6 2.9 1.3 2.2

Source : NSSO various rounds.



JRD 2011 (1)

Education and Skills : Perhaps, the biggestalbatross that weighs negatively on theprospects for women entering the workforcein agriculture is the abysmally low level ofeducation and skills. It constrains their abilityto take independent action, especially in thecontext of commercialisation of agriculture,introduction of new techniques, marketinginnovations and crop diversification. They arealso not able to benefit from the measuresmeant for improving the lot of farmers. Whilethe position of women is pathetic, that of menis not much better (Table 14). Seventy fourper cent of women farmers and 46 per cent of

male farmers are either illiterate or have belowprimary education. The condition is worseamong agricultural labourers, with 86 per centof women and 66 per cent of men beingilliterate or educated below primary level.Improving the access of women to qualityeducation and skills is one of the most urgentrequirements. It is well known that investmentin education delivers high returns in terms ofpoverty reduction as well. In Asia, it isestimated that agricultural productivityincreases by an average of 4 per cent for everyone year increase in formal schooling (Byerlee,Diao et al 2005).

Table 14 : Percentage Distribution of Rural AgriculturalWorkers by Level of Educational Attainment, 2004-2005

Education Level Male Female Total Male Female Total

Agricultural Labourers Farmers

Illiterate & Below Primary 65.9 85.5 74.1 45.7 74.0 57.5

Primary 15.7 7.5 12.3 16.2 10.8 14.0

Middle 13.3 5.3 10.0 18.9 9.5 15.0

Secondary 3.7 1.2 2.6 10.3 3.9 7.6

HS & Above 1.5 0.4 1.0 8.9 1.9 6.0

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source : Computed from NSSO Employment and Unemployment Survey, 2004-05.

Skill levels, like education, are low overallbut more so for women. There is no systematicdata on training and skills of the workforcebut based on the results of the NSSO (2004-05), the NCEUS provides a skill profile of youth(15-29 years). Survey respondents were askedwhether they possessed or were taking formalor informal training. Results show that genderdifferences in skill training are significantamong the trained, both among those whohave received formal training and amongthose who received informal training. A lowerproportion of women (8.9 per cent) than men

(13.9 per cent) in both rural and urban areasreceived vocational training (formal andinformal). Formal skills were confined to 3.1per cent women in this age group comparedto 4.5 per cent men. About 5.8 per cent womenhad informally acquired the skills comparedto 9.4 per cent men.

Education provides a strong enablingfoundation for the acquisition of skills. TheNCEUS report (NCEUS 2009) finds a patternwhen education is examined in conjunctionwith training. Women at all levels of education



JRD 2011 (1)

tend to have a lower incidence of trainingcompared to men. Within this ‘given’, non-formal training is higher among those withlower levels of education (up to middle level)and declines thereafter. Correspondingly, theproportion of formally trained persons is largeramong the more educated youth. As the reportstates, “the issue therefore is not that personswith lower levels of education cannot acquireskills but that the existing training systems areoriented towards providing formal trainingonly to those persons with higher levels ofeducation” (NCEUS 2009, p20-21).

The relationship between educationlevels and skills also vary across social groups.The share of persons with formal skillsincreases from STs, SCs, OBCs, to Others in thatorder. Indeed it is the general caste categoriesfor whom the incidence of training is higherthan the average of 3.8 per cent. The NCEUSdoes a multivariate analysis and presents thelikelihood of certain variables which impactthe formal training by sex, residence andeducation. It emerges that the likelihood thata person gets formal training is 91 per centmore if he/she comes from an urban area asopposed to a rural area. Similarly, a male is 14per cent more likely to be trained comparedto a female (the disparities would go up inrural areas). Providing rural women withrelevant skills and consulting them indesigning training programmes is therefore,of utmost importance.

Low Participation of Women in CollectiveForums : Low participation of women incollective forums works to their distinctdisadvantage. Membership in cooperatives,producer credit organisations and communitybased natural resource management groupsare dominated by men. Since most assets areowned by men, it is they who automaticallybecome members, even though it may be thewomen who work on the assets.

As common property resources (CPRs)get depleted and access to them becomesever more difficult, the cost to women in termsof their workload and health goes up. Groupapproaches, through SHGs or cooperatives, arefrequently advocated as a panacea to ensureaccess to water, trees and forests and othernatural resources. Joint ownership or leasingand operation, or usufructuary rights overproductive assets (land, trees, ponds, CPRs)among women farmers through joint activitiesis emphasised (NCEUS 2008, GoI, PlanningCommission 2007, Agarwal 2003). These pooland augment land, labour and financialresources and avail of economies of scale.Women’s groups in some states, for instancethe Kudumbashree in Kerala, show that whenwomen come together as a collective, theycan overcome the constraint of access toproductive assets and play a critical role inimproving the social and economic status oftheir families. Indeed, it is said that the futureof Indian farming lies in different types ofgroup approaches (NCF II Report).

Some state governments have taken upprogrammes to distribute land to poor women,but often they have remained on paper. Whengovernments fail to act, women haveorganised themselves and collectively takencontrol of village land and started jointcultivation. Roma (2009) recounts the courseof one such struggle in the Sonebhadra districtof Uttar Pradesh and quotes the angry quip ofone woman, ‘whenever it is a question ofdistribution of land to the poor thegovernment says there is no land, but whenthousands of acres of land has to be given tocompanies the government acquires it forciblyor otherwise at very cheap rates’ (Roma 2009).It is therefore time the government took upthe agenda of land distribution giving priorityto women.

In brief, the best way to overcome theproblems faced by scores of small and marginal



JRD 2011 (1)

female farmers is to bring them together injointly cultivated farms. This should be takenup together with the programme of landdistribution to poor women. This will go a longway in harnessing the productivity of land andthe skills of women and reaping the benefitsof economies of scale.

Other Constraints : The Eleventh Plan Sub-group on Gender and Agriculture (PlanningCommission 2007) highlighted the role ofwomen in agriculture, livestock dairying andagro-processing, but notes that in all theseareas extension programmes are designedmainly for men. Moreover, prevailing genderstereotypes assume that only men are usersof technology and machines. Increasingfeminisation means that more women will bethe users of new farm implements,innovations or technologies. For success inthis, it is important that training and extensionprogrammes are especially targeted to women;that their time and mobility norms are kept inmind, and that they are consulted and theirviews taken into account. This will improve thechances that these innovations will beadopted. In research done in severaldeveloping countries, results show thatinnovations were either not adopted or led toundesirable consequences when they wereimposed without being discussed withwomen workers (Ashby, Hartl et al quoted inIFAD 2002).

As more women enter the workforce, itis essential to ensure equitable access to awide range of financial services and savings,credit and insurance products to women. TheSituation Assessment Survey of Farmers (NSSO2005) shows that women farmers have loweraccess to credit from formal institutionalsources and to extension services comparedto male farmers. Also Kisan Credit Cards areissued to men by virtue of the fact that theyhave land, but women who do not have anyassets are denied these. It is now being

recommended that women farmers be givenKisan Credit Cards on the basis of joint pattason land (Planning Commission 2007).

The capacity of the agricultural sector toabsorb the increasing labour force is limitedand there is a need to diversify to non-farmemployment. Many women will require helpin moving out of agriculture and into the non-farm economy.

Developing rural infrastructure (roads,power, water) and markets, improving skills,finding niche markets, strengthening ruralurban linkages, macro-enterprisedevelopment are essential for the shift to thenon-farm sector.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this paper examines theoft-stated proposition that as men move outof agriculture to urban areas, there has been afeminisation of agriculture. The data from theagricultural census as well as NSSO surveysshow that this is indeed the case, albeit, thepace of feminisation is very gradual. As morewomen take up decision making roles inagriculture, their ability to improve their well-being and contribute to agricultural dynamismis constrained by many factors that have beenanalysed in this paper.

We show that,

1. Gender disaggregated data onoperational holdings establish thatdespite being predominantly engagedin agriculture the share of women inoperational holdings is very low.However, though the proportion ofholdings controlled by women is small,it has been increasing, albeit gradually.

2. There are large inter-state variations inthe proportion of holdings controlled bywomen. Punjab has the lowest share andKerala the highest.



JRD 2011 (1)

3. The proportion of female holdingsdeclines with size of holding. This makesthe task difficult for women becausesmall farms face many challenges:market linkages are poor, productivity islow and farmers have less access totraining, credit and inputs. Forfeminisation to have beneficial impacts,policy makers need to prioritiseresources to small farmers.

4. Women from scheduled tribes have thelowest share in operational holdings,followed by scheduled castes. Womenbelonging to the general castes haverelatively the highest share in holdings.

5. Female agricultural labour are doublydisadvantaged in that they receivelower wages compared to men and atthe same time get lesser days ofemployment.

6. In Asia, it is estimated that agriculturalproductivity increases by an average of4 per cent for every one year increase

in formal schooling. But in India, 74 percent of women farmers and 86 per centof women agricultural labourers areeither illiterate or educated belowprimary level. Skill levels are also verylow. Enhancing education and skill levelswith specially designed programmes istherefore, of utmost importance.

7. Most importantly, women must be givengreater access to land and encouragedto pool and augment their land, labourand financial resources. There have beensuccessful innovative initiatives in groupbased farming in several states thatshould be replicated in other areas.

Feminisation can be an empoweringprocess as women, long kept shackled bypatriarchal norms and structures, step out toenter the world of work and take up itschallenges and benefit from its opportunities.However, the empowering potential offeminisation of agriculture in India will berealised only if the many constraints that limitwomen’s capabilities are addressed.

Notes

1. The usual principal and subsidiary status (UPSS) concept of a worker as defined by the NSSOis used in this paper.

2. See Bina Agarwal, ‘Landmark step to gender equality’ http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/09/25/stories/2005092500050100.htm, and http://www.indianexpress.com/oldStory/77251

References

1. Agarwal, Bina (1994), A Field of One’s Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia, CambridgeUniversity Press.

2. Agarwal, Bina (1998), Disinherited Peasants, Disadvantaged Workers : A Gender Perspectiveon Land and Livelihood, Economic and Political Weekly, March 28.

3. Agarwal, Bina (2003), Gender and Land Rights Revisited: Exploring New Prospects via theState, Family and Market, Journal of Agrarian Change, Vol 3, No. 1 and 2, April.

4. Biao, D., X.Diao and C. Jackson, (2005), Agriculture, Rural Development and Pro Poor Growth;Country Experiences in the Post Reform Era, Agriculture and Rural Development, DiscussionPaper 21, The World Bank, Washington.



JRD 2011 (1)

5. IFAD (2002), Assessment of Rural Poverty, Asia and the Pacific, Rome.

6. National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector (2008), A Special Programmefor Marginal and Small Farmers, New Delhi.

7. National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector (2009), Skill Formation andEmployment Assurance in the Unorganised Sector.

8. National Commission on Farmers, Second Report (2005), Serving Farmers And Saving Farming,Crisis To Confidence.

9. National Commission on Farmers, Third Report (2005), Serving Farmers And Saving Farming,2006: Year of Agricultural Renewal.

10. National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO), Employment and Unemployment Situation inIndia, Various Reports.

11. GoI, Planning Commission (2007), Report of Sub-Group on Gender and Agriculture, NewDelhi.

12. GoI, Ministry of Agriculture, All India Report on Agricultural Census, 1995-96.

13. GoI, Ministry of Agriculture, All India Report on Agricultural Census, 2000-01.

14. GoI, Planning Commission, 11th Five Year Plan, Government of India, New Delhi.

15. Roma (2009), Untitled, Paper Presented at Conference on Transforming Gender RelationsOrganised by Saajhi Duniya, Lucknow (2009).

16. Srivastava and Singh (2005), Economic Reforms and Agricultural Wages in India, the IndianJournal of Labour Economics, 48 (2).

17. Srivastava and Singh (2006), Rural Wages During the 1990s : A Re-estimation, Economic andPolitical Weekly, September 23.

18. Unni, Jeemol (1997), Employment and Wages among Rural Labourers : Some Recent Trends,Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 52 (1).

19. World Bank (2008), World Development Report 2008, Washington D.C.

Subrata Kundu*

INVERSE FARM SIZE-PRODUCTIVITYRELATIONSHIP : A TEST USINGREGIONAL DATA ACROSS TWOTIME-POINTS


* Department of Economics, Vivekananda Satavarshiki Mahavidyalaya, Manikpara, Paschim Medinipur-721513, West Bengal, India, Ph. No: +91 9832139721, E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The debate on farm-size productivity relationship continues to attract thescholars even today. This study wishes to carry on the arguments advanced in thisdebate to the pre-liberalisation period on a set of farmers in an underdevelopedregion. The region is known to have successful tradition of land reforms and openingup avenues of rural governance and decentralisation. Yet liberalisation policies thatare concomitant on the broader aspect of globalisation have led to substantialchanges in the pattern of resources utilisation by the different types of farmers. Bigfarmers gained substantially in the reform process while the poor lost their ground.Without some support in the public policy they may not be able to subsist in anincreasingly liberalised economy.

Introducion

The farm-size productivity debate wasoriginally initiated by Sen (1962, 1964) usingaggregate data from Indian Farm ManagementStudy. He found inverse relationship betweenfarm-size and productivity and sparked adebate because it reemphasised theimportance of the Land Reform Policy at a timewhen it became clear that the nationalgovernment would not be able to implementit but this inverse relationship started todisappear following the adoption of HighYielding Variety Programme (HYVP), popularlyknown as green revolution, in 1964-65. Rudradocumented these changes in three papers,1968a, 1968b and 1973 and in 1980 Rudra andSen wrote a rejoined commenting on thesame phenomenon. Similar phenomenon was

also said to have been confirmed in differentparts of the world (Dyer, 1991, 1996, 1998).

There seems to be reawakening of thisdebate for underdeveloped agrarianeconomies in the recent years ever since thepublications of newer results that are basedon more recent data on farm level economiccharacteristics and application of some newmethodologies. The late debate has beenbased on the alleged confirmation of inverserelation in agriculturally advanced zones (Berryand Cline, 1979; Khan 1979; Carter 1984;Chattopadhyay and Sengupta, 1997, 1999).

The basic argument is the ability of smallfarmers in reaping the benefit of newtechnology (Sharma and Sharma, 2000). In thetraditional logic, new technology is heavily

362 Subrata Kundu


JRD 2011 (1)

biased towards rich farmers because of thelarge setup cost involved in adopting suchtechnologies (Dyer, 1998). However, recentlyseveral authors feel that there are certainaspects of new technology (such as efficientuse of water resources, proper selection ofcrop mix etc.) that might benefit even thesmall farmers particularly in a situation whenthe government assistance favoured the poor(Chattopadhyay and Sengupta, 1997, 1999).The government started to spend inputs moresparingly and offered subsidised loans to thefarmers.

The arguments advanced in this debatehave been confined to the pre-liberalisationperiod. Though the soft liberalisation processstarted since the eighties, it really speeded upsince the nineties. In the recent years, theIndian government has taken several stepstowards liberalising the economy in an effortto integrate it with the international economy.Many such steps were directed towardsagricultural sector. Under the new economicpolicy government withdrew from much ofthe direct and indirect support that wastraditionally provided to the agriculture. Thesubsidies given to the farmers (in providingcheap electricity, loan assistance scheme,support prices to the farm product, fertilisersubsidy etc.) were slashed down. The role ofthe state as the buyer of surplus output (thatis stripping demand) is also considerablylowered. The policies have direct bearing ofthe farmer’s choices, their output decisions andtheir viability vis-a-vis the big farmers.

There must be a connection betweenthese financial reform policies of the nationalgovernments and the broader process ofglobalisation. Many of the reform agenda werea direct consequence of the World Bank and

IMF conditionality. This does not meanglobalisation is alone responsible for all thepossible outcomes of the productivityindicators. Rather it is a result of various factorsthat may be directly or indirectly affected bythis broader process. In fact, some of thesefactors may be independent of this globalprocess also and essentially local in character.Many others are a consequence of the publicpolicies in trying to cope up with the worldsituation. We are just interested in studyingthe farm productivity relations in the era ofglobal integration and liberal reforms.

Proper analysis of such micro aspectsrequires panel data for a set of farmers overalmost a decade of liberalisation. However,the problem of gathering such a data set isreally surmounting especially in a turbulentsituation that we are witnessing in the post-reform era. Farmers often shift to otheroccupations or cultivation of other types ofcrops. Their family composition, asset structureand economic position are likely to altersignificantly over such a long period. Thevillage itself may become increasinglyurbanised leading to a change in opportunitiesand costs.

In such a situation it might be possibleto gather some insights into this problem byconcentrating on two comparable1 cross-sectional data sets for two different timepoints that are widely separated from oneanother. By comparability we mean data setsthat are generated by same authority followingsame sampling techniques for a specificgeographical location2. The units selected arelikely to differ but the selection criterion ofthe sampling units will remain the same. Thedata collected for various districts of the Stateof West Bengal in India under the Cost of

1 We refrained from using the more popular term pseudo-panel data because we have used not acontinuous series but data sets over a gap of almost fifteen years.

2 The idea closely resembles village studies where the same village or same location is visited after a gapof few years.


Inverse Farm Size-Productivity Relationship : A Test Using Regional Data ... 363

JRD 2011 (1)

Cultivation Scheme provides such comparablesets. We have used farm level disaggregatedata for the Midnapore district of the Statecollected under the scheme for our purpose.Information on the use of different inputs likeland, human labour (family & hired), bullocklabour (family & hired), fertiliser, manure, plantprotection chemical, machine (tractor & powertiller), irrigation etc. and output of all the cropscultivated at the farm level is collected underthis scheme every year since the late seventies.In our study we have used data for twodifferent years: one proceeding the currentglobalisation era (1985-86) and the other inrelatively recent period (2003-04). Since thedata sets are separated by a long span ofalmost twenty years, they are likely to capturemuch of the impact of globalisation on farmeconomy.

In a dynamic economy as the macroparameters change, individual’s reaction alsoundergoes considerable alterations. Traditionalinputs may give place to modern inputs. Oldcrops may be replaced by newer varieties thatare remunerative. New forms of institutionsincluding market forms may be emanating.Even the socio-cultural types may undergoradical changes3. Since it is not possible to dealwith the entire gamut of such changes, wemay however be contended with a narrow setof quantifiable economic characteristics4.

Salient Features of the Agrarian Economyof West Bengal

Eastern India (where West Bengalbelongs) has emerged as a new centre ofgrowth in the agricultural sector since the1980s. Over the period, the foodgrains

3 For example, a higher level of education status, more gender equality, removal of traditional ties andbondages etc. can be ascertained.

4 Even such features are innumerable (such as size-productivity relations, shifting in the technologyfrontier and input use , changes in cropping intensity, price movements both of inputs and output etc.).We concentrate only on a few of them.

production increased at a compound annualrate of 3.01 per cent per annum.

Of India’s incremental output of 45.6million tonnes in foodgrains over this period,around 20 per cent was contributed by theEastern region. This impressive performanceis a relatively recent phenomenon. Until theearly 1980s, the growth of agriculturalproduction in this region was low (around 1.6per cent per annum) and lagged behind thenational average. This turns around, from asituation of low and less than the all-Indiaaverage rate of growth to high agriculturalgrowth rates, occurred in the last two decades.

A notable feature of the acceleratedgrowth performance in the eighties and theearly nineties is the striking performance offoodgrains, especially rice. For example, thegrowth rate of rice production increased tomore than 6 per cent per annum in West Bengalin the eighties. Studies by Saha andSwaminathan (1994), Rawal and Swaminathan(1998) reveal that the rapid growth in riceproduction in West Bengal was brought aboutprimarily by an expansion in the boro(summer) crop. Over the period, the share ofboro rice production increased in total riceproduction, primarily due to an expansion inthe area under cultivation, and the yieldgrowth was modest. Yield increases weresignificant for the aman (kharif ) crop as well;however, the aus (rabi) crop saw a decline inthe area under cultivation. The significantupsurge in agricultural productivity in generalis attributed to two major factors. One is therole of institutional changes and other factoris the wider adoption of new technology,better utilisation of fertilisers credit and so on.

364 Subrata Kundu


JRD 2011 (1)

Particulars of the land utilisation positionin West Bengal as well as Midnapore districtare given in Table 1. This Table provides somedata on land utilisation pattern during 1980-1981 and 2000-2001. From this Table it can beseen that during this period, net cropped areain West Bengal has fallen whereas in

Table 1 : Land Utilisation Statistics (1980-1981) & (2000-2001)

Particulars Area Percentages Area Percentages

West Bengal(1980-1981) (2000-2001)

Total Area 8604.85 100 8687.71 100

Gross Cropped Area 7661.60 89.04 9116.60 104.94

Net Cropped Area 5508.15 64.01 5417.38 62.36

Cropping Intensity - 139 - 168

Midnapore(1980-1981) (2000-2001)

Total Area 1360.63 100 1323.88 100

Gross Cropped Area 1074.90 79 1438.55 108.66

Net Cropped Area 861.96 63.35 874.24 66.04

Cropping Intensity - 125 - 164

Source : Directorate of Agriculture, Evaluation wing, Govt. of West Bengal.

In West Bengal paddy is the main crop(Dyer, 1998). The crop is generally cultivatedmore than once a year (normally referred toas aman, boro and aus). In recent years, someother crops (such as vegetables, pulses,oilseed, potato, etc.) have substituted aus.Aman is the traditional variety while boro isthe modern variety with high return, huge

investment and large risk involved. Wheat isanother main crop in this region. Detailedinformation regarding area, production andyield rate of principal crops are provided inTable 2. From this Table it can be seen thatduring the period both the foodgrainsproduction and the cash crops production havegone up.

Midnapore district it has risen marginally. Thecropping intensity has increased in WestBengal as well as Midnapore district. The percapita agricultural land in the district is onlyabout 0.14 hectare as against 0.11 in the Stateas a whole.



JRD 2011 (1)

We are also interested to understand thechanging composition of the farmer’s categoryover this period. There is a lot of debateregarding the classification of farmers. Thetraditional categorisation based only on thepossession of cultivable land was seriouslychallenged by a number of economists(Patnaik, 1994)5. The argument is that land isnot a very reliable basis for categorisation. Itdepends upon other things such as the degree

5 We however could not use Patnaik’s E-criterion due to lack of some crucial data.

of commercialisation, use of improvedtechnology, family structure etc. Thus we haveused the categorisation developed by theWest Bengal government. Using a host ofsocial and economic features they haveidentified four broad categories (Marginal,Small, Medium and Big). Particulars of thenumber of rural households according to areaof land owned are given in Table 3.

Table 2 : Area and Production of Principal Crops (1980-1981) & (2000-2001)

Crop (1980-1981) (2000-2001)

Area Production Area Production(’000 hectors) (’000 tonnes) (’000 hectors) (’000 tonnes)

West Bengal

Rice 5176.20 7465.6 5435.3 12428

Wheat 283 473.2 426 1058.6

Total Cereals 5575 8043.2 5918.4 13595.7

Total Pulses 524.30 238.2 274.5 219.5

Total Foodgrains 6099.30 8281.4 6192.9 13815.2

Total Oilseeds 317.40 150.4 598.6 570.7

Total Fibres 656.90 4711.5 626.6 7521.6

Potato 115.6 1971.8 299.7 7673.1

Sugarcane 14.3 867.4 21.6 1465.6

Midnapore

Rice 903.3 1255.5 1108.5 2584.4

Wheat 8.8 16.4 13.6 31.2

Total Cereals 913.7 1273.3 1123.8 2618.6

Total Pulses 55.6 15.9 20.8 20.1

Total Foodgrains 969.3 1289.2 1144.6 2638.7

Total Oilseeds 21.5 9.4 72.5 82.9

Total Fibres 23.6 265.5 8.7 148

Potato 15.6 6.5 60.4 348.7

Sugarcane 1.2 252.3 4.6 1596.6

Source : Agricultural Census, Directorate of Agriculture, Govt. of West Bengal.

366 Subrata Kundu


JRD 2011 (1)

A glance at the changing distribution ofthese categories over the two time periodsreveals a tendency of marginalisation of thefarmers. There is an increase of the percentageof marginal farmers with a simultaneous

reduction of the farmers belonging to thehigher category. Increased population pressuretogether with the disadvantages created byglobalisation may be a direct cause of thisphenomenon.

Table 3 : Estimated Number and Area of Operational HoldingsAccording to Size Class (1980-1981) & (2000-2001)

Farmers Types No. of Holdings Area of Holdings No. of Holdings Area of Holdings(Number) (Hectare) (Number) (Hectare)

West Bengal

(1980-1981) (2000-2001)

Marginal 4096001 1619657 5462089 2758843(69.67%) (29.16%) (80.44%) (49.74%)

Small 1148936 1733512 1009328 1606686(19.55%) (31.21%) (14.86%) (28.97%)

Medium 519445 1403246 282992 783773(8.84%) (25.26%) (4.17%) (14.13%)

Big 113263 798367 35582 397274(1.93%) (14.37%) (0.52%) (7.16%)

All Size 5877649 5554782 6789991 5546576(100%) (100%) (100%) (100%)

Midnapore

(1980-1981) (2000-2001)

Marginal 788298 293892 1127637 569488(75.76%) (35.92%) (89.37%) (69.13%)

Small 168302 254931 108853 180648(16.18%) (31.16%) (8.63%) (21.93%)

Medium 69250 188180 23411 64246(6.66%) (23%) (1.86%) (7.79%)

Big 14653 81096 1816 9379(1.41%) (9.91%) (0.14%) (1.14%)

All Size 1040503 818099 1261717 823761(100%) (100%) (100%) (100%)

Source : Agricultural Census, Directorate of Agriculture, Govt. of West Bengal.



JRD 2011 (1)

It is in this background that we haveundertaken the present study. However, as iswell known, one of the major problems in suchstudies is the difficulty in getting farm-leveldata. We did, however, have access to a large-scale sample survey on agriculture, which isknown as “Cost of Cultivation Survey”, and usedthe relevant data obtained from this surveyfor the purpose of our study. The results of thisstudy are described in the next section.

Farm-size and Productivity

First, we considered the traditional farm-size productivity debate. It was a brilliant articlewritten in the mid sixties (Mazumdar, 1965)that really fueled the farm size productivitydebate soon after its inception by Sen (Sen,1962, 1964). There seems to be reawakeningof this debate for underdeveloped agrarianeconomies in the recent years ever since thepublications of newer results that are basedon more recent data on farm level economiccharacteristics and application of some newmethodologies. The latest debate has beenbased on the alleged confirmation of inverserelation in agriculturally advanced zones (Khan,1979; Carter, 1984; Dyer, 1991, 1998;Chattopadhyay and Sengupta, 1997, 1999).

The basic argument is the ability of smallfarmers in reaping the benefit of newtechnology (Sharma and Sharma, 2000). In thetraditional logic, new technology is heavilybiased towards rich farmers because of thelarge setup cost involved in adopting suchtechnologies (Dyer, 1998). However, recentlyseveral authors feel that there are certainaspects of new technology (such as efficient

use of water resources, proper selection ofcrop mix etc.) that might benefit even thesmall farmers (Chattopadhyay and Sengupta,1997, 1999; Sengupta and Kundu, 2006). Thedebate remains as yet inconclusive.

However, most of these studies are cross-sectional. They mostly cover a number offarmers for a given time-period6. Usingcomparable cross-sectional data sets that areseparated by a gap of almost twenty years, ouranalysis can reveal the long run tendencies ofglobalisation process at the farm level. Manyof these tendencies are averaged out whenbroad macro perspectives are concerned. Thepresent study was undertaken to examine therelationship between farm-size andproductivity as well as input use of a traditionalcrop namely aman and a modern crop namelyboro (a variety of paddy)7. For this we havefitted both linear and log-linear relationshipsshowing output per acre against net cultivatedarea and input use per acre against netcultivated area. The effect of farm size on grossvalue productivity and input use wasquantified by estimating the followingregression equations.

Linear Regression Equations :

(i) Y = A + BX (ii) Lh =

A + bX

(iii) Lf = A + bX (iv) L

b = A + bX

(v) Fch

= A + bX (vi) For

= A + bX

(vii) Mh

= A + bX (viii) Ir = A + bX

(ix) Pc = A + bX

6 A notable exception is the study by Bhattacharya and Saini (1972). In their study they covered the sampledistricts for a number of time periods. Using farm level disaggregated data collected under the FarmManagement Scheme, the study revealed a dynamic view of farm-size and productivity relation in IndianPunjab. They found that the relationship changed its sign from negative to positive due to the impactof Green Revolution.

7 For the reasons concerning this multi-crop analysis, see the arguments provided in Sengupta and Kundu(2006).

368 Subrata Kundu


JRD 2011 (1)

Log-Linear Regression Equations :

(i) LogY = A + b LogX

(ii) Log Lh =

A + b LogX

(iii) Log Lf = A + b LogX

(iv) LogLb

= A + b LogX

(v) Log Fch

= A + b LogX

(vi) Log For

= A + b LogX

(vii) Log Mh

= A + b LogX

(viii) Log Ir = A + b LogX

(ix) Log Pc = A + b LogX

Where Y is gross value productivity ofdifferent variety crops per acre, X is farm size,L

h and L

f are per acre hired and family labour

use, respectively, Lb is per acre bullock labour

use, Fc & F

r are the value of chemical fertiliser

and organic fertiliser per acre. Mh, I

r & P

c are

per acre machine charge, irrigation charge andplant protection chemical cost, respectivelyand b is regression coefficient of bothtraditional variety crop and modern varietycrop. Here the yield rate, labour (hired &family)use, fertiliser (chemical & organic) use, plantprotection chemical cost, machine andirrigation charges were computed on the basisof per acre of net shown area.

We first examine the effect of farm sizeon productivity of traditional variety crop andmodern variety crop in the pre and post-globalisation era using both linear and log-linear regression. The results of regressionanalysis8 (Table 4) indicate that except for thetraditional variety for the post-globalisationera, all the other significant coefficients arepositive. Thus, the result of the study does not

8 We present only the slope coefficients that are relevant due to brevity of presentation.

9 Globalisation of the Indian economy since the early nineties may have led to increased competition inthe input and output market and withdrawal of many of the direct and indirect public support system.They have opened up previously protected arena to the dictum of competition.

support the view that the inverse farm-sizeproductivity relationship has disappeared inthe new era for the traditional variety. Ratherit has reappeared. For the modern variety, incontrast the positive trend is strengthened.Considering the entire gamut of cropproduction the relationship is consistentlypositive. A plausible reason is provided in Table5. In the pre-globalisation era though boro wasmore costly to cultivate, it was not sodisadvantageous for the marginal farmers ascompared to others. In fact, it was the mediumfarmers for whom the position was mostawkward. The position changed drasticallyafter liberalisation. The marginal farmers wereto bear the brunt of rising relative cost ratio.For all other categories the relative cost-ratiosactually fell9. Thus, the marginal farmers whowere cultivating the modern variety efficientlybefore might have moved out of it. Naturallyfor survival they fell back on the traditionalvariety. Thus, there appears to be a reversemovement to more traditional crops due tothe liberalisation process initiated at themacro-level.

Next we present the input use patternof the farmers in Table 6. We divided the inputsinto two categories : traditional and modernfor the ease of our analysis. Among thetraditional inputs family labour bears anegative relation to farm size, a tendencyappeared to have been strengthened in thepost-reform period. Loss of job opportunitieselsewhere might be a plausible reason for thistendency. Bullock labour that was positivelyrelated in the pre-globalisation era appearedto have lost much of its significance. Organicmanure indicates a negative relation to farmsize for all crops in the pre-reform period.However, all other significant relations for thisinput appear to be positive. This might be a



JRD 2011 (1)

direct fall-out of the rising cost of thesubstitutable input fertiliser in the reformperiod. So far as modern inputs they all show apositive relation except for chemical fertiliserand plant protection chemicals (PPC) in thecase of modern variety (Boro) for the post-globalisation period. A possible explanationmight be sought in the rising relative price ofthese items after withdrawal of subsidies to acertain extent.

Table 4 : Farm Size and ProductivityRelationship : Result of Regression

Analysis (1985-86 & 2003-2004)

Crop Slope Correlation t dfCoefficient (N-2)

(R2)

1985-1986 (N=110)

Aman 0.12 0.14 2.71**

Boro 0.01 0.02 0.87

All Crops 0.07 0.02 1.61**

2003-2004 (N=166)

Aman -0.18 0.03 -1.67**

Boro 0.08 0.04 1.98**

All Crops 0.09 0.04 2.74*

* and** significant at 1 and 5 per cent level,respectively.

Table 5 : Cost Ratios of Boro/Aman perHectare at Constant Prices

Farmer Types 1985-1986 2003-2004

Marginal 1.5445701 9.317372

Small 1.3979268 0.857264

Medium 5.7508333 0.528552

Big 1.4484927 -

All 1.4802962 2.384264

Conclusion

Analysis of the data at two time periodsreveals such an interesting dynamics. Thereappears to be a bias against the marginalfarmers in favour of larger groups. Thevulnerability of the poor farmers is clearlyexposed. Without some support in the publicpolicy they may not be able to subsist in anincreasingly liberalised economy. However,there is a general decline in efficiency that isquite surprising. This may reflect some grossinfrastructural failure and appropriate capitalformation in the agrarian sector.

370 Subrata Kundu


JRD 2011 (1)

Table 6 : Farm Size and Input Use Relationship: Result ofRegression Analysis (1985-1986) & (2003-2004)

INPUT AMAN BORO ALL CROPS

Slope R2 Slope R2 Slope R2

1985-1986

Modern Hired 1.025* 0.177 0.958* 0.219 0.288* 0.069Labour (3.14) (3.14) (2.73)

Chemical 0.769* 0.163 0.006 0.001 -0.144 0.019Fertiliser (5.46) (0.21) (-1.35)

Irrigation -0.215 0.001 1.128* 0.295 0.348** 0.026(-1.20) (3.38) (1.69)

P.P.C. -0.172 0.008 0.257 0.053 1.129* 0.215(-0.61) (1.41) (3.45)

Traditional Family -0.724* 0.171 -0.206 0.007 -0.162 0.023Labour (-3.07) (-0.52) (1.56)

Bullock 0.893* 0.196 0.002 0.001 0.280* 0.088Labour (3.35) (0.13) (3.18)

Organic 0.906* 0.299 -0.16 0.007 -0.155** 0.036Manure (4.43) (-0.51) (-1.94)

2003-2004

Modern Hired 0.910* 0.144 0.579* 0.084 0.724* 0.203Labour (4.56) (2.98) (6.39)

Chemical 0.077 0.008 -0.139** 0.053 0.355* 0.078Fertiliser (0.53) (-2.28) (3.71)

Machine 0.022 0.001 0.022 0.001 0.670* 0.048(0.07) (0.07) (2.93)

Irrigation - - 0.018 0.004 1.307* 0.152(0.14) (5.54)

P.P.C. -0.148 0.003 -0.503** 0.053 0.888* 0.068(-0.59) (-2.27) (5.11)

Traditional Family -0.260** 0.026 -0.731* 0.073 -0.240* 0.032Labour (-1.84) (-2.76) (-2.33)

Bullock Labour 0.153 0.002 0.432 0.003 -0.074 0.001(0.48) (-0.52) (-0.31)

Organic Manure 0.547* 0.044 -0.210 0.008 0.888* 0.137(2.35) (-0.82) (5.11)



JRD 2011 (1)

References

1. Berry, R.A. and W.R. Cline, (1979), Agrarian Structure and Productive in Developing Countries, JohnHopkins University Press, Baltimore.

2. Bhattacharya, N. and G.R. Saini, (1972), ‘Farm Size and Productivity : A Fresh Look’, Economic andPolitical Weekly.

3. Carter, M. R., (1984), ‘Identification of Inverse Relationship Between Farm Size and Productivity:An Empirical Analysis of Peasant Agriculture’, Oxford Economic Papers, 36(1).

4. Chattopadhyay, M. and A. Sengupta, (1997), ‘Farm Size and Productivity : A New Look at the OldDebate’, Economic and Political Weekly, 32 (52).

5. Chattopadhyay, M. and A. Sengupta, (1999), Farm Size and Productivity, Economic and PoliticalWeekly 34 (19).

6. Dyer, G., (1991), ‘Farm Size Productivity Re-examined : Evidence from Rural Egypt’, The Journal ofPeasant Studies, 24 (1-2).

7. Dyer, G., (1996), ‘Output per Acre and Size of Holding : The Logic of Peasant Agriculture underSemi-Feudalism’, The Journal of Peasant Studies.

8. Dyer, G., (1998), ‘Farm Size and Productivity : A New Look at the Old Debate Revisited’, Economicand Political Weekly, 33(26).

9. Khan, M. H., (1979), ‘Farm Size and Land Productivity in Pakistan’, Pakistan Development Review,18 (1).

10. Mazumdar, D., (1965), ‘Size of Farms and Productivity : A Problem of Indian Peasant Agriculture’,Economica, 32, May.

11. Patnaik, U., (1994), Tenancy and Accumulation, in K Basu (eds), Agrarian Questions, OxfordUniversity Press, Delhi.

12. Rawal, V. and M. Swaminathan., (1998), “Changing Trajectories : Agricultural Growth in WestBengal, 1950 to 1996”, Economic and Political Weekly, 33(40), pp.2595-2602.

13. Rudra, A. and A. K. Sen, (1980), ‘Farm Size and Labour Use : Analysis and Policy’, Economic andPolitical Weekly, Annual Number 15(5, 6& 7).

14. Rudra, A., (1968a), ‘Farm Size and Yield per Acre’, Economic and Political Weekly, Special Number,3(26-28), July.

15. Rudra, A., (1968b), ‘More on Returns to Scale in Indian Agriculture’, Economic and Political Weekly,Special Number, 3, October.

16. Rudra, A., (1973), ‘Marginal Explanation for More Intense Labour Inputs in Smaller Farms:Empirical Verifications’, Economic and Political Weekly, 8, June.

17. Saha, A. and M. Swaminathan, (1994), “Agricultural Growth in West Bengal in the 1980s : ADisaggregation by Districts and Crops”, Economic and Political Weekly, 29(13), March 26, pp.A2-A11.

372 Subrata Kundu


JRD 2011 (1)

18. Sen, A. K., (1962), ‘An Aspect of Indian Agriculture’, Economic Weekly, 14, Annual Number, February.

19. Sen, A. K., (1964), ‘Size of Holdings and Productivity’, Economic Weekly, 16, Annual Number,February.

20. Sengupta, A. and S. Kundu, (2006), ‘Scale Efficiency of Indian Farmers : A Non-ParametricApproach’, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 61, No. 4, Oct.-Dec.

21. Sharma, H. R. And R. K. Sharma, (2000), ‘Farm Size-Productivity Relationship: Empirical Evidencefrom an Agriculturally Developed Region of Himachal Pradesh’, Indian Journal of AgriculturalEconomics. Vol. 55, No. 4, Oct.-Dec.

B.S. Krishna Prasad,K.V.Aihanna and

Chikkarangaswamy*

PROBLEMS OF THE DEPRIVED POTENTIALBENEFICIARIES TO AVAIL OF SOCIALASSISTANCE : AN EVALUATION INCHAMARAJANAGAR DISTRICT


* Research Scholar, Professor, and Post Doctoral Fellow, respectively, Institute of Development Studies,University of Mysore, Mysore-6. email : <[email protected]>

ABSTRACT

This paper aims at assessing the problems encountered by potentialbeneficiaries in availing of social assistance in Chamarajanagar district. A total of182 potential beneficiaries were randomly selected for the study across the district (78OAP,76 DWP and 28 PHP). They were administered a structured questionnaire onvarious aspects of the existing delivery system of social security scheme over a periodof two months. Surprisingly 64.8 per cent of the poor people said to have not appliedfor the social assistance expressly showing either they are ignorant or they have nomeans to apply. Results revealed that 81.3 per cent of them were BPL and 87.9 per centwere illiterates, and they had to depend on village leaders (67.2 per cent), and only 7.8per cent of officials assisted for social assistance. It was observed that they face manyproblems from the time of submitting to processing of applications and 57.8 per centof the potential beneficiaries were deprived of benefits. Majority of them expresseddifficulty in getting the application (85.9 per cent), about 84.4 per cent of them had tospent money to procure documents. Further, 65 per cent of respondents are dependenton village leaders to obtain the documents and 98.2 per cent of them again had tospend money for processing the application from out of paltry savings from theircasual labour. The authors investigate and discuss why a large number of potentialbeneficiaries did not apply and those who applied did not succeed in getting pensionfor several years. Finally from the study suggestions emerge to overcome thedifficulties that the deprived potential beneficiaries face in the existing delivery systemof social security scheme.

Introduction

In the unorganised section of societyoften the old people, widows andhandicapped are bothered by many socio-economic problems that affect theirlivelihood to meet basic needs. Particularly thedestitutes find it hard to live without anyassured income support. Social Security, to thepoor people, would mean to protect themfrom falling into further state of helplessness

through social assistance for them help tocontinue a decent life. The social assistance isgiven as a matter of right, when the prescribedconditions of need are met and it is notdiscretionary. The scheme is to those who areBelow Poverty Line. The focus of social securityis to enhance and protect people's capabilitiesby social means to prevent a deprivation andvulnerability to deprivation Dreze and Sen(1991).

374 B.S. Krishna Prasad, K.V.Aihanna and Chikkarangaswamy


JRD 2011 (1)

Introduction of the National SocialAssistance Programme, by the Ministry of RuralDevelopment Government of India, is asignificant step towards fulfilment of theDirective Principles in Articles 41 and 42 ofthe Constitution. In addition to the CentralGovernment most of the states have sincelong, implementing schemes to address thesocio-economic problems of the poor throughvarious schemes viz., Old Age Pension,Disabled Pension, Destitute Widow Pension,National Family Benefit Scheme, NationalMaternity Benefit Scheme, etc.

Government of India has introducedNational Old Age Pension Scheme in 1995 andin 2009 Indira Gandhi National Widows Pensionand Indira Gandhi Disabled Pension. InKarnataka, Old Age Pension, was firstintroduced in 1965, Physically HandicappedPension in 1977 and Destitute Widow PensionScheme have been in operation since 1984.Karnataka State has the distinction of havingset up the Directorate of Social Security andPension under the Department of Revenue toeffectively implement and monitor the socialpension schemes.

One common public grievance heard inthe villages is regarding poor who are left outfrom the benefit of social pension. At thenational level the Planning Commissionreported that significant proportions of theineligible beneficiaries are among thepensioners. It is widely perceived that thecurrent delivery mechanisms cause delays inthe disbursal of the benefits, appropriation ofbenefits by the middlemen, delivery ofbenefits to ineligible persons (Rajasekhar2009). When the ineligible persons areenjoying the benefit it is necessary toinvestigate how poor people are deprived ofthe benefit ever since they became eligible.Hence, field study was carried out inChamarajanagar district, Karnataka to quantifythe extent of coverage of beneficiaries andno-coverage of potential beneficiaries. An

exercise of this kind necessitated theresearchers to understand why certain peopleget the assistance and others are depriveddespite their potentiality.

Social Security Programmes : ExistingGuidelines and Delivery Process

In Karnataka, Old Age Pension (OAP) isgiven to old age people who are 65 years andabove. And now it is revised to cover varioussections of artisans and rural labourers etc.under Sandhya Suraksha Yojana (SSY) whoseincome does not exceed ̀ 20000 annually. Thebeneficiary is given ` 400 per month whichincludes Rs.200 from the Government of India.The Physically Handicapped Pension (PHP)isgiven to persons who have 40 per cent andabove disability, ` 6000 annual income,without any age restriction are given ` 400per month, which includes Government ofIndia Fund of ̀ 200. In case the disability is 75per cent and above they are paid ` 1000 permonth. The Destitute Widows Pension Scheme(DWP) provides financial assistance of ` 400every month. The beneficiary should be 18years and above with an annual income notexceeding ` 6000 per annum and they haveto produce proof of death of husband or legallydeclared certificate of death.

Nemmadi Kendra : Earlier the prescribedapplication was to be submitted to thesanctioning authority, the Tahsildar of the Taluk.Now the application should be made inNemmadi Kendra, a Rural Tele Centre, an e-Governance initiative was rolled out in 2006by the Government of Karnataka todecentralise powers of various services ofTaluk office. The Nemmadi Kendras are locatedat the Hobli level near to a cluster of villages.Directly the statements of applicants areentered along with their photos by a webcamera taken by the operator in the NemmadiKendra. There is no written application.Applicants are expected to produce age proofcertificate for Old Age Pension, the death


Problems of the Deprived Potential Beneficiaries to Avail of Social Assistance ... 375

JRD 2011 (1)

certificate of the husband for Widow Pension,disability certificate for Physically HandicappedPension along with an annual incomecertificate as per the criteria fixed for therespective scheme. Later, the authoritiesexamine the system generated application anddocuments through a verification process withthe Village Accountant (VA) and RevenueInspector (RI) before it is sanctioned byTahsildar/Deputy Tahsildar .

Methodology

Objective, Sample and Tools : The specificobjective of this study is to bring out the factson the ground ‘why’ considerable number ofcases of ‘potential beneficiaries’ are deprivedof the benefit and suggest ways forimprovement. Chamarajanagar district isreported to be one of the most backwarddistricts in 2002 by the High Power Committeeon Redressal of Regional Imbalances in theState of Karnataka. The district administrationhas, by 2009, sanctioned 46510 OAP, 28434

DWP and 12523 PHP. During the course offield study it was not uncommon to see oldage people, widows and handicapped people,eagerly coming with the grievance and hopeof getting the pension. Hence a structuredquestionnaire was developed andadministered to study the socio-economicconditions and the problems of the potentialbeneficiaries. A total of 182 cases of potentialbeneficiaries were randomly selected in 16villages. The data of three groups of potentialbeneficiaries were statistically analysed usingSPSS for windows (Version 16.0) software .

The Impediments Before the Poor People

The literacy rate in Chamarajanagardistrict by the year 2009 stood at 50.9 per centas against 66.6 per cent of the State. However,it is significant to note the illiteracy is 87.9 percent among the sample cases of potentialbeneficiaries for OAP, DWP and PHP (Table 1&Graph 1).

Table 1 : Illiteracy and Literacy of Potential Beneficiaries

Educational Illiterate 71 66 23 160status 91.0% 86.8% 82.1% 87.9%

Primary 5 4 4 136.4% 5.3% 14.3% 7.1%

Higher Primary 2 5 0 72.6% 6.6% .0% 3.8%

Other 0 1 1 2.0% 1.3% 3.6% 1.1%



JRD 2011 (1)

About 81.3 per cent of the respondentswere holding akshaya card, belonging to BPL,12.1 per cent beneficiaries of Anthyodaya

Scheme and 2.2 per cent of the held APL cards(Table 2 & Graph 2).

Table2 : Poverty Level of Potential Beneficiaries

Demographic parameters Left out cases Total

OAP DWP PHP

Poverty level Anthyodaya 5 6 11 226.4% 7.9% 39.3% 12.1%

Akshya (BPL) 71 60 17 14891.0% 78.9% 60.7% 81.3%

APL Card 0 4 0 4.0% 5.3% .0% 2.2%

None 2 6 0 82.6% 7.9% .0% 4.4%

CC=0.388; P<.000

The most significant and worrying issueis 64.8 per cent of the poor people could notapply for the social assistance. Among them73.1 per cent are Old Age Pension (OAP)

potential beneficiaries, 64.3 per cent ofdestitute widows and 56.6 per cent physicallyhandicapped people (Table 3 & Graph 3).



JRD 2011 (1)

Table 3 : Potential Beneficiaries - Applying for Social Assistance

Demographic parameters Left out cases OAP DWP PHP Total

Whether applied Yes 21 33 10 64for pension scheme 26.9% 43.4% 35.7% 35.2%

No 57 43 18 11873.1% 64.3% 56.6% 64.8%

CC=0.157; P<.100.

The study shows that 67.2 per cent ofthe people came to know the schemes fromthe village leaders and 25 per cent of themcome to know from the other beneficiaries ofthe village. But only 7.8 per cent of the people

came to know from the officials. Hence theirprimary source of knowledge is from localpeople rather than official machinery(Table 4& Graph 4).

Table 4 : Awareness of Information About OAP, DWP & PHP Schemesfor Potential Beneficiaries

Sources of information Other Beneficiaries 29 7 7 4337.2% 15 25 84

Village Leaders 44 6 4 1556.4% 53.6% 69.4% 59.2%

Officials 5 15 25 846.4% 21.4% 11.1% 10.6%



JRD 2011 (1)

About 57.8 per cent of them dependedon village leaders to obtain application and34.4 per cent got them from VillageAccountants who play an important role inrevenue administration at village level.However, it is heartening to note that 7.8 percent of the respondents are helped by thosewho are already receiving the benefit.

Only 12.5 per cent of the applicantscould submit the applications and the requireddocuments directly, 65.6 per cent weredependent on village leaders, the otherbeneficiaries (12.5 per cent) and 9.4 per centwere helped by their relatives (Table 6). Theirdependency on local people is markedly veryhigh. About 85.9 per cent of these

Table 6 : Dependence of Potential Beneficiaries for Procuring Required Documents

Demographic SECTOR Total

parameters OAP DWP PHP

Persons Relatives Frequency 2 4 0 6helped in Per cent 9.5% 12.1% .0% 9.4%getting thedocuments

Beneficiaries Frequency 3 4 1 8Per cent 14.3% 12.1% 10.0% 12.5%

Village Leaders Frequency 13 24 5 42Per cent 61.9% 72.7% 50.0% 65.6%

Self Frequency 3 1 4 8Per cent 14.3% 3.0% 40.0% 12.5%

CC=0.375; P<.107



JRD 2011 (1)

respondents entrusted the work tomiddlemen. Their dependency is directlyproportional to the illiteracy among them. Thejob was undertaken by 61.8 per cent villageleaders and 32.7 per cent agents. Surprisinglyonly 5.5 per cent of them got the work donethrough the revenue officials concerned withthe sanction of social assistance.

The study also reveals that 85.9 per centof the respondent poor people face lot ofhurdles to get the applications (Table 5 & Graph5). In the context 90.5 per cent people for OAP,84.8 per cent DWP and 80 per cent PHP ofthem had difficulty in getting applications . Inthe process 43.8 per cent of the applicantshad to spend up to ` 100 for obtaining theapplication and for required documents, 25.4per cent spent ̀ 51-100, ` 101-150 was spentby 10.9 per cent ,32 per cent, 8 per cent. Only14.1 per cent spent less than ` 50 towardsobtaining documents whereas in the presentarrangement in Nemmadi Kendra eachapplicant is expected to pay only ` 5 as feefixed by the Government.

Only 1.8 per cent of the respondents sayno expenditure was incurred for presentingthe application while seeking for socialassistance. But, 63.6 per cent of the applicantspaid ` 100-400, 30.9 per cent paid ` 500 to1000 and the rest 3.6 per cent of them had toshell down up to ̀ 2000 (Table 7). Majority ofthe respondents, 36.4 per cent had to meetout of their wages they earn from casuallabour, 32.7 per cent of them paid out of theirsavings but 23.6 per cent were forced to raiseloan and mortgaging their belongings to paythe village leaders or agents. However, only7.3 per cent of them were helped by theirrelatives viz. son, daughter, mother, father etc.Majority, 76.6 per cent of them wereaccompanied to visit the offices by villageleaders, beneficiaries or relatives. Even thoughthe Nemmadi Tele Centres are functioningsince 2006 only 9.4 per cent of them madetheir application through Nemmadi Kendra. In

2009, surprisingly, over 60.9 per cent of therespondents are not aware of NemmadiKendra. But, those 70 per cent who appliedthere were immediately attended to by theNemmadi Kendra. But, majority, 84.4 per centof them did not receive any writtenendorsement of the application they made inNemmadi Kendra. About 64.1 per cent of therespondents say that people who are similarlyplaced in bad socio-economic condition havebeen given assistance and 35.9 per cent ofthem say they are not sanctioned socialassistance. Their experience shows that only54.7 per cent of them hope to try again likeother beneficiaries who get it by payingmoney to village leaders and officials. Theothers, 45.3 per cent of the potentionalbeneficiaries have lost their hopes and do notwant to try because they do not have financialor political means like others. The study foundthat 57.8 per cent of potential beneficiariesare deprived of benefits. On the contrary, therespondents disheartened to say that 43.8 percent in their village those who are well-to-dohave been sanctioned the benefits. 40.8 percent say they do not know if well off peoplehave been sanctioned. Only 12.5 per cent ofpeople do not agree, where as 3.1 per cent ofthem do not like to say anything about themout of fear.

The Years of Deprivation to Destitutes

The most serious matter forconsideration that came up in the field studyand participatory interview is the period ofdeprivation and discrimination that is metedout to the potential beneficiaries. Followingdiscussion will show the gravity of the problemand official inaction.

Among the respondents 97.4 per centwere 65-79 years of age and 2.6 per cent hadcrossed 80 years of age which fulfils thecriteria of age for OAP. Among 78 personswomen were 55.1 per cent and 44.9 per centof them were men, 7.7 per cent of them were



JRD 2011 (1)

widows, 2.6 per cent unmarried and 89.7 percent were married respondents. About 26.9per cent of them belonged to scheduled caste,28 per cent to scheduled tribe, 25 per centother backward class and 19.2 per cent of therespondents to other castes. About 91 per centof them are illiterate and 91 per cent belongedto BPL.

If we examine the 76 cases of destituteWidow Pension potential beneficiaries thepicture is worse. About 17.1 per cent ofrespondents became widows since one year,38.2 per cent of them lost their husband in 5years and there were 44 per cent widowswhose husbands died long before 5 years. Itwas noticed that there are women widowedfor 20-30 years and deserted widows for10-20 years ago, 78.9 per cent of thembelonged to BPL.

The case of potential beneficiaries forphysically handicapped pension is grim, 32 percent of them were blind, 50 per cent of themhad locomotor disability, 10 per cent haddeafness and 7.1 per cent of mentally retardedcases. Added to this 32.1 per cent stated theyhad 40 per cent of disability and above, andrest of them had 75 per cent and above.Among them it is striking to note that 67.9 percent of them were born physicallyhandicapped and 28.6 per cent becamehandicapped by accident and other reasons.

The above facts show that their long waitor deprivation is not once, it is for long years. Itcould be seen from their angle that had theygot their rightful social assistance at the pointof time they became eligible their povertyand life condition would have been betterthan their living condition today. The argumentis that, for no fault of the potential beneficiariesthe assistance meant for them has not reached.Because they are poor, unaware and incapableof accessing the concerned office the poorhave become poorer than before. An obviousquestion arises, how many might have died

of continued destitution and ill-health. Suchvulnerable potential beneficiaries diedunheard due to starvation. It calls for researchin this aspect to bringout facts how poorpeople suffer, on the ground especially in ruralareas.

It is conclusive that majority of theeligible people becoming vulnerable to furtherdestitution is because of inefficiency and non-responsiveness of the delivery system. Thereis serious lapse on the part of directlyresponsible officials at grassroot level as wellas total failure on the part of the districtadministration in monitoring to ensure totalcoverage as per the guidelines of the socialsecurity schemes.

Some more causes for the deprivationof benefits

* Lack of awareness regarding the criteriafor sanction.

* Do not have capability to approach theauthorities to apply.

* No idea of how to get the requiredcertificates from the concernedauthorities viz. proof of age, deathcertificate, annual income certificate,disability certificate, etc., as the casemay be for furnishing to the application.

* Those who are aware of the scheme arereluctant to approach the authorities forfear of not having enough money tobribe agents or officials.

* Most of them are dependent on wagesearned from casual labour which theycannot afford to save money to sparefor ‘bribe.’ Their earning is just enoughfor hand to mouth living.

* Those who are unsuccessful have spentmoney, in spite of it not got the ordersfor they could not pay any more moneyas demanded by the agents. Dodging



JRD 2011 (1)

by the officials to get money iscommon.

* When the applicants enquired they aretold that their papers are not traceableor lost for not giving money asdemanded.

* If they have to try again they are leftwith no choice but raise loan which theythink is beyond their means.

* There are widows who have lost theirhusband 20-30 years ago and womendeserted by their husband 10-20 yearsago. The women who are deserted byhusbands are misled by village leadersand authorities that they are not eligible.Lack of no proper guidance.

* They do not have a ‘male member’ intheir family to take them to the offices.Their dependency on male member is,in many cases, necessary for thedestitute widows and old aged people.

* Partisan treatment or wilfuldiscrimination by the political leaders.

* They have resorted to mortgage theirgolden jewels to meet the expenditure.

* Most of the hill tribes are ignorant ofschemes and poorer than the BPL. Noforceful community leaders.

* Officials are not taking keen interest togive the benefit.

Findings of the Study

The social security assistances areprimarily meant for preventing poor peoplefrom further impoverishment and death.Appropriate schemes are designed withcertain criteria targeting a section ofvulnerable people. No scheme covers all thepersons for whom it is meant (Subrahmanya1998). What figures are shown on the paper

only reflect the number of beneficiaries whocould contact political leaders, officials of thearea, spend money as demanded by them.Some of the beneficiaries were forced tospend out of dire necessity, The World Bank,2006 found in a study that transaction costs ofapplying for pension are a deterrent topotential beneficiaries. In many cases the localleaders take people to Taluk office and collectmoney in the name of officers. It is wellestablished by the study that not only theeligible cases are sanctioned there areineligible cases also. Hence, the sanctionorders are given arbitrarily. There is noverification or inspection done by the higherauthorities. Unfortunately there is nomechanism by which the Governmentidentifies the people who are left-out ordenied from time to time. The real and lastingsolution to this question of prompt selectionseems to lie in entrusting their work andresponsibility to the village level, VanGinneken (1998).

* The study strongly reveals that illiteracyand poverty among the people are majorimpediments to claim their benefits.

* People are under the mercy of villageleaders, who are generally elite andpolitically powerful. The village leadersact as agents between beneficiaries andofficials for transaction of money in theprocess of sanction of social pension.

* There is no working mechanism to makethe people know about the criteria ofschemes. Hence most people are forcedto depend on political leaders, GramPanchayati members or communityleaders in the village. Ignorance of thescheme has given way for them beingexploited for money and politicalpatronisation. Destitute widows areparticularly subjected to several socialproblems. They find it difficult to leavetheir homes accompanying the leaderswho are generally men.



JRD 2011 (1)

* The potential beneficiaries are of twokinds, those who have not tried andthose who have attempted many timesbut never succeeded. The first categoryof people have a confirmed notion thatthe benefits will not be sanctionedwithout giving money to the localleaders or the officials responsible forsanction. The other group of people arethose who made their applicationthrough agents but never received thepension because they are unable to feedthe bribe as and when demanded.

* The physically handicapped people faceproblems to get the required disabledcertificate from the district surgeon ofthe district for establishing the severityof disability.

* There is no proper method of identifyingthe eligible persons by the officialmachinery. Hence a large number ofthem are leftout.

* Even though the power to sanction hasbeen delegated down line, the officialsare not sensitive.

* Officials are not duty bound orcompassionate.

* The process of sanction involvespolitical leaders' intervention,corruption and delay.

* The Nemmadi Kendras which areequipped with computer, but they arenot able to fully reduce or overcomethe problems found by the potentialbeneficiaries. Though there are positiveimprovements, yet they have proved tobe another Taluk office at hobli level.Even though they are located closer tothe villages, the turnout remains far fromsatisfactory.

Methods to Prevent Deprivation of Pensionto Eligible people

The main issue for consideration is thatpeople are generally BPL and illiterate. Theyare incapable of securing anything they areentitled for, in the existing setup. The problemof denial or deprivation can be tackled by theofficial machinery through responsiveness.The district monitoring committee shouldfunction regularly. There is a need to holdpublic campaign and awareness programmesby information and publicity departments ofState and Centre.

Under the circumstance ,one timethorough identification of the eligiblebeneficiaries should be done by theconcerned officials in every village locally inthe presence of the Gram Panchayat Membersand Panchayat secretary and medical officersin a Gram Sabha (Krishna Prasad 2010). Theidentified OAP, DWP and PHP should besanctioned in the Gram Sabha to avoidtransaction of money as well as politicalinterference and pressure.

Conclusion

The potential beneficiaries have strongcase to be considered by the Governments toprovide them the assistance retrospectivelyever since they became eligible as per thecriteria prescribed and guidelines for universalcoverage of the schemes.

Every State has to seek the welfare of allits members and not a few or some peopleonly. Social Assistance is a device for providingsocial security benefit for vulnerable people.Illiteracy and poverty of old people, widowsand disabled people in rural areas are not new.Their obvious weakness and helplessnessshould not come in the way of theirentitlement. When the scheme is targeted to



JRD 2011 (1)

provide monthly pension to the destitutepeople, simple method of effectiveidentification or selection needs to be devisedat the point of launch of the scheme. Theground reality reveals that many eligible andneedy people are left out of the benefit bythe faulty delivery process. It is again the mostvulnerable people who are further driven todestitution and death not by chance but forvarious lapses in the system. People shouldbe freed from their unavoidable dependencyon the local leader. Added to this, even thedelegated power to lower level of the deliverysystem and the e-governance initiative of RuralTele Centre have not much impact to reducethe problems of rural poor. Over and abovethat, the authorities above are found to betreating schemes in a more routine and casualmanner than the other anti-povertyprogrammes. If any potential beneficiary diesof malnutrition and starvation the local leadersand the officials will be directly or indirectlyresponsible.

It is revealed that, in spite of idealschemes formulated by Governments to assistthe needy people, for want of effectiveimplementation, want of dedicated officialsand selfless political leaders, deprivation ofbenefits is bound to occur. There is need forrigorous feedback from an able researchorganisation in the form of policy improvisationto be brought to the notice of Governmentfor effective implementation to save peoplefrom exploitation and vulnerability.

Therefore, there is an urgent need forthe government to bring in much moreeffective method of identification of all theeligible and deserving poor people at once byemploying a selection process in Gram Sabha.If only the entire process of selection andsanction is done at the doorstep, it naturallyavoids delays and eliminates moneytransaction, political interference gives hopeas well as relief to the beneficiaries to lead a

decent life without being denied or diebecause of deprivation of their entitled socialsecurity.

Bibliography

1. District Statistics at a Glance 2008-09,Department of Economics and Statistics,Government of Karnataka.

2. Dreze, J and A. Sen (1991), ‘Public Actionfor Social Security : Foundation AndStrategy’, in E. Ahmed, et al (eds), SocialSecurity in Developing Countries,Oxford, Oxford University Press.

3. Rajasekhar.D, Sreedhar.G, NarasimhaReddy. NL, Biradari. RR, and Manjula. R,(2009), Report on Delivery of SocialSecurity and Pension Benifits inKarnataka, Bangalore 2009.

4. Government Of Karnataka (2002), Reportof the High Power Committee forRedressal of Regional Imbalances,Bangalore.

5. Krishna Prasad, B.S. (2010), DestituteWidows Pension: An Experiment ofImplementation in Karnataka, PP.58-62,Vol.11 No.1, June 2010, Indian Journalof Social Security, New Delhi.

6. Subrahmanya, R.K.A.(1998), 'Extension ofSocial Insurance Schemes in The FormalSector’, in Social Security for All Indians,Oxford University Press, Delhi.

7. Van Ginneken, W. (1998), Social Securityfor All Indians, Oxford University Press,Delhi

8. World Bank (2006), Report on Do PublicFunds Reach the Destitute? Assessmentof Leakages and Targeting of SocialPension Programmes in Karnataka, NewDelhi.


Book Reviews 385

JRD 2011 (1)


BOOK REVIEWS

India Micro, Small & MediumEnterprises Report 2011, Editors : P.M.Mathew, S.Sridhar and Ram Venuprasad,Publisher : Institute of Small Enterprises andDevelopment, Pages : 275, Price : Rs 950.

The India Micro, Small & MediumEnterprises Report 2011 is an authentic sourceof presentation of growth and developmentof the MSMEs in India in its entirety. This reportprovides an independent and scholarly viewof the state of MSMEs on an annual basis, whichis widely quoted in most circles that haveserious stake in the MSME issues. As it collectsinformation from authentic sources and fieldreports, it helps in identifying the knowledgeand practice gaps that require further researchand study.

For the last few years, this report hasbecome the best reference material on theannual trends and progress of the Indian micro,small and medium enterprises sector and is amust for every researcher who access theperformance of a particular enterprise vis-à-vis the sector as a whole. The richness of thereport lies in it diversity of perspectives,sectorial contents and breadth of issuescovered as well as the depth of analyses. It isa rare blending of statistical rigour with policyand action relevance inputs for the MSMEs intoto.

The report started with the ‘Global Sceneand the Outlook ’ and ended with ‘Keyconcerns and the way forward’ for the futureof the MSMEs. There are other ten relevantchapters, each redefining an important aspect.Some notable points from each chapter areillustrated below reflecting the richness of thereport.

For example in Chapter II, entitled ‘TheEnterprise Ecosystem and MSMEs’, the reporthas stated that unlike in other economies ofthe world, public policy in the industrial sectorin India has significantly helped the broadbased development of its several sectors andsub-sectors, mostly facilitated by a strongstatistical system which captures the trend andprogress of the various sub-sectors.

In Chapter III on ’The Legal andInstitutional Framework’, the reportrecommended an improved statistical system,as it is crucial to explore the role of actors otherthan the government who are contributingsignificantly in the area of MSME.

In Chapter IV on ‘The Report Card’, theeditors have aptly pointed out that in theagenda of employment promotion in thecountry, the projections and strategies aresignificantly focused on ‘SSIs’ with inadequateattention to the dynamics of the unorganisedsector as a whole. Indeed, a more holisticapproach is vital for sharpening strategies forthe bottom of the pyramid.

In Chapter V on ‘Human Resources andEntrepreneurship’, the report highlighted theconventional approaches to human resourcedevelopment which have treatedentrepreneurs and workers as two distinctcategories. However, the report has suggestedthat the public policy should be designed tomaintain a balance between the two andpreserve the entrepreneurial resources as acritical resource and which cannot be createdso easily. Such an approach is essential toprovide a fresh look at policies operatedspecifically for the growth and developmentof micro enterprises.

386 Book Reviews


JRD 2011 (1)

In Chapter VI on ‘Finance: RecentDevelopments and Policy,’ the editors havestressed that it is time to move away fromadequacy to other aspects of creditrequirements, such as uses of credit andappropriateness of financial requirements.Moreover, the report discussed the differencesbetween microfinance and venture capital, andsuggested that there are more issues whichare needed to be deliberated and thesedeliberations will not only enhance flow ofcredit but also help in garnering more businessfor financial institutions.

In Chapter VII on ‘Innovation and MSMEs:Green and Clean’, the editors have highlightedthat the alternative energy sources implies asignificant business case and it remains to beproperly harnessed. Given the specificdevelopment of this sector in the country, Indiahas tremendous opportunities in waiting.

In Chapter VIII on ‘Communication andAdvocacy’, the editors stressed that effectiveadvocacy need to be based on a solid footingof data, information and analysis on the smallenterprise economy. Moreover, ascommunication emerges as an outcome ofdata information and analysis, India still has totravel a lot on these lines.

In Chapter IX on ‘Trade and OutwardOrientation’, the editors focused on the needfor rapid changes in the MSME sector from theview point of their survival. They have advisedto cultivate a culture of innovation, in whichboth the corporate sector and the governmenthave important roles to play.

The tenth and the final chapter on‘Responsible Business; Perspectives andExperiences’ reminded that the concept shouldnot be treated as a passing fad rather it shouldprovide an opportunity for having a closer lookat the way business is done. Besides, for theplanners and the policy makers, it gives anopportunity to look back on the qualitative

aspects of enterprise development rather thanfocusing only on achievement of quantitativetargets.

The report is a comprehensive referencefor those who want to review the performanceof the MSMEs as well as interested to knowthe status of various policy decisions taken bythe Government of India and other agenciesin facilitating the growth and development ofMSMEs in backward regions of India. Theeditors should be highly appreciated as thereport handles difficult and contentious issuesin a most comprehensive manner andhighlights the MSMEs in a most fascinatingmanner. Finally, a small remark that thoughsome spelling mistakes spoil the charm ofquick reading of the report but they do notdrag attention from the broad contents anddatabase as vividly presented in the report.

B.K. Swain

Agro-Afforestation Management onWastelands (Village Level Study), Hridai R.Yadav, 2011. Published by Concept PublishingCompany Pvt. Ltd, A/15-16, Commercial Block,Mohan Garden, New Delhi -110 059 (India),pp. 349, Rs. 900 (Hardback).

The book under review is an outcome ofa research study analysing various natural andhuman factors responsible for the wastelandsdevelopment covering five villages (viz.,Loniapur, Parsanwa, Benipur, Mahmoodpur andBhaganpur villages) of Amethi Block inSultanpur district. The author has attemptedto analyse the problems and factorsresponsible for development of wastelands atvillage and block levels. He examined theissues related with planning, management andreclamation of wastelands through agro-afforestation system. He has also assessed thecost-benefit ratios, socio-economic crisis andsuggested suitable strategies to restore theecological imbalances.


Book Reviews 387

JRD 2011 (1)

The author has discussed in depth, aboutthe six categories of wastelands prevailing inAmethi Block (viz., Usar, Waterlogged, Banjar,Kankarili , Ravine and other types ofwastelands). The factors responsible fordevelopment of wasteland have beendiscussed with the help of StepwiseRegression Analysis and Correlation Matrix foreach category of existing wastelands inAmethi Block. The author has discussed on theAfforestation programmes executed byvarious line departments, in order to augmentthe wasteland productivity.

Dr. Yadav, has examined the policies foragro-afforestation and the six mini-missionsprogrammes (of various approaches)constituted to strengthen the wastelanddevelopment programme. He has suggested21 points which need to be considered forsuccessful planning of wastelands reclamation.He has discussed on various agro-afforestationsystems which include Social Forestry –Horticulture system, Forestry-Horticulture-Agriculture system, Agri – Horti – Forestrysystem and Fisheries – Horti – Forestry system.These systems were adopted in six categoriesof wastelands prevailing in Amethi Block,based on their feasibility.

After examining the techno-economicviability, Reclamation of wastelands has beendemonstrated in the study villages in fourphases. Reclamation has resulted in checkingand controlling the environmental andecological crisis and improving the socio-economic crisis of the deprived rural poor ofthe Amethi Block. The author has worked outthe economics for each of the agro-afforestation system and specific category ofwasteland.

All the above discussed approaches arelocation specific and would offer deep insightto extension development for effectivetransfer of technology in wasteland develop-ment programmes. The book is recommended

for students, field demonstrators, extensionofficials and researchers.

V. Suresh Babu

Sustainable Resource Development:Policy, Problem and Prescription, by : UdaiPrakash Sinha, ISBN-13: 978-81-8069-746-3,Published in 2011 by Concept PublishingCompany (P) Ltd. New Delhi, Pages 533, Price:Rs.1250.

Sustainable Development is nothing butmanagement and conservation of naturalresource base along with the orientation oftechnological and institutional changes in sucha manner as to ensure the attainment andcontinued satisfaction of number of needs forpresent and future generation. The naturalresources are considered as one of the mostimportant pillars of sustainable development,provide raw material and energy inputswithout which production and consumptionwould be highly impossible. The presentdiscourse of this book elaborates the need forestablishing the sustainable developmentprocess at the various considerations – social,economic, political and environmental etc.Particularly, the author viewed that CommonProperty Resources, which are by and largenatural resources that must be protected andenriched for overall growth of the rural areas.Such effort will not only lead to optimumutilisation of resources but also generate moreemployment opportunities for the ruralpeople.

This book analyses various aspects ofconserving the natural resource base throughthe elements involved in the whole gamut ofthese activities that encompass the role of anagronomist, irrigation engineer, a scientist, acooperative expert, an economist and a socialscientist.

The production and destruction ofresources are the two extreme points and in

388 Book Reviews


JRD 2011 (1)

between these two the same takes severalforms in order to serve mankind. Thispublication highlights some of the naturalresources and their systems in relation to manwho plays a vital role in shaping and utilisingdifferent kinds of resources, as spatial linkageson economic, social and political grounds. Thisbook also considers forest and agriculturalresources in the Munger division. There aretwelve chapters which elaborately discuss thebasic concepts of sustainability and theevolutionary perspectives of sustainablehuman development in the 21st century. In thefirst chapter, the author discusses about thescope and necessary conditions forsustainability, resource and culture, industrialresources and its relations, principles ofresource advocacy, resource andenvironmental accounting etc. pertaining toboth rural and urban resource environments.The second chapter deals with the review ofliterature, approaches, principles and settingof hypotheses and the third chapter depictsthe area of the study taken up and itstopographic conditions. Human resources andsustainable development of the newmillennium was dealt in the fourth chapter inwhich the author explained about theSustainable Human Development (SHD) andhuman security, role of governance inenvironment management and impact of newtechnology in environment management andso on.

In the fifth chapter, the history of forestresources and approaches for ecosystem wereanalysed based on the problems anddistribution of forest type and its productsnecessitating the conservation of forest forboth national as well as global context. Thechapter six explains the agricultural resourcesand its sustainable development in the newmillennium Seventh chapter stresses the needfor prevention of water resources byelaborating the existing status and problemsin the irrigation systems and reservoirs.

The eighth chapter analyses the impactsof urbanisation and industrialisation that causedamage to sustainable development of theregion of the study. It also cautions thedistribution of industry which not only pollutesthe environment but also carnage the rurallivelihoods. The author also discusses road andtransport infrastructure that includes railways,waterways and surface transport systems andprescribed some policy initiatives for futureendeavour. The role of panchayati raj was notignored but extensively discussed in the tenthchapter with valuable suggestions.

Obviously, this book presents brilliantideas for conservation and management ofresources and presenting analysis of thevarious elements involved in integrateddevelopment of resources and resourcesystems that the subject specialist, researcher,planner and policy maker will find this bookinteresting and useful.

R. Murugesan

Sardar Sarovar Project on the RiverNarmada edited by R. Parthasarathy, RavindraH. Dholakia, CEPT University Press, Ahmedabad,2011.

The book ‘Sardar Sarovar Project on theRiver Narmada’, History of Design, Planningand Appraisal (volume–1) speaks about design,planning and historical perspective of sardarsarovar dam. The book is divided into threeparts. First part discusses about historicalperspective and design of the dam, the secondpart deals with the planning process of thedam and third part deals with the social – costbenefit analysis of the project.

Sardar Sarovar Project on Narmada Riveris a vortex of controversies, be it anenvironmental, resettlement & rehabilitation,seismic threat, cost–benefit analysis etc. TheSSP is a much debated and extensively studiedsubject. The SSP has a taken a long duration


Book Reviews 389

JRD 2011 (1)

(five decades) to complete the project due tocontroversies. The Gujarat State has put everyeffort to complete the project. This book iswritten by the policy makers, engineers,administrators and academicians who areassociated with the project either during theplan period or implementation stage. Theauthors have meticulously answered all thecontroversies by giving explanation to everyargument put forward by the critics andenvironmentalists.

First chapter deals with prominence ofSSP to the State of Gujarat. The SSP is anational project and benefits four states,namely Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,Rajasthan and Gujarat. The authors explainthat benefits in terms of power generation theState of Madhya Pradesh gets 52 per cent andMaharashtra State benefits 32 per cent andGujarat State only 16 per cent. In terms ofwater control Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtraand Rajasthan get two – thirds and Gujaratcontrols only one – third of the waterresources. But the project is located in Gujaratand the State took it as a responsibility tocomplete the project, as every water drop isessential for Gujarat for drinking water, powergeneration and for irrigation. The authors havehigh expectation about SSP towardsagriculture growth in the State and ultimatelycontribution towards national economicgrowth. In Chapter two the author explainsthat SSP is an “Engineering Marvel” andoccupies a remarkable place on the world mapof water resources development. He quotesthe TIME magazine’s description that dam isan “Eight Modern Wonders Abuilding”. TheProject is a human Endeavour to regulate andharness natural resources. The dam is havingdistinctive innovations in planning, design andimplementation. The author opines that thedam is a Lifeline of Gujarat people and thebenefits are multi–dimensional like watersupply, energy generation and food securityand ultimately promoting sustainabledevelopment of Gujarat State.

In chapter three the author describestechnicality of the dam during the planningperiod and implementation stage. The authorfocuses on salient features and technicaldetails of the main dam, power house and maincanal and layout of the dam. Advise of theInternational experts and national expertsviews were taken in construction of dam. Themain focus was on geological fault zone ofthe river bed which presented a challenge forconstruction of dam. The engineers have takencare of seismic zone and care was taken, anearthquake of 6.5 on the Richter scale wouldmake no effect on the structure of the dam.The studies also focus that there was noevidence of seismic active fault at the damsite. But every measure was taken that zonewas seismically active and the projectstructures were designed accordingly. Inchapter four the author discusses Seismicityand Safety of the Sardar Sarovar Project. Thischapter is an answer to all pertinent questionsabout seismicity of the dam. The author saysthat SSD and reservoir is located in a crucialarea in the Deccan trap province.

Part – 2 of the book discusses about thedesign aspects of the dam. In chapter seventhe author remembers the design of this megaproject. The project had the distinction ofbeing the most controversial project in India.This is also most investigated / studied irrigationproject in India. It has encountered numerousroad blocks on its journey over the past fivedecades. The State of Gujarat has assigned avery high priority to the Dam, Power Houseand Major Canal constructions to establish asa model project.

In chapter eight the author recounts thevarious challenges faced by the Governmentof Gujarat in financing SSP. In 1993 owing tothe pressure of anti-dam campaigners andNGOs the World Bank has withdrawn thefunding of the project. The SSP has facedseveral challenges financially but finally it wasable to find out its own solutions to complete

390 Book Reviews


JRD 2011 (1)

the project. The dam was completed withalternative sources like Fixed Deposit Scheme,Market Borrowing, Cooperative Sector, StatePublic Sector Undertakings, Religious andCharitable Institutions, etc. Ultimately, it is thepeople of Gujarat who have a stake in theproject . In chapter nine the author discussesabout the environmental safeguards of theproject. He argues that most developmentmeasures affect natural wealth – air, soil, water,forests, minerals and our wild ecosystem. Itwas recognised that all development activitiesimpinge on the natural environment andcreate stress. But for the SSP EnvironmentalImpact Assessment (EIA) was made accordingto the guidelines of MoEF – GoI. But thechallenge lies in maintaining the environ-mental balance as development activities tendto disturb the natural resources.

The part – 3 discusses about the cost –benefit analysis of the project. The SardarSarovar Project (SSP) on the River Narmada isone of the most debated, most researched andmost meticulously planned water projects inthe world. The project has got caught in longdrawn out legal disputes, politicalcontroversies, demonstrations and agitations.The proponents and the opponents of theproject have used the cost-benefit analysis toderive support and comfort for their respectivestrong positions. It was ultimately found thatthe project turns out to be socially andeconomically highly viable. But it is extremelydifficult to find developmental projects whereeverybody in society gains and nobody loses.In most cases, projects result in many peoplegaining, some people not affected directly orindirectly, but a few people definitely losing.In this situation the author suggests solution,based on the Kaldor – Hicks CompensationPrinciple i.e., the gainers should compensate(win over) the losers through mutuallyacceptable voluntary bargain before theproject starts.

This book is informative and highlyeducative to the students, academicians,administrators, engineers, developmentprofessionals, sociologists, politicians, policymakers, environmentalists, NGOs and ResearchScholars etc.

S. N. Rao

Sardar Sarovar Project on the RiverNarmada-Impacts so far and WaysForward; Volume 3 is edited book by R.Parthasarathy and Ravindra H. Dholakia, 2011,published for CEPT University Press,Ahmedabad by Concept Publishing Company,A/15-16, Commercial Block, Mohan Garden,New Delhi-110059, pp960.

The Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) on riverNarmada has a long, interesting and alsocontroversial history. Few issues were sharingof water, rehabilitation of the project affectedpersons, planning of use of water etc. Keepingthis as background, this three volume serieshas been taken up by the authors as thedocumentation of the process of evolution andthe contribution of Sardar Sarovar Project onthe river Narmada in Gujarat. All thecontributors of these volumes were directlyinvolved in the project one time or the other.

The first volume provides historicalperspective on design, planning and appraisalof the project. The second volume drawsattention to the implementation challengeslike the process of resettlement andrehabilitation. The third volume discusses theimpacts of SSP so far and the ways forwardincluding aspects of water distribution,management options and policy issues. Allthree volumes put together it was thecompilation of 31 articles of which 10constituted in the first volume and another 9in volume 2 and other 12 in volume 3.

Volume three is divided into two partsand part VI focuses on Impacts so far and part


Book Reviews 391

JRD 2011 (1)

VII studies ways forward. The editors of thebook, R. Parthasarathy and Ravindra H. Dholakiagive a overview on ‘Sardar Sarovar Project:Performances so far, Plans and Opportunities’.They felt that the water is a critical resource aswell as a product significantly augmented bySSP for a country as a whole and particularlyfor four States of Gujarat, Rajasthan, M.P andMaharashtra. In Gujarat the drinking waterneeds of several municipalities, villages andhabitations are met with SSP water and in fact,when the plans are implemented, SSP wouldbe the irrigation system that truly takescognizance of water management, goingbeyond mere distribution.

N.B. Desai in his article ‘Irr igatedagriculture through Sardar Sarovar’ focuses onthe aspects of irrigated agriculture due to SSPand describes the way the command area wasplanned for the purpose of irrigation. He alsodwells on plans such as canal automation,micro irrigation, strategies for conjunctive useof water and the framework for vertical andhorizontal drainage to tackle the problem ofwaterlogging.

Through the article ‘ Impacts of Narmadawater on Agriculture Gujarat’ Amit Garg et al.present the impacts of Narmada water onagriculture in three districts of Gujarat-Ahamdabad, Gandhinagar and Vadodara-which started receiving the canal water from2005 onwards. The key question of the studyis whether the timely availability of Narmadawater had caused an increase in crop yield andnet area sown (NSA). The results show that theNarmada water has significantly increased theaverage crop yields and NSA of wheat, oilseedsand pulses in all the three districts. The authorsclaim that in aggregate the farmers have beenbenefited economically.

Prerana Desai Vaidya in their paper on‘Irrigation Impacts of Sardar Sarovar Project; Afield evaluation’ discusses the results of anempirical study carried out to understand the

impact of Narmada water. The study villagesare from five districts- Narmada, Bharuch,Vadodara, Panchamahal and Kheda. Based onsurvey of more than 1,000 households alongwith interviews and focused group discussions,the author concludes that access to Narmadawater for irrigation has resulted in higheragriculture production and hence income.

Subhrangshu Goswami in his paper on‘Revisiting Sardar Sarovar Canal Based DrinkingWater Project in Gujarat’ presents that theallocation of water for Gujarat from SSP hastwo distinct components- water for irrigationand water for domestic use and industry. Whilethe irrigation component is well researchedand debated by the planners and policy makersat different levels, the drinking watercomponent which can meet the drinkingwater needs of 55 per cent of the villages and65 per cent of the urban centres of the statehas been in the limelight. The author alsodiscussed the issues and challenges involvedin implementing the project and achieving itsobjectives in the context of it ’s built-inweaknesses, which arise from its concept anddesign on one hand and the socio- culturaland administrative capabilities of the state onother.

Dinesh Metha and Meera Metha in theirpaper on ‘Urban drinking water security andsustainability in Gujarat’ address key challengesof urbanisation in Gujarat. According to authors,provision of drinking water to large part of thestate is a big challenge. The paper is an attemptto show that Narmada water is reaching theinteriors of Kachchh, North Gujarat andSaurashtra.

Part VII focuses on Ways Forward byanalysing six papers. In the paper ‘ Social Limitsand economic partnership potentials in SSPcommand’ by R. Parthasarathy covers twodistinct aspects, one development ofcommand area as outlined in the Planning forProsperity by Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam

392 Book Reviews


JRD 2011 (1)

Limited (SSNNL) in 1989. The second aspectis the other school of thought of involvingprivate players in water distribution andmanagement.

Tushaar Shah and others in their paper ‘Acase for pipelining water distribution in theNarmada irrigation systems in Gujarat, India’advocate ten strong rationales for pipeliningwater distribution in the Narmada IrrigationSystem instead of constructing open channels.In support of their arguments they discuss thesuccessful experiences of irrigationdevelopment in various districts in the UpparKrishna Basin in Maharashtra and theinvestments made in many villages of Gujarat.

Dinesh Kumar and Nitin Bassi in theirpaper on ‘Maximising the social andeconomical returns from Sardar SarovarProject: Thinking beyond the convention’discuss the potential indirect benefits from SSPwhich were not envisaged at the time ofproject planning. Some of these benefits aresustainable well irrigation, reduced cost ofenergy for pumping groundwater in the regionand improved quality of groundwater resultingfrom enhanced recharge. Samar Datta in hispaper on ‘exploring institutional alternativesto tap fishing potentials of Sardar SarovarReservoir’ explores and proposes a model.Given both the technical and socio-economiccomplexities in fisheries development over avast water body, the Narmada Water DisputesTribunal (NWDT) has not given any formulafor cost and benefit sharing in the context offisheries.

M.B. Joshi and K.D. Acharya in their paperon ‘ Challenges Involved in Operations of SSPCanal Conveyance system and use of State ofthe art of Technology’ present the uniquenessof the operational aspect of SSP canal network,which over the time has become increasinglyimportant to achieve the desired level ofperformance. S. Jagadeesan by ‘Connectingthe last mile’, sums up the gigantic projectcalled SSP and highlights the plans of SSNNL.

By reading the articles in the book, anindividual develops contemporary knowledgeon the issues related to the irrigation projects.The authors should be highly appreciated forfocusing on the practical issues relating toconstruction of a project and its impact onirrigation and drinking water. The book is fullof critical analysis of Sardar Sarovar project.Thus in a nutshell the book is reference manualfor every social science researcher, academics,NGO activists, practitioners and policyresearchers, who are interested and keen inirrigation and drinking water projects. Thelanguage used by the different authors issimple and the style of presentation is good.The authors also used exhaustive examplesand the book has rich bibliography. However,in the overall assessment, the book is goodresource book on various aspects pertainingto irrigation projects and their impact onpeople. The present volume has greatrelevance of time to the rural developmenttoo.

C.Dheeraja

JRD 1 2011 - National Institute of Rural Developmentnirdpr.org.in/NIRD_Docs/jrd/Sept.2011.pdf ·...

Documents

Transcript of JRD 1 2011 - National Institute of Rural Developmentnirdpr.org.in/NIRD_Docs/jrd/Sept.2011.pdf ·...