JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN ...

JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL

AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES

IN THE WORLD

May 2012

Volume 2 Issue 2

ISSN: 2146-7463

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JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES

IN THE WORLD

May 2012, Volume: 2 Issue: 2 ISSN: 2146-7463

COPYRIGHT @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES IN THE WORLD

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Contact Addresses

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi Üniversitesi, Endüstriyel Sanatlar Eğitim Fakültesi,

Eğitim Bilimleri Bölüm Başkanlığı, 06830 Gölbaşı Ankara/Türkiye

E. Mail: [email protected] Fax: +903124853123

Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu Üniversitesi, İletişim Bilimleri Fakültesi,

Yunusemre Kampüsü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye

E. Mail: [email protected] Phone: +905422322167

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Yabancı Diller Yüksek Okulu,

İki Eylül Kampusü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye


Sponsors

Abstracting & Indexing

WJEIS is listed in;

Editors

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey

Associate Editor

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu University, Turkey


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Editorial Board

Prof. Dr. Abdul Hakim Juri, University of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Prof. Dr. Ahmet Mahiroğlu, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Alan Smith, The University of Southern Queensland, Australia

Prof. Dr. Ali H. Raddaoui, University of Sfax, Tunisia

Prof. Dr. Ali Şimşek, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Augustyn Bańka, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Poland

Prof. Dr. Boriss Misnevs, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia

Prof. Dr. Cevat Celep, Kocaeli University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Coşkun Bayrak, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Emine Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Esmahan Ağaoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Francis Glasgow, Guyana University, South America

Prof. Dr. H. Güçlü Yavuzcan, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Jim Flood, Open University, United Kingdom

Prof. Dr. K. M. Gupta, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, India

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Durdu Karslı, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Kesim, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Modafar Ati, Abu Dhabi University, United Arab Emirates

Prof. Dr. Mohamed Ziad Hamdan, Modern Education House, Syria

Prof. Dr. Müfit Kömleksiz, Cyprus International University,TRNC

Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi, Bejing Normal University, China

Prof. Dr. Ramesh C. Sharma, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

Prof. Dr. Rozhan M. Idrus, School of Distance Education, University Sains, Malaysia

Prof. Dr. Santosh Panda, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

Prof. Dr. Sharif H. Guseynov, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia

Prof. Dr. Tamar Lominadze, Georgian Technical University, Georgia

Prof. Dr. Tayyip Duman, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Tony Townsend, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom

Prof. Dr. Valentina Dagiene, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Lithuania

Prof. Dr. Yoav Yair,The Open University of Israel, Israel

Prof. Dr. Yüksel Kavak, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Zdena Lustigova, Chareles University, Czech Republic

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Antonis Lionarakis, Hellenic Open University, Greece

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gonca Telli Yamamoto, Okan University, Turkey

Assoc. Prof. Dr. I. Hakki Mirici, Akdeniz University, Turkey

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Natalija Lepkova, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Lithuania

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nedim Gürses, Anadolu University, Turkey

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shivakumar Deene, Karnataka State Open University, India

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Steve Wheeler, University of Plymouth, United Kingdom

Assist. Prof. Dr. Irfan Yurdabakan, Dokuz Eykul University, Turkey

Assist. Prof. Dr. Katherine Sinitsa, International Research and Training Center, Ukrania

Assist. Prof. Dr. Roxana Criu, Cuza University, Romania

Dr. Hisham Mobaideen, Mu'tah University, Jordan

Dr. Simon Stobart, University of Teesside, United Kingdom


IN THE WORLD May 2012, Volume: 2 Issue: 2 Contents ISSN: 2146-7463


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CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……iii From Editors………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….v 01. THE IMPACT OF TEACHER QUESTIONS ON STUDENT LEARNING IN EFL Kamile Hamiloğlu, Gürkan Temiz, TURKEY……………………………………………………………………………..…………………..1-8 02. QUALITY OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN 21ST CENTURY - A CASE OF OMAN Neeta Baporikar, Iqtidar Ali Shah, SULTANATE OF OMAN…………………………………………………………………….…..9-18 03. VIRTUAL TRAINING IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION: FOOTWEAR TRAINING Mehmet Şahin,Yavuz Erişen, Nadir Çeliköz, TURKEY……………………………………………………………………………….19-23 04. HIGHER EDUCATION IN BOLOGNIAN WAY: THE CASE OF MACEDONIA (SEEU AND SUT) Ali Pajaziti, MACEDONIA……………………………………….………………………………………………………………..………………24-33 05. THE NEW MODEL FOR MUSIC EDUCATION – THERAPEUTIC APPROACH: WHY AND HOW? Marit Mõistlik, ESTONIA………………………………….……………………………………………………………….…………..………34-40 06. OUT OF FORTY Stanko Blatnik, Sanja Selimović, Amila Mujezinović, SLOVENIA- BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA……………..….41-45 07. A STUDY ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THINKING STYLES (ATTITUDES) AND COLLABORATION ATTITUDES OF COLLEGE STUDENTS IN TAIWAN Hsiao Tien Wang, Wenloong Chang, Ying Fang Lai, TAIWAN………………………………..………………………….………46-57 08. LEARNING ORGANIZATION DISCIPLINE IN IRANIAN HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM Enayat Abbasi, Milad Taqipour, Homayon Farhadian, IRAN…………………………………….……………………….…….58-68 09. CLASSROOM INTERACTION VIA SYNCHRONOUS TECHNOLOGY ENHANCED TASKS Zeynep Yaprak, TURKEY……………………………………………………………..……………………………………………….………….69-80 10. AUTOMATED FEEDBACK ON BEHAVIOR IN SIMULATED PROBLEM SOLVING IN ORDER TO LEARN MANAGEMENT SKILLS IN A COST EFFICIENT WAY Harald Kjellin, SWEDEN………………….………………………………………………………………………………………….……………81-84

11. INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN THE GULF COOPERATION COUNCIL Alan S. Weber, QATAR……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………85-97 12. THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE TURKISH VERSION OF THE STATE HOPE SCALE Ahmet Akin, Seydi Ahmet Satıcı, Ahmet Rıfat Kayış, Nihan Çitemel, TURKEY….……………………….…………...98-101 13. CLASSROOM EFFECTS ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A SCHOOL Habip Ozgan, Mustafa Toprak, TURKEY…………………………………………………………………….….…………………….102-109 14. GADAMER'S PHILOSOPHICAL HERMENEUTICS ON EDUCATION Feryal Cubukcu, Izmir, TURKEY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………110-116 15. EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAINING THE CHOICE THEORY OF GLASSER TO TEACHERS ON IMPROVEMENT OF STUDENTS' ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION Omar Kianipour, Barzan Hoseini

, IRAN……………………………………………………………………….………………………117-123


IN THE WORLD May 2012, Volume: 2 Issue: 2 Contents ISSN: 2146-7463


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16. TOWARD EFFECTIVE INCLUSION AT UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES: APPLICATIONS OF UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING Khalaf Al’Abri, SULTANATE OF OMAN………………………………………………………..………..…………………………….124-129 17. COMPARING THE IMPORTANCE OF MANAGERIAL AND LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS FROM VIEWS OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHERS Amin Mohammadi, Habibe Alaie, Abdulwhab Pourghaz, IRAN ……………………….……………………….…………130-136 18. TRENDS IN TEACHING AND CHALLENGES ON AN EXAMPLE OF SPECIFIC ENGLISH LANGUAGE (FOR GASTRONOMY INDUSTRY) Monika Jagłowska, POLAND………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………137-143

19. ANALYSIS OF THE MOTOR ABILITIES OF SCHOOLGIRLS WITH SPECIFIC EDUCATIONAL NEEDS Nedyalka Mavrudieva, BULGARIA……………………………………………………………………..……………………………….144-149 20. AEROBICS FOR DISADVANTAGED PEOPLE Sanja Selimović , Vesna Bratovčić, BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA………………………………………………………….150-154 21. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ORGANIZATIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE PERFORMANCE OF MANAGERS Shahram Gholami, Sepideh Safaee, IRAN………………….……………………………………….………………………………155-165 22. THE EFFECTS OF EXTENSION- EDUCATION METHODS ON WHEAT SELF-SUFFICIENCY: CASE STUDY IRAN Homayon Farhadian, Mohammad Hassan Vakilpoor, Mirahmad Hosseini, IRAN……………….…….………….166-171 23. COURSE ADVISING & PLANNING FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT Mohammad Shakeel Laghari, Gulzar Ali Khuwaja, U.A.E.- KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA…………..………...172-181 24. HOW EFFECTIVE IS “CONCEPTUAL CHANGE APPROACH” IN TEACHING PHYSICS? Gülbin Özkan, Gamze Sezgin Selçuk, TURKEY………………………………………………………………………………………182-190 25. FIBONACCI SPIRAL IN SUNFLOWER WITH GEOGEBRA Çiğdem Erol, Şebnem Özdemir, Zeki Özen, Emre Akadal, Zerrin Ayvaz Reis, TURKEY……………….………….191-202 26. A WEB-BASED MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND ITS APPLICATION FOR STUDENT DESIGN PROJECTS Muhammet Yorulmaz, Güçlü Yavuzcan, Abdullah Togay, TURKEY..…………………………………………….……… 203-215


IN THE WORLD

May 2012, Volume: 2 Issue: 2 From Editors ISSN: 2146-7463


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Dear WJEIS Readers,

WJEIS appears on your screen now as Volume 2, Number 2. In this issue it publishes 26 articles. 54 authors

from 14 different countries contributed this issue. These countries are Bosnia And Herzegovina, Bulgaria,

Estonia, Iran, Macedonia, Poland, Slovenia, Sultanate of Oman, Sweden, Taiwan, Turkey, Qatar, U.A.E. and

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Colleagues that are in editorial board worked hard to determine the articles of this issue. There are also some

articles that were presented in “3rd International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their

Implications” that took place between 26-28 April 2012 with the contribution of 46 countries. Articles are

evaluated by the referees that are either in editorial board or outside the board. According to the evaluations,

some articles that were presented in “3rd International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their

Implications” will also be published in our next issue.

Although WJEIS is a new journal, it has been welcomed with interest. A lot of journals from various universities

are in the evaluation process. We would like to thank cordially our colleagues who work hard in editorial board

to evaluate the articles, writers who contribute to our journal and all readers.

1st

May, 2012

Best regards

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya

Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray


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May 2012, Volume: 2 Issue: 2 Article: 01 ISSN: 2146-7463


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THE IMPACT OF TEACHER QUESTIONS ON STUDENT LEARNING IN EFL

Assist. Prof. Dr. Kamile Hamiloğlu

Marmara Üniversitesi

Göztepe Kampüsü Kadıköy-İstanbul TURKEY

[email protected]

Gürkan Temiz

Marmara University

İstanbul TURKEY

[email protected]

Abstract

Teaching- learning process is a complex and multi-faced issue. There are many variables and two important

components in it. Teachers’ teaching and learners’ learning build up a meaningful and effective educational

context. However, it is not easy to observe and determine if learning really takes place in a class. Therefore, we

have to use many means of checking learning. Teacher’s question is one of these prominent tools. There are

many types of teacher questions in an EFL class each of which evaluates learning from a different perspective.

The outcomes of this process could reveal the amount of students’ learning. This study intends to examine how

the teachers’ questions affect students’ learning. The participants of the study comprise two groups of students

from one private primary and one state primary school in Istanbul, Turkey. The results showed that there is an

evidence regarding the impact of teachers’ questions on students’ learning.

Key Words: Teaching-learning process, EFL, question types, learning outcomes, teaching styles.

INTRODUCTION

Background To The Study

Teaching and learning are reciprocal and multi-dimensional processes both of which affect each other and are

important components in educational contexts. In this context, teachers and students learn from one another

(Lathan, 1957, cited in Wood & Anderson, 2001) as they build up an environment of learning in a class. At this

point, learning process gains a role as a mean for negotiation within the EFL setting and the success of this

negotiation mainly depends on the quality and quantity of learners’ participation to information sharing in the

class as ‘‘getting students to speak –to use the language they are learning- is a vital part of a teacher’s job’’

(Harmer, 2000: 4, cited in Yan, 2006) and responsibility ‘‘to adopt the target language to promote their

communication with learners’’ (Yan, 2006) within which teachers’ questions maintain the talk via extending

and leading students into continuance.

A great deal of empirical research pointed out the significance of teachers’ questioning strategies on the

learning process in the class. As Adedoyin (2010) states that teachers’ questions are of significant values for

many instructional purposes, eliciting student reflection and challenging deeper student understanding and

engagement in the classroom, teacher questioning is an indispensible part of teaching process with a reference

to what Cotton (1988) stated as questioning is second only to lecturing in popularity as a teaching method and

that classroom teachers spend anywhere from thirty to fifty percent of their instructional time conducting

question sessions. And even ‘‘in some classrooms over half of class time is taken up by question-and-answer

exchanges’’ (Richards & Charles Lockhart, 2000, cited in Shi-ying, 2011). Considering this great quantity of

teacher talk in the class, the vital role of questioning stands for its quality component as a reflection of

teaching. Vogler (2005, cited in Adedoyin, 2010) states that questions can monitor comprehension, help make

connections to prior learning and can stimulate cognitive growth. However, good questioning is a skill of

effective teaching which involves a good planning, higher cognitive thinking and creating cognitive

improvement in the class. As Shulman (1987, cited in Boaler & Brodie, 2004) indicates that the act of asking a

good question is cognitively demanding; requires considerable pedagogical content knowledge and Ornstein


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and Lasley (2000, p. 184, cited in Bone & Pritchard) states that good questioning is both a methodology and an

art, it necessitates teachers to know what and to whom they teach well.

There has been a great interest in the field towards the analysis of what purposes teachers’ questions convey in

the class. As there are different ways of asking questions there are many different purposes of questions Van

Lire (1988, cited in Azerefegn, 2008). Brown and Edmonson (cited in Çakmak, 2009) classify some purposes

teachers’ questions include as:

• to arouse interest and curiosity concerning a topic

• to focus attention on a particular issue or concept

• to develop an active approach to learning

• to stimulate pupils to ask questions themselves and others

• to diagnose specific difficulties inhibiting pupil learning

• to express a genuine interest in the ideas and feelings of the pupils

• to provide an opportunity for pupils to assimilate and reflect upon information.

The list indicates that there are many purposes governed by teachers in asking questions in the class.

According to the research, the type of initiating questions posed by the pre-service teachers influenced the

possible range of students’ responses and, subsequently, the types of follow-up questions the pre-service

teachers posed (Groenke & Paulus, 2007). In their study, they examined the effect of teachers’ questions on

dialogic inquiry in the discussions using Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) and resulted in that

authentic initiation questions do seem to promote dialogic inquiry, which refers to the research conducted by

Walker (2004, cited in Groenke & Paulus, 2007), who found that challenge questions were effective in

promoting engaged student participation. Similarly, Boaler and Brodie (2004) stated that their coding of

teacher questions illustrates the importance of the different questions teachers ask in shaping the nature and

flow of classroom discussions and the cognitive opportunities offered to students. Yang (2006, p. 196, cited in

Çakmak, 2009) also states that the teachers’ questions can be considered as the most powerful device to lead,

extend and control communication in the classroom, pointing the significance of questioning in the process of

improving and leading classroom conversation.

However, how much a given student learns in a class is governed in part by that student’s native ability and

prior preparation but also by the compatibility of his or her characteristic approach to learning and the

instructor’s characteristic approach to teaching (Felder & Henriques, 1995), which underlies the factor of

teachers’ proaches and styles to teaching. They stated that a point no educational psychologist would dispute is

that students learn more when information is presented in a variety of modes than when only a single mode is

used, with a reference to the caution nducted by Smith and Renzulli (1984, cited in Felder & Henriques, 1995)

that stress, frustration, and burnout may occur when students are subjected over extended periods of time to

teaching styles inconsistent with their learning style preferences. It is clear that proficient student-centered

teachers are able to use a variety of styles so that their ultimate style is integrated (Brown, 2011).

Theoretical Framework

As noted above, the importance of questioning as an instructional strategy is widely acknowledged in the

literature on teaching and learning (Edwards & Bowman, 1996). A teacher’s questioning strategies are pivotal

to the instructional process because questioning is the most frequently used instructional tool (Wassermann,

1991, cited in Moyer and Milewicz, 2002). Teachers’ questions may serve different functions, including focusing

attention, exercising disciplinary control in the course or an instruction, encouraging students’ participation

and moving the lesson forward among others (Shomoossi, 2004, cited in David, 2007). The pervasiveness of

teacher questions in the classroom can be explained by the specific functions they perform (Setiawati, 2012).

The theoretical framework of the study determines its stance on the following areas (Donald & Eggen, 1989):

� Diagnostic instrument: questions allow teachers to glimpse into the minds of students to find out not only

what they know or don’t know but also how they think about a topic. Through a well planned questioning,

teachers can find out and recall not only what students know about a topic but also can identify their the

needs and present gaps.


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� Instructional instrument: questions help students learn new material and integrate it with the old one, and

provide the practice and feedback essential for the development. Questions help students internalize what

they learn and combine it with the new one.

� Motivational instrument: allows teachers to engage with students actively in the lesson at hand,

challenging their thinking and posing problems for them to consider. ‘‘Frequent and periodic questions can

encourage active participation and provide opportunities in the lesson for continued student involvement’’

(Yan, 2006).

Teachers’ questions may process a variety of purposes, but Richards & Lockhart (2000, p. 186) classify

questions asked in the class into three categories in terms of their purposes as procedural, convergent and

divergent. Procedural questions have to do with classroom procedures and routines, and classroom

anagement. Convergent questions encourage similar student responses, or responses which focus on a central

theme. They do not usually require students to engage in higher-level thinking in order to come up with a

response but often focus on the recall of previously presented information. Divergent questions are the

opposite of convergent questions. They encourage students to provide their own information rather than to

recall previously presented information.

Another categorization, which will be fundamental for this study, for teachers’ questions was presented by

Wajnryb (1992, p. 47) as follows:

• Yes/No questions, e.g. ‘Here is a picture of woman. Have you seen her face before?’

• Short answer/ retrieval-style questions, e.g. ‘What did she say about the film?’

• Open-ended questions, e.g. ‘Whom could he have telephoned?’

• Display questions (questions requesting information already known to the questioner), e.g. ‘What colour

is this pen?’

• Referential questions (questions requesting new information), e.g. ‘What did you study at university?’

• Non-retrieval, imaginative questions (questions that do not require the learner to retrieve given

information but instead call on inferred information or information in which an opinion judgement is

called for), e.g. ‘What do you think the writer was suggesting by making the central character an animal?’

Questions Of The Study

This study aims to explore the types of questions which are used by teachers in the class and to find out what

purposes the questions convey in the process of teaching.

The study is based on the following questions:

1) What types of questions are used during the daily practices of teachers in a primary EFL class?

2) What are the aims of the questions asked by the teachers?

3) What is the frequency of different types of questions in EFL classes?

Problem Statement

Brown (2001, p. 169) states that one of the best ways to develop your role as an initiator and sustainer of

interaction is to develop a repertoire of questioning strategies. Therefore, what kind of and how questions are

used in the class is important to provide an effective interaction. This study intends to examine how teacher

questioning occurs and explore the types of questions teachers of EFL prefer to ask during the

teaching/learning process by analyzing the data collected from different language classes where student

teachers were observing in 2 practicum schools.

Context Of The Study

The practicum schools where observations take place by student teachers of an ELT department of the

education faculty of a state university in Istanbul, are located in Istanbul, Turkey.


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School A is a private school which has a long history. School B is a primary state school. Although they are

different in terms of their formal titles as private-state, they show some similar characteristics in terms of

facilities and physical conditions. While School A has two sections as primary and secondary school and School

B has only a primary section.

In School A, classes generally consist of 20 students. The classes are equipped with technological instruments

such as a projector, a projector screen, a computer connected to the Internet, etc. There is also a computer lab

for in the school.

In School B, the average class size is 28. The classes are equipped with a projector and a computer. Besides,

there is a technology laboratory in the school. As in School A, there is a specialist also available for possible

technical problems.

METHOD

This study employs both qualitative and quantitative techniques to what type of questions are processed in EFL

classes and to what extent they are used. The participants of this study are EFL teachers and the students from

two schools where 11 student teachers do their practicum and observed the classes for their practicum course

requirements. The sample size is too small for making generalizations on questions types preferred by teachers

of EFL, but the main aim of the study is to gain a perspective on which question types are more preferred by

EFL teachers and to adapt these findings into the field of EFL professional development.

The qualitative data were gathered from the observations of 11 student teachers by analyzing their findings in

terms of questions asked by the teachers and their appropriate types in above mentioned theoretical

perspective. The quantitative data were gathered from the analysis of the quantity of questions used by the

EFL teachers in their classes which were observed by the student teachers.

RESULTS

Effective questioning by the teacher is believed to focus on students’ attention to understand lesson content,

arouse their curiosity, stimulate their imagination, and motivate them to seek out new knowledge (Hussin,

2006), so in order to maintain student participation and efficient learning atmosphere, there should be a range

of questions posing students activate their minds. What type of questions are implemented in a class

necessities for an analysis for effective teaching. Table 1 shows the results of the study and answers Question 1

(Research Question) in terms of what question types were observed by senior student teachers in each school.

Table 1: Question Types (In Number)

Question Type In School A In School B Total

Yes/No questions 16 20 36

Short answer/ retrieval-style questions 10 10 20

Open-ended questions 8 6 14

Display questions 4 8 12

Referential questions 6 4 10

Non-retrieval, imaginative questions 4 2 6

Total 48 50 98


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Overall, the table shows that the most preferred question type is Yes/No questions with a total number 36 of

98. Though the schools are different in their types as private and state, there is not a big difference between

the schools in terms of Yes/No question numbers. The reason for highly preference of Yes/No questions is

pointed out by Thompson (1997) that they are generally more simple for learners to answer so these questions

are more appropriate for weaker students. The table also shows that the least number in teacher questioning is

asking Non-retrieval – imaginative questions with a total number of 6 in both schools. When it is compared, it is

clearly seen that there is a great difference in distribution of Yes/No and Non-retrieval questions in the schools.

Table 2 below shows the distribution of questions in terms of what purposes they convey to answer Question

2. According to the classification of Richards & Lockhart (2000, p. 186), convergent questions serve for recalling

background knowledge but not for requiring higher-level thinking and the table indicates that convergent

questions are the most preferred questions with a total number of 52 which is also slightly more than double of

divergent questions which compose 28 of total 98 questions posed in both schools. Procedural questions,

which help teachers to have an order in the class in terms of classroom management and flow of teaching-

learning process, are the last ones consisting of 18 of total 98 questions.

Table 2: Aims Of Questions (In Number)

Question Aims In School A In School B Total

Procedural 8 10 18

Convergent 24 28 52

Divergent 16 12 28

Total 48 50 98

Table 3 refers to the third question of this study and shows that the most frequently used question type

observed in both schools is Yes/No questions (36.73 %). Research about teachers’ questioning in the class

reveals that display questions are much more applied than referential questions and this study also reveals the

same results though the frequency of the two types are close to each other as display questions compose 12.24

% of 98 questions while referential questions compose 10.20 % of all. This study also shows that second most

preferred question type is short answer/retrieval style questions (20.42 %). The data of the study shows that

the reason for asking this type of questions is that they require limited response and are not so challenging for

students. 6.12 % of all questions (98) are non-retrieval, imaginative questions which has a 30 % difference with

Yes/No questions in the study.

Table 3: Frequency Of Question Types (%)

Question Type In School A In School B Total

Yes/No questions 33.33% 40% 36.73%

Short answer/ retrieval-style questions 20.83% 20% 20.42%

Open-ended questions 16.68% 12% 14.29%

Display questions 8.33% 16% 12.24%

Referential questions 12.50 8 10.20

Non-retrieval, imaginative questions 8.33 4 6.12


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DISCUSSION

Wajnry (1992) indicates that while teachers often plan their questions in terms of the lesson’s content, they

seem to place less emphasis on considering questions in terms of the cognitive and linguistic demands made on

the learner. The results reveal that most preferred type of questions are Yes/No and short answer-retrieval

style questions both of which put students into a passive, information seeker-receiver position in the class.

These types of questions do not challenge students enough to think at higher levels of their cognitive capacity

rather lead them to quick and cognitively limited responses. For Yes/No question type, Thompson (1997)

proposes a different perspective pointing that a yes/no question (especially if the answer is fairly obvious or

non controversial) encourages learners to accept a part in the interaction, even if they are shy or hesitant

adding that for further practice follow-up questions should continue. However, the findings reveal that there is

a limited interaction between these question types.

Display vs. referential comparison is another common issue in questioning. Dashwood (2005) also indicates

that display questions are typical of teacher-fronted lessons in which transmission of knowledge from teacher

to student is the expected form of interaction, adding that they are not therefore conducive to discussion.

Referential questions, on the other hand, ask for knowledge interaction in the class requiring students activate

their schema and process higher levels of thinking just as open-ended questions do.

Having 6. 12 % of 98 questions, non-retrieval/imaginative questions take the last position in the study. It is

clearly seen that though this type of questions is of great importance in learning process, they are not

commonly preferred by teachers.

The findings show that in terms of the purposes teachers’ questions convey in the class, convergent questions

are mostly used ones with 52 in 98 questions. As this type of questions generally include Yes/No, short answer

and display type questions, over use of convergent questions are not favored in EFL. On the contrary, divergent

questions are more challenging ones including open-ended, referential and non-retrieval/imaginative

questions. To provide a free production and active use of the target language, divergent questions are

important and necessary means of classroom questioning.

IMPLICATIONS

This study was a limited-scale research and therefore it needs to be improved and generalized to a greater

number of teacher observation and classroom exploration in order to reach more language classes and reveal

more findings to compare the ones presented in this study. As a small-scale research, the study suggests some

implications for EFL teachers as follows:

1. Questioning is a highly prestigious teaching skill which requires a well planned lesson. In planning stages,

teachers can prepare questions which completely analyze the content of lessons and engage students in

active interaction during classroom participation.

2. There should be a variety of questions to be used in the class. Teachers should integrate all type of

question as much as possible in teaching-learning context.

3. Teachers should try to lead students to higher-level thinking processes and ask them as many

demanding questions as possible in order to arouse curiosity and interest to the lesson.

4. Non-retrieval, imaginative questions are also of great importance in primary schools when young learners

are enthusiastic and willing in their process of developmental stages. They need an exposure to variety of

attention gathering processes in the class and this kind of questions can get their attention and interest

towards to the topic.

5. Research findings indicate that exposure to different learning instruments will enhance learning

atmosphere and motivate students in engagement process. As an instrument, a good questioning strategy


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can help teachers to create a learning context initiating communication and negotiation of meaning in the

class and provide a dialogic process aiming students gain experiences of real-life situations.

WJEIS’s Note: This article was presented at International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their

Implications - ICONTE, 26-28 April, 2012, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 2 Number

2 of WJEIS 2012 by WJEIS Scientific Committee.

REFERENCES

Adedoyin, O. (2010). An Investigation of the effects of teachers’ classroom questions on the achievements of

students in mathematics: Case study of Botswana community junior secondary schools. European Journal of

Educational Studies, 2(3).

Azerefegn, K. (2008). A study on the type of teacher questions and questioning strategies: The case of two

private secondary schools in Addis Ababa. Unpublished master of arts thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis

Ababa.

Boaler, J., & Brodie, K. (2004).The importance, nature and impact of teacher questions. In D.E. McDougall, & J

A. Ross (Eds.), Proceedings of the twenty- sixth annual meeting of the North American Chapter of the

International Group for Psychology of Mathematics Education - Volume 2 (pp. 773-782). Toronto, Ontario.

Bonne, L., & Pritchard, R. (2007). Teacher researchers questioning their practice. Mathematics: Essential

Research, Essential Practice — Volume 1.

Brown, B. L. (2011). Teaching Style vs Learning Style. Retrieved January 15, 2012, from

http://www.serprofessoruniversitario.pro.br/m%C3%B3dulos/c%C3%A9rebro-e- aprendizagem/teaching-style-

vs-learning-style

Brown, D. H. (2001). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy (3rd

Edition).

London: Longman, Pearson Education.

Cotton, K. (1988). Classroom Questioning. North West Regional Educational Laboratory.

Çakmak, M. (2009). Pre-service teachers’ thoughts about teachers’ questions in effective teaching process.

Elementary Education Online, 8(3), 666-675, 2009.

Dashwood, A. (2005). Alternative to questioning: Teacher role in classroom discussion. Asian EFL Journal, 7(4):

144-165

David, O. F. (2007). Teacher’s questioning behaviour and ESL classroom interaction pattern. Humanity and

Social Sciences Journal 2(2): 127-131, 2007.

Donald, K., & Eggen, P. D. (1989). Learning and Teaching: Research based Methods. Allyn and Bacon.

Edwards, S., & Bowman, M. A. (1996). Promoting student learning through questioning: A study of classroom

questions. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 7 (2), 3-24.

Felder, R. M., & Henriques, E. R. (1995). Learning and teaching styles in foreign and second language education.

Foreign Language Annals, 28, No. 1,1995, pp. 21–31.

Groenke, S. L., & Paulus, T. (2007). The role of teacher questioning in promoting dialogic literary inquiry in

computer-mediated communication. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40(2).


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8

Hussin, H. (2006). Dimensions of Questioning: A Qualitative Study of Current Classroom Practice in Malaysia.

The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, 10 (2).

Moyer, P. S., & Milewicz, E. (2002). Learning to question: Categories of questioning used by preservice teachers

during diagnostic mathematics interviews. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 5(4): 293-315.

Richards, J., & Lockhart, C. (1996). Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Setiawati, L. (2012). A descriptive study on the teacher talk at EYL classroom. Indonesian Journal of Applied

Linguistics, 1(2).

Shi-ying, XU (2011). The present situation of English teachers’ questioning in senior middle school and positive

strategies. Asia-Pacific Science and Culture Journal, 1(3): 1-15.

Thompson, G. (1997). Training teachers to ask questions. ELT Journal, 51(2).

Wajnryb, R. (1992). Classroom Observation Tasks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Pres.

Wood, A. T., & Anderson, C. H. (2001). The case study method: Critical thinking enhanced by effective teacher

questioning skills. The 18th Annual International Conference of the World Association for Case Method

Research & Application

Yan, X. (2006). Teacher talk and EFL in university classrooms. Unpublished master of arts thesis, Chongqing

Normal University & Yangtze Normal University, China.


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9

QUALITY OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN 21ST CENTURY - A CASE OF OMAN

Dr. Neeta Baporikar

Ministry of Higher Education, CAS – Salalah

SULTANATE OF OMAN

[email protected]

Dr. Iqtidar Ali Shah

Ministry of Higher Education, CAS – Salalah

SULTANATE OF OMAN

[email protected]

Abstract

Higher education sector in Oman has grown and made significant development in the last decade. There is

heavy investment to improve the education infrastructure, provide increased education opportunities with

focus on women education to ensure equality and equity. The spread of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) of

all types, diversified programmes and establishment of Quality Assurance Council is a testimony to the

importance given by the nation to ensure quality of higher education that the needs/requirements of 21st

century are met. In order to achieve an international standard in higher education, all HEIs have adopted -

imported curriculum, recruited international / expatriate faculty and English as a medium of instruction.

Despite these efforts, the quality of education in term of 21st century, requirement both in terms of knowledge

acquisition and skills seems to be missing and is not up to the desired level. The objective of this study is to find

out to what extent abilities have improved vis-à-vis the requirements and the missing factors responsible for

knowledge acquisition and skills. This paper is based on primary and secondary data. Primary data is collected

from various Omani HEIs using observation and interview methods.

Key Words: Higher education, curriculum, faculty, knowledge, skills.

INTRODUCTION

Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are expending very fast in Arab countries due to increase in social demand

for education and priority of the governments to produce efficient and effective human resources according to

the requirements of their economies. The financial and administrative capacity of these countries to respond

this growing demand has been well debated in the literature. To improve the quality of higher education,

various approaches have been adopted. The shifting of education to private sector to overcome the growing

demand and improve quality is one the approach used in most of the Arab countries. Various types of

accreditation institutions have been developed to check the quality. Despite of continuous efforts for

improving higher education, there is still widespread criticism about the quality of higher education in GCC

countries (Shah and Baporikar, 2010).

The educational history of the Sultanate of Oman has undergone rapid development. In 1970, there were three

primary schools in the country with less than 1000 students and no college or university (Al Bandary, 2005 and

Al Shmeli, 2009). Today, there are more than 62 higher education institutions run by private and public sector

offering various programmes. The total number of students in Higher Education in Oman in 2009 is

approximately 80,000 (Al Shmeli, 2009). Higher Education Institutions are owned and governed by a variety of

entities, including the Ministry of Higher Education, the Ministry of Man Power, the Ministry of Defense, the

Ministry of Health, and the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, other governmental entities, and private

owners (OAC, 2006).


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HEIs provide human resources which are expected to be equipped with skill and knowledge necessary for

society as occupational and citizen. Oman has a young, dynamic and fast-growing higher education sector and

has taken a number of steps to provide quality human resources equipped with necessary skills and knowledge

to replace expatriate work force. These steps include imported curricula of western countries, recruitment of

native English teachers, recruitment of qualified and experience faculty from all over the word in various

disciplines, provision of excellent infrastructure facilities to the students and arrangements of one / two years

foundation courses by each HEIs including English language, mathematics and IT to build students basis for

advance curricula at university level. To monitor quality of each HEI, Oman Accreditation Council has been

established. It has been observed that despite of various efforts, the quality of education in term of 21st

century requirement both in terms of knowledge acquisition and skills seems to be missing and is not up to the

desired level.

METHODOLOGY

This paper is based on primary and secondary data. Primary data is collected from various Omani HEIs using

observation and interview methods. The objectives of this study are:

• To what extent abilities have improved vis-à-vis the requirements for quality education.

• To find out the missing factors responsible for knowledge acquisition and skills of the students.

Literature Review

Reforms and quality enhancement in education has been a major concern to authorities in different parts of

the world. Almost every country in the world is reforming its educational system in order to reinforce the social

and national identity in its learners and to help them better respond to the economic, technological and

political demands of the rapidly changing future. (Al-Sadi, 2012)

In the Arab world the higher education sector began its development in the late 1950s. Till 1980s, it has been

dominated by a public sector monopoly and then due to the sizable failure of public universities to meet the

demand for highly qualified university graduates needed for social and economic development, a large number

of private and international universities and colleges , and as a natural response to the spread of globalization’s

ideas, privatization, and openness to foreign cultures, the number of private and international universities and

colleges has exceeded several hundred and attracted a large number of students. Now the Higher Education

(HE) sector is consist of diverse HEIs with different curricula. (Savic, 2012)

Higher education plays an important role in the development of human resources. One of its main tasks is to

supply societies with a professional labour force that is highly specialized to work in occupations that require a

high degree of practical and theoretical skills and knowledge. The importance of this task has motivated

governments to pay great attention to the development of higher education, both in terms of quantity and

quality. (Martan, M, 2007). In general, it has been observed that the students’ academic performance has met

neither the institution’s nor the sponsor’s expectations, nor indeed the students’ or their families’. The

accepted explanations for the students’ difficulties include: outmoded pedagogical practice in their home

countries; the challenges of learning in English; gaps between assumed knowledge and actual high school

curriculum; and religious/cultural difference. In spite of the fact that the students are not only financially

supported by their government but also guaranteed graduate employment, they are free of burdens placed on

other international students. (Katerina Gauntlett, 2005)

The higher education sector is undergoing rapid expansion and transformation in the six member states of the

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). There exists too the question of what to teach, and how to go about teaching

it. As campuses are built and physical infrastructure is put in place, there are also mounting concerns over

quality control and accountability. How will teaching standards be enforced and how will research output be

measured? International partnerships are equally central to the GCC universities. Some have attracted big

name western institutions while others are tied to unaccredited institutions from other parts of the world. As

of yet, there is little uniformity. The sector has also been routinely criticized across the region for failing to

meet the needs of either the public or the private sector. Curriculum development has been problematic.

Initially the Gulf universities relied wholly on imported teaching materials, often from Egypt, Syria, and


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Lebanon. A lot of these contained examples and information not entirely compatible with the needs of Gulf

higher education. More recently there has also been much discussion of how to go about teaching in Gulf

universities. Rote learning and traditional lectures are gradually being replaced by seminar based teaching that

revolves around meaningful class discussions and a promotion of critical thinking. The new campuses are

impressive. Lavish constructions and big budgets have ensured a pleasant educational environment and good

resources for learning. However, there is a question mark over the enforcement of minimum standards.

The GCC has now become home to several branch campuses of leading international Universities, while

existing universities have invariably sought partner institutions. If the GCC higher education sector does not

improve soon, there is a concern that GCC nationals will be left as bystanders while expatriates continue to fill

the plethora of employment opportunities being created by the new post-oil Gulf economies. Most important

to their success, however, are high-quality faculty, committed and well-prepared students, and sufficient

resources. Many students start their studies academically unprepared for higher education. Poor basic and

secondary education, combined with a lack of selection in the academic system, lie at the root of this problem.

Yet rarely does an institution respond by creating remedial programs for inadequately prepared students.

According to the laws and regulations for the establishment and provision of private higher education, local

universities and colleges must be affiliated to recognized and accredited foreign universities. The systems,

methods, programmes and qualifications of these universities are adopted in the Oman institutions so; on the

whole, they can be characterized as franchised higher education programmes (Peril and Promise, 2000).

The Sultanate of Oman is experiencing significant reform in its higher education system. Until fairly recently,

most efforts were placed on expanding primary and secondary schooling in order to accommodate the growing

population of young nationals.

Background of Higher Education in Oman

There have been several key phases in the development of higher education in Oman which is given below:

Prior to 1970: No formal higher education in Oman

1970s-1980s: Establishment of public colleges (with an emphasis on vocational education and training,

particularly in teaching and health) and Sultan Qaboos University.

1990s-present: Import of foreign programs, delivered in Oman through private HEPs (colleges and universities).

This was as attempt to rapidly grow the sector in response to an identified need.

New Phase: Establishment of a comprehensive higher education system. This is an attempt to consolidate

gains by implementing effective and efficient quality assurance and quality enhancement process (OAC, 2006).

Oman’s system of higher education is dynamic and has grown rapidly over the past three decades. Oman has

developed an independent system of higher education consisting of 62 HEIs and providing post secondary

diploma or degree programmes.

Out of 62 HEIs, two-third is public institutions, operating through various ministries and agencies as detailed in

table 1 below:


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Table 1: Government and Private HEIs in the Sultanate of Oman

Under the Jurisdiction of Higher Education Institutions No. of

Institution

Independent Sultan Qaboos University (Government) 01

01

Colleges of Applied Sciences (Government) 06

Private Universities 05

Private Colleges, two of which are designated as

University Colleges

19

Ministry of Higher Education

Total 30

Higher College of Technology (Government) 01

Colleges of Technology (Government) 05

Oman Tourism College (Private) 01

Ministry of Manpower

Total 07

Nursing Institutes (Government) 11

Health Science Institutes (Government) 05

Ministry of Health

Total 16

Academies / Training Centers (Government) 04

The Command and Staff College (Government with

restricted admission)

01

Ministry of Defense

Total 05

The Institute of Shari'a Sciences (Government) 01 Ministry of Aqaf and Religious

Affairs Total 01

The Royal Oman Police Academy (Government, with

restricted admission)

01 Royal Oman Police

Total 01

The College of Banking & Financial Studies

(Quasi-Government)

01 Central Bank of Oman

Total 01

Total Number of Higher Education Institutions 62

Source: Al Shmeli, 2009

Out of total 78,858 enrolments (approximately 80,000), 45,337 students are enrolled in government HEIs and

33,521 students in 24 private HEIs. Approximately 12,000 Omani students are currently studying abroad. For

the academic year 2007-08, the percentage of enrollment in science majors (Engineering, Information

Technology, Health, Natural Sciences, Physics, Agricultural, Architecture, and Construction) accounted for

45.5% of the overall enrollment; Humanities 35.4%; and Commerce and Economics constituted 19.1% (Al

Shmeli, 2009).

HEIs in Oman can be classified into local and overseas:

Local HEIs: These institutions are locally developed. Some of them have partnership arrangements with outside

institutions, while others operate independently.

Overseas HEIs: These institutions are opened in Oman by overseas HEIs. They are under the control of overseas

institutions.

Similarly, HEIs can be classified on the basis of academic programmes:


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Multiple Programmes: Some HEIs offer a wide range of academics programmes such as humanities, social

sciences and engineering etc.

Specialized Programmes: Some HEIs offer specialize programme in one or two specific fields such as nursing,

teaching, engineering and business.

HEIs can also be classified on the basis of sponsorship:

Public Sector Institutions: Public sector institution can be further divided into two:

Public Sector Colleges: Various HEIs (colleges) are run and control by government. Various government

ministries are involved such as the Ministry of Higher Education, the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of

Health, the Ministry of Tourism and the Ministry of Industries and Commerce.

Public Sector Universities: There is only one public sector university "Sultan Qaboos University" which runs

independently.

Private Sector Institutions: Private sector institutions can be dived into two:

Private Sector Colleges: There are various colleges which is run and control by private sector. Some are

providing local made programmes and some have imported programmes.

Private Sector Universities: There are five universities in various location of the country which are run

independently by private sector.

OAC (OAC, undated) has classified the HEIs in Oman on the basis of scope / activities and provided the

following classification of institutions:

Colleges of Higher Education: The term “College” is used in a generic sense and includes institutions of Higher

Education which have names such as “Academy” or “Institute”. Higher Education Colleges are primarily

teaching institutions, offering programmes to the level of Bachelor’s degree or may conduct undergraduate

programmes in one or more broad fields or may offer a wide range of community and professional courses at

the undergraduate level on a flexible basis to meet community requirements. Some institutions offer a variety

of programmes, while others are specialist institutions, offering programmes in one or two professional fields,

such as teaching, nursing, engineering or business studies. In addition to formal award courses, Higher

Education Colleges frequently provide courses in areas such as English Language, Business and IT. These may be

stand-alone courses, or may contribute towards a diploma or degree offered by the institution. The

concentration on teaching in Higher Education Colleges means that the quality of teaching and learning should

be high. There is no established research base and publications. The head of such institution is usually called

Dean.

University Colleges: University Colleges have a strong commitment to excellence in teaching. A University

College shares some of the key characteristics of a University including research activity relevant to local and

national needs, appropriate research facilities, and programmes up to and including the Master’s degree in at

least two broad fields of study. The University College has reasonable investment in research equipment and

laboratories, as well as staffing to support the research function. The resources and infrastructure required to

adequately support research and postgraduate programmes are usually larger and more expensive than Higher

Education Colleges. In particular, library, computer labs, research journals and internet access are substantially

greater than Higher Education Colleges. Equipment and facilities for staff and student research must be more

extensive. Master’s degree programmes at University Colleges may include research degrees. Academic staff

for Master’s research degree programmes should be involved actively in research at the forefront of their

discipline and should be proficient in utilizing international research networks. Where advanced professional

programmes are offered, the academic staff involved should have extensive relevant professional experience at

a senior level, as well as appropriate academic qualifications. The head of University College is usually

designated as Dean with appropriate qualification and professional experience.

Universities: Universities have a strong commitment to excellence in teaching and research. The University's

scope of activities in academics and research is also comparatively more than other HEIs (College of Higher

Education and University College). Universities have a demonstrated commitment to the development and


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transmission of knowledge through research, scholarly publication, teaching, and community service, in all

fields in which they operate.

The basic characteristics of University are:

• Offers programmes of Bachelor, Masters and or Doctoral level.

• Conducts research in various field at local, national and international level, organizes conferences and

other programmes in advanced professional practice in cooperation with professional bodies.

• The availability of adequate resources, equipment, infrastructure and facilities to support staff and

students to contribute in research at the national and international contexts.

• The academic staff in the University is usually more qualified holding PhDs with substantial research

publications/professional experience.

• The university administration reflects the academic maturity and intellectual independence. Considerable

academic authority is there with rigorous mechanisms to ensure high academic and professional standards

are maintained.

• The head of University is usually designated as President, Rector or Vice Chancellor.

All public HEIs are fully funded by government revenues which cover all capital and operating expenditures as

well as tuition, and include student allowances generous enough at the high end (students at Sultan Qaboos

University) to cover books, accommodation and living expenses. At the same time, Government subsidizes

private colleges through scholarships, land grants and tax exemptions. In addition, qualifying private

universities receive a grant of RO 17 million for quality improvements directly related to the classroom and

learning resources and a matching grant of RO 3 million, totaling RO 20,000,000, or approximately 52,000,000

US$.

Conceptual Framework

In Oman two types of factors are responsible for the acquisition of knowledge and skill i.e. internal factors and

external factors. Both kinds of factors is given in figure 1.1

Internal Factors External factors

Figure 1.1: Factors Responsible for Acquisition of Knowledge and Skill at HEIs

General Foundation

Programme: Language

Skill / Basic

Mathematics and IT

Pedagogy/Teaching

Methodology

Curricula

Entry Level

Requirements /

Previous Educational

Background

Preparation for Higher

Studies Learner Attitude

/ Individual hard work /

Motivation /

Acquisition of

Knowledge / Skill

Infrastructure/ Facilities

/ Policies / Strategies /

Rules

Faculty


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15

In Oman, internal factors responsible for the acquisition of knowledge and skill include language skill,

pedagogy/teaching methodology, curricula, faculty and infrastructure facilities and policies for which HEIs are

responsible to provide to the students in an efficient and effective way required for the student individual

growth and society requirement. External factors include the students' previous educational background and

attitude/motivation toward higher education as these do affect student knowledge and skill to be provided by

HEIs.

The basic problem is that despite of all efforts taken by the government and HEIs to improve quality of

education in Oman, HEIs have been criticized for producing graduates having low skill and knowledge. In the

below section, an effort has been made to find out that which factors contribute more in this failure.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSTION

It is find out on the basis of personal experience, deep observation and extensive interview with professionals

across the various HEIs in Oman that there are six important variables (divided into internal and external

variables) require for the acquisition of knowledge and skills as indicated in figure 1.1. To show the

contribution of each variables in the acquisition of knowledge and skill is discusses below.

General Foundation Programme (Language Skill/Basic Mathematics and IT): The General Foundation Program

(GFP) consists of one/two years has been adopted by all public and private HEIs operating in the Sultanate. The

GFP focus on four areas of learning: English Language, mathematics, IT and general learning skills. More than

80% of students entering HEIs in the Sultanate of Oman are first required to take a general foundation program

(Carroll, 2009; Al-Mamari, 2011). This program is designed to raise the academic capabilities of students prior

to their formal entrance into higher education studies. The aim of the GFP is to give the students an

opportunity to familiarize themselves with the requirements of academics and providing them with the

necessary acquisition skills. The Ministry of Higher Education and HEIs is investing considerable resources on

GFP. However, evidence suggests that these recourses are not achieving the objectives (Al Mamari, 2012).

Various studies and personal experience indicated that foundation programs contributed very less to improve

the English language proficiency and mathematics needed for academic studies. A numbers of studies have

been conducted to show that why GOF failed to improve students' skill in English, mathematics and IT to fit

them for graduate academics studies. Some identified that that the biggest challenge facing HEIs is the low

level of the English language of school graduates (Al-Mamari, 2012). Some criticized the existing teaching

methodology while other criticized the contents of courses is the main cause of failure of GFP. Almost all

academics researchers are agreed that the school education provided to the student is very weak to fit them

for higher education. Resultantly a gap exists between school education and university education. Therefore,

GFP has been started in all HEIs to fill the gap. However, GFP itself not able to improve students' skill in English,

mathematics and IT despite of good contents, appropriate teaching methodology and well qualified foreign

faculty in all HEIs. Thus, basic required skill including English, mathematics and IT is one of the barriers in the

way of acquisition of knowledge and skill at HEIs in Oman.

Pedagogy/Teaching Methodology

There are many definitions of pedagogy. Perhaps the simplest is 'The science of teaching' or "The art of

teaching". Teaching methodology for the acquisition of knowledge and skill has become one of the prime

objectives for HEIs in recent years. A new relevant practice or an innovation always has a major effect upon

teaching, whether methodological or technological (Salih, 2012). The objective of various teaching

methodologies used in world over is simply the "effective teaching and learning". According the Ministry of

Education, New Zealand (2007) there is no formula that will guarantee learning for every student in every

context. However, there is extensive, well-documented evidence about the kinds of teaching approaches that

consistently have a positive impact on student learning. This evidence tells us that students learn best when

teachers:

• create a supportive learning environment

• encourage reflective thought and action

• enhance the relevance of new learning


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• facilitate shared learning

• make connections to prior learning and experience

• provide sufficient opportunities to learn

• inquire into the teaching–learning relationship

In Oman, faculty comes from different eastern and western countries of the world with diverse teaching

experience; therefore the teaching methodology is also different in different institutes and across the different

courses. Thus, there is mixed teaching methodology. Usually the mixture of all kinds of methodology including

case studies methods, project based learning, class room teaching, assignment base methods are used in

Oman. It has been observed that teaching methodology / pedagogy is thus not a barrier in the way of

acquisition of knowledge and skills. Students learn better when they are active and engaged.

Curricula

Curricula play a very important role because it is not only a list of course contents but also focus on who are the

learners and what are the requirements of a society (Shah and Baporikar, 2010). The fundamental purpose of

curriculum development is to ensure that students receive integrated, coherent learning experiences that

contribute towards their personal, academic, and professional learning and development (Flinders University,

2009). A curriculum is expected to be well and logically structured, clear and understandable both for teaching

staff and students (Savic, 2007). In Oman a mix type of education sector including local and foreign HEIs has

been emerged in which most of the HEIs have adopted foreign curricula. The basic question is whether the

foreign curricula meet the local market need, students’ understanding, and learning abilities and required skill

for employment, need to be answered. In Oman less effort has been made to develop local curricula. It has

been observed that the foreign curricula of Western universities used in HEIs are high than students standard.

Students are unable to understand even after the completion of foundation courses. The solution is either to

develop local curricula according to the level of students or there is need of further improvement in the GFP.

However, this failure cannot be linked only the GFP but there is direct link with student previous education

background and students attitude toward learning and acquisition of knowledge. It has been noted that

students rely mostly on power point presentation to memorize and pass the exam. Course book reading and

studying is a big task for them. They prefer group assignment so that to reduce their work. Thus, curricula are

not a barrier in the way of acquisition of knowledge and skill but students' attitude and motivation toward hard

work for higher education is a barrier.

Faculty

In most of the institutions faculty is expatriate with international experience and exposure. Most of them do

have PhD in their subjects but due to student teacher ratio which is high, the hand holding which the local

students need both in terms of subject inputs, language and academic behaviour does affect the quality of

teaching and learning. In addition terms of appointment being contractual and usually for a short period of 2

years, lack of research support and academic environment, language problems, communication and cultural

aspects also have their bearing on the student-teacher relationship.

Infrastructure / Facilities / Policies / Strategies / Rules

Infrastructure and facilities are in line with most of the developed countries but professional approach to put

them to best use is sometimes lacking. Policies regarding Omanisation also effect to some extent. The

strategies and rules are inline with the local requirements and though they are well defined there is lack of

implementation. The substance in terms of strategies, policies and rules is very much there but the spirit

behind it seems to missing.

Previous Education Background

Most of the students come from local schools where the medium of instruction is mostly Arabic and the use of

modern methods in terms of teaching are not in vogue. There is also lack of seriousness on the part of both –

the teachers and the parents to enforce study habits, which really need to be inculcated during the schooling.

All this including the environmental and cultural factors, like students staying in remote areas or not having

literate parents do result in having poor or no previous educational background.


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Preparation for Higher Studies/ Learner Attitude / Individual Hard Work / Motivation

It is observed that the school level education in Oman produced/producing school graduates for higher studies

which are not only weak in academics but also having no motivation toward hard work and higher education. A

big gap exists between school education and higher education. To cover the gap, the HEIs under the directions

of Ministry of Higher Education have started General Foundation Programme (GFP) for the period of one or

two years to prepare/fit the students for higher studies. However, GFP is also unable to fill the gap despite of

sufficient duration for basic courses, good contents, teaching methodology and experience faculty. Even after

completion of the general foundation courses, students are unable to grasps the knowledge and skill at higher

level. Resultantly, the other factors such as good teaching methodology, experience faculty, excellent

infrastructure and facilities are failed to deliver the desired results.

CONCLUSION

It is concluded that all the internal factors including Basic Foundation Programme teaching methodology,

curricula, faculty and infrastructures have been developed fairly good in HEIs in Oman and appropriate to

contribute in the acquisition of knowledge and skill of the students. However, despite of all these efforts, the

literature review, personal experience and observations indicate that students are unable to acquire skills and

knowledge up to the desired level. This means that a problem still exists but not in the internal factors of the

HEIs but in the external factors which the students bring with themselves to the institute in the form of weak

educational background from school, unprepared mindset for higher studies and attitude toward hard work. All

these internal factors are the hurdles in the way internal factors to affect positively. It is recommended that the

Ministry of Higher Education and HEIs in Oman focus more on the external factors of the students. The basic

reasons behind students non seriousness toward higher studies is lack of competition in admission and

employment and free education. Therefore, various ways should be find out for students competition in

admission and employment. This means that the quality of teaching methodology, curricula, faculty and

infrastructures of the HEIs in Oman have been developed so far is quite good.

One of the important factors which have not been address in the literature is the prevailing local socio culture.

The students are entered in the university not only with a weak academic base / basic skill but also with low

motivation mindset. Their focus is more on memorization to pass exam and get degree. Besides of all efforts to

improve the quality of GFP, it is necessary to focus on those factors which change the students' mindset and

motivate them toward hard work and mentally prepare them higher studies. Ideally, teaching should aim to

encourage learners to develop a capacity for critical thinking and taking control over their own learning while at

the same time assuming responsibility for all the decisions concerning their learning. In other words, it is no

longer enough for students to sit and listen, test and forget. Learners of today need to become autonomous

learners, thinkers and planners who are able to sustain learning and attain long-term success. Unfortunately,

many of the current beliefs and practices in our schools and higher education institutions are not autonomy

supportive. (Al-Sadi, H., 2012).




REFERENCES

Al Mamari, A.S. (2012); General Foundation Program in Higher Education Institutions in Oman, National

Standards: Implementation & Challenges, Oman Quality Network Regional Conference on Quality Management

& Enhancement in Higher Education dated 20-21 February 2012, Muscat, Oman.

Al-Sadi, H. (2012); Giving Voice to the Voiceless: Learner Autonomy as a Tool to Enhance Quality in Teaching

and Learning in Higher Education in Oman, Oman Quality Network Regional Conference on Quality

Management & Enhancement in Higher Education dated 20-21 February 2012, Muscat, Oman.


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Al-Mamari, A. S. (2011), Analyzing results of placement tests in private higher education institutions,

Unpublished report, Ministry of Higher Education, Sultanate of Oman.

Al Shmeli, H. (2009); Higher Education in the Sultanate of Oman: Planning in Context of Globalization, IIEP

Policy Forum, 2-3 July, 2009.

Carroll, M.I., Razvi. S., & Goodliffe, T. (2009), Using Foundation Program Academic Standards as a Quality

Enhancement Tool, a paper for INQAAHE 2009. http://www.oac.gov.om/qe/oqn

Flinders University (2009). Curriculum Development, Flinders University, Australia. Retrieved from

http://www.flinders.edu.au/teaching/teaching-strategies/curriculum-development/

Gauntlett, K. (2005); The Challenge of Understanding the Academic Expectations of Gulf Sponsored Students,

Post Script, ISSN 1444-383X, Faculty of Education University of Melbourne, Australia.

www.edfac.unimelb.edu.au/insight/pscript.shtml

Ministry of Education New Zealand (2007); The New Zealand Curriculum for English Medium Teaching and

Learning in Years 1-13, Ministry of Education by Learning Media Limited, Box 3293, Wellington, New Zealand.

www.learningmedia.co.nz

OAC (2006); Accreditation vs Recognition of Programme in Oman, A Poster Developed by Oman Accreditation

Council.

Peril and Promise (2000); Higher Education in Developing Countries, World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

Salih, A.R.A. (2012); Peer Evaluation or ‘Fear’ Evaluation: in Search of Compatibility, Oman Quality Network

Regional Conference on Quality Management & Enhancement in Higher Education dated 20-21 February 2012,

Muscat, Oman.

Savic, M. (2012); Common Approach to QA in Diverse Higher Education Systems, Oman Quality Network

Regional Conference on Quality Management & Enhancement in Higher Education dated 20-21 February 2012,

Muscat, Oman.

Savic, M. (2007) Research on approaching the reform of the higher education curricula in architecture, in

context of creating the European higher education area, PhD dissertation, University of Belgrade

Shah, I.A and Baporikar, N. (2010); Suitability of Imported Curriculum for Learning in GCC States: Oman

Perspective, Teaching and Learning in Arab World, Peter Lang Publishing Group,. Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles,

Frankfurt am Main, New York, Oxford, Wien, 2011.ISBN 978-3-0343-0408-5 pb

Wilkinson, R. and Al Hajry, A. (2007); The Global Higher Education Market: The Case of Oman in Martin, M

(2007); Cross-border Higher Education: Regulation, Quality Assurance and Impact, New Trends in Higher

Education, International Institute for Educational Planning 7-9 rue Eugène Delacroix, 75116 Paris


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VIRTUAL TRAINING IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION: FOOTWEAR TRAINING

Assist. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Şahin [email protected]

Assist. Prof. Dr. Yavuz Erişen [email protected]

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nadir Çeliköz [email protected]

Selcuk University

Faculty of Vocational Education, TURKEY

Abstract

This paper aims to promote a training tool developed under LdV programme in footwear training in English,

Romanian, Turkish and Greek. The virtual training centre is a good example of the development of innovative

practices in the field of vocational education and training, which is one of Leonardo da Vinci General

Objectives. Virtual training centre for Shoe Design (VTC-Shoe) was developed in 2007-2009 within a Project

proposed by a consortium consisting of three Balkan countries (http://vtc.shoe-design.ro). The partners are

Gheorghe Asachi technical University (Romania), Selcuk University (Turkey) and Technical University of Crete

(Greece).

Key Words: Development of innovation, footwear training, virtual training, distance education.

INTRODUCTION

It is a fact in our age that knowledge is growing faster than ever before and educationists and employers spend

a significant amount of time on continuing education programs for the students and employees. They feel that

taking classes is not enough because the traditional ways are not able to keep up with a rapidly changing

environment. Especially, with the spreading of information technology, network learning has become a reality,

at least technically, and a vast amount of spontaneous knowledge exchange is taking place on the interactive

World Wide Web. The widespread use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in many fields of

education, the Internet, mobile computing, social networks and many other advances in 21st

century help

essentially to promote and boost education as well as industry. Considering these changes in approach and

methodology, EACEA (European Commission, Executive Agency Education Audiovisual & Culture) stared

Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) as the flagship European Funding programme in the field of education and

training. LLP enables individuals at all stages of their lives to pursue stimulating learning opportunities across

Europe. Leonardo da Vinci, under LLP umbrella, focuses on vocational education and training, other than at

tertiary level. It addresses both the learning and teaching needs in the sector, and is therefore aimed at all

parties involved, namely trainees in vocational education, teachers and trainers, institutions and educational

bodies, enterprises, associations, social partners and bodies relating to either lifelong learning or the labour

market. The shift from teacher centred approach to learner centred one has modified and revolutionised the

teaching and learning methods. Teaching and learning tools were nothing but a piece of chalk and a blackboard

eraser, teachers and students who met each other face to face inside the classroom during class. Later,

videotape programs were used as teaching aids. Then, one-way teaching by computer arrived. Finally, today's

advanced computer and information network technology has revolutionized our teaching and learning

methods. In accord with the development, learning environment has also changed. Students can listen to their

teacher or trainers in distant classrooms through PC's and get a simultaneous view of their teachers and texts

as well. They can ask questions and record the "class" for repeated viewing. Distance education allows not only

a teacher but also a learner to overcome the boundaries of space and time. There is a challenge in defining the

distance aducation as Shale (Shale, 1988, p. 25) remarked: "Distance education is beset with a remarkable

paradox - it has asserted its existence, but it cannot define itself." Despite the debate about distance education,

there is no doubt that distance education is different from other instructional approaches. Garrison and Shale


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(1987, p. 10-11) defines distance education as an education type that offers a minimum set of criteria and

allows more flexibility. They suggest that:

• distance education implies that the majority of educational communication between teacher and student

occurs non contiguously

• distance education involves two-way communication between teacher and student for the purpose of

facilitating and supporting the educational process

• distance education uses technology to mediate the necessary two-way communication.

When the sources about education are studied, it is clearly seen that efficient and effective utilization of

modern information and communication technologies is possible through "distance education", which can be

regarded as a solution for inequalities of opportunity, life-long education and taking advantage of learning

technologies and individual learning (Kaya et al., 2004). The changeable and the rapid technological changes

that educational organisations cannot follow have brought about the term “lifelong learning”. In this century,

the world has become interconnected and more complex and, thus, younger and older learners need to

generate new ideas, new products within an innovative approach. According to Castells, the basic paradigm of

the information age is networking and the space of flows which “reigns above the historically constructed

space of places [...] In other words, flows become the units of work, decisions and output-control, instead of

organisations” (quoted by Nyíri 2006). According to Siemens (2006) the key changes facing learners and

organizations today include Societal changes, Technology, Globalization, Rapid pace of information

development and Decentralization.

These learning environments are not so different from a teacher-guided class with discussions and tests as well

(Şahin M., et all, 2007). In this context, behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism are the three broad

learning theories most often utilized in the creation of instructional environments. However, some scholars in

education claim that the learning theories such as behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism are to be out

of date as they were developed in a time when technology did not have so much impact on learning. In 21st

century, technology has reorganized how we live, how we communicate, and how we learn. Knowledge is

growing so exponentially that in many fields the life of knowledge is now measured in months and years. In

addition, employers require employees to be connected with other nodes capable of cooperatively finding

solutions to particular problems. Rethinking learning is essential to prepare competitive employers in a

competitive global workplace (Siemens, 2006).

Considering these changes in approach and methodology, EACEA (European Commission, Executive Agency

Education Audiovisual & Culture) stared Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) as the flagship European Funding

programme in the field of education and training. LLP enables individuals at all stages of their lives to pursue

stimulating learning opportunities across Europe. It is an umbrella programme integrating various educational

and training initiatives. Leonardo da Vinci, Under LLP umbrella, focuses on vocational education and training,

other than at tertiary level. It addresses both the learning and teaching needs in the sector, and is therefore

aimed at all parties involved, namely trainees in vocational education, teachers and trainers, institutions and

educational bodies, enterprises, associations, social partners and bodies relating to either lifelong learning or

the labour market (see http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/llp/about_llp/about_llp_en.php . One of Leonardo da Vinci

General Objectives is to support participants in training and further training activities in the acquisition and the

use of knowledge, skills and qualifications to facilitate personal development, employability and participation in

the European Labour Market. Another objective is to support improvements in quality and innovation in

vocational education and training systems, institutions and practices. In addition, one of the Leonardo da Vinci

Operational Objectives is to facilitate the development of innovative practices in the field of vocational

education and training other than at tertiary level, and their transfer, including from one participating country

to others. Another one is to support the development of innovative ICT-based content, services, pedagogies

and practice for lifelong learning. All these objectives serve to improve the Quality of VET systems and

practices, which is one of Leonardo da Vinci European Priorities (in the call for proposals 2007). All these

factors contribute to “Learning to learn”, which is one of Lisbon Key Competences. Furthermore, the European

Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) is the European Union's reference centre for

vocational education and training. This centre provides information on and analyses of vocational education


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and training systems, policies, research and practice. According to Seyfried E., in the past two decades and in

most Member States there has been a growing awareness of the importance of quality in vocational education

and training (Seyfried E., 1998). Finally, a further focus of the work consisted of translating the three European

policy priorities promoting employability of the workforce, access to training with particular emphasis on the

most vulnerable groups, and the better matching of training demand and supply- into concrete and measurable

objectives (Şahin M., et all, 2007). Improving the quality and effectiveness in a fast track world with greater

demands than before in professions and skills is one of the concrete future strategic objectives in relation to

education and training systems in the EU. This improvement covers the continuing education and training for

teachers and trainers in terms of development of skills for the knowledge society, ensuring access to ICT for

everyone, increasing recruitment to scientific and technical studies, and making the best use of resources

(Mihai and Sahin 2009).

VIRTUAL TRAINING CENTRE FOR SHOE DESIGN

Virtual training centre for Shoe Design (VTC-Shoe) was developed in 2007-2009 within a Project proposed by a

consortium consisting of three Balkan countries (http://vtc.shoe-design.ro). The partners are Gheorghe Asachi

technical University (Romania), Selcuk University (Turkey) and Technical University of Crete (Greece). The main

reason for the VTC-Shoe project proposal comes up to the changing needs in training, in terms of both quantity

and quality, designed for promoting competitiveness and employment on the European footwear industry. In

order to foster use of Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) in their national footwear industry,

the VTC-Shoe partners engage a common challenge to support quality improvements in vocational education

and training systems, by focusing on the development of innovation and good practice. The aim of the project

is to implement shoe design training content (at elementary and intermediate level) into a virtually designed

and served training centre which is accessible over internet, e-learning will be realised as an innovation in this

field.

The product was produced in English and then transformed into the native language of each partner. Each flag

in this part represents the language version of the tool. The buttons of the content are for Address Database,

which is the list of the addresses of the footwear related companies in each country. Lessons have been formed

according to the common curriculum developed before the start of lessons. This section consists of four parts

as well as the Introduction to VTC, Approach and Methodology used in the development of the content.


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Part I covers the lessons related with foot focusing on the knowledge on foot anatomy and biomechanics

applied to footwear design and pattern making. Part II is about footwear. It covers the lessons about materials

used for footwear products, footwear structure, functions and classification criteria, lasts for footwear industry,

footwear technology and technological allowances for pattern making. Part III consists of the lessons related

with measurements and tools used in footwear design. The main topics are foot anthropometrics,

measurement systems and tools for pattern making. Part IV covers the lessons related with design and pattern

making:

The button Tests includes the tests developed for the assessment of each lesson based on an interactive

approach. Animations and Videos are the section that includes movies and animations classified according to


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the lessons. Design Collection includes the designs made by the trainers and trainees. Press News is the section

to serve the dissemination activities of the product through printed or visual media. The trainee can be in

contact with the trainer or the product developer by using the contact form and can have access to useful links.

CONCLUSION

The use of ICT in education and training in 21st

century is regarded as an essential task of the educational

organisations. The training tool, VTC-Shoe, is a perfect sample of ICT use if footwear training. VTC-Shoe is a

multi-lingual virtual environment constructed in English, Romanian, Turkish and Greek. As a training tool, the

curriculum is in accord with the approach, methodology and techniques required for virtual training. The audio

and other visual aids contribute to its attractiveness for a trainee or trainer in this field. In addition, the

animations, quizzes and design collection can further contribute this tool to become more attractive and

effective in training. The VTC-Shoe can serve as a network of people who are engaged in footwear business and

training. Thus, it can support the entrepreneurial community, including small and medium businesses, through

collaboration and community support. Furthermore, it can support economic development by facilitating

footwear design training that empowers socially and economically diverse people to strengthen and sustain

growth opportunities in existing businesses or in the planning and marketing of a start-up business. With the

construction, content, methodology and service to education, it can be regarded as an example of training tool

displaying the use of ICT in a useful manner.




REFERENCES

Garrison, D.R., & Shale, D. (1987). Mapping the boundaries of distance education: Problems in defining the

field. The American Journal of Distance Education, 1(1), 7-17.

Kaya, Z., Erden, O. Cakır, H. ve Bagırsakçı, N.vB. (2004). Preparation of web-based presentation of distance

education need unit of the introduction to distance education course (Uzaktan eğitimin temelleri dersindeki

uzaktan eğitim ihtiyacı ünitesinin web tabanlı sunumunun hazırlanması). Turkish Online Journal of Educational

Technology (TOJET) 3. Available at http:// www.tojet.net.

Mihai A. and Şahin M. (2009) Lazinica, C. Calafate, Technology Education and Development (ICT Use in VET: The

Virtual Training Centre for Shoe Design as a Model, ed: Lazinica, C. Calafate, pp. 321-342, ındia, In-The

Nyíri, Kristóf (2006a): Castells, The Information Age (Book review, in: Replika 2006/12

http://www.replika.hu/archivum/36/12, accessed 5 March 2007)

Seyfried E. (1998) Evaluation of Quality Aspects in Vocational Training Programmes: Synthesis Report,

CEDEFOP, 1998.

Siemens, G. (2006). Conectivism: learning and knowledge today. Retrieved March 17, 2008 from

http://www.educationau.edu.au/jahia/webdav/site/myjahiasite/shared/globalsummit/gs2006_siemens.pdf

Shale, D. 1988. Toward a reconceptualization of distance education. The American Journal of Distance

Education 2 (3): 25-35.

Şahin M., Yaldiz S., Ünsaçar F., Yaldiz B., Bilalis N., Maravelakis E., Antoniadis A. (2007), Virtual Training Centre

for CNC: A Sample Virtual Training Environment, ICVL 2007: The 2nd International Conference on Virtual

Learning, 26-28 October, 2007, Constanta, Romania


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HIGHER EDUCATION IN BOLOGNIAN WAY: THE CASE OF MACEDONIA (SEEU AND SUT)

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali Pajaziti

SEE University

Tetovë MACEDONIA

Non scholae sed vitae discimus!

(We never learn four our schools, but for the sake of our!)

A Latin proverb

Abstract

Republic of Macedonia is one of the post-socialist societies, a country with long and turbulent transition

process. Education is the dominant paradigm of the third wave society, determinator of societal progress and

the image in globalised and competitive world. Higher education in Macedonia is living the period of essential

tranformation from ideology-based traditional to postmodern, based on common European space of

knowledge. Bologna Declaration is spiritus movens of reforms in higher education,that means increasing

quality, mobility and lifelong learning. This paper offers analytical depiction of network of higher education-RM

and future developments in the university spectrum of RM, from classical to modern public and private,

modern academic curriculum, results of learning, publications of research, local cooperation, regional and

global influence and involvement in the business sector etc. The topic is treated from the qualitative and

empirical-quantitative perspective, including date for Macedonian case, with focus on higher education in

Albanian language (South-East European University and State University of Tetova).

Key Words: Information society, university, RM, Bologna Declaration, SEEU, SUT.

INTRODUCTION

Republic of Macedonia is one of the post-socialist societies, a country with long and turbulent transition

process. Education is the dominant paradigm of the third wave society, determinator of societal progress and

the image in globalised and competitive world. Higher education in Macedonia is living the period of essential

tranformation from ideology-based traditional to postmodern, based on common European space of

knowledge. Bologna Declaration is spiritus movens of reforms in higher education, that means increasing

quality, mobility and lifelong learning. This paper offers analytical depiction of network of higher education-RM

and future developments in the university spectrum of RM, from classical to modern public and private,

modern academic curriculum, results of learning, publications of research, local cooperation, regional and

global influence and involvement in the business sector etc. The topic is treated from the qualitative and

empirical-quantitative perspective, including date for Macedonian case, with focus on higher education in

Albanian language (South-East European University and State University of Tetova).

THE NEW MILLENNIUM AND THE INFORMATIONALISM

Nowadays the world is found in the third millennium, in an epoch which is observed from an optimistic view,

but also from a kind of a defeatist point of view. The followers of the first point of view speak about a paradise

like future, while the second ones about apocalypse. Education is one of the social dimensions which has the

cruical role in the epoch when the society gains the social priority.

The concept of the society of information is a sociological term, a postmodern and a futurological one,

according to which the main factor of the of social development is the use of the technical-scientific

informational one, and others as well, within the frames of the so called “the fourth sector” of economy.

Theoreticians like U. Beck, A. Giddens dhe M. Castells acknowledge that since 1970 the transfer from the

industrial society into information one, has been made on a global level. The information society, on a


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theoretical plan is closely connected with the post-industrial production (D. Bell, A. Toffler), while the main

protagonist of this theory is the japanese theoretician E. Masuda.

The Spanish sociologist of the information society (Castells), connected with this society has used the name

“galaxy of internet”, taking for its basis the famous paradigm of Marshall MacLuhan. This galaxy replaces the

one of Guttenberg, in which prevails informatism, michroelectronics, automatisation, where the only

productive power is science. (Trajkovski, 2004:72) In the information society the state power is in the hands of

those who control the information flow. In these societes the agricultural work is of a third kind, while on the

other hand, the number of those who deal with the human relations or with the exchange of information is

being increased. The wave of the information society does not include only the western world, but also every

single corner of the globe. What is more, in the countries of “the third world”, the era of information has got

much more influence than in Europe or America, as it is stressed by John Naisbitt in his work The Global

Paradox. While the first wave lasted ten millenials, the second one two or seven centuries (beginning with the

steam machine or from the first technical and industrial developments), the last one has got only several

decades since it began. According to Castells, the understanding key of the information society is the idea of

the net, where the internet as a net above all nets, as an engine of the digital civilisation creates its concrete

and imaterial symbol (Kulla & Thomollari, 2005: 288-291).

The era of information is also changing even the (dis)course of the education; nowadays education is not an

aim, but but a mean-motiv. (Akyüz, 1992:267). Peter Drucker since 1980 predicted that the following decades,

education will change much more than the period when the book was printed for the first time and changed

the modern school three hundred years ago. Today, the concept of education as an important social agent has

changed a lot from the traditional one. The economy where education is the only and the real one, as well as

the primeval source of the production of riches, it puts many new requests to schools dealing with the success

and educational responsibility. Now we are again in a situation where we ask the question that what means an

educated person? The pedagogues say that education does not only mean “filling” the young people with all

the possible information, as if they were CDs or boxes, but their encouregment should be connected with the

every day events, to make them aware of their capabilities to see the reality and to act according to it, which

means being responsible in facing the reality in order to act according to it. What is more they will be

responsible and able to judge living actively. (Budić & Andevski, 2010:109) In the meantime, the methods of

learning and teaching have changed. (Drucker, 1992: 206) Today is spoken about the electronic learning (e-

learning), for distance learning, for the most sophisticated educational techniques, for the intellectual capital,

for the management of knowledge etc.

Previously a manner of learning was a tiresome description of manuscripts, listening to lecturing and recitals,

and then follows the printed book, while today the computer is much more reachable than the book. It serves

the pupil and the student in the way in which even the teacher can not be present in the classroom. It allows a

lot of variations, and is very entertaining. Despite this, TVs and commercials, as means of visual pedagogy give

new opportunities. In a commercial clip of 30 seconds can be covered much more than covered by lectures that

might be covered by one month teaching. (Drucker, 1992: 222).

Today, for the first time in history, the formal education penetrates all around the society and it is not a

privilege of a small stratum, a specialized group of scholastics, bureaucrats, or judges. In this unique situation,

the social involvement, and the efficient economic, political and cultural citizenship are the main conditions of

mastering a high culture. (Gellner, 2011:22) But why is it happening so that in spite of the big widespread of the

education, there is a decrease of the quality of the scientists, we are facing more and more educated

barbarians, with people who have a very shallow general culture, who are getting richer and richer but are not

living a really valuable life (Drucker, 1992:218).

That is why the university plays an important role. It is the instance where the critical pluralism is being

developed, which creates the position with the prevailing slogan, “within the interest of searching the truth”.

(Popper, 2009:76-77).


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NEW EDUCATIONAL PARADIGM AND UNIVERSITY

Education is a thorough mastery of the system of knowledge, the creation of the abilities and the practical

habits, the creation of our forces and cognitive capacities, the creation of the scientific attitudes about the

world, connecting knowledge with the practical and professional activities. Education means “change of the

behaviour of the people, either through the enlargement of the knowledge, or through the changes of the

attitudes”. (Arsenijević & Andevski, 2010: 32).

Education is closely connected with knowledge and life. As Ortega Y. Gasset writes on his book The Mission of

the University, knowledge is the the biggest achievement of the human being, but bigger than that is life itself,

because it enables the realization of the knowledge. Having knowledge and an efficient education, there should

exist intersubjectivity between knowledge and life, an interconnection between the ideological-observer

(theoria) and the acting one (praxis).

To the above mentioned line should be added the educational range which a human being has to possess in his

epoch of continual gaining of knowledge and professionalism. According to Gassett, the professionalists should

live in the level of their society and they should have the capacity to have their influence in the social life.

(Kardaş, 2008).

The learning life of the formal education achieves its culmination in the University, in this universe of

knowledge and research. The University as a link of a lifelong education and a phase of the postsecondary

education.. The University, and the school in general, instigates the social mobility, which is a factor through

which the able and the successful ones can climb the higher social strata, from the lowest ones. (Drucker,

1992:214)

In the new millennium all the questions being asked dealing with the University are above others the following

ones as well: What is the mission of the University? In what manner the University can accommodate the

essential characteristics of our age? How can be found the balance between the traditional mission of the

Univesity and the changes of our age?

Universities are not ivory towers; they have met the needs of the society and the whole world throughout

history. Now they have special tasks which have been imposed on them by the social instances, especially the

last 50 years when the widespread university education has been implemented, when professional schools

have been founded which turned into institutions that served the nation, (Fallis, 2004:4-5) even more, they

served the region and the globe, taking into account the fact that many universities as a result of the financial

crises and the weakening of the states in the process of globalization and the enforcement of the international

capital, are found in the hands of multinational companies.

A matter, in the epoch where knowledge as an international property which has its trade price, has triggered a

lot of discussions about the mission of the school, that is universities. Are the educational institutions the only

transmiters of knowledge or something more? According to H. Akyüz the school’s functions are the following

ones: the revival of the feeling of humanisation, the individual development, socialisation and the citizen’s

education, the economic, the knowledgeable and the professional one. (Akyüz, 1992:264-267) In general, the

universities amongst other things have three important tasks: (a) keeping pace with culture, (b) professional

education, (c) scientific research and preparing the new scholars. According to Gasset the University has to

teach the people the following things:

1- The physical outline of the world (physics)

2- The main topics of the living world (biology)

3- The historical process of the human kind (history)

4- The structure and the function of the social life (sociology)

5- The outline of the cosmos (phylosophy) (Gasset, 1997, 101)

Making his own reflections during the past ten years, as a president of the University of Michigan, James

Duderstadt says that ”The unpredictable characteristic of the society is its unpredictability. They do not believe


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that tomorrow will look like today. Universities should find their own paths to keep their mostly liked aspects of

their core values, in order to meet powerfully the opportunities of the world which is changing so rapidly. This

is the main challenge at the opening of the the new century”. (Duderstadt, 2000:21).

Today, the great number of researches shows that the high education has a great impact on the creation of

knowledge, which is based on the development of economy and of the democratic society. (The World Bank,

2002) The ability of the society to produce, select, accommodate, make trade, and use the knowledge is shown

as a critical factor for the stable economic development factor and the improvement of the life standard. In this

direction, instead of telling the public what will be tought to the students, it has to be thought much more

about the educational objectives of what the students will be able to understand and implement after they

finish their studies. (Kwiatowski & Sadlak, eds., 2003) So, the today’s university education should concentrate

much more in the learning outcomes. In this context the whole educational process is not concentrated on the

teacher, it is not (teacher- centred), but on the student (student-centred), while the teacher is a facilitator or a

manager.

The question that will be asked in the future will not be “what have you done to get your diploma?”, but “what

can you do after you have got your diploma?” This approach is very important in the labour market and is very

meaningful when we take into consideration the matters of a lifelong learning, of the non-traditional learning,

as well as the non-formal educational forms. (Purser, Council of Europe, 2003).

HIGHER EDUCATION IN TRANSITIONAL COUNTRIES

The educational tradition of the Western Ballkans or SEE, is rather complex. Ex-Yugoslavia had more or less a

unique centralized and ideologozed educational system. After 1991 political separations, the creation of the

new states generated new systems which according to their individual conditions were developed and

transformed in different ways and dynamics. Slovenia very quickly finished the war and that quickly made the

needed reforms especially those concerning the curricula. (Zgaga, 2011:4-9). Croatia relying on its long

educational tradition did not embrace Bologna immediately. In Bosnia after the year 1995 even the high

education, just like everything in the overall society, was divided in political and ethnical lines. From one

University, the one of Sarajevo, were created two basic centres: the one of Sarajeva and the other one of

Mostar, but there were other Univesities that were established in other cities like in Tuzla, Zenica etc.

In the Balkans, the number of the students who get enrolled in the public Universities and the private ones as

well, in the last 10 years has been increased. The following diagram we can see that in 2005 from all the

countries of South Eastern Europe, the highest percentage of enrollment in the high education is present in

Slovenia (83.2 %) and Croatia (36.3 %), while the lowest Macedonia (21.2%) and Albania (21.7%).

21.2 21.725.2

36.340.1

43.7 41.1

83.2

61.256.4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

MKD ALB BH CRO BG RO SLO SI HU PL

Fig. 2:The percentage of the enrollment in high education in some transitional countries, 2005.

The Source: Data base TransMONEE, 2006.


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28

This situation, as far as Macedonia is concerned, has been changed a lot, and in 2010 this percentage has been

increased more than 90 %.

The percentages of graduation in the Universities of the above mentioned countries are very low. For example,

in Serbia there are only 20% of the students who graduate on time, while in Croatia only 10-15 % (2007). These

percentages go together with the percentages of withdrawal which are much higher than the average of the

countries of OECD - 30 % (OECD, 2007). This region has got problems even with the quality of the high

education: there prevails encyclopedization, the old methods of lecturing, as well as the examinations through

which is tested learning by heart and factual memory (see: EUA, 2003). The Balkans countries on the one hand

have a very low degree of the students mobility, while on the other hand a high percentage of the students

who are sent abroad for their high education. In 2004 the only country who attracted more students was

Bulgaria (3.63 %), then Romania (1.53%), Slovenia (1.06 %), than less then any other country Macedonia (0.25

%). These data are much lower than of the 27 countries of EU (6.32 %). (EC, 2007) The Universities can not

manage to direct their limited sources in research activities where they would have had comparative

advantages, having thus strategic connections with the othe institutions of the SEE, and even wider. (Linden,

2008:16) The investments of the state with public income are very low compared with the countries of the EU,

and so this percentage is 1.1. % of GDP. (See: Pajaziti & Jashari, 2011) It also has to be stressed that these

countries suffer from ensuring of the high professional power with university qualifications, in order to meet

their needs for their enlargements. (Linden, 2008:6) The educational high systems in this region are not that

much prepared for the following two tasks which are very important and are connected with the contribution

in the sphere of competition: the absorbtion of knowledge and innovation. The number of researchers is

relatively small, while the cost of researches is rather low.

After the year 2000 as a charasteristic of the innovations in education, have been the private universities and

their role in the society with their enrichment of the offer and the increase of the students’ approach. When

speaking about the private education, the countries of the Southeastern can be divided in two categories, into

those which are more opened toward the private education (Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Romania andhe

Kosova) and those that are more close toward this matter (Bosnia and Croatia). According to statistical sources

connected with the high education where the Albanians live, the following tendencies are present:

• In Albania in the last 4 years the number of the students in the private universities has been increased for

28 %, with an increasing tendency for every year (983 students in 2004 and 12166 in 2008).

• In the year 2008 in Albania there were 11 public universities anf 17 private ones. In the year 2008, only 4

of them have been accredited, but later their number has been increased.

• In the Republic of Kosova in 2008, there have been 52772 students, where only in the University of

Prishtina have been registered 25840, while in the private univesities 18922 students.

In Macedonia, the period of transition brought the birth of new universities, and in many cases they described

it as a “University boom”.

The number of the students, either in public universities as well as in the private ones in the Republic of

Macedonia is increasing.

• According to the data of the State Statistical Office in Macedonia, in the academic year 2011/2011, have

been registered: 63437 63.250 students.

• The number of the students who have graduated in the high schools and faculties in 2009 is 10232. In 2007

there have been 53 research institutions. In the academic year 2010/2011 the number of the lecturers and

the scientific collaborators in the high educational institutions has been 3861.

• In 2010 the grade Master and Specialist have obtained 691 persons (479 or 69.3% Masters and 212 or

30.7% specialists). These figures speak fon an increase of 12,7 compared to 2009.

• According to the State Statistical Office, in 2010 the grade Doctor have obtained 157 persons, which shows

an increase of about 31.9% compared to the year 2009. The greatest number have finished their Doctorial

thesis in social sciences (52.9%) and the humanities (24.2%), and then follow the technic-techological

sciences (8.3%). 80 new Doctors of sciences were females (51%). 51.6% from these people who have

obtained the scientific title Doctors, have their professions in educational system.


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29

So we can coclude that in Macedonia still prevails the high public education vis-a-vis the private one, compared

to Albania and Kosova where there is a balanced situation.

HIGHER EDUCATION IN BOLOGNIAN WAY: THE CASE OF THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA

On June 1999 the representatives of the Ministers of Education of 29 European countries signed a contract in

Bologna (Italy) to formulate the Bologna Declaration, in order to establish a European area for the high

education (EHEA-European Higher Education Area). The overall purpose was the improvement of the efficiency

and efectivity in the high education all around Europe. This declaration triggered the so-called “Bologna

Process” which stresses “The action lines” in which the results of learning would play an important role (Adam,

2004, 2006). One of the logical consequences is that from 2010, all the programmes in the institutions of the

third cycle should be based in the concept of the learning and the curricula should be redesigned to reflect this.

(See: Kennedy et.al., 2).

The Bologna Declaration of June 1999, beginning with three points, (a) the educational system in three cycles,

(b) the ensurance of the quality and (c) the qualifications and the periods of studying (the credit system and the

mobility), urged a big number of reforms in the high education in a lot of countries in Europe. After a lot of

dilemmas, after a lot of debates, resistences, this process has already become the most important academic

and social task and engagement in 46 european countries. Today in 2011, Bologna tries maximally to make

vivid the paneuropean educational area where the students will be given a wide transparent offer of the

courses of a high quality, with a lot of approaches and facilities in the procedures of gaining new knowledge.

The liberalization of the enrollments in Macedonia especially during the academic year 2010/2011 devastated

the earlier criteria of enrollments and the positions of the balance between the private universities and the

public ones. The Government made almost free the enrollment in the public universities, a step that harmed

the private universities and the competition.

The Republic of Macedonia became a member of the Bologna Process in 2003, while it began the changes of

the system of high education since 1999. In this direction has been approved the Law of high education and the

reforms that followed made the Universities to begin the affirmation of the lifelong learning, the

implementation of ECTS, of the studying programes according to Bologna, integrated universities, the use of IT

(information technologies), the system of three cycles, the implementation of the concept for good learning

results, putting into practice the supplement diploma, the joint degrees, the mobility of the students and the

teachers, the internal and external evaluation etc. (Programi nacional..., 2006:250-262) The Government of

the Republic of Macedonia has been making for a longer period of time a medial campagne pro-education with

the slogan “Education is force, knowledge is power”. The state marketing was about the informatics

universities, for web-learning, for call tech, for dispersion, while the reality says that a lot of townletss got their

universities, only formally, without any real university and academic meaning, that is in many universities the

exams were made in business offices, in primary schools, and in the so called “handicraft houses” etj.

In the meantime happened the changes in the Law of high education dealing with accreditation and evaluation,

which mingled with the academic circles. The professors of the University of Skopje came out and protested in

the streets to defend the autonomy of the university and the dignity of the profession of the scientist. The idea

of these changes in the Law was to implement the so called already accepted standards in the European area of

education. These standards are implemented by ENQA-European Network for Quality Assurance, and others as

well. This evaluation is made by commissions of different fields from at least three professors of internationally

recognized Universities. In the so far laws for the high education from 2000 and 2008 the process of evaluation

and accreditation have been separated procesess. There was the Accreditation Board and the Evaluation

Agency. While on one hand the Accreditation Board functioned on a permanent line, The Evaluation Agency

worked from time to time. It did not have any meeting, as is the case in 2004-2007. In the new Law of 11

February 2011, is formed a new mutual Board for evaluation and accreditation, in order to establish a system

of values and quality of the high education. This system determines:

a. Evaluation of the quality of the high education, of management, financing, academic activities


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30

b. Implementation, confirmation, acceptance of academic institutions, of different study programmes and

their accreditation

c. Self-evaluation and external evaluation.

THE HIGHER EDUCATION IN ALBANIAN LANGUAGE IN THE RM: SUT AND SEEU

Albanians, as the second ethnic group in the RM, have been studied in their mother tongue since 1994 when

the University of Tetova was established. Before this date the high education in this country, except the

Teacher Training School in Skopje, did not exist. Albanians of this country as a result of their language and

political problems had to get their university diploma outside the country, first of all in Kosova but as well as in

Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia and so on and so forth. An Albanian University was a taboo topic for the government

of Macedonia till the second half of the final decade of the XX century, which irritated the Albanian population

which from time to time expressed its dissatisfaction through protests of different forms.

The State University of Tetova, with its seat in Tetova, with the initiative of the Albanian intellectuals from

Gostivar, Dibra, Skopje, Albanian political parties as well as some non-govermental organziations, has been

established on December 17, 1994 and officially has been recognized on January 2004. SUT is a center of the

high education and it has got 10 faculties, 34 study programes and 85 profile orientations. The number of the

students is three times bigger during the last three years, which is over 10000 students. Only during 2006/2007

have graduated 933 students from different profiles. About 10 % of the students are non-albanians, a fact

which shows the multicultural vision of this University. SUT tries to follow the modern educational trends, so

that it has opened the faculty of Applicative Sciences, with very inventive syllabi as megatronich, economic

engineering, architecture etc. It cooperates with wordly famous universities, such as George Washington

University, University of Ljubljana, University of Zurich, University of Stuttgart etc. (Tempus, 2008: 6) SUT,

despite all the difficulties it had faced, has managed to create a history of 15 years and to turn into a real cradle

of the Albanian public education.

State University of Tetova holds an ISO 9001:2000 certificate for quality management since September 2007, is

a full member of EUA (European University Association) and a signatory of Magna Charta Universitatum

(Bologna, 2008).

South-East Europan University, open in the November of 2001 in order to advance the Albanian high education

in the Republic of Macedonia, is a modern educational institution of the non-profitable character. It has got 5

faculties and 2 Training Colleges, an institute, with 23 programmes in the first cycle and 29 in the second one.

This University has got very comfortable buildings, four amphitheatres, 50 classrooms, modern offices,

computeric centres, library (with more than 30000 books) and areas for the accommodation of 450 students. A

large part of the Campus (25.000m2) is a green area. About 60 % of the materials that were used during the

construction of buildings were with eco-characteristics. The technological system of information has got a

satellite which enables videocommunication and a quick exchange of information.

(http://www.tetova.gov.mk/al/q/18/) This University has managed to become a model of high education in the

region, since its foundation. It offers accredited curricula of a high quality in accordance with the international

trends (ECTS, e-learning, e-service, e-grading), in accordance with the Bologna Declaration and with the needs

pf the local and international labour market. This University has the principle that education enables the

advancement of science, technology and cooperation, thus contributing in the development of the society.

SEEU promotes equality, as a segment of the mission which begins with the slogan “open for everybody,

implementing the laws and merits, advancing the inter-ethnic understanding”. It gives a lot of importance to

the multilingal and multicultural geographic specifics of the globe; it is a model institution in which the other

and the otherness are a connecting bridge among the different cultural elements. This university , which

promotes the open and rational society, is a successful story which combines the American university

experience as well as the European ones (cooperates with Indiana University, Pittsburg University, LSE, Paris

12, the University Vienna, Bamberg University, University of Jonköping etc.), synthesysing all of these in its

specifics. In this European university study more than 7500 students (82 % of the students are Albanians, 15 %

Macedonians and 3 % turks, Bosniaks,...). (Pajaziti & Abazi, 2010) Taking into consideration the European

concept, this university is an average one when speaking how big it is, which is specialized in the socio-


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31

economics sciences, well-equipped, with a modern infrastructure, it gives an enormous contribution in the

economic development of the region, with a high level of employment of the graduated students, thus making

itself very attractive for the students. This university tries to be internationally recognized by offering teaching

and developes excellent researches fo Macedonia and the region, to be transformed into the “the first

university of the third generation”. The former EU Commissioner for Enlargement, Olli Rehn, by giving his

support to SEEU said: "The South East European University is the most European creature of the Western

Balkans."

All study programs provided by SEEU are accredited by the Accreditation and Evaluation Board of the Republic

of Macedonia and the quality of our curricula and assessment are regularly reviewed according to our

institutional quality assurance procedures and through a cycle of external programme review using

international specialists.

Research and publications are increasing in number and scope.These important academic research activities

are supported and monitored by the Research Office and Pro-Rector for Research.

The University seeks to support effective staff performance. For academic staff, this is done through

procedures such as an annual Learning and Teaching Observation Scheme and the active consideration of

students’ opinions from the Student Evaluation Survey. All staff is required to take part in the individual Staff

Evaluation Process and all these processes are linked to an integrated Staff Development Procedure, offering

internal and external opportunities for professional development and training.

The University welcomes and positively uses both national and international evaluation and quality

accreditation for continuous improvement.We receive valuable evaluation and advice on a twice yearly basis

from our external Quality Champion. It actively refer to the latest developments and trends in higher education

in Europe which are part of the Bologna Process. Also the University has been positively evaluated twice as part

of European Universities Association (EUA) external institutional review program ; and its administrative and

management processes have been successfully validated according to International Standards for Organization

(ISO 9001/2008). (Quality Assurance, 2012) In the first national ranking of universities in the Republic of

Macedonia, in February 2012, SEEU was ranked second out of nineteen higher education institutions according

to a ranking system conducted by the Shanghai Jiao Tong University in collaboration with the country’s Ministry

of Education and Science. This ranking supports SEEU’s objective of pursuing excellence and equality in higher

education.

Macedonia’s HEIs Ranking: Shanghai Jiao Tong University (2012)

1. University Ss. Cyril and Methodius – Skopje

2. South East European University (SEEU) - Tetovë

3. University for Computer Science and Information Technology “Ss. Apostle Paul” – Ohrid

4. International Balkan University – Skopje

5. The first Private University, European University of the Republic of Macedonia – Skopje

6. Private Faculty of Business and Economy – NEOKOM - Skopje

7. School of Journalism and Public Relations

8. University American College Skopje

9. First Private University – FON – Skopje

10. University for Audio Visual Arts – European Film Academy ESRA Paris – Skopje – New York

11. State University in Tetovo

12. University for Tourism and Management – Skopje

13. International Slavonic Institute G. R. Derzavin in Sveti Nikole

14. International University in Struga

15. MIT - Skopje

16. Private Professional Institution of Higher Education for Business Studies “Euro College” – Kumanovo

17. Business Academy - Smilevski – Skopje

(Source: http://www.shanghairanking.com/Macedonian_HEIs_Ranking/index.html)


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CONCLUSIONS

Today we live in the world of fast culture, where the things change rapidly. As a famous scientis says, today

Socrates the bricklayer would have been in his bricklayer shop, while Socrates the philosopher would have

been too much involved with the preoccupations and the variety of the basic disciplines of the modern

philosophy such as the symbolic logics and linguistics. Today education is a determiner of the status of each

individual and society that is either being a statist or an actor in the global area. From everything that has been

said so far we can conclude that:

• The countries from the Ballkan still suffer from the traditional perspective in education.

• The universities in the Republic of Macedonia accepted Bologna but implementation is still incomplete,

more researches and investments are needed for quality assurance.

• Diploma perception should be changed: Apricable abilities are primarily item in XXI century.

• The cooperation between SEEU and SUT should be increased.

• The cooperation between university and companies of different sectors should be increased.

• The evaluation and the self-evaluation should be transformed into an important mechanism of the control

over the academic progress.

• Different projects from the international union should be used like FP7 and others for the sake of

innovative research that will be utilitized from the community.

• The students should be encouraged to take an active role in the increase of the quality.

• The concept of the learning outcomes should be implemented.




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THE NEW MODEL FOR MUSIC EDUCATION – THERAPEUTIC APPROACH:

WHY AND HOW?

Marit Mõistlik

Tallinn University Lai 13, 10133 Tallinn, ESTONIA

[email protected]

Abstract

Music could be seen as a versatile instrument in people’s lives - its powers and various functions (including therapeutic application) have been widely discussed. Several studies, however, present the fact that music

inside of school and outside is not an organic whole for pupils, especially for adolescents (Harvgreas, 2011;

Lamont, Hargreaves, Marshall, & Tarrant, 2003; Liimets & Mäesalu, 2011). In a nutshell, therapeutic approach

to music education acknowledges inborn (natural) musicality, which, supported by a music teacher, could help establish lifelong involvement with music and therefore gives opportunities to the individual to enhance one’s

well-being through music.

Key Words: Inborn musicality, music teacher, lifelong involvement with music, therapeutic approach, well-being.

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this article is to introduce a new model for therapeutic approach in music education (MTAM) and

discuss its relevance and necessity (=why?) as well as feasibility (=how?). An introductory overview of the model for therapeutic approach in music education is given in the article “The model for therapeutic approach

in music education” (Mõistlik, 2011). Therefore, this article focuses on the further clarification of the necessity

and viability of the model. It also addresses the concept of innate (natural) musicality, emphasises the role of a

music teacher in the MTAM model and discusses possible obstacles to the implementation of the model.

Music is regarded as a natural part of human development, which is testified by the fact that there is no known

culture without music (Walker, 2005). Music has also a unique and necessary role in education, because it allows insights into a person’s inner world (Hodges, 2005). Since, for various reasons, music has been

appreciated in every culture and society throughout the Western history, it has always been a necessary

component in children’s education (Mark, 2002, 1). Music can mean much more than just a note or a beautiful

melody – music can play a symbolic role in human life in both positive and negative sense, which was expressively revealed by a study conducted in Sweden on the topic “Strong experiences with music” (SEM)

(Gabrielsson, 2011).

Early and intensive musical activity in the classroom has a positive effect on children’s personality development, allowing them to achieve skills and abilities that go far beyond the purely musical framework.

According to Nöcker-Ribaupierre and Wölfl (2010), this serves the process of becoming a personality or

individuation, facilitates intelligence, creativity, social skills, and supports integration, which in turn allows the development of reliable self-esteem and self-image. However, studies carried out in Estonia show that music

lessons more likely than not create barriers and obstacles to endorsing pupils' innate musicality and lifelong

involvement with music (Mõistlik, 2009; Mõistlik & Rüütel, 2011; Mõistlik, Liiväär & Rüütel, 2012).


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THE MODEL OF THERAPUETIC APROACH IN MUSIC (MTAM)

MTAM relies on the assumption that everyone is musical, i.e. being musical is intrinsic to all people (Edwards &

Hodges, 2007; Hallam, 2009; Pavlicevic, 1997; Perret, 2005). Nonetheless, we cannot overlook the fact that

musicality is difficult to unambiguously define. There are narrower and wider definitions, which are not all pedagogically constructive, causing numerous problems in music education due to their ambiguity. The clear

manifestation of innate musicality mentioned above is closely connected to the person’s environment. All

homes do not offer an environment needed for the activation of a child’s musicality (see also Mõistlik, 2010),

but fortunately in the majority of countries compulsory music lessons at general education schools still survive today. In Estonia music lessons are also compulsory during the entire period of study (students aged 7 to 18).

MTAM is primarily intended for the context of compulsory music lessons of school environment, however, the

idea of the model can be equally implemented also in preschool and higher education as well as hobby education.

In summary, the model for therapeutic approach in music education includes four components: (1) innate

(natural) musicality, (2) music teacher’s support, (3) lifelong involvement with music and (4) emotional wellbeing, the interrelationships of which are illustrated by Figure 1:

Figure 1: The model for therapeutic approach in music education.

As stated above, the innate (natural) musicality is intrinsic in all humans. Yet it is important to realise that students come to music lessons with very different experience of implementing musicality. This depends on

students’ home (family) background, which may be engaged with music on a daily basis or, vice versa, not

engaged with music at all. The results concerning the four different profiles of musical behaviour (see Mõistlik,

2010) are illustrated by Figure 2, which schematically presents the musical atmosphere of students’ family (input), school music lesson and music teacher’s role as a shaper of musical behaviour (filter) and musical

behaviour in adulthood (output):


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Figure 2: Four profiles of musical behaviour (Mõistlik, 2010).

While standing in front of a class as a music teacher, the first impression may be that some students are “very musical” (musically “talented” or “skilful”) and others “unmusical” (or musically “non-gifted”). However, the

author agrees with Mills (2005, 2) that we all have a musical potential – the rudiments that, according to Tafuri

(2008, 122), are manifested in all people. All people start their life being musically talented, i.e. with a “normal”

genetic musical ability. Once again, it is important to realise that only those whose development is facilitated by their environment’s very positive and stimulating interaction (at both home and school), education and

many other important factors (including individual’s personal interest in engagement with music) – only those

develop their full potential in music.

Therefore, music teacher’s role is extremely important in MTAM, since through the teacher’s feedback and

assessments students perceive their musical development and receive reflections on their musicality during the

entire period of study. This also means that a music teacher may be the key person, whose support and positive attitude “switch” students’ innate musicality from passive mode to active mode. Passive mode is

regarded by the author as a person’s way of thinking where the innate musicality is negatively formulated (“I’m

not musical”, “Music is not for me”, “I don’t have a musical ear”, “I don’t have a singing voice”, etc.), which

essentially limits or prevents the desire to participate in various musical activities and areas related with music.

Compared to verbal relationship that takes place in the majority of other lessons, musical relationship is more

primitive while being considerably more vulnerable (Priestley, 1975, 223), and thus music lessons and making music allow the development of a special teacher-student as well as student-student relationship. That the

teacher-student relationship is important and should not be imposed in the process of learning is also

emphasised by the authors of the book “Therapeutic Education. Working alongside troubled and troublesome

children”, Cornwall and Walter (2006). Students perceive teaching styles primarily through teachers’ activities/teaching methods (Poom-Valickis, 2003), and when teachers’ activities or teaching methods do not

support the safe development of the vulnerable musical relationship, it may result in students’ essentially

unjustified exclusion from music and the development of a negative self-image (Whidden, 2008), which was

discussed above.


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IMPORTANCE (WHY?) AND APPLICATION (HOW?)

Next, we will look at the significance, necessity and implementation of the model, and potential obstacles. Why

is the implementation of this model important? From the point of view of a music teacher, it is important to

realise that many homes and families do not support children’s musical development and the manifestation of

their innate (natural) musicality. When children go to school, they become engaged with music in the context of compulsory music lessons independent of their prior musical background. What happens to this engagement

henceforward is already the matter of an approach. The author’s study on the effect of the music lessons of

general education school on adults’ musical behaviour (Mõistlik, 2009; 2010) clearly showed how essential

music teachers’ support is in the activation of students’ natural musicality, especially when a student’s family background lacks any engagement with music. This activation allows students to become aware of their

musical potential (“I can/ am allowed/ am able to also make music/sing!”) and apply it creatively in very

different situations. The above study revealed that such process led students to music also after school leaving and the majority of the members of the university choir had relied on their positive prior experience when

joining the choir. Even if after school leaving adolescents do not actively engage in music, they are open to

music and have a positive musical self-image, which, among other things, may facilitate active music making in

the future. In addition, one should not forget the opportunity to relieve stress with music (listening to music, music making, singing), which according to an Estonian study (Rüütel & Pill, 2008) is used usually or often by

three quarters of students and two thirds of respondents who have left school.

On the other hand, those who had experienced their music teacher’s negative attitude and lack of support to their innate musicality, felt uneasy and anxious before their music lessons at school and as adults did not

regard themselves as people who could express themselves through music. Nevertheless, there were those

who, in spite of the negative memories from their school music lessons, had independently begun to activate and explore their musicality in adulthood, but with certain reservations. For example, they had started learning

on their own how to play a musical instrument, but because of the negative experience they had had, did not

even dare or wish to consider singing. Whidden (2008) describes a similar situation where the comments made

by the music teacher have robbed people of their “own voice” in both childhood and adulthood. However, singing can, and often does, offer positive experiences that help to develop a balanced emotional world and

reduce tensions, depression, stress, fear. According to Sepp (2005), teachers’ task is to create an atmosphere

where a child dares to be free and experiment with his or her voice. At the same time, teachers have to

consider students whose singing development is modest compared to others at a particular point in time to prevent them from feeling musically worthless and excluded.

What is innovative in MTAM? One of the novel moments is getting to know and acknowledging that the effect of a music lesson lasts considerably longer than the music lesson or the acquisition of secondary education in

general. The positive or negative reinforcement of the musical “self” in music lessons has a significant impact

on a person’s musical behaviour in adulthood. Strong experience gained from music (including music lessons) is

powerfully revealed by Gabrielsson’s (2011) study, which was mentioned already in the introduction, where the music lesson and/or music teacher has an important role in generating strong experience in both positive

and negative ways.

What are potential obstacles? The author considers as the first obstacle music teachers’ comprehension of

musicality, which, according to a study carried out in Estonia (Mõistlik & Selke, 2011), may still be too narrow

and traditional to understand the concept of innate (natural) musicality. For example, in terms of the narrow

concept of musicality, the inability to carry a tune (singing out of tune) is regarded as an indicator of non-musicality. Nevertheless, it is important to realise that often inability to carry a tune may be due to deep

anxiety, the fear of not singing in tune, which in turn contributes to singing out of tune (Pinkserboer, 2007).

However, recently a number of studies have been carried out in this area (e.g. Malloch & Trewarthen, 2009;

McPherson, 2006), which confirm a significant widening of the concept of musicality, viewing musicality as an inherent human ability to communicate through and by means of music.


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38

The second obstacle is time constraint. In Estonia a lesson lasts 45 minutes and at basic and secondary school

music lessons take place once a week. In other European countries the common frequency of music lessons is

also one lesson a week. Adding a large number of students in a class, it is easy to understand why in some respect it is more convenient for music teachers to use the narrower (more traditional) concept of musicality

and view some students as musically incompetent, whose development does not deserve any lesson time since

“they are not musical”.

How exactly can the model be implemented in a music lesson? What does it require from a teacher or teacher

training to put the model for therapeutic approach in music education into effect? How to train future music

teachers and offer refresher courses to the practising teachers to ensure that in their lessons students are

encouraged to explore their musical “self”? These questions definitely need thorough investigation so that the model presented in this article would not remain abstract but would be carried out in practice.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, therapeutic approach to music education means that pupils can find themselves and their innate

musicality, and music in the widest sense (music as any meaningful, purposeful, organized sound, noise and

sound experience), with teacher’s support and encouragement. Such an approach would help to justify the mandatory nature of music as a subject in Estonian schools (and elsewhere) and on the other hand to open up

its potential to lead to lifelong involvement with music.

Acknowledgments: This article was supported by the European Social Fund.


Implications - ICONTE, 26-28 April, 2012, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 2 Number 2 of WJEIS 2012 by WJEIS Scientific Committee.

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Bunt, L. (1994). Music Therapy – An Art Beyond Words. London: Routledge.

Cornwall, J., & Walter, C. (2006). Therapeutic education: Working along troubled and troublesome children.

London: Routledge

Edwards, R. D, & Hodges, D. A. (2007). Neuromusical Research: An Overview of the Literature. In: W. Gruhn, F.

Rauscher (eds.), Neurosciences in Music Pedagogy (pp.1-25). New York: Nova Biomedical Books.

Gabrielsson, A. (2011). Strong Experiences with Music. Music is musch more that just music. Oxford, New York:

Oxford University Press.

Green, L. (2008). Music, Informal Learning and the School: A New Classroom Pedagogy. UK; Ashgate

Hallam, S. (2009). Musicality. In: S. Malloch, C. Trevarthen (eds.), Communicative musicality (pp. 93-110). Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.

Hargreaves,. D. J. (2011) Intercultural perspectives on formal and informal music learning. Dedica revista de

educação e humanidades, 1, 53-66.

Hodges , D. A. (2005). Why Study Music? International Journal of Music Education, 23(2), 111-115

Lamont, A., Hargreaves, D. J., Marshall, N. A., & Tarrant, M. (2003). Young people’s music in and out of school. British Journal of Music Education, 20(3), 229–241.

Liimets, A., & Mäesalu, M. (eds.) (2011). Music inside and outside the school. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.


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Malloch, S. & Trewarthen, C. (eds.) (2009). Communicative musicality. Exploring the Basis of Human

Development. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.

Mark, M. L. (2002). Music Education. Source Readings from Ancient Greece to Today. (2nd ed). Routledge:

London, New York.

Mills, J. (2005). Music in the school. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.

McFerran, K. (2010). Adolescents, Music and Music Therapy: Methods and Techniques for Clinicians, Educators

and Students. London, Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

McPherson. G. E. (ed.) (2006). The Child as Musician. A Handbook of Musical Development. Oxford. New York:

Oxford University Press.

Mõistlik, M. (2009). Connection between music lessons and involvement with music after leaving school.

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 18, 115-127.

Mõistlik, M. (2010). Music lessons' influence in musical behavior after leaving school: four profiles. In T. Selke,

G. Lock, M. Mõistlik (Eds). Evaluation, reflectivity and teaching methodologies in the framework of multi-

cultural understanding. Tallinn, Tallinn University, 59-65.

Mõistlik, M. (2011). The model for therapeutic approach in music education. Problems in Music Pedagogy, 9, 19

-26.

Mõistlik, M., Liiväär, L., & Rüütel, E. (2012). School creative lessons from 13-14 year old pupils’ perspective and

its relevance to teachers. Problems of Education in the 21th

Century, 39/40, (in press, ISSN 1822-7864).

Mõistlik, M., & Rüütel, E. (2011). 'Therapeutic' outcomes from music lessons: what supports and influences pupils? The Changing Face of Music and Art Education, 3, 45-58.

Mõistlik, M., & Selke. T. (2011). Assessment of participation or musicality: Pilot study among Estonian music

teachers. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 30, 61-73.

Nöcker-Ribaupierre, M., & Wölfl, A. (2010) Music to counter violence: a preventative approach for working

with adolescents in schools. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 19(2), 151-161.

Pavlicevic, M. (1997). Music therapy in context: music, meaning and relationship. London & Philadelphia:

Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Perret, D. (2005). Roots of musicality. Music Therapy and Personal Development. Jessica Kingsley London.

Pinksterboer, H. (2007). Vocals. The Singing Voice. London, New York, Paris, Sydney: Wise Publications.

Poom-Valickis, K. (2003). Õpetajate professionaalse arengu uurimine: kuidas muuta eelarvamuslikud

tõekspidamised arengupotentsiaaliks. [Research about teachers' professional development: how to change the

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Priestley, M. (1975). Music Therapy in Action. Constable London.

Rüütel, E. & Pill, E. (2008). Õpilase elu-olu 1998–2007. Küsitluse KOOLITUGI kokkuvõte. [Students’ life and

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Selke, T. (2007). Suundumusi eesti üldhariduskoolimuusikakasvatuses 20. sajandi II poole ja 21. sajandi alguses.

[Music Education in Estonian Comprehensive School: Trends in the 2nd Half of the 20th Century, at the

Beginning of the 21st Century] (Phd Dissertation) Tallinn: Tallinna Ülikooli Kirjastus.

Sepp, A. (2005). Mõtteid muusikaõpetusest 4.-6. klassis. [Reflections on music education from 4th to 6th

grade]. Muusika ja kunsti õpetamisest. Abiks õpetajale. Tallinn: Paar, 23-25.

Tafuri, J. (2008). Infant musicality: new research for educaters and parents. - (SEMPRE studies ib the psychology

of music). England, USA: Ashgate Publishing Limited.

Walker, R. (2005). A worthy function for music in education. International Journal of Music Education, 23(2), 135-138.

Wigram, T., Nygaard Pedersen, I., & Bonde, L., O. (2002). A Comprehensive Guide to Music Therapy. Jessica Kingsley London.

Whidden, C. (2008). The injustice of singer/non-singer labels by music educators. GEMS –Gender, Education,

Music & Society, 4, 1-15. Accessed online at www.queensu.ca/music/links/gems/whidden5.pdf


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OUT OF FORTY

Stanko Blatnik

IPAK Institute, Velenje Koroška 18, SLOVENIA

[email protected]

Sanja Selimović

Inova4t, 75000 Tuzla, Trg oslobođenja 6

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

[email protected]

Amila Mujezinović



[email protected]

Abstract

There are 40 mega-regions which produce most of world’s wealth, generate majority of patents and attract the

best scientists. Others regions have been unsuccessfully trying to copy these mega-regions. The problems are

huge difference in culture tradition and history, making it impossible to simply copy them. This paper describes

a model of practical education, which will help “out of forty regions” to develop faster. The main idea is to build

trans-disciplinary teams of students and seniors with rich experience in different topics. These teams will try to

resolve problems, develop new products or services. IPAK and Inova4t successfully realized a pilot project in

which students from together with senior scientists and businessmen developed software package to support

people with speech imperatives. In future we plan to realize several similar projects, with the aim to generate

commercial products. Such approach could be used for faster development of “out of forty” regions.

Key Words: Mega regions, development, students, seniors.

INTRODUCTION

In accordance with data form the bestseller Who is Your City (Florida, 2008) just 40 Mega-Regions dominate

the World economy. While those account for just 17% of the World's population, they generate two thirds of

its GDP and over 85% of its innovation (measured by patents and scientific papers). All others regions are

permanently trying to copy and transfer the good practices from those 40 Mega-Regions. In most case the

results of all these efforts are very poor. The main causes of such poor results are big differences in culture,

tradition, history so it is impossible simple to copy solutions working well in one environment to another one

with a different culture, tradition and history. For example there were several attempts to copy Silicon Valley in

different part of the world (Silicon Panama, Silicon Alps, …). Although the institutions like science, technological

parks, cluster, venture capital were copied the final results was not Silicon Valley somewhere but a lot of

money spent with no expected big results (Florida, 2003).

For less developed countries this is a huge problem because after strong investment and big expectations

results are disappointed. We believe that “copy paste” solution does not work and that each region has to start

from their conditions and developed the solutions, which will be based on culture, tradition, history and

economic potential of region. Such approach will give much better results.

IPAK institute at Velenje and Inova4t are trying to develop the model called Out of Forty, which will use the

local human potentials for socio-economic development of local communities. The success of model is strongly

dependent on education, training and support of local communities.


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MODEL

The “Out of Forty” approach, states that smaller environments that have the misfortune of not being included

in these 40 mega regions must find their own way, existing opportunities and niches for development, based

mostly on human resources that they have. Mostly, because development of human resources is much less

expensive that e.g. investment into buildings and equipment and proves to be more successful.

In this model we suggest to organize a one week camp that would develop this alternative approach. Students

and senior experts groups will work together in small workgroups and develop their ideas. The members of

teams that they will learn to cooperate and respect each other, while envisioning a common future. The

students will also acquire knowledge, skills and experience in problem solving, team work, designing and

development of new product or service, a new idea, manufacturing and marketing of product or service, etc.

In addition to composing teams from different age (young energetic students and seniors with strong

knowledge, skills, experience and social networks), we plan to bring together students from different science

fields - technical faculties and social science faculties, in order to promote trans-disciplinary approach that is

still lacking during their study. The event will also feature a selected lectures and workshops on the following

topics: Idea generation, Intellectual property rights and protection of these rights, Design of a new product and

services, Innovation systems, services and databases, How to start your own business, Ethical business

practices and responsibility, Design, Promotion, Team work and Project management. Thus the knowledge the

students will acquire will contain many different perspectives.

The participating students and experts from different regions and fields will be selected and put in contact with

each other in order to foster communication and exchange ideas. This way the collaboration at the camp will

be intense and fruitful. After completion of the project, all implemented activities, outcomes, experiences and

ideas that were developed, will be presented in the publication, which will be distributed to universities in both

entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, to serve as a model and guideline for future continued development of

inter-ethnical collaboration and progress. This way the students will also gain experience on how to write and

publish papers regarding their work, at the same time promoting the project activities and transferring positive

experiences back to their regions and institutions.

The long term results of above described activities will be as follows:

• The new product or service which will be sold on market.

• The new company or institute.

• The increase of employability in local community.

• The positive mind set will be developed what is extremely important for young generation.

• The knowledge and social networks of seniors will be not lost.

• The quality of life of participating persons will be improved.

The above described model requires strong collaboration of different generations, support of local

business and community, a lot of creativity and entrepreneurial spirit however it could be realized and

support of socio-economic development of “out of forty regions”.

PILOT IMPLEMENTATION

In year 2011 a pilot implementation of the model has been realized as collaboration of Inova4T company from

Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and IPAK Institute from Velenje, Slovenia.

The mixed team of students of Electrical Engineering Department and students from Educational Rehabilitation

Department of Tuzla University was formed in the March of 2011. Together with teachers from Educational

Rehabilitation Department of Tuzla University they decided to develop software package for logopedic

treatment of children with speech disabilities. The problem was interesting especially because there are not


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similar packages in Bosnian language. The personnel from Inova4T and IPAK institute supported the efforts of

this mixed team. Several seniors with expert knowledge supported the development of package.

In April 2011 the camp was organized at IPAK institute at Velenje. There were three students from Electrical

Department responsible for coding and four students from Educational and Rehabilitional Department. The

camp was very intensive, in the morning students were visiting local software companies and institutions

supporting disadvantaged people in the afternoon till late in the night students were working together on the

development of software package. In the week of intensive work a working prototype was developed.

Returning back to Tuzla students continued to work on package improving and adding new functions. Now the

software is tested by different experts and teachers at Educational and Rehabilitational department at Tuzla.

The software package has several modules namely: learning letters, learning words, learning sounds. The

design was simple and attractive for children as can be seen on Fig 1.

Fig 1: Screen for learning letters.

The principle of learning is simple for letters child has to repeat the letters spoken by speaker, for learning

words it has to select the picture which presents the word spoken by speaker as it is illustrated on Fig 2.


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Fig 2: Learning the words.

To teach children to speak correctly for each letter there is short video presentation as it is shown on Fig. 3.

Fig 3: Learning sounds

The experience we achieved with pilot implementation of model is very positive. It is shown that it is possible

to build small groups of students and seniors who work together and develop new product which has potential


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market. Of course there is a lot place for improvement especially in the field of commercialization of

developed products. Involvement of students of economy and marketing in the team in early phases of

development would significantly increase the possibilities for selling the products or services.

In this year we plan to organize a couple of camps with students coming from different parts of former

Yugoslavia, to include more seniors, and companies who are interested for solving of some problems they

have in production, development or some other fields of their activities. This will give new knowledge and

experience, which will be useful for further development and implementation of Out of Forty model.

CONCLUSION

The simple and efficient model for socio-economic development of local communities in regions, which are out

of most developed regions in the world was developed and tested. The model is based on small teams of

students and seniors working on looking for solution of some problems in community, industry or development

of new services or products, which have commercial value. The pilot realization of proposed “Out of Forty” was

successful and confirmed basic assumption made by the authors of the models. This model is valuable

approach to education which combines “learning by doing” and intergenerational learning. Authors will

continue to develop and implement the model hoping that it will be accepted globally as efficient use of human

resource potentials in different countries.




REFERENCES

Florida, R. (2008). Who is your city? New York: Basic Books.

Florida, R. (2003). The rise of creative class. New York: Basic Books.


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A STUDY ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THINKING STYLES (ATTITUDES)

AND COLLABORATION ATTITUDES OF COLLEGE STUDENTS IN TAIWAN

Hsiao Tien Wang

National Yunlin University of Science and Technology

TAIWAN

[email protected]

Wenloong Chang


TAIWAN

[email protected]

Ying Fang Lai


TAIWAN

[email protected]

Abstract

A series of Research concerning thinking styles have been expanded dramatically in recent years, particularly

addressing the styles and functions of positive and negative thinking. These thinking styles were concluded to

be highly related to intra-personal and interpersonal relationship which significantly influences the

collaborative attitudes in whole career. Research on different thinking styles was therefore highly concerned

with the factors which result in positive thinking, negative thinking, and collaborative attitudes.

For the crucial reasons aforementioned, this study was conducted to identify the structural mechanism of

thinking styles and their factors, and even consequent influences on collaborative attitudes. The sample

participating this study was 970 college students, aging from 18 to 22, registered in various Majors of university

of Science and Technology in Taiwan. The collected data, from questionnaire survey methodology, were

statistically analyzed using SPSS 18.0 for Windows through series of statistical strategies such as Confirmatory

Factor Analysis (CFA) for examine hypotheses. Also the study employed the Maximum Likelihood Estimation to

analyze the linear relationships among the major three variables in order to further understand the functions

of each variable. After the findings were tested and concluded, their implications were also further extensively

investigated and interpreted, Finally, future researches were also proposed to investigate in-depth on thinking

styles scale development and on the complex relationship mechanism among thinking styles, life experience,

and collaborative evironment.

Key Words：Thinking styles, positive thinking, negative thinking, collaborative attitudes.

INTRODUCTION

Positive thinking is a mental attitude that admits into the mind thoughts, words and images that are conductive

to growth, expansion and success. It is a mental attitude that expects good and favorable results. A positive

mind anticipates happiness, joy, health and a successful outcome of every situation and action. However,

positive thinking actually means approaching life's challenges with a positive outlook. It doesn't necessarily

mean avoiding or ignoring the bad things; instead, it involves making the most of potentially bad situations,

trying to see the best in other people and viewing yourself and your abilities in a positive light.


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Our Heart tells us that there are countless negative points in a thing and we should to avoid them to bits.

Within the framework of positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi ,2000), one can find a

comprehension scheme for understanding and promoting positive youth development.

Negative thinking appears to be more prevalent than positive thinking. It seems that with most people positive

thinking requires some effort, whereas negative thinking comes easily and uninvited. This has much to do with

education and the environment one has been living in. Negative thinking is often a symptom of depression and

bipolar disorder (manic depression). According to Smith and Kirby (2001), specific negative affect is identified

through appraisal. These specific negative affects are characterized by ruminations. Examples of negative

affects that are ruminative to thought processes are goal blockage, anger, worry, and anxiety (Berkowitz, 1989;

Carver & Scheier, 1998; Kelly & Barsade, 2001; Martin & Tesser, 1996).

Collaboration refers to shared decision making in governance, planning delivery, and evaluation of programs. It

is a pluralistic form of education where people of dissimilar backgrounds work together with equal status.

Research purpose

This study purported to identify the relationships between thinking styles and collaborative attitude of college

students in Taiwan.

Research question

Based on the forementioned research purpose, this mainly focused on the following research questions:

1. What are the positive thinking and negative thinking the current college students possess toward the

typical social issues?

2. How are the students’ thinking (both positive and negative) related to their collaboration attitude?

LITERATURE

Cognitive Development

Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem

solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood(Wells, 2008). Cognition is the

process involved in thinking and mental activity, such as attention, memory and problem solving(Ashcraft,

2005). However, cognitive development refers to how a person thinks, perceives, and gains understanding of

his or her world through the interaction of genetic and learned factors. According to Piaget’s theory, cognitive

development occurs in a series of four distinct including. (1) sensorimotor stage (infancy),

(2) pre-operational stage (toddlerhood and early childhood),

(3) concrete operational stage (elementary and early adolescence),

(4) and formal operational stage (adolescence and adulthood)

( http://www.healthofchildren.com/C/Cognitive-Development.html)

Adolescent cognitive development, adolescence is within a period Piaget named the “formal operational

stage,” starting from 12 or 13 years of age. Adolescents develop advanced reasoning skills, such as the capacity

to think about various options and possibilities. They can also process thoughts logically, think about things

hypothetically, and obtain abstract thinking skill, so they are able to comprehend abstract concepts such as

trust, beliefs, faith and spirituality. Moveover, they attain the ability to think about how other people perceive

them, and develop strategies in a process known as “meta-cognition”(Huebner, 2000) They are highly curious

about their own physical development, so they pay much attention to themselves, sometimes considering

themselves the center of attention. Adolescents are able to meke their own judgments, although their

judgments might differ from social standards , and this sometimes leads to anti-social or anti-authority

thoughts and behaviors. Next, their concept of “self” gradually becomes “more differentiated and better

organized” (Steinberg&Morris, 2001), and they are able to progress from feeling themselves subjectively to

observing themselves objectively (Lee, 1997).


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Thinking styles

What is thinking? You and I are not what we eat; we are what we think (Anderson, 1998). Different people

have various definitions of thinking. Every one can have his own meaning of thinking. In Pogrow’s(2005)

definition, thinking skills are valued because they are believed to better prepare students for the challenges of

adult work and daily life and advanced academic work and higher order thinking may also help raise

standardized test scores. His research covers topics including measuring thinking skills, learning to plan an

assessment, & making assessment work in the classroom. His five categories of thinking skills are defined as: (1)

recall; (2) analysis; (3) comparison; (4) inferences; and (5) evaluation (Stiggins et.al 1988). Thinking style is one

of many types of style studied, and it is not very different from the definition of cognitive style. Some

researchers consider cognitive styles to be thinking styles, and others argue that thinking style is an element of

cognitive styles (Jones, 2006). Grigorenko and Sternberg (1995) defined thinking style as “a preferred way of

expressing or using one or more abilities” (p. 220) and proposed a model of mental self-government for

identifying thinking styles and how intelligence is primarily directed to understanding preference, rather than

abilities. De Bono (1991, p. 33) gives a broad meaning of thinking which can include most of the other

definitions by stating that 'Thinking is the deliberate exploration of experience for a purpose. That purpose may

be understanding, decision making, planning, problem solving, judgement, action and so on.' Swartz and

Perkins(1991) describe good thinking is, at its roots, something with which we are all familiar. We accomplish it

at times when we make careful choices and solve problems effectively. It involves the use of keen critical skills

and opens creative exploration in which we call up and gather relevant information that we bring to bear on

the issues with which we are grappling. Zhang(2002) research on thinking styles within an educational context

has yielded several findings. First, students’ thinking styles vary as a function of their personal characteristics

and their learning environment. Second, the thinking styles of teachers, as manifested in teaching, differ

depending on their personal characteristics, their teaching experiences, and the school environment. Third,

students tend to achieve better academic results when their thinking styles match the thinking styles of their

teachers. Finally, students’ thinking styles contribute to their academic achievement beyond what can be

explained by their abilities, as assessed by both self-rating and performance tests (for details, see Grigorenko &

Sternberg, 1997; Sternberg & Grigorenko, 1995; Zhang, 1999b, 2001a, 2001b;Zhang & Sternberg, 1998).

In this study, particular interest concerning thinking style was the preference for representation and processing

of information in the mind, bound to the constituent structure of personality, the consistent way of interacting

with the environment, and adapting new information(Kim, 2011). The study enables students to acquire

strategies for thinking related to enquiry, processing information, reasoning, problem solving, evaluation and

reflection.

Positive Thinking

(1) The definition of positive thinking

The mission of positive psychology is to understand and foster the factors that allow individuals, communities,

and societies to flourish (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Positive thinking in people's lives characterized

by experiences of positive emotions—such as joy, interest, contentment, love, and the like—are moments in

which they are not plagued by negative emotions—such as anxiety, sadness, anger, and despair(Fredrickson,

2001). Positive thinking is a mental attitude that admits into the mind thoughts, words and images that are

conductive to growth, expansion and success(Sasson, 2011).

A person with a positive attitude always sees the brighter side of every situation(Mohanty, 2009). Such a

person concentrates on good aspects only with the conviction that whatever is going to happen will work out

well(Mohanty, 2009). Positive thinking is a common motivational method used to boost one's attitude and

promote self growth(Anne, 2008). Slowly and gradually these thoughts grows and expands as well. People

simply think in a positive way, they can most certainly affect the outcome of their actions. Wharever people do

begins with a thought. Positive thinking is a virtue and a necessity in today’s world. The single attribute of

positive thinking can help in making a difference to our lives and also to the people in our

surroundings(http://www.positivethinking.co.in/ ). Researchs on the cancers or AIDS, positive thinking is


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usually based in some kind of assessment of their “mental adjusment”, “adaptation”, or “ coping style” and its

possible influence on overall mental and physical health(Wilkinson & Kitzinger, 2000).

By definition, positive thinking represents the experiences of personal meaning to various life events. As such,

this type of thinking might relate to the attitude of college students in life, more generally. To explore this

notion, participants completed a measure of attitude in life. Analyses explored the potential relationship of

positive thinking to the attitude of college students in life.

(2) Positive thinking traits

Positive thinking traits have beyond their pleasant subjective feel, positive emotions, positive moods, and

positive sentiments carry multiple, interrelated benefits. First, these good feelings alter people’s mindsets

(Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005; Rowe, Hirsch, & Anderson, 2005), broadens behavioral repertoires (Fredrickson

& Branigan, 2005), and increases intuition (Bolte, Goschkey, & Kuhl, 2003) and creativity (Isen, Daubman, &

Nowicki, 1987). Second, good feelings alter people’s bodily systems. Fredrickson’s (1998, 2001) broaden-and

build functional model of positive emotions posits that positive emotions broaden an individual’s scope of

cognition, attention, and action and build the individual’s physical, intellectual, and social resources. Isen and

colleagues’ (Isen & Daubman, 1984; Isen, Daubman, & Nowicki, 1987) research provided early evidence for the

broadening aspects of positive emotions such that induced positive emotions led to more flexible and creative

processing. In this study, positive thinking contains daily functioning, future expectations, self-evaluation, and

other evaluation(Ingram & Wisnicki, 1988). Research finds that high expectations of success lead to strong

performance, and strong performance leads to high expectations of success. Expectations are thus informed

by past experiences and thereby represent a person’s performance history (Bandura, 1977, 1997; Mischel,

1973; Mischel, Cantor, & Feldman, 1996; Olson, Roese, & Zanna, 1996). The self-evaluation process can result

in substantial benefits for the individual, particularly better self understanding. The self-evaluations have four

major themes such as self-enhancement, self-verification, self-understanding and self-assessment. The self-

enhancement motive refers to people's desire to enhance the positivity or decrease the negativity of the self-

concept. The selfverification motive refers to people's desire to confirm and maintain the self-concept, be it

positive or negative. Along with better self-understanding comes a greater likelihood of positive outcomes.

The self-assessment motive refers to people's desire to re -duce uncertainty about the self-concept regardless

of whether the uncertainty reduction process is likely to result in favorable or unfavorable implications for the

self(Michael, 1995).

Negative Thinking

(1) The definition of negative thinking

Negative thinking appears to be more prevalent than positive thinking. It seems that with most people positive

thinking requires some effort, whereas negative thinking comes easily and uninvited (Sasson, 2011). Negative

thinking is often a symptom of depression and bipolar disorder. These illness can make it more difficult to see

things in a positive way, feel hopeful about the future or believe your life is worthwhile. These thoughts might

be automatic and lead to feelings of sadness or holplessness before you’re aware of them

(www.DBSAlliance.com). Negative thinking (NT) is the predisposition to experience negative emotion across

time and situations (Watson & Clark, 1984). It presumes that there is an overall tendency for individuals to

experience a variety of negative emotions, including anger, anxiety, and depression. Negative thinking reflects

individuals' emotional sensitivity to the environment, it would follow that individuals high on this personality

trait would be more likely to respond to provocation emotionally than would individuals who are low(Spector,

2011). Research shows that the role of self-referent speech in adult anxiety and depression has increasingly

received an empirical focus (Arnkoff & Glass, 1989; Kendall & Watson, 1989) and is an area in need of scrutiny

with children (Kendall & Ronan, 1990; Nelles & Barlow, 1988). Within negative affectivity, anxiety and

depression have been the principally studied components. The primary distinguishing feature noted between

anxiety and depression has been the relative absence of the capacity of depressed subjects to experience

positive affect(Ronan & Kendall & Rowe, 1994). While both anxious and depressed persons tend toward

experience that has a negative hue, anxious persons continue to be more capable of retaining interest in their

surroundings and experiencing pleasurable feelings(Ronan & Kendall & Rowe, 1994).


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(2) Traits of negative thinking

Personal character traits are the attitudes you have toward your activities and challenges. These traits may be

positive or negative, depending on the situation. Positive personal character traits lead to achievement, while

negative traits can lead to failure or frustration. Most of these traits are established through training from

parents, while others are gained from peer groups (Kurtus,2007) . Positive activating emotions enhance

creativity, whereas negative activating emotions tend to lower it (and deactivating emotions have no effect)

(Baas et al., 2008). Positive emotions seem to enhance performance on tasks that mostly require generation

skills (i.e., coming up with as many solutions as possible), whereas negative emotions may help with tasks that

mostly require evaluation skills (i.e., determining which ideas are best) (Davis, 2009). Negative emotions on

the other hand indicate the presence of danger and call forth systematic, detail-oriented thinking strategies

that may help with evaluating ideas. In keeping with this, Nettle (2006) proposed that the personality

dimension of neuroticism (which is highly correlated with the experience of negative emotions) may have as its

main adaptive benefit the enhanced detection of threatening stimuli. Negative people have less friends, less

money and less happiness, they also suffer from a greater range of physical and mental ailments than their

more positive contemporaries. This dangerous negativity can snow ball into a worse, self destructive state of

mind, one that can have far reaching implication on one's self and society. When you develop the attitude that

"the world is bad", you can give up both physically and mentally on life, even worse this "auto pilot" existence

can lead to intellectual apathy and social decline(http://www.articleflame.com/Art/1569/142/Negative-

Thinking.html).

(3) Factors influencing negative thinking

Negative affectivity (NA) is the predisposition to experience negative emotion across time and situations

(Watson & Clark, 1984). If we presume that NA reflects individuals' emotional sensitivity to the environment, it

would follow that individuals high on this personality trait would be more likely to respond to provocation

emotionally than would individuals who are low. Thus given the same perceived event, with the same appraisal

and attribution, those high versus low on NA would be likely to experience negative emotion and subsequent

counterproductive work behavior. Positive affect tends to increase risk-taking behavior, whereas negative

affect tends to promote risk aversion (Knutson and Greer 2008). Some studies have shown that some

demographics are more negative than other, some of these are locational.

Collaboration attitudes

Research shows that collaboration is voluntary (Friend & Cook, 1992), interactive (Keys & Green, 2005),

ongoing (Lawson, 2003), inclusive (Anfara, et al., 2008; Baker, et al., 2009), and requires commitment (Cahill

and Mitra, 2008; Rubin, 2002) to a common goal (Friend & Cook). Friend and Cook assert collaboration

is a means for solving problems and obtaining goals through a voluntary process whereby two or more

stakeholders come together as equally valued participants to work on a mutual goal.

The purposes of collaborating are many and varied, but concerns about learning through collaboration have

become increasingly prominent (Inkpen, 2000; Nooteboom, 2004). Much of the literature addresses attitudes

to learning in either competitive (Ingram, 2002; Inkpen and Beamish, 1997) or collaborative (Inkpen and Tsang,

2005; Smith and Powell, 2004) frames.

Attitudes have so far been described as though they operate at a macro-level, throughout the life of a

collaboration. Given the inherently dynamic nature of all aspects of collaboration (Ebers and Grandori, 1997;

Huxham and Vangen, 2000; Koka and Prescott, 2002), attitudes may also change over time at the macro level,

as, for example, individuals get to know each other, early successes lead to trust development, or changes of

personnel undermine it. Attitude refers to the positive or negative feelings derived from knowledge sharing.

RESEARCH METHODS

Research Design and research hypotheses

The goal of this study is to understand the styles and functions of positive and negative thinking with the intra-

personal and interpersonal relationship which significantly influences the collaborative attitudes in whole

career. Besides, this study also examined the in-depth on thinking styles scale development and on the


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complex relationship mechanism among thinking styles, life experience, and collaborative evironment. The

following hypotheses:

Fig. 1. Research Design

H1: college students’ “positive thinking ”and “negative thinking”is relevant.

H2: college students’ “positive , negative thinking ”and “collaboration attitudes”are relevant.

H3: college students’ “positive , negative thinking”would directly affect “collaboration attitudes”.

Instrument development

Data were collected as part of a larger investigation (see Ingram & Wisnicki, 1988, Hollon &Kendall, 1983, and

Jian Zhong Wang, 2001 ). The questionnaire consisted of three main domain , the positive thinking, negative

thinking, and collaboration attitude. In order to understand the relationship of the thinking and collaboration

attitude, this study explored the life experiences and personality characters. The Poitive Thinking

Questionnaire adopted from Ingram & Wisnicki’s research (1988). The 22-item positve thinking measures a

range of psychological symptoms, such as daily functioning, future expectations, self-evaluation, and other

evaluation , using a five-point response format, ranging from 1 (highly disagree) to 5 (highly agree). The

Negative Thinking questionnaire（Hollon &Kendall, 1983）with 25 items consisted of four constructive

domains, such as Negative Self-Concept and Negative Expectations, Giving Up/Helplessness, Personal

Maladjustment and desire for change, and low Self-Esteem, using the 5-point Likert’s scale(1=highly disagree to

5=highly agree). The collaboration Attitudes （Jian Zhong Wang, 2001）with 11 items measures of

collaborative cognition and partners’ attitudes.

Data collection and analysis

901 colleges and institutes students (549 female and 352 male) participated in this questionnaire survey at a

large, public and private university in the central Taiwan in this study. The goal of this questionnaire survey

was for colleges and institutes students to understand their life experiences that would lead to their thinking in

their collaboration attitudes. In accordance with the questionnaire survey, this study was random sampling

and the way of survey was indicated by class. The correlational analyses method and multiple regression

analyses method were used as well as SPSS18.0 to analyze the data.

Collaboration Attitudes

Positive Thinking� 1. future expectations 2. self-evaluation 3. daily functioning 4. other evaluation

Negative Thinking� 1. Negative Self-Concept and Negative Expectations 2. Giving Up/Helplessness 3. Personal Maladjustment and desire for change 4. low Self-Esteem


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RESULT

Sample’s demographic data

The demographic data collected in this study of college students are shown in table 1. One can find a detailed

description of the data in the work.

Table 1: Statistics of samples*

Variable Level N Percent (%)

Public 408 45.3 School

Private 493 54.7

First 280 31.1

Second 206 22.9

Third 251 27.9

Grade

Fourth 164 18.1

Male 352 39.1 Gender

Female 549 60.9

1 140 15.5

2 27 3.0

3 510 56.6

4 98 10.9

5 86 9.5

Department

6 40 4.4

*N=901

Measurement model

The reliabilities of the questionnaire are over the acceptable value of 0.7(the positive thinking：0.905, the

negative thinking ：0.968, and the collaboration attitudes：0.937) using Cronbach’s alpha. Therefore, the

reliability of each scale has commonly accepted range (Hair, Black, Babin, and Anderson, 2009). The results of

this analysis are presented in Table 2, 3. By using the factor analysis, a total of 30 items reduced 22 items that

are divided into four factors. The positive thinking consisted of 22 items for the four factors：daily functioning,

sels-evaluation, other evaluation, and future expectation. The negative thinking was developed through the

factor analysis from 30 items to 25 items. A total of 25 items for the four factors ：Negative Self-Concept and

Negative Expectations, Giving Up/Helplessness, Personal Maladjustment and desire for change, and low Self-

Esteem.

The collaboration attitudes consisted of 11 items. In this study, all the reliabilities reached the standard.

Table 2: Results of Positive Thinking

Constructs Factors Cronbach’s αααα

Daily fuctioning .850

Self-evaluation .719

Other evaluation .627

Positive thinking

Future expectation .819

.905


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Table 3: Results of Negative Thinking

Constructs Factors Cronbach’s αααα

Negative Self-Concept and

Negative Expectations

.922

Giving Up/Helplessness .920

Personal Maladjustment and

desire for change

.883

Negative thinking

.879

.968

Table 4: Results of Collaboration Attitudes

Construct Cronbach’s αααα

Collaboration Attitudes .937

Correlational analyses

This study adopted Pearson correlation analysis to verify the relationships between dimensions, and used

standardized coefficients to estimate correlation values between various dimensions. The positive thinking and

the collaboration attitudes showed the positive correlation (γ =.548, **

p < .001). The result of the relationship

showed college students have higher positive thinking that they showed their highly behaviors on the

collaboration work. Between the negative thinking and the collaboration attitudes, this study showed the

negative correlation(γ =-.385, **

p < .001). This result of the relationship showed the college students have

more negative thinkings whose behaviors expressed lower collaboration attitudes. However, the positive

thinking and negative thinking have the negative correlation(γ =-.549, **

p < .001).

Fig. 2 correlational analyses

Mulitple Regression Analyses

Due to the thinkings differences discussed above, multiple regression analyses using the general linear model

were conducted to determine the impact of the positive thinking variables and negative thinking on the

collaboration attitudes. In this study, using the partial linearity explained the each independent variable across

Positive Thinking

Negative Thinking

Collaboration Attitudes -.549***

.548***

-.385***


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all dependent variables, there was significant effect for each Beta factor of the dimension , Positive daily

functioning .218***

(t=5.538、p=.000), Positive self-evaluation .102**

(t=2.675、p=.008), Others evaluation of

self .168***

(t=4.362、p=.000), Positive future expectations .087*(t=2.272、p=.023). Negative Self-Concept and

Negative Expectations .148(t=2.869、p=.004), Giving Up/Helplessness .068(t=1.071、p=.284), Personal

Maladjustment and desire for change -.307***

(t=-5.190、p=.000), Low Self-Esteem -.046(t=-.921、p=.358).

Fig. 3 Multiple Regression

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Discussion

A positive significant relationship was found between psychological well-being and emphatic tendency. People

with emphatic tendencies have higher levels of psychological well-being(Acun-Kapikiran, 2011). Positive and

negative cognitive change may be examined as a function of varying psychotherapeutic interventions, as a

function of specific methods within an overall therapeutic intervention, in relation to other indices of

therapeutic improvement, or at varying times in the treatment sequence(Ingram & Wisnicki, 1988). In

addition, other research examined the relationship between optimism (Chang & Sanna, 2001; Daukantaite &

Bergman, 2005) and positive emotion (Vera et al., 2008) that are closely related with the focus on positive

information and psychological well-being.

Therefore, this study reveals that positive thinking affect college students’ cognition and emotions. People that

have positive thinking when they face the difficult things in a optimistic way. This study suggests that college

students have more positive thinking , they showed more positive behaviors such as close relationship and

actively attitudes on collaboration work.

If college students have been brought up in a happy and positive atmosphere, where people value success and

self-improvement, then it will be easier for them to think positively and expect success. If they have been

brought up under poor or difficult situations, they will probably go on expecting difficulties and failure(Sasson,

2011). If thinkings are negative, our lives and circumstances will probably mirror these thoughts. College

students have negative thinking who are afraid of meeting new people or having close relationships, they will

do everything to avoid people and relationships, and then complain that they are lonely and nobody loves

them. This study reveals that negative thinking not only affect on behaviors but also reveal their thoughts. In

this study, college students have negative thinking showed the least willings on the collaboration work.


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The present findings indicated that positive and negative perfectionism correlated differentially with different

components of subjective well-being. Specifically, positive perfectionism primarily affected life satisfaction and

positive affect whereas negative perfectionism primarily affected negative affect(Chan, 2007). In this study,

Positive and negative perfectionism were then explored in their relationships with students’ subjective well-

being defined by students’ report on life satisfaction and their experience of positive and negative affect.

Conclusion

Through exploring college students’ positive and negative thinking , this study examined eight factors affecting

collaboration attitudes, including “positive thinking for daily life”, “positive self-assessment”, “other self-

assessment” and “positive expectation for future” in positive thinking, as well as “Negative Self-Concept and

Negative Expectations”, “giving up /helplessness”, “Personal Maladjustment and desire for change” and “low

self-esteem” in negative thinking. With regard to the affecting effectiveness of these content dimensions, this

study finally obtained the following three conclusions:

(1) All these relationships prove that focus on positive thinking supports the impact of the college students on

between innate thinking and life experiences. These elements affect their thinking styles and collaboration

attitudes. With the positive thinking, the college students have actively behaviors and attitudes on the

collaboration work. They try to problem solving and get close to their partners with their collaboration

work.

(2) With the college students of negative thinking, they express the less life satisfied and hopelessness on their

daily life. In opposition, the college students have negative expectation on their collaboration attitudes.

They have negative emotions such as unhappy, low self- esteem and other negative characters. This

situation leads to the worse attitudes on their collaboration work.

(3) There exist significant relationships among positive thinking, collaboration attitudes and negative thinking,

reveal that the more the college students’ positive thinking, the better collaboration attitudes; the more

the college students’ negative thinking, the less collaboration attitudes.




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LEARNING ORGANIZATION DISCIPLINE IN IRANIAN HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM

Assist. Prof. Dr. Enayat Abbasi

Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, IRAN

[email protected]

Milad Taqipour


[email protected]

Assist. Prof. Dr. Homayon Farhadian


[email protected]

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate learning organization discipline, as proposed by Senge (1990), in

one of the leading state universities in Iran, Tarbiat Modares University (TMU). The research method was a

survey and descriptive- correlation techniques. The population consisted of all faculty members in the TMU (N=

513). Using Krejcie and Morgan Table, 220 faculty members selected as sample. Data collected using LOQS

developed by Park (2006), and Park and Rojewski (2006). The results of the research indicated only team

learning has less than moderate application as indicated by mean value (M= 2.97). The results of compare

means showed that there was no significant difference in the perceptions of academic members based on their

gender regarding to the application of five disciplines. Although, there was a significant difference in the

perception of academic staffs with different ranks, and teaching experiences regarding to the application of

personal mastery, and team learning and shared vision, respectively.

Key Words: Organizational learning, Learning organization, Higher education, Iran.

INTRODUCTION

In an ever-changing world, learning is considered as the only sustainable competitive advantage (De Gause,

1988) and is the key to survival and development for organizations. Therefore, the organizations that learn

faster and better than the others competitors are more successful. In the recent years, organizational learning

and learning organization are taking into consideration as new organizational paradigms and have had

considerable growth among industrial and educational organizations. In order to maintain in a competitive

edge, university as an organization must realize and respond to the changes. To achieve this, universities must

become a learning organization. The concept of learning organization focuses on learning as a tool, a lever, and

a philosophy for sustainable change and renovation in organizations in a fast changing world. Learning

organization provides opportunities and resources to balance the personal and professional growth needs of

employees and encourage them to use new skills in innovative ways (Khasawneh, 2010).

The concept of learning organization has attracted significant attention from both scholars and practitioners.

Senge (1990), Pedler et al. (1991), Watkins and Marsick (1993), and Marquardt (1996) have each provided

distinct contributions to the study of learning organization. Senge’s (1990) and Pedler et al. (1991) present

learning organization through a reflection of the actual understanding and/or achievement by practitioners

within organizations. In contrast, Marquardt’s (1996) approach is more applied, taking the form of how-to

guide than a new contribution to the theory, which is in line with Watkins and Marsick (1993), who are

concerned with the specifics of actions and behaviours than with concepts. Senge (1990) defined the learning

organization as one “ where people continuously expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire,

where new an expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where


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people are continually learning how to learn together”. Based on this definition, Senge (1990) proposed five

disciplines associated with a learning organization. These disciplines are personal mastery, mental models,

shared vision, team learning, and system thinking.

• Personal mastery is a discipline of “continually clarifying and deepening our personal vision, of focusing our

energies, of developing patience, and of seeing reality objectively” to achieve individual results. Individuals

may learn new skills and apply those skills on the job. As one master this discipline, one can see the

connection in the organization between individual learning and organizational learning to achieve success.

• Mental models are “deeply ingrained assumptions, generations, or even pictures and images that influence

how we understand the world and how we take action”. When establishing mental models, Senge

emphasized that “people need to maintain a balance between inquiry and advocacy, where people expose

their own thinking effectively and make that thinking open to the influence of others”. Mental models are

important to organizations because those individual differences can create disagreement in the workplace.

• Shared vision means that individual visions or goals are integrated into a shared and meaningful

organizational vision. All members of the organization must understand and contribute to the vision of the

organization. By working together to create the vision and then working to incorporate that vision into

each unit or part of the organization, we can create a focus that will guide all parts of the organization.

• Team learning is another key component of the learning organization, because teams are the fundamental

learning unit. Working as a team, members of the organization must learn to suspend assumptions about

how things are done and must act as colleagues, putting aside individual defensiveness to create an open

environment for dialog and discussion. Team learning consists of the capacity of team members to

“suspend assumptions and think together as a whole”. According to Senge (1990), “unless teams can learn,

the organization cannot learn”.

• System thinking is the fifth discipline, which integrates all the other four disciplines to examine and

improve the organization. System thinking is defined as the ability to see the big picture, to see the

interrelationships of a system, to move beyond a simple cause and effect approach to seeing the

continuous process. In system thinking, we move from seeing the individual parts of a system to

understanding that the system is the interactions of those parts. By looking at the system as a whole, we

can begin to see new opportunities for solving problems and for implementing change.

A significant number of scholars within the learning organization area consider Senge’s model to be the most

suitable framework for organizational development in business and educational organization (Jamali et al.,

2006; Smith, 2003; Hedjazi and Veisi, 2007; Abbasi, 2010; Khasawneh, 2010).

Based on the above, this study was based upon two research questions. 1) To what extent, as perceived by

faculty members, have the components (personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, team learning, and

system thinking) been practiced in the Tarbiat Modares University environment and 2) Whether or not there

were significant differences in the faculty members’ perceptions about the learning organization disciplines

based on their gender, academic rank, and years of teaching experience.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The research method was descriptive- correlation and it was carried out through a survey method. The target

population for this study was all faculty members at the Tarbiat Modares University for the academic year 2010

-11. A list of faculty members was obtained from the Registrar’s Office to determine the population frame for

the study after gaining permission to conduct the study on campus. According to the list, the target population

was 513 participants. Using Kerjcie and Morgan’s (1970) table and stratified random sampling, 220 faculty

members were selected as sample. Of those, 201 usable surveys were returned, yielding a response rate of

91.36%.

The Learning Organization Questionnaire for all Schools (LOQS), which developed by Park (2006) and Park and

Rojewski (2006) used to collect the data. This survey was designed to evaluate the extent to which the learning

organization disciplines, as proposed by Senge (1990), exist in a higher education environment as perceived by


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faculty members. The LOQS includes five sub-scales related to each learning organization discipline. The 35

items for all sub-scales were rated on a Likert-type scale: 1 “Strongly Disagree,” 2 “Disagree,” 3 “Neutral,” 4

“Agree,” and 5 “Strongly Agree.” These subscales were personal mastery (6 items), mental models (8 items),

shared vision (7 items), team learning (7 items), and systems thinking (7 items). Face and d content validity of

the questionnaire was determined by expert’s judgment. A pilot test was conducted to determine the reliability

of the questionnaire. Cronbachs’ Alpha coefficient was estimated from 0.79 to 0.86 with an overall internal

consistency value for 35 items equal to 0.87. The calculated coefficient Alpha reliability for the five sub-scales

was as follows: personal mastery (α=0.81), mental models (α=0.79), shared vision (α=0.79), team learning

(α=0.82), and systems thinking (α=0.86).

We contacted the faculty members either included in the sample in person or by telephone, explained the

nature and goals of the study, and assured confidentiality and anonymity. The participants were also informed

that the survey would take less than 15 minutes to complete. The faculty members who agreed to participate

in the study were given the survey and were requested to complete it within three weeks. At the end of the

three weeks, paper surveys were collected.

The SPSS statistical package version 18 was employed to carry out analyses. To answer the first research

question, which is related to the extent of application of the five learning organization disciplines in the Tarbiat

Modares University environment as perceived by faculty members, descriptive statistics were used to compute

means and standard deviations for variables and items of the five sub-scales of the learning organization

disciplines. To determine the level of participants’ responses to each item based on the five point Likert-type

scale, we followed these classifications (Khasawneh et al. 2007): 1–1.99: low; 2–2.99: low-to moderate; 3–3.99:

moderate-to-high; 4–5: high-to-very high.

To answer the second research question, which is related to the significant differences in the perceptions of

faculty members about the learning organization disciplines, based on demographic characteristics of faculty

members including gender, academic rank, and years of teaching experience, independent t-tests and analysis

of variance (ANOVA) were used.

4–5: -to-v

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The sample distribution was 168 males (83.6%) and 33 females (16.4%). There were 39 (19.4%) instructors, 63

(31.3%) assistant professors, 61 (30.3%) associate professors, and 38 (18.9%) professors. Of the 201

respondents, 58 (28.2%) had fewer than 5 years teaching experience, 36 (17.9%) had between 5 and 10 years

of teaching experience, 64 (31.8%) had between 12 and 17 years, and 8 (21.4%) had more than 18 years

teaching experience.

The Learning Organization Disciplines

The first research question was to determine the extent, as perceived by faculty members, to which the

learning organization disciplines have been practiced in the Tarbiat Modares University environment. Means

and standard deviations were used to answer this question. Starting with the means, Table 1 shows that the

lowest mean for the learning organization disciplines is 2.97 for team learning and the highest mean is 3.54 for

“personal mastery”. The overall mean score for all disciplines is 3.21. Based on the Khasawneh et al. (2007)

classification, this result indicated that university faculty members perceived the practice of the learning

organization disciplines as moderate-to high. Each discipline is discussed in the following:

Table 1: Means and standard deviations for the learning organization disciplines

Dimension Means Standard deviations

Personal Mastery 3.54 0.71

Mental Models 3.20 0.66

Shared Vision 3.10 0.73

Team Learning 2.97 0.77


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Systems Thinking

Average

3.28

3.21

0.93

0.65

Discipline 1, Personal Mastery: For the first discipline, the mean values and standard deviations for responses

are presented in Table 2. The overall mean score for all items was 3.54, indicating moderate-to-high application

of this discipline in the university environment. While Item 4 had the highest mean value (3.63), item 3 had the

lowest mean value (3.30).

Table 2: Means and standard deviations for the items of the personal mastery discipline

Items Mean Std.

Deviation

1. Our faculty members at the university engage in continuous

learning and reflection activities

to achieve personal growth.

3.59 1.10

2. Our faculty members continually work to clarify their professional

growth.

3.61 0.98

3. Our faculty members view the current reality more clearly in terms

of targeting their career goals.

3.30 0.93

4. Our faculty members have learning opportunities in their teaching

and other professional work.

3.63 0.90

5. At the university, our faculty members continually learn to bridge

the gap between their current reality and the desired future.

3.62 1.03

6. Our faculty members strive to supplement their lack of skills and

knowledge in their teaching and subject area.

3.53 0.99

Average 3.54 0.71

Discipline 2, Mental Models: For the second learning organization discipline, mental models, the overall rating

of the eight items was 3.20, indicating moderate-to-high perception of this discipline. As shown in Table 3, the

highest mean value was for item 3 (3.55), and the lowest mean value was for item 5 (2.62).

Table3: Means and standard deviations for the items of the mental model discipline

Items Mean Std.

Deviation

1. Our faculty members often reflect on assumptions of university

activities with each other to ensure they are in line with educational

principles.

3.13 0.96

2. Our faculty members inquire about the appropriateness of their

own course or program with respect to the goals of university.

3.13 0.97

3. Our faculty members learn and change as a result of students’

reactions during teaching.

3.55 1.11

4. Our faculty members change their own pattern or unique teaching

style to implement new approaches.

3.31 1.07

5. Our faculty members actively explore their assumptions and ideas

with each other about educational practices.

2.62 1.04

6. Our faculty members often use the significant events of classrooms

to think about their beliefs of education and educational practices.

3.29 1.09

7. Our faculty members are very aware of how their beliefs and

assumptions affect their educational practices.

3.23 1.00

8. Our faculty members can effectively explain their assumptions

underlying their reasoning.

3.31 0.99


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Average 3.20 0.66

Discipline 3, Shared Vision: With regard to the third learning organization discipline, shared vision, the rating of

the seven items was 3.10, indicating moderate-to-high perception of this discipline in the university

environment. As shown in Table 4, the highest mean value was for item 1 (3.37) while item 6 had the lowest

mean value (2.94).

Table 4: Means and standard deviations for the items of the shared vision discipline

Items Mean Std.

Deviation

1. Our faculty members and staff work to build the university’s vision

and goals.

3.37 1.10

2. Our faculty members develop their personal goals to align with the

whole university vision or goals.

2.99 1.11

3. Our faculty members align personal class or teaching goals with the

university vision or goals.

3.02 1.10

4. Our academics feel comfortable in sharing ideas with other

teachers about the university vision.

3.14 1.11

5. Our faculty members are committed to a shared vision for the

future of our university.

3.08 1.09

6. Our faculty members agree on principles necessary to achieve ideal

vision.

2.94 1.06

7. When changing educational practices, our faculty members

consider the impact on the university vision and goals.

3.16 1.01

Average 3.10 0.73

Discipline 4, Team Learning: Participants responded to seven items within the category of team learning among

faculty members. Table 5 displays the mean values and standard deviations for their ratings of these items. The

overall mean value for all items was 2.97, indicating low- to moderate application of this discipline in the

university environment. While item 6 had the highest mean value (3.40), item 1 had the lowest mean value

(2.70).

Table 5: Means and standard deviations for the items of the team learning discipline

Items Mean Std.

Deviation

1. Our faculty members feel free to ask questions of other teachers or

staff regardless of gender, age, and professional status at the university.

2.70 1.13

2. In our university, group or team activities are used in faculty

professional development activities.

2.82 1.08

3. Our faculty members are treated equally in team or committee

activities.

2.82 1.13

4. Our faculty members share information across course subjects with

other colleagues.

2.84 1.06

5. Our faculty members believe that sharing information or

knowledge through team activities is useful for complex university

problems.

3.30 1.19

6. Our faculty members respect other colleagues’ ideas and opinions

by viewing them from their colleagues’ perspective.

3.40 1.01

7. Our faculty members participate in open and honest conversations

to share their educational best practices.

2.88 1.09


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Average 2.97 0.77

Discipline5, Systems Thinking: For the fifth learning organization discipline, systems thinking in the work

environment, there were seven items. The mean values and standard deviations for faculty members’

responses are presented in Table 6. The overall mean score for all items was 3.28, indicating moderate-to high

agreement that the systems thinking discipline was practiced in the university environment. While item 4 had

the highest mean values (3.46), item 3 had the lowest mean value (2.97).

Table 6: Means and standard deviations for the items of the systems thinking discipline

Items Mean Std.

Deviation

1. When developing lesson plans, our faculty members consider the

different needs and abilities of students.

3.18 1.18

2. When changing educational practices, our faculty members

consider the impact on their results to the inside and outside of

university.

3.10 0.96

3. When dealing with a student discipline problem, our faculty

members consider the impact on other faculties.

2.97 0.91

4. At the university, our faculty members regard educational issues as

a continual process rather than with a snapshot or event.

3.46 0.92

5. Our faculty members attentively link the current schooling with

students’ career pathways.

3.25 0.99

6. When changing and creating university rules, consistency with the

policy of the government and educational act is considered.

3.45 0.87

7. Our faculty members consider the effect on students when dealing

with university challenge.

3.29 0.95

Average 3.28 0.93

Learning Organization Disciplines and Demographics

The second research question was to determine whether or not there were significant differences in the faculty

members’ perceptions about the learning organization disciplines based on gender, academic rank, and years

of teaching experience.

A T-Test for independent samples was used to examine the difference between male and female faculty

members. However, one-way analysis of variance was used to determine whether the variations of the four

level groups of academic rank and years of teaching experience were equal or significantly different.

Table 7 shows that there were no significant differences between the perceptions of male and female faculty

members about the learning organization disciplines.

Table 7: The differences between male and female academics

Dimensions Gender n Means Std.

Deviations

t p

Team Learning M 168 3.01 .79 1.661 .094

F 33 2.76 .65

Shared Vision M 168 3.17 .71 .934 3.222

F 33 2.74 .68


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Mental

Models

M 168 3.21 .69 .124 -.065

F 33 3.20 .47

Systems

Thinking

M 168 3.30 1.00 .545 .062

F 33 3.20 .49

Personal

Mastery

M 168 3.56 .73 .109 .525

F 33 3.48 .58

Utilizing one-way analysis of variance, as illustrated in Table 8, there were no significant differences in the

perceptions of the four groups of academic rank (instructor, assistant professor, associate professor and

professor), except about personal mastery discipline.

Table 8: The differences among the four level groups of academic rank

Dimension Academic

rank

n Mean Sum of

squares

df F p

Team

Learning

Instructor 29 3.07 Between

Groups

.916 3 .50 .680

Assistant

Professor

70 2.92 Within

Groups

119.19 197

Associate

Professor

64 3.05 Total 120.10 200

Professor 38 2.89

Shared

Vision


Groups

1.558 3 .92 .407

Assistant

Professor

70 2.99 Within

Groups

105.30 197

Associate

Professor

64 3.19 Total 106.85 200

Professor 38 3.17

Mental

Models


Groups

1.55 3 1.188 .316

Assistant

Professor

70 3.14 Within

Groups

86.21 197

Associate

Professor

64 3.19 Total 87.77 200

Professor 38 3.16

Systems

Thinking


Groups

1.01 3 .37 .768

Assistant

Professor

70 3.28 Within

Groups

175.41 197


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Associate

Professor

64 3.35 Total 176.42 200

Professor 38 3.29

Personal

Mastery


Groups

8.280 3 5.79 .001*

*

Assistant

Professor

70 3.35 Within

Groups

93.83 197

Associate

Professor

64 3.82 Total 102.11 200

Professor

38

3.40

**p ≤0.001

Table 9 shows that there were significant differences for 3 disciplines (team learning, shared vision and

personal mastery) among the four teaching experience level groups (below 5 years, 5–11 years, 12–17 years,

and 18 years and above).

Table 9: The differences among the four teaching experience level groups

Mean Experience

(year)

n Mean Sum of

squares

df F p

Team

Learning

<5 58 2.97 Between

Groups

6.688 3 3.872 .010∗

5–11 36 2.82 Within

Groups

113.419 197

12–17 64 3.20 Total 120.107 200

>18 43 2.74

Shared

Vision

<5 58 3.00 Between

Groups

5.102 3 3.292 .022∗∗

5–11 36 3.03 Within

Groups

101.756 197

12–17 64 3.33 Total 106.858 200

>18 43 2.96

Mental

Models

<5 58 3.06 Between

Groups

2.261 3 1.736 .161

5–11 36 3.15 Within

Groups

85.516 197

12–17 64 3.32 Total 87.777 200

>18 43 3.24

Systems

Thinking

<5 58 3.32 Between

Groups

4.399 3 1.679 .173

5–11 36 2.97 Within

Groups

172.029 197

12–17 64 3.38 Total 176.428 200

>18 43 3.34

Personal

Mastery

<5 58 3.33 Between

Groups

10.801 3 7.767 .001∗∗∗

5–11 36 3.30 Within

Groups

91.313 197


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12–17 64 3.85 Total 102.114 200

>18 43 3.58

*p ≤0.01, **p ≤0.05, ***p ≤0.001

DISCUSSION

The faculty members in this particular university perceived moderate-to-high practice of the four learning

organization disciplines (personal mastery, mental models, share vision, and system thinking) and low- to

moderate practice of the team learning discipline.

With regard to the personal mastery discipline, faculty members indicated that they engage in continuous

learning opportunities to achieve personal and professional growth and to decrease the gap between their

current and desirable situation. In addition, they use the teaching and other educational and research activities

as an opportunity for learning. This result is in line with the results of Smith (2003) and Khasawneh (2010)

studies.

Regarding to mental models discipline, respondents indicated that there is congruence between the individual

and university goals, they collaborate with each other for discovering new ideas and assumptions, and they are

aware of the impact of their believes and assumptions on their educational activities. This result is consistent

with previous researches (Khasawneh, 2010; Hejazi and Veisi, 2007).

With regard to the shared vision, the faculty members at Tarbiat Modares University including managers and

other academic staffs are committed to a shared vision for the future of the institution, there is congruence

between educational and research goals of the university. In addition, the academic members are committed

to the society needs and national development programs. This result is not in line with the results of other

studies (Zali et al., 2008; Abbasi, 2010), assessing organizational learning in Tehran University, and is in line with

Khasawneh’s (2010) results in Hashemite University in Jordan and Reece’s (2004) results in Murdoch University

in Australia.

Despite the other disciplines, university faculty members perceived the practice of team learning as low- to

moderate. It seems that faculty does not frequently work on joint projects with other faculty members and

does not feel free to ask questions of other teachers or staff regardless of gender, age, and professional status

at the university. Moreover, they do not share information with colleagues to solve complex university

problems, respect other colleagues’ ideas and opinions, and provide open and honest feedback to one another.

This result is not consisted with previous researches (Smith, 2003; Khasawneh, 2010).

The University environment was also characterized as promoting systems thinking among its members. To

elaborate, faculty members regard educational issues as a continual process rather than with a snapshot or

event, and when changing and creating university rules, consistency with the policy of the government and

educational act are considered. These results are consistent with the views of Senge (1990) and Marquardt

(2002).

Another strand of results regarding demographic variables indicated that no significant differences exist in the

perceptions of faculty members about the five learning organization disciplines based on gender. This result

indicated that both women and men have the similar perception about applying the five disciplines in their

university.

The results also indicated that faculty members, based on their rank, show significant differences in their

perceptions regarding to the personal mastery discipline. According to the mean value, associate professors

have the highest and instructors have the lowest mean. It can be said that associate professors in Tarbiat


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Modares University, based on their experiences in teaching and research, are more motivated to reach to the

high level (becoming Professor). Vice versa, the instructors have little motivation to improve themselves.

Other results show, that significant differences exist among the three disciplines (personal mastery, shared

vision and team learning) with respect to the teaching experience level, in favor of faculty members with 12-17

years of teaching experience. It seemed that most of the faculty members with 12-17 years teaching

experience are associate professors or professors, so as it mentioned above, these faculty members are

motivated to improving their professional situation (personal mastery). In addition, because of the more

familiarity with the university it seemed that they have common vision with their colleagues and are

committed to university goals (shared vision) and doing their work in groups (team learning).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the stated results, this is reasonable given the fact that the Tarbiat Modares University is striving to

be a learning organization. As indicated earlier, faculty members are committed to life-long learning by

updating their skills for personal and professional growth. They challenge their values and assumptions about

educational practices; align their vision and goals with the vision and goals of the university and view their

actions from a systems perspective.

However, there is not environment promoting teamwork for sharing faculty members their experiences with

other colleagues. From the practical standpoint, faculty members at Iranian universities should be encouraged

to do interdisciplinary teaching and research. Establishment the related interdisciplinary courses is one of the

important ways for doing joint teaching and research. In addition, supporting, financially and emotionally, and

priority to the team works encourage the faculty members to participate in team activities.

This research, regarding to insufficient of experiential researches in the field of learning organization in higher

education institutes of Iran, pave the way for future researches. Future research could be conducted on the

perceptions about learning organization disciplines in other institutions with the same or different disciplines

or samples.




REFERENCES

Abbasi, E. (2010). Designing and explaining agricultural learning university model. Unpublished doctoral

dissertation, University of Tehran.

De Geus, A. P. (1988). Planning as learning. Harvard business review, 69 (2), 70-74.

Hejazi, Y. & Veisi, H. (2007). Determining components of organizational learning in institutes of agricultural

higher education. Quarterly journal of research and planning in higher education, No. 46, 45-65.

Jamali, D., Khoury, G., & Sahyoun, H. (2006). From bureaucratic organizations to learning organizations: an

evolutionary roadmap. The Learning Organization, 13 (4), 337-52.

Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and

Psychological Measurement, 30, 607-610.

Khasawneh, S., Khasawneh, L., Haliat, S., & Jawarneh, M. (2007). University students’ readiness for the national

workforce: A study of vocational identity and career decision- making. Mediterranean Journal of Educational

Studies, 12 (1), 27-42.


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Khasawneh, S. (2010). Learning organization disciplines in higher education institutions: An approach to human

resource development in Jordan. Innovative higher education, doi 10.1007/s10755-010-9170-8.

Marquardt, M. J. (1996). Building the Learning Organization. McGraw-Hill, New York: NY.

Park, J. H. (2006). Measurement and validation of Senge’s learning organization model in Korean vocational

high schools. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, the University of Georgia.

Park, J. H., & Rojewski, J. W. (2006). The learning organization model across vocational and academic teacher

groups. Career and Technical Education Research, 31 (1), 33-34.

Pedler, M., Burgoyne, J. and Boydell, T. (1991). The Learning Company: A Strategy for Sustainable

Development. McGraw-Hill, London.

Reece, D.P. (2004). Universities as learning organization: How Australian Universities become learning

organizations? PhD dissertation, Murdoch University, Australia.

Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline. New York, NY: Doubleday.

Smith, H. B. (2003). The university as a learning organization: Developing a conceptual model. PhD dissertation,

Montana State University: Bozeman, Montana.

Watkins, K. E., & Marsick, V. J. (1993). Sculpting the learning organization: The art and science of systematic

change. San Francisco: CA: Jossey-Bass.

Zali, M. R., Razavi, S. M., & Fremerey M. (2008). Assessment organizational learning at Tehran University,

survey of member faculty and managers, unpublished.


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CLASSROOM INTERACTION VIA SYNCHRONOUS TECHNOLOGY ENHANCED TASKS

Res. Assist. Zeynep Yaprak

Dicle University

The Faculty of Education

Department of Foreign Language

Diyarbakir, TURKEY

Abstract

The issue of adopting of cutting-edge technologies in ELT classroom has expanded rapidly over the last few

years. However, increasing oral proficiency still remains as a serious shortcoming in the field of applied

linguistics. This study attempts to demonstrate the exploitation of synchronous technologies such as Web

messengers (Skype, Messenger, Gtalk etc.) to design interactive tasks can promote language socialization,

collaboration, and more meaningful communication in positive affective language learning environments. Put

an emphasis on learning to interact through completing a computer assisted task, namely, achieving a shared

goal, has not only improved the speaking skills by providing natural interdependence between the learners but

also maximized individual accountability with learner-centered approach. In the first part of the present study,

participants were asked to complete a questionnaire in order to find out their self-assessment of target

language proficiency. Then, randomly chosen sample pairs were assigned to work on a computer assisted task

through interacting via messenger. Lastly, for data analysis, transcription, and screen shots Camtasia Studio,

screen video capture software, and Atlas.ti were used.

Key Words: Synchronous & Asynchronous Interaction, Collaboration, TBLL (Task-based Language Learning),

CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning).

LITERATURE REVIEW

Language Collaboration& Socialization

‘A more practiced eye,

A more receptive ear,

A more fluent tongue,

A more involved heart,

A more responsive mind’

(Oxford, 1990: ix)

From the collaborative-social perspective, language learning context needs to support linguistic and social

interdependence with various tasks between learners in order to maintain active language use. In this sense,

while learners collaborate to perform their tasks through sharing resources, they also take part in the functions

of language socialization like ‘thinking, feeling, and acting’, and thereby they ‘internalize and gain competence’.

Specifically, in a collaborative atmosphere, language use serves both as an aim and medium of socialization;

that is to say, learners are socialized by means of language use and also socialize to use language (Ochs, 1986:

2-3). In parallel with this respect, Norton (2000: 132) disfavors language learning’s being defined, in an

unsophisticated manner, as ‘simply a skill’ rather than ‘a complex social practice’ which turns blind eye to the

‘identities’ of its learners. In terms of framing a theoretical model that forms the basis for socialization in

language learning, context primarily needs to provide interaction between linguistic and values of that society.

Therefore, while being exposed to the structural or lexical input, learners also need to bring the realities of

their life styles or immediate environment to the context. This not only gives way to the transmission of

linguistic knowledge; but also adds some flexibility to the learning process from the points of need analysis,

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Considering language education from the point of classroom interaction, Tsui (2001: 121) defines the

interactional chain as ‘modified input’ or in accordance with Krashen (1985) theory as ‘comprehensible input’,

‘output’, and ‘interaction’. In this interaction model, input refers to the linguistic data fed into the

communication process with modification devices like ‘repetition, exaggerated intonation, use of simple and

short sentences’ which maximizes the comprehension degree of message transmission. On the other hand,

output corresponds to the ‘language produced in reply to input’. Based on interactional hypotheses, Stephen

Krashen (1985) indicates that acquisition of the target language can be achieved by being exposed to

comprehensible input. Simply put, interaction initiated with simple syntax and focus on key words may

facilitate the acquisition process. In this aspect, as teachers generally take up the initiator role in classroom

interaction, they take the most responsibility. During this ‘interactional architecture of language classrooms’

(Seedhouse 2004), teachers usually initiate the interaction with knowledge- check questions; and in turn, they

try to get answers from the learners. In accordance with the given answers, they provide their feedbacks.

Because of its evaluative mode, this interaction cycle hinders learner linguistic participation; namely, output.

On the other hand, scholars (e.g., Swain 1995) who advocate the Output Hypothesis considering foreigner talk

(interaction between native and non-native speaker) stress that language output built by learners’ active

participatin in dealing with communication breakdowns can be more conducive to language acquisition. During

the interaction with high degree of communicativeness to overcome these breakdowns, interlocutors take

action such as modifying structure, using different words, and repeating the message. As they are aimed at

achieving the comprehensibility of the message, these moves are defined as ‘negotiation of meaning’ (Pica,

1994). In this process, while speakers are trying to reach an agreement through ‘modifying and restructuring

the interaction’ (Pica, Young and Doughty 1987; Allwright 2000), they automatically scaffold their linguistic

output and have longer participation. With respect to the effect of negation of meaning on input and output,

Krashen (1982: 60) stated that “The more you talk, the more people will talk to you. Actual speaking on the

part of the language acquirer will thus affect the quantity of the input people direct at you”. In authentic

communication, achieving a clear understanding between the speakers can promote longer conversion or

generate new topic in accordance with the produced outputs.

Computer Mediated Interaction through Task- Based Approach

Exploiting networked computers in language teaching plays an important role in gaining learners new

perspective about having interaction on digital platform. Regarding occurring in real time or in accordance with

learners’ own agenda, interaction can be divided into two main types as ‘synchronous’ or ‘asynchronous’

respectively. With the synchronous mode learners can experience ‘technostress’ due to the necessity of

providing an ‘immediate response’. However, on the other point, they do not deal with time and place limits

factors. While synchronous form of interaction share some similarities with the face-to-face mode in terms of

providing input, giving feedback, and producing output, still it is more encouraging in relation to promoting

negation of meaning and thereby, the use of communicative strategies due to its role of providing speakers

with privacy in collaboration. That is to say, with more personal space while using their own computers,

interlocutors are less affected with the negative aspects of language ego; namely, identity.

In order to exploit this live connection between the speakers at utmost level from interaction perspective,

learning context or tasks need to be designed accordingly to promote ‘performance that [learners] typically

cannot execute alone (Lee, 2002). Language task which engages all parties with high degree of

communicativeness and promises technological appropriateness should pass the quality evaluation. As a

subpart of quality evaluation, to base the content (Bradin, 1999) on SLA theories; in other words, gain it a

linguistic value has a great significance.

Communication Strategies (CSs)

The main goal of foreign language teaching is to develop learners’ communicative competence through giving

prominence not only to the meaning and also to the form. In this respect, the scrutiny of classroom interaction

and the mechanisms that learners employ in order to solve communication problems have become to an

important aspect in language classrooms and researches. From this perspective, Tarone (1977:195) defines

communication strategies as a ‘mutual attempt’ done by the speakers to handle with ‘the crisis which occurs

when language structures are inadequate to convey’ the message. Emerged in 70s as a new notion in applied

linguistic field, communicative strategies have played a crucial in terms of bringing a new viewpoint; learner


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perspective to the classroom interaction. CSs studies revealed two underlying defining criteria; namely,

problem-orientedness and consciousness (Dornyei& Scott 1977). That is to say, CSs are seen as the language

devices employed by the interlocutors in order to solve communication problems. As a second criterion

consciousness including the senses intentionality, attention, awareness, and control (Schmidt 1994), strategies

are used by the learners consciously while reaching the communicative goal. For the conceptualization and

comprehensive classification CSs can be categorized under three main types as reduction (avoidance),

compensatory (achievement), and interactional.

Figure 1: Taxonomy of Communication Strategies Based on Dornyei & Scott 1995a, 1995b, Færch and Kasper

1983; Tarone 1977

Reduction (Avoidance) Strategies: Adapting the message through changing, reducing, or abandoning the topic.

• Message Abandonment

• Message Reduction

• Message Replacement

Compensatory (Achievement): Changing the concept to be expressed with the use of available linguistic store.

• Circumlocution: Giving example or describing the object or action.

• Approximation: Using a single alternative lexical item.

• Word-coinage: Creating a non-existing L2 word by applying a supposed L2 rule to an existing L2 word.

• Literal translation: Translating literally a lexical item from L1/L3 to L2.

• Code switching: Including L1/L3 words with L1/L3 pronunciation in L2 speech.

Interactional Strategies: Attaining a ‘communicative goal’ through negotiating the meaning (Tarone 1980:420).

• Other-repetition: Repeating something the interlocutor said to gain time.

• Direct appeal for help: Turning to the interlocutor for assistance by asking an explicit question concerning

a gap in one’s L2 knowledge

• Asking for repetition: Requesting repetition when not hearing or understanding something properly.

• Asking for clarification: Requesting explanation of an unfamiliar meaning structure

• Asking for confirmation: Requesting confirmation that one heard or understood something correctly.

METHODOLOGY

Participants and Setting

The participants are student teachers majoring in English Language Teaching at Dicle University, in Diyarbakır.

The students are all Turkish and aged between 18 and 21. In order to have a starting point for this study and

have a good understanding related to the participants’ profile, 65 students(Boys+ Girls) were asked to

complete a survey questionnaire included sections; namely, background knowledge (age& gender) and prior

language experiences. For the application stage; task completion, 8 participants were randomly chosen and

divided into 4 groups as a pair. Participants were mostly noted to have teacher-directed language education

background, which puts the emphasis on the teacher initiated and dominated interaction as well the study of

language itself rather than student-student interaction and interactive use of language. Therefore, for the

elimination of the negative effects that could be caused by the novelty of CMI and online task, participants

were fully informed about the computer applications, the process, and task goals.


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PROCEDURE & METHODS

This study has been shaped around the grounded theory (GT) which gained a new perspective to the research

in social sciences (Glaser& Holton 2004). In contrast with the traditional research which firstly determines

research questions or hypothesis and analysis the collected data in accordance with these questions, this

method is based on ‘logico-deductive theory’ (Glaser & Strauss, 1967); expressively, it generates its theory

from the data. For this research also, rather than beginning with research questions, first of all tasks were

designed in accordance with the criteria of quality evaluation in order to achieve high degree of

appropriateness and communicativeness through task-based online learning. As a next step, data was collected

through conducting survey questionnaire and an online interactive task. From these collected quantitative and

qualitative data, some key points were searched and categorized under similar codes. In line with these codes,

hypothesis emerged and relative literature was reviewed to base the findings on theoretical framework.

Taking grounded theory as a base, in the task, stage participants were divided into 4 groups of two with each

student accessing one computer. Each pair was assigned to the role of being organizers of ‘Turkish Night’ in

abroad. As a product, they were asked to prepare a three leaf brochure containing information and pictures

about the night. The following template was designed to facilitate the process and to get the participants’

attention mostly to the interaction rather than technological procedures.

Figure 2: Brochure Template

In order to capture all screen movements in real time to visualize the process, Camtasia Studio which doesn’t

cause any disruption while studying on the computer, was used.


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Figure 3: Camtasia Studio Screen Recorder

For the systematic classification and arrangement of the data rooted in the participants’ interaction, a number

of matrixes, schemes, and taxonomies were exploited or adapted from the literature.

Data Analysis

A comprehensive construction for a detailed analysis of context and learning process, a number of quantitative

and qualitative methods were used such as frequency, pattern, and conversational analyses. In order to map

and induce the linguistic and affective aspects grounded in the collected data, the Grounded Theory (GT) was

put into action. The analysis of the recordings and their conversational analysis let the critical moments to be

coded around the emerged themes. In this respect, conversational analysis also allowed for the interpretation

of the participants’ social performance through the analysis of linguistic component. During the generation of

hypotheses from the interactional data, Atlas.ti , a computer software facilitating the systematic analysis of

data through letting the user code the material including text, audio, and video.

Figure 4: Data Analysis: Atlas.ti


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Coding the qualitative data let to categorize the learning outcomes into theme of communication strategies

employed by the participants during the online task completion. In accordance with the Grounded Theory (GT),

after the analysis of the data, literature was reviewed to conduct a more detailed analysis around the emerged

theme. At the end of this in depth scrutiny, communication strategies, were grouped under 13 strategies as

(1)Message Abandonment; (2) Message Reduction; (3) Message Replacement; (4)Circumlocution;

(5)Approximation; (6)Word-coinage; (7)Literal translation; (8)Code switching; (9)Other-repetition; (10)Direct

appeal for help; (11)Asking for repetition; (12)Asking for clarification; (13)Asking for confirmation.

RESULTS&DISCUSSION

In terms of raising learners’ self-awareness of own language competence and empower them to take the

responsibility of diagnosing their language gaps, and thereby improve themselves, participants were asked to

reflect on target language proficiency. As shown in Table 1, among all four skills participants (boy& girls) mostly

state that they have considerably low speaking which they need to improve in order to attain high English

proficiency. Taking this result as a departing point, this study put the emphasis on the biggest problem of EFL

classrooms; communication.

Table 1: Participants Self-Evaluation

Teacher & Learner Talk

As stated by Cazden (1986: 432), in terms of classroom interaction, communication can be seen as a

‘problematic medium’. As a social and linguistic entity, classroom needs to be addressed as a setting formed in

cooperation with its members (Seedhouse 1996), and thereby, this problematic medium should be taken into

consideration not only from teacher but also from learner perspective. In this respect, concerning the learner

active participation and output, in traditional learning& teaching context, due to the some aspects below,

language teachers mostly obstruct learning opportunities and minimize the learners’ language outputs (Walsh

2002):

• Teachers largely control the topic of discussion;

• Teachers often control both content and procedure;

• Teachers usually control who may participate and when;

• Role relationships between teachers and learners are unequal;

• Teachers talk most of the time;

• Teachers ask questions (to which they know the answers) most of the time


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Table 2: The Quantity of Teacher& Learner Talk Time Recorded in Two Settings

Based on the recoded talk time of teacher and learners, selected randomly for this stage and the task stage it

can be stated that in traditional setting learners’ linguistic contributions were mostly initiated by their teachers.

On the other hand, in new learning setting they took that responsibility and they also took the role of

sustaining the continuity of interaction throughout the task. In the first setting, teacher talk time

was noted as 1503 seconds of all recorded 2400 seconds of actual talking time, which corresponds to 62.6 % of

classroom interaction. In the new learning setting, it was only recorded as 45 seconds which is about 4.1% of all

actual talking time of one pair work.

Table 3: Learner Output In Two Settings

Randomly Selected

Learners

Traditional Learning Context

(Talking Time in Seconds)

New Learning Context

(Talking Time in Seconds)

L1 22 460

L2 105 637

L3 198 760

L4 207 1081

L5 90 569

To summarize the findings, in traditional setting learner language outputs were most often obstructed by

excessive teacher talk through the mode of responding to teacher questions, in the new learning one, on the

other hand, learners displayed longer and meaningful language output not only in the mode of responding to

their peers’ questions but also in the mode of initiating questions and giving their opinions.

Communication Strategies Occurred During the Online Task-Based Activity

With the recognition of the gap between their linguistic outputs, participants were observed and recorded to

use a number of CSs in order to ‘make up for their L2 deficiencies’ (Dornyei& Scott 1997). These exploited CSs

accepted as ‘potentially conscious plans’ (Færch&Kasper, 1983: 36) for handling language difficulties and in

general communication breakdowns were classified (Dornyei& Scott 1995a; Færch&Kasper, 1983; Tarone,

1977; Váradi,1980) in accordance with the collected chat scripts.


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Table 4: Distribution of Strategies Used by the Participants

With respect to the participants’ use of communication-management devices, scripts put forward that learners

mostly applied compensatory (achievement 31.4%) and interactional strategies (60.1%) rather than the

reduction (avoidance 8.3%) ones. This shows that sharing the same goal; that is to achieve healthy interaction

in order to complete the assigned task fostered linguistic action and also risks between the interlocutors.

Instead of leaving the message unfinished or wasting time with the unrelated topics, learners took more active

role and paid more effort to handle with the communication breakdowns and to sustain the continuity of the

interaction.

Table 5: Reduction (Avoidance) Strategies

As an avoidance strategy, learners chose to reduce the points challenging due to the lack of some linguistic

elements.

Excerpt 1 #Message Reduction: Students are discussing about the event schedule for the night and they are

trying to find out what they can put on the schedule right after the meal. S1 (Student 1) thinks that theatre

show and dancing can be an alternative, on the other hand, S2 experiences some linguistic difficulties while


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explaining the point that theatre show following the meal may make people sleepy. Thus, S2 reduces the topic

with the words available in her language store.

S1: Maybe…I think we can add theater… show.

S2: Theater show?... Dancing…dance?

S1: Maybe the other hour dance is suitable.

S2: After the meal people sleep…they see…and watch theatre …dancing…

S1: OK...dancing…

S2: Type of dances?

Table 6: Use of Compensatory (Achievement) Strategies

In relation to compensatory strategies, the results suggest that learners use a wide range of strategies in order

to handle with the communication problems and adjust the communication accordingly. Through exemplifying

the object or action (circumlocution), using alternative lexical items to convey the intended message

(approximation), and manipulating their linguistic knowledge either by morphological creativity or transfer

(word-coinage, literal translation, and code-switching), participants tried to overcome the limitations in their

language production.

Excerpt 3 # Circumlocution (Paraphrase): S1 wants to determine the name of the people that they are going to

write on the brochure as organizers. However, because of S2’ s linguistic limitations related to the word of

‘organizer’, S1 paraphrases the word through giving its definition.

S1: What do you think about the name of the organizers?

S2: Just write the organizations not the name of…I think.

S1: We must choose the name of the people who organize…organisate… this organization.

S2: Hmm …I’m

Excerpt 4 # Approximation: For the name of the night, S1 suggests ‘From Flight Turkish Delight’ and uses

alternative lexical item ‘air’ for the ‘flight’ as a response to the S2’s seeking for confirmation for what he has

heard.

S1: OK…err...xxx we write …welcome to from flight Turkish delight

S2: I think you should write in middle…err...one…just type Turkish delight. What did you say? Flight?

S1: …flight…air…

S2: I know what does it mean.


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Table 7: Use of Interactional Strategies

With the intention of achieving mutual understanding with their partners, learners made use of a number of

‘interactional meaning-negotiation mechanisms’ (Dörnyei &Scott 1997) which correspond to 60.1% of all used

strategies. In this interactional process, in order to reach their communicative goal and address the gap in

target language, learners asked their partner’s assistance. Additionally, they requested repetition, explanation,

and confirmation to improve their interaction. To sum up, learning process enhanced with synchronous CMI

maximizes participation and increase both the quantity and quality of the learners’ language output.

Excerpt 5 #: Direct Appeal for Help: Students are discussing about what they are going to write as a welcome

note.S2 asks S1’s assistance for the English equivalence of the word ‘sabırsızlıkla beklemek’ [Looking forward

to].

S1: We will be glad to see you in traditional clothes.

S2: And.

S1: Do you think we should write another sentences?

S2: sabırsızlıkla beklemek? [Looking forward to?]

S1: Sabırsızlıkla beklemek? [Looking forward to?]

S2: Looking forward…waiting patiently…looking forward…look forward, yes.

S1: Forward to see you?

Excerpt 6 #: Asking for Confirmation: Students are negotiating about the name of the night and at this point S2

requested confirmation that she heard her partner correctly.

S1: I select and design the picture.

S2: You are designing. We must find name for the night.

S1: Yes..you are ..right..Name..xxx or Turkish club. I think shortly…

S2: Name of …the night..You mean we should find shorter than this?

S1: Yes, shorter than this.

CONCLUSION & IMPLICATIONS

Concerning the learners’ active involvement and meaningful linguistic performance, teachers of EFL are highly

criticized due to their excessive and constructive talk time. According to Walsh (2002); most of the time


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teachers disallow the learners’ opportunities of language use through ‘filling the gaps’ with their dominant role

and control of language. In this respect, they not only control the content, organizations of the activities but

also determine learners who will take the turns. The role share becomes unequal, and as a result, learners’

involvement, which contributes to language acquisition, is minimized. While this is happening in traditional

classrooms, on the other hand, in new learning context blended with new trends and informational

technologies, it can be seen that in CMI environment learners through working on a more challenging task,

learners have the opportunities of equal participation, longer and meaningful language use and learner output

Additionally, as revealed in data in this setting it is also viewed that learners use a wide range of

communication strategies in order to navigate their task and therefore to reach their communicative goal. In

terms of ‘achieving mutual understanding’ (Dornyei & Scott 1997), between the communication strategies

which can be grouped under the three main types as (1) Reduction (Avoidance), (2) Compensatory

(Achievement), and lastly (3) Interactional, learners are noted to use mostly the second and third types. This

shows that rather than leaving the message unfinished, completely abandoned or filling the turns with

unrelated points, learners try to make good use of their turns through the strategies of exemplifying,

describing, using their linguistic creation, or searching for an alternative lexical item which shares the same

semantic aspects. Furthermore, in order to check the process and to maintain the continuity of the interaction,

they appeal for their peers’ help, ask for repetition, confirmations, or request clarification for the unclear

points. Put differently, CMI enhanced with meaningful tasks not only maximize the quantity and quality of

learner output but also allow and foster the use of communication strategies which mostly cannot be seen or

are unfortunately denied in traditional learning environments. In this sense, in order to have a healthy

application of the new trends in language teaching, pre- & in-service teacher education programs primarily

should give the prominence to the teachers’ roles, their use of language , and the learning opportunities that

they provide in their classrooms through the use of new teaching & learning approaches, and the exploitation

of informational technologies.

Acknowledgements: I would like to express my gratitude to TechSmith Corporation, (Camtasia Studio) and

Atlas.ti.




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Allwright, D. (2000). Interaction and negotiation in the language classroom: their role in learner development.

Available as CRILE Working Paper 50.

Bradin, C. (1999). CALL issues: instructional aspects of software evaluation. In J Egbert et al (eds.), CALL

Environments: Research, Practice, and Critical Issues. Alexandria: TESOL, pp.159-175.

Chapelle, C. A. (2001). Computer Applications in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Dörnyei, Z., & Scott, M. L. (1995a, March). Communication strategies: What are they and what are they not?

Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL), Long

Beach, CA.

Dörnyei, Z., & Scott, M. L. (1995b). Communication strategies: An empirical analysis with retrospection. In, J. S.

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Language and Linguistics Society (pp.155-168). Provo, UT: Brigham Young University.

Dörnyei, Z., & Scott, M. L. (1997). Communication strategies in second language: Definitions and taxonomies.

Language Learning, 47, 173-210.


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Færch, C.,&Kasper,G. (1983). Strategies in interlanguage communication. Harlow, UK: Longman.

Glaser, Barney G & Strauss, Anselm L., (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative

Research, Chicago, Aldine Publishing Company.

Glaser, B. G., & Holton, J. (2004). Remodeling grounded theory: Article 4. Forum: Qualitative Social Research,

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Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.

Krashen, S.D. (1985). The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. New York: Longman Inc.

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30(3), 275-288.

Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning. Harlow, UK: Pearson.

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Schmidt, R. (1994). Deconstructing consciousness in search of useful definitions for applied linguistics. In J. H.

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Seedhouse, P. (2004). ‘The interactional architecture of the language classroom: A conversation analysis

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Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook & B. Seidlhofer (Eds.)

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Language Teaching Research, Vol 6, pp 1-23.


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AUTOMATED FEEDBACK ON BEHAVIOR IN SIMULATED PROBLEM SOLVING

IN ORDER TO LEARN MANAGEMENT SKILLS IN A COST EFFICIENT WAY

Prof. Dr. Harald Kjellin

Stockholm University

Kista, SWEDEN

[email protected]

Abstract

In order for a person to acquire the type of experiences that changes his behavior, the person needs an

extensive feedback on his behavior or his decisions. Although teachers can provide such an extensive

feedback, they are expensive and it is not realistic to have teachers act as personal coaches at universities.

Student can provide feedback to each other in a more cost efficient way, but then the feedback may be

erroneous or irrelevant which may cause students to lose motivation. We present a solution to this problem

which is based on having the students participate in competitive games, where the experiences in the games

gives the students enough feedback concerning if they did a bad or a good choice. The results from

experiments with a variety of games show that the learning in games becomes efficient if they are formalized

according to the presented rules of thumb.

Key Words: Games, simulation, management skills.

INTRODUCTION

The knowledge acquired from management sciences often consists of general theories and models that cannot

be applied in a single and unambiguous way, as is often the case with natural sciences where knowledge

usually is applied in an unambiguous way (Polyani 2009). The type of knowledge that is acquired from

management sciences rarely contains specific instructions for how to act in specific situations but the

knowledge can, on the other hand, be used for interpreting and explaining behavior of people when

transferred as stories (Jones et al 2003). When such knowledge is implemented in complex decisions we can

refer to it as maturity or skills that are acquired by experience. The questions elaborated on in this article are

how such skills can be taught at universities and what methods can be used to teach it. We are not focusing on

how the theories of management science can be applied in a theoretical way, i.e. how they can be used to

analyze complex problems but instead we are focusing on how a person can train his or her skills in a way that

the manager can make fast decisions and act directly according to the theories of management sciences.

In order for a person to acquire the type of experiences that changes his behavior, the person needs an

extensive feedback on his behavior or his decisions (Kjellin 2005), In the management sciences, this is well

known and may be the cause of the popularity of allowing managers to be iteratively coached in their behavior

and to be able to acquire the needed skill. In the area of pedagogy it has also been well known that the

presence of teacher that gives feedback to the behavior of students is crucial for the learning process.

However, teachers, trainers and coaches are expensive and it is not realistic to have teachers act as personal

coaches at universities. There are simply not enough resources available for this. This is why most educational

institutions promote the use of peer feedback, i.e. having students analyze and comment each other’s work.

Although this may solve parts of the problem, such a strategy may not work if the students cannot give each

other enough of constructive and relevant feedback, which in turn may lead to the students losing their

motivation since they do not get a feedback that tells them if they did something right or wrong.

When we discuss skills in management science we are often not talking about any particular set of specific

actions but are instead focusing on the extended context of the behavior, i.e. to what extent a decision will

results in positive consequences in the future or if a spontaneous act would be appreciated in general in the


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organization (Prusak Matson 2006). Such skills involve the extended context of the behavior and not any

particular feature of the behavior (Lambe 2006). When we talk about the modification of such behavior it is

difficult to conceive of a person modifying his/her behavior if this person does not receive an extensive

feedback to the behavior. The question is then how we can produce this extensive feedback without spending

an unacceptable amount of resources on producing the feedback. Only top managers can afford to get a

continuous personal feedback on their thinking, decision making and behavior from skilled advisors but when it

comes to students there is no way we could afford a personal teacher or coach to every student.

We present a solution to this problem which is based on having the students participate in competitive games,

where the games in themselves gives the students extensive and continuous feedback concerning if they did a

bad or a good choice. The games are carried out in teams of four people playing against four other people

while a group of four judges are focusing on four different aspects of the game and are giving the students

extensive feedback on their behavior. Once a game is over the losers of the game becomes the new four

judges. In this way it is possible to have tournaments in class as a motivator to engage in the games and the

only think the teacher needs to do is to supervise that the games are conducted according to the rules.

The students are allowed to comment on the judgments of the judges. Altogether 11 students are able to give

response to each judgment, and a consequence of this is that the student judges quickly become good at

handling the game.

The games in themselves involve an intense argumentation between the students and the judges can at any

time disrupt the argumentation and give points to the behavior of the players. As all students are actively

discussing, they all receive extensive feedback about the way they discuss. If they do not discuss or avoid a

challenging argument they are also evaluated regarding their avoidance of confrontations. To sum up one can

say that the students who participate in the games get an extensive feedback on how they react to challenges

and thus they learn to spontaneously practice all type of management skills that can be related to how they

communicate their decisions and how they try to influence each other in simulated problem solving.

The type of described training has been practiced in courses in knowledge management and project

management (Kjellin Wetterstrand 2010), but the training could as well be used in any kind of university course

where students can test their skills in debates with other students.

EVALUATIONS OF THE EFFECTS OF THE GAMES

After each course during four semesters we asked students participating in the games to fill in forms

concerning their opinions of the games. All together 420 students were doing this. When we found that a

student had more than usual comments in the forms we interviewed this student about the comments in order

to be able to interpret the response in relation to all other responses.

In general the analysis of the empirical material was done from a quantitative perspective. We wanted to

secure that an enough number of students really were able to benefit from doing the games in order to be sure

that it was a worthwhile activity to promote in university studies. The following is a summary of the

conclusions.

THE GAMES INCREASED THE STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION

The evaluations showed that the students were very motivated to not only participate in the games but also to

meet before the games were carried out in order to become masters of debating the knowledge and thus have

a greater chance of winning the games. At times it seemed as if the students were as engaged in the game

playing as football supporters being engaged in an exciting football game. This was also reflected in the

inquiries. 89% of the students claimed that they had enjoyed participating in the games. The 11% that did not

enjoy the games usually gave reasons that they preferred to study by themselves or that they considered the

games being childish activities or a waste of time.


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THE GAMES HELPED THE STUDENTS TO LEARN THE COURSE CURRICULA

The games concerned how the theories learned could be applied in a simulated problem solving. 78% of the

students claimed that they had much help from the debates when they made the written exams in the end of

the course. This is a strong indication that even if the aim of the games was to support the students in training

their skills they could also learn theoretical knowledge by debating it over and over.

STUDENTS CLAIMED THAT THEY SAW LONG TERM BENEFITS FROM THE LEARNING

Some students told stories about how they had tested their newly learned skills in their private or professional

life outside the university. This provided us with indications that not only did they students learn the

curriculum, but some of them were also enough motivated to continue to develop their skills. When we

interviewed these students they claimed that they considered their newly learned skills as something that they

would continue to develop.

TO WHAT EXTENT ARE THE RESULTS A SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTION?

It is possible to design educational games in many different ways. We concluded that it would not make sense

to claim that the games should be designed exactly the way we proposed in order to create good results. On

the contrary we believe that it is possible to design games in many different ways and the only way one can be

really sure of their success is to test them. We have tested one version of games and in this way we can claim

that the probability of success is high if somebody designs educational games in a similar way. However, since

the complexity of implementing games is so high we conclude that the results should only be seen as

indications of promising directions. These directions we summarize in the next paragraph as our proposals for

rules of thumb when designing educational games.

RULES OF THUMB WHEN DESIGNING GAMES

1. The rules of the games should be as simple as possible to secure that it does not take too long time before

the students can start to play.

2. Make sure the rules are balanced and promote all types of behavior or students will quickly learn to

optimize the game by a single type of behavior. This balance can often not be achieved directly but needs

to be continuously modified until the perfect balance is reached.

3. The signals that tells the judges if a student shall succeed or fail (get a credit or not) should be as simple as

possible. For instance, a) was there more than two second of hesitation in the middle of talking, b) was

there a distinct protest that was distinctly justified, c) was there a repetition of the same argument, or d)

was there an evident lack of logic in the chain of reasoning

4. Make sure you have several student judges evaluating the behavior in the games. This makes it easier for

each judge to not have to assume responsibility for everything that is going on

5. Make sure the students are able to protest against each other’s arguments. This secures that you have as

many observing trainers, giving feedback, as there are participants in the games. If one student can protest

against another students behavior, this makes it easier for the judges to follow the debates since they

judges can then act on a meta-level, i.e. to evaluate the protest rather than the behavior itself.




REFERENCES

Nory B. Jones, Richard T. Herschel, Douglas D. Moesel, (2003) "Using “knowledge champions” to facilitate

knowledge management", Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 7 Iss: 1, pp.49 – 63.


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Kjellin Harald (2005) Routines for Feedback on the Feedback, Proceedings of the IPSI – 2005 Pescara, July 27 –

August 1, ISBN: 86-7466-117-3

Kjellin Harald, Wetterstrand Martin (2010) Assignments that increase students’ motivation in online courses,

Proceedings of ONLINE EDUCA BERLIN, 1 – 3 December, Berlin, Germany.

Lambe, Patrick. KM. (2006),Champion Guidelines, by Patrick Lambe and Edgar Tan of Straits Knowledge. 21p.

Straits Knowledge 04/18/2006. http://greenchameleon.com/uploads/KMChampionGuidelinesAS.doc

(Polyani 2009), M. Polanyi, The tacit dimension. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2009.

L. Prusak and E. Matson (2006), Knowledge management and organizational learning- A Reader. New York,

Oxford University Press, 2006.


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INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN THE GULF COOPERATION COUNCIL

Dr. Alan S. Weber

Premedical Department,

Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar

Education City

Doha, State of Qatar

[email protected]

Abstract

Although special needs schools (schools for the blind and deaf) have existed in the MENA region since the 19th

century, special needs education has only recently been introduced in the Gulf region due to the novelty of

public education itself. Recently, GCC member nation Ministries of Education are embracing a broader policy

view of ‘inclusive education’ which seeks to provide opportunities for all learners. Although fully inclusive

classrooms, in which services for differently-abled pupils are integrated into the normative curricula and

classroom, are not the norm internationally, many countries are grappling with attempts to achieve this ideal.

The GCC represents a particularly interesting case, since, as M. Ghaly has argued, disability has only recently

received adequate attention in Islamic theology. Therefore both the theoretical and philosophical framework

of inclusive education, in addition to the practical considerations, remains a challenging arena for policy

planners and educators in the GCC.

Key Words: Inclusive education, Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, UAE,

Oman.

INTRODUCTION

The terms “inclusive education” and “inclusion” are unfortunately used in several different senses among GCC

policy makers and educators: inclusive education and inclusion can mean both ‘education for all” (all learners

have access to educational institutions, either segregated or integrated) or more narrowly and technically, the

mainstreaming of disabled and handicapped students into the regular, traditional classroom. Inclusion has also

recently taken on a broader meaning of providing opportunity for the large MENA youth bulge alienated from

the workforce and society and facing high unemployment and poverty. This paper focuses on the programs,

policies, barriers and attitudes related to either segregating or integrating disabled and handicapped students

into mainstream classrooms.

Education is widely recognized internationally as a fundamental right for everyone as first stated in 1948 in the

United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The traditional biomedical model of disability which

views the disabled person as ‘abnormal’–therefore in need of fixing by therapy or other special interventions–

has been giving way to a newer sociological model that places emphasis on what the disabled can do and how

they can contribute to society, as well as their basic human and social rights such as education and freedom

from harm, discrimination, and unequal treatment.

The UNESCO World Declaration on Education for All (1990) was a milestone in establishing the ideological

underpinnings of inclusive education. In 1993, the U.N. General Assembly adopted the Standard Rules on the

Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities, appended to resolution 48/96. The 22 rules

encourage the fostering of equality and full participation of persons with disabilities in daily social life at all

levels including education and employment. In addition, the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action

on Special Needs Education (1994) states: “The fundamental principle of the inclusive school is that all children

should learn together, wherever possible, regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have. Inclusive

schools must recognize and respond to the diverse needs of their students, accommodating both different


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styles and rates of learning and ensuring quality education to all through appropriate curricula, organizational

arrangements, teaching strategies, resource use and partnerships with their communities. There should be a

continuum of support and services to match the continuum of special needs encountered in every school”

(UNESCO). Thus mainstreaming special needs students, many of whom do not complete their education and

subsequently are difficult to employ, provides the best option for success. In 2000, The Dakar Framework for

Action issued the World Declaration on Education for All (EFA), aiming to provide every girl and boy with

primary school education by 2015. The Dakar Framework specifies Inclusive Education (IE) as one key means of

achieving EFA (Peters, 2004, p.5).

Both in the Gulf and in OECD countries, consensus on who should qualify for special needs education is difficult

to achieve. Historically, the disabled have been defined in most cultures as the blind, deaf, physically disabled

and mentally retarded. However, the definition of special needs education has been expanded in the last few

decades to include children with social disadvantages (poverty, ethnic or linguistic minority, displaced persons,

etc.) or highly functioning (‘gifted’) children. In the concept of education for all, returning adult learners could

also be classified as a learner population with special needs. Thus internationally, special needs education is

shifting away from a focus on biological or physiological impairments, towards a social model that takes into

account all barriers that impede learning. For example, the WHO’s International Classification of Functioning,

Disability and Health (ICF) adopted in 2001 recognizes these factors. “ICF takes into account the social aspects

of disability and does not see disability only as a 'medical' or 'biological' dysfunction. By including Contextual

Factors, in which environmental factors are listed ICF allows to record the impact of the environment on the

person's functioning” (WHO).

The UN’s Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Optional Protocol (2006) both came into

force in 2008. Over 152 signatories and 108 parties have signed the convention. Al-Kaabi notes: “The UN

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities of 2008 also calls for enjoyment of all human rights and

fundamental freedoms by children with disabilities, and points to the importance of early intervention and

their inclusion in the education system from an early age to ensure their visibility and roles in society” (Al-

Kaabi, 2010, p.18).

Inclusive education theory and practice is well developed in OECD nations, but a relatively new concept in the

Arabic-speaking world. The situation in Arab countries is extremely complex and controversial due to

differences in educational policy and different models and approaches based on cultural and historical factors

(for example, colonial influences).

Under the U.S. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1990; amended as IDEIA, 2004), public schools

receiving federal funds must provide a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) including an Individualized

Education Program (IEP) for children with disabilities (medical conditions, emotional or health impairments)

who also require special accommodation for these conditions. The IEP concept, although expensive and

resource-intensive (requiring trained specialists for diagnosis, testing, and monitoring) is becoming increasingly

common in inclusive education as is the related legal concept of Least Restrictive Environment (LRE), which

allows some flexibility for under-resourced schools who cannot fully comply with national regulations.

However, it is questionable whether these concepts and approaches can be adopted by other countries

without adaptation or considerations of cultural impact, for example in Gulf countries with already well

developed segregated special needs schools and with unique cultural restrictions such as gender segregation of

unrelated men and women which is common in their mainstream school systems at all levels.

Inclusive Education in the Gulf

There is no GCC-wide common strategy for dealing with special needs students and each individual nation has

adopted a spectrum of responses from segregation to partial, to (theoretically) full integration. Disability is

particularly serious for women in the region, as “Mothers may be repudiated by their husbands and non-

disabled siblings, particularly daughters, will find their marriage prospects blighted” (Ashencaen Crabtree,

2007, p.53). As Nadra notes in her 2009 LAU thesis: “the introduction of inclusion in the Middle Eastern

countries is still new, and it is too early to judge if it is going to be put effectively into practice or not. So far in


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the Gulf of Arabia, inclusion is practiced mainly in privately run international schools. Nowadays, modern

thinking about inclusion is becoming more evident in Qatar, Kuwait and Bahrain” (p.19). Care for fellow

Muslims, including the disabled, is enshrined in several Quranic passages and hadith, such as Al-Bukhari’s

hadith: “Mohammed said: ‘A Muslim is a brother to other Muslims. He should never oppress them nor should

he facilitate their oppression’” (vol. 9, 85.83).

However, local and pre-Islamic customs and attitudes often prevent Gulf families from approaching disabled

children without reproach, blame or shame. Sheikha Hessa Al Thani, former UN Special Rapporteur on

Disabilities, describes the problems faced by many disabled persons in Arabic-speaking societies: “Persons with

disabilities are a source of shame, a financial burden, even seen a curse on their families; the words used to

describe or denote disability are derogatory and pejorative; people are often identified by their disability, or

their disability replaces their given name. In colloquial languages the words that denote different types of

disabilities have become common swear words. Such attitudes are no longer as prevalent as they used to be a

decade or so ago, but they do still exist and constitute the basis of an awareness raising agenda for the Arab

region” (Al Thani, 2009). She then emphasizes that these attitudes are not Quranically based, and go against

both the spirit and textual authority of Islam: “It is important to note that such attitudes do not stem from

Islamic religious beliefs. In fact, the Quran has very little to say about disability per se. The mentions of

disability—such as blindness or deafness—in the Quran are figurative references; (e.g. the blindness of the

heart, or the deafness to God’s teachings). According to the Islamic scholar Sheikh Isse A. Musse, of the Islamic

Council of Victoria, ‘Islam sees disability as morally neutral. It is seen neither as a blessing nor as a curse.

Clearly, disability is therefore accepted as being an inevitable part of the human condition. It is simply a fact of

life which has to be addressed appropriately by the society of the day’” (Al Thani, 2009). Segregation of the

disabled in the Gulf either by keeping them at home or educating them in special schools removed from the

public eye greatly reduces both the public acceptance of their limitations and the possible range of work

opportunities for them. In addition, the confusion, even among highly educated members of Gulf societies, of

mental disability with mental illness creates fear and misunderstanding (Gaad, 2011, pp.13-14; Hilawani, 2008,

p.3).

Professor Eman Gaad, who has written the most comprehensive monograph on inclusive education in the Gulf,

notes: “Historically the people of [the Gulf] region have not had a very open and accepting attitude towards

those with special needs and/or disabilities” (2011, p.91). In the pre-oil era before the social welfare and

universal free public education (including special needs education) provided by oil wealth–when children were

expected to contribute to family income from a young age by tending animals and performing domestic labor–

a disabled child was in fact a considerable economic burden on the family and was often greeted with anger

and disappointment. Gaad believes that the common cultural understanding in the Gulf region fosters an

approach “based on supporting the ‘weak and vulnerable’ from a charity-based approach rather than

supporting citizens with equal rights and benefits from a rights-based approach as the region is still in a

transitional phase between the two notions” (2011, p.81). Rights-based approaches to disability and special

needs education are more common in Western cultures which place emphasis on the individual, while in the

Gulf, tribe and family have always taken precedence.

Sheikha Hessa Al-Thani, the UN Special Rapporteur on Disabilities, noted in 2007: “the general condition of

children with disabilities in Arab societies is invisibility” (qtd. in Al-Kaabi, 2010, p.20). With inadequate support

and with negative social attitudes towards the disabled in most Arabic speaking countries, disabled children are

often isolated from society within families. According to Qatari Assistant Professor of Social Work Ibrahim Al-

Kaabi, historically in the region: “In particular these children are considered sources of shame and a burden on

their families. Families with children with disabilities experience multiple stress factors, including psychological

and economic pressure. Due to the traditional division of social roles within the family that assigns the mother

the reproductive role and considers her the custodian of the family values, the burden of care of the disabled

children shifts to her. In most of the cases, the mother has inadequate knowledge and abilities to raise their

disabled children effectively or to respond to their special demands proactively” (Al-Kaabi, 2010, p.20).

The way Gulf societies deal with the disabled has shifted, however, towards greater reliance on national

governments, since family structure has been evolving away from the traditional extended tribal unit to


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smaller, more nuclear families: “Barka Saleh Shahbal Al Bakry, the deputy chairman of Al Noor Association for

the Blind, argues in the Times of Oman (2005) that the full support from the extended family system is

something the society can no longer count on: ‘In the past, most blind people in Oman depended on the

extended family for basics; however, the family structure in Oman is changing’” (Profanter, 2011, p.1252).

Education is also rapidly changing in GCC region, with large investments in Qatar and UAE as regional

educational hubs (Education City and DIAC), as well as philosophical realignments such as Qatar’s Education for

a New Era initiative – thus inclusive education may be realizable in the near future in GCC countries that choose

to adopt its philosophical framework, since GCC nations are committed now to best practices based on

international frameworks as well as developing knowledge-building capacities (education, science and

technology research, publishing, and literacy) (Weber, 2011a; 2011b).

To contextualize the current situation in the Arabian Gulf, even in MENA countries with well developed and

long-standing educational systems such as Lebanon and Egypt, inclusive education is still in its early phases or

sporadically available (ELZein, 2009, p.164).

METHODS

Published government educational reports and peer-reviewed published literature on inclusive education were

consulted for both the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and the individual member states of the GCC. Regional

experts were also consulted. Also, international development reports (i.e. United Nations) and OECD

scholarship was examined to contextualize inclusive education within the international educational context.

Gaad (2011) provides a detailed and well-researched summary of the topic for the Gulf region. However a great

deal of contradictory and inaccurate information was uncovered during the literature review which the present

author attempted to verify and crosscheck. Confusion sometimes arose from the lack of up-to-date and

unstratified government statistics in this area of research (for example, data for citizens is sometimes

aggregated with data from semi-literate itinerate expatriate work forces), necessitating the cross-referencing

of information with individuals working in the field. Also, government reports and websites sometimes describe

non-existent planned initiatives and programs as if the programs are already fully functioning. In addition, lack

of standardized terminology about inclusive education in English and Arabic, discussed above, can hinder cross-

country analysis.

DISCUSSION

Historical Background: Special Needs Education and Inclusive Education in the GCC

Modern Special Needs Education began in the Middle East as segregated institutions, such as the Deaf and Blind

Schools in Egypt which operated from 1874-1888. A number of blind and deaf institutes were founded in the

early 20th

century, mostly supervised by European expatriates (Gaad, 2011, pp.4-5). In 1956, the first school for

students with low IQ (50-70) opened in Egypt. The special education department became a separate

department from the main Egyptian education department in 1964. Some countries, such as Kuwait, have

continued to develop and support their impressive infrastructure of segregated schools, while other Gulf

nations, spurred by the U.N. frameworks and resolutions, are shifting towards mainstreaming special needs

students. The historical development and current state of both special needs and inclusive education in each

GCC member nation is provided below.

Qatar

The State of Qatar ratified the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in October of 2008.

Inclusion is becoming more widely practiced in Qatar and over 6,000 special needs students attend 84 schools

in Qatar. The UN Special Rapporteur on Disability Shuaib Chalklen visited the country in 2010 and was

impressed by the technologically advanced Al Noor Institute and the Shafallah Centre, but recommended that

“there is a need in Qatar to consider the mainstreaming of disability’ (Chalklen, 2010, p.4). For example,

according to Chalklen: “There appears to be a distinct lack of mainstreaming of disability in Qatar and an

indicator of this is that many of the Government buildings are not accessible. There was a clear lack of

wheelchair access and accessible bathroom facilities” (Chalklen, 2010, p.5). The country currently follows a two-


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pronged approach in which some students are included in regular classrooms, while specialty institutes (for

example the Shafallah Centre for students with autism spectrum disorder) cater to individual disabilities. The Al

Amal Institute for Boys and Al Amal Institute for Girls were opened in 1980 and 1981 respectively. The Special

Needs Committee of the Supreme Council for Family Affairs, founded in 1979, began planning for special needs

schools and programs in 2001-2002, and set up a special Centre for the Talented and Gifted in 2001 (Yossef,

2002). The first steps towards inclusion involved providing segregated classrooms within regular schools and

integrating all students during the day as much as possible, such as during breaks and assemblies. Tuition for

special needs educators is subsidized by the government with twelve targeted scholarships at the Arabian Gulf

University in Bahrain. As of 2011, there are 105 special needs educators working in Qatari schools (Gaad, 2011,

p.28). In 2003-2004, more resources were added for inclusive and special needs student services and in 2006-

2007, more students were integrated into existing schools with five more government schools equipped to

receive special needs students (Gaad, 2011, p. 31).

In general, policy makers in Qatar have followed a strategy of establishing both private and public separate

schools (often gender segregated, following the typical Gulf paradigm) for impaired children, while

implementing inclusive education in some schools. Although the Qatari Law for People with Special Needs

states that children should be educated according to the least restrictive environment appropriate, “the

concept of including them in general education is relatively new in Qatar” (Al Attiyah and Mian, 2009, pp.30-

31). Dr. Asma Al Attiyah, a professor in the Psychological Sciences Department (Special Education Diploma

Department) of Qatar University and colleagues issued a report An inclusion strategy for children with special

needs in the State of Qatar in 2005. Previously, childhood disability had been handled by segregated classes or

separate schools: in 1975, a class for boys with hearing loss was set up in a public primary school, and an all-

boys deaf school in 1981 and an all-girls deaf school in 1982 (Al Attiyah, 2007, p. 366). Male and female schools

for the mentally retarded were established in 1984. In 1998 a private co-educational school for visually impaired

students opened as well as a school in 1999 for children with developmental disorders, including autism (Al

Attiyah, 2007, p.366). An important inclusive education pilot program and cross-sectional survey of participant

attitudes was carried out in Qatar from 2001-2004. Twenty-seven general education and twenty-seven special

needs students were interviewed and the data provided a mixed picture of the program: for example, 55.5 % of

the general education children believed that special needs children faced problems such as aggressive behavior

from other students, harassment, lying, etc. However, special needs children reported that teachers treated

them well (74.0%) as well as other students (85.2%) (Al Attiyah, 2007, p.368). Special Needs schools (segregated

institutions) are still prevalent in Qatar – in 2005, there were 3522 males and females enrolled in 7 schools (Al-

Shafallah Center, Mental Education, Hearing Impaired Education, Al-Noor Center for Visually Impaired, Al-

Rumaila, Qatar Association for Special Needs, Qatar Union for Special Needs Sport) (State of Qatar, 2008, p.64).

Al-Kaabi found the following concerns with special needs and inclusive education in Qatar, which mirrors the

situation in many of the Gulf countries due to the novelty of this educational philosophy and the lack of trained

personnel (including medical personal for proper medical diagnosis): “Current care services are focused on the

child as a problem child, without consideration of the parents and their circumstances. There are no facilities to

encourage children with special needs aware of the world of work and interested in acquire work skills. Further,

places of employment lack awareness of the needs of workers with disabilities. Central to the problem of the

education framework is that there are no clear strategies for systematically providing families with information

about the rights of their children, the goals of the educational programs, and the change process in order to

effectively engage and advocate for their children” (Al-Kaabi, 2010, p.21).

The Arabic-speaking world was fortunate that a member of the Qatar royal family Sheikha Hessa Khalifa bin

Ahmed al-Thani of Qatar served as the Special Rapporteur on Disability of the United Nations Commission for

Social Development from 2003-2008, having been elected to 3 successive terms. She succeeded in raising

consciousness about special needs individuals throughout the MENA and Gulf regions in addition to her

international activities.

As described on the UN website, Al Thani “is a founding member of the Qatari National Committee for People

with Special Needs, which was established in 1998 by Sheikha Moza bint Naser Al-misnad, the consort of the

Emir of Qatar, and has been serving as a Vice-President of the Committee since 1999. She took part in preparing


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a draft law on the Rights of People with Special Needs, and helped to organize a number of local and regional

seminars and conferences in Doha on issues relating to disability. Recently she took part in organizing the

seventh Scientific Seminar of the Arab Union of the Deaf (Doha, 2000) and the third Gulf Forum on Disability

(Doha, 2003)” (UN Enable, 2003).

Al Thani’s wide ranging activities included: “Using the momentum created by the adoption of the Arab Decade, I

persuaded the Arab Parliamentary Union to establish an Arab Parliamentary Committee on Disability within the

Union. This was followed by practical and immediate steps to build the capacity of Arab Parliamentarians with

regard to disability legislations through a series of Symposia held in a number of Arab countries and hosted by

the Parliaments/Shoura Councils of these countries, using one or two Rules from the Standard Rules as a theme

for each symposium: Amman (March 2005); Beirut (December 2005); Yemen (March 2007); Morocco (July

2007); Qatar (January 2009). The Symposia marked the first time that Arab Parliamentarians and Legislators had

met and held an open dialogue with persons with disabilities. These efforts were the catalyst for the

establishment of new partnerships, chief among them with the Council of Europe, the Commission on Disability

in the German Federal Government; the Flemish Parliament in Belgium” (UN Special Rapporteur, 2009).

In 2010, the Education Institute in Qatar issued policies and guidelines for students with Additional Educational

Support Needs (AESN) aimed at K-12 students. These policies cover a broad range of students including

students with Learning Problems (SWLP), students with Specific Learning Difficulties (SWSLD), students with

Disabilities (SWD), and students with behavioral problems (SWBP). The Learning Center, part of Qatar

Foundation, has recently been renamed the Awsaj Institute of Education, and seeks to accommodate K-8

students with learning challenges using an evidenced-based approach and on-site school psychologist.

Kuwait

The policy and legal framework of Kuwait’s learning disabled education is adopted almost wholly from older

U.S. and UK models of segregated education. Kuwait was one of the first countries to formally recognize the

rights of disabled students with the establishment of the Higher Council for Disability Affairs (HCDA) in 1996

with shared representation between government officials and various non-governmental groups who represent

disabled constituents. However, despite the pioneering early approach, little experimentation or openness to

inclusive education appears to be going in Kuwait. But the country claims to have met the needs of all its

students requiring special needs education through the provisioning of special schools each devoted to a

specific disability.

Bazna and Reid have criticized the traditional western approach to medicalizing disability and exclusionary

education (segregation) as a poor match for Kuwaiti and Islamic cultural history (Bazna, 2007; 2009a). Al-

Shammari recommends pre-service training for teachers to attend to special needs students (Al-Shammari,

2005). A school for the visually impaired was opened in Kuwait in 1955 and each impairment category in Kuwait

has its specialized school: “Along with visual impairments, other handicapping conditions are recognized:

hearing impaired, mentally retarded, emotionally impaired, physical/orthopedic disorders, Down's syndrome

and autism. Each of these handicapping conditions like visual impairments have their own schools” (Al-

Shammari, 2007).

The process of identification, assessment and placement of special needs students in Kuwait follows a familiar

three step process: first a medical assessment is made, then a battery of psychosocial testing takes place. If

special needs education is recommended, the student is placed in a classroom and observed and all of the

previous data is examined to determine a final placement or exemption.

Lack of inclusion appears to be a deliberate religious and cultural policy of Kuwaiti society. As Al-Shammari

notes: “As of 2005, inclusion was not a strategy of the Kuwaiti educational system. The general culture itself is

deeply segregated along tribal, gender, and socio-economic lines. Girls and boys attending 1st through 12th

grades in the public schools are grouped separately in different classrooms and schools; the exception to gender

differentiations is in kindergarten where both boys and girls are grouped together in the same classrooms.

Gender differentiation of teaching staff also is used in which male teachers teach boys and female teachers

work with girls (except in kindergarten where female teachers teach both girls and boys). The attributes of lack


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of inclusion and separation by gender for public school students and teachers are determined by culture and

religion” (Al-Shammari, 2007).

Although government reports appear to endorse the integration model theoretically, a 2008 report on

educational development noted the following obstacles to the implementation of integrated inclusive

programs: building and renewal of special education facilities, the fact that education officials do not feel the

time is right for integration, opposition of non-disabled students, and the opposition of teachers facing an

increased teaching burden (State of Kuwait, 2008, p.94).

Saudi Arabia

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) ratified the U.N. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in

2009. Also, if individuals in the KSA feel that their rights under the UN convention have been denied, they can

contact the International Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities according to the UN Optional

Protocol also signed by KSA. Saudi Arabia has also made advancements in education for the intellectually gifted

(Alamiri, 2011). The first specials needs schools in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia were the so-called ‘scientific

institutes’ for the blind created in 1958 (Alquraini, 2011). The Department of Special Learning was established in

1962 to serve blind, deaf and mentally retarded students. The Saudi Disability Code of 2000 guarantees free

medical, educational and rehabilitation services to disabled citizens. An integration program for placing special

needs students in normal schools began in 1990-91 and according to the Directorate General of Special

Education, by 2007, 3130 programs (segregated and integrated) existed covering 61,089 students (2011). The

Regulations of Special Education Programs and Institutes (RSEPI), modeled after U.S. law, appeared in 2001.

Disabled students are entitled to a wide range of services, including an Individual Education Plan (IEP) and

access to a theoretical least restrictive environment (LRE) similar to U.S. policies. The extent of inclusion for

students in Saudi schools depends on the type of disability. According to Aluquraini, “Students with mild

learning disabilities receive their educations in typical classrooms with some support from special education

services such as source rooms. These students also fully participate in the general education curriculum with

some modifications and accommodations. Students with mild and moderate cognitive disabilities still receive

their education in separate classrooms in public schools” (Alquraini, 2011). A 2007 report claims that “more

than 90% of male students and 65% of female students with special educational needs in Saudi Arabia are

mainstreamed in regular schools” (Mousa, 2007, 2). However, severely disabled students are taught separately:

“According to the Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia (2008), 96% of students with multiple and severe

disabilities received their education in separate institutes in 2007–08” (Alquraini, 2011).

Special needs education has been the focus of several recent Saudi doctoral and masters theses on teacher

attitudes to SNE and IEPs for the mentally retarded, demonstrating the growing interest in this field (Al-Ahmadi,

2009; Al-Faiz, 2006; Al-Herz, 2008). As part of Saudi Arabia’s ‘Inclusion Project,’ the sixth objective of The

Ministry of Education 10-Year Plan in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia specifically describes provisions for special

needs students:

• To develop educational programs for gifted male and female students in scientific and creative fields

• To develop special education systems to correspond with contemporary international expectations and

attitudes

• To develop special education programs for students with disabilities

• To secure the materials and proper educational environment for students with special needs

• To increase teachers’ vocational development to fully prepare them to work effectively with students with

special needs

• To increase the opportunities for the development of the special categories of education shared with the

private sector

• To expand society’s participation in protecting the rights of children with special needs (Saudi Arabia MOE).

Special needs education in Saudi Arabia encompasses both gifted students and the disabled and ranges from

partial to full inclusion in the classroom. Over 233 programs and institutes have been developed to meet the

needs of the recent Inclusion Project (Gaad, 2011, p.20). The Inclusion Project was studied by researchers from

King Saud University during the pilot phase. Dr. Naser Mousa, who was instrumental in the development of


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special education in Saudi Arabia, writes about the Inclusion Project: “regular schools are considered the

natural environment for both children with special needs and regular children to grow together....the Inclusion

environment contributes to the increase of social acceptance of students with special needs by their regular

peers….regular children can get rid of their limited perceptions about special needs people” (qtd. in Gaad, 2011,

p.22). The Supervisor-General of Special Education in KSA admits that current programs are not fully servicing

the estimated 5% of Saudi students with learning disabilities, but the government target is a 100% success rate

in providing special education to these students (Gaad, 2011, p.24).

Bahrain

Bahrain “is considered by UNESCO to have excellent integrative policies. Here the rights of children with

disabilities to education represent a distinct criterion of social development in this society, in keeping with

equal opportunities” (Ashencaen Crabtree, 2010, p.200). A report prepared by Bahrain for UNESCO states: “all

children should be subject to similar learning-teaching methods regardless of their social and cultural

background and the different abilities and skills they possess. Education opportunities should be provided for all

even for those with special needs of whom the ones with certain potentials should be integrated with the

normal students” (Kingdom of Bahrain, 2008, p.49).

Responsibility for special needs education in Bahrain is shared between the Ministry of Education (Special

Education Administration) and the Ministry of Social Development. An Inclusion Programme began in 2005. The

government funds special education teacher training at the Arabian Gulf University. Bahrain also requires

employers of 50 persons or more to hire special needs employees based on a percentage decided upon by the

government. The Ministry of Education asserted in 2008 that all students in Bahrain were included and

accommodated in the national educational system, using the broader definition of inclusion as education for

everyone: “we can safely say that exclusion from education is not an educational phenomenon in Bahrain since

there are no exclusions in the Kingdom due to disability, poverty, geographical distance, economic and political

suffering or sex or racial discrimination. Alternate programmes are arranged for failures and secondary school

dropouts who can attend evening classes or study as external students” (Kingdom of Bahrain, 2008, p.57).

UAE

Bradshaw estimates that the percentage of people with disabilities in the UAE is close to the worldwide average

of 8-10 percent of the population (Bradshaw, 2004, p.51). The concept of social equality, safety, and fairness for

all Emirati citizens is enunciated in Article 14 of the UAE Constitution. A disabled person was broadly defined as

“one who has a disability that hinders a person totally or partially from participating in life” (Rashed, 1995,

p.99). The government first supported the disabled through direct financial assistance and the establishment of

rehabilitation centers. In 1979, the first special education classroom was established with forty students, and

special needs teacher training also began at the same time at United Arab Emirates University (Alahbabi, 2009,

p.43). In 2006, UAE federal law No. 29 Articles 12 and 15 (The Disability Act) specified that “the country assures

equivalent education chances for the Person with Special Needs in all educational establishments….it shall be in

the regular classes or in special classes” which provides the option of inclusive education (Gaad, 2011, p.4). Due

to this foundation, the majority of special needs students in the UAE are educated in separate classrooms or

institutions. The law provides a framework for inclusion in the classrooms and encourages it; however, it is not

clear that the 2006 law requires a school to accommodate special needs students. In fact, the law mentions the

establishment of specialized centres as a possible means of respecting the rights of the special needs individual.

Some parents and general education teachers believe that special needs children can be best accommodated in

separate facilities targeted towards them and many parents do not feel that the general education system

contains enough qualified special education teachers to meet the needs of their children. Alahbabi’s 2009

survey of UAE teachers found that support for inclusive education was significantly higher among special needs

education teachers than among general education teachers (Alahbabi, 2009, p.51). Alghazo and Gaad’s 2002

survey of UAE teachers revealed that most general education teachers had negative attitudes towards inclusion

for students with disabilities in the general classroom (2004, p.97). This corroborates almost 30 years of

scholarship in OECD countries which reveals similar attitudes, with the exception of attitudes towards children

with learning disabilities (for example, dyslexia) which general education teachers view more sympathetically.

Despite the promising legal framework in the UAE, several challenges exist. For example, Down syndrome


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children and low functioning children are generally not welcome in mainstream classes. Severely handicapped

students are placed in rehabilitation centres by the government which are often earmarked only for citizens and

which may have long waiting lists (Gaad, 2011, p.79). Private centres charge very high tuition fees affordable

only by wealthy parents. There are few public or private autism centres comparable to Qatar’s well-financed

Shafallah Center (Gaad, 2011, p.79). Farooq’s 2007 master thesis indicates that placement of autistic students in

regular Dubai classrooms is virtually non-existent (Farooq, 2007; cited in Gaad, 2011, p.12). Gender issues are

significant in the Gulf, as all GCC nations are gender-segregated societies and there is a shortage of both general

education male teachers in addition to special needs teachers, since many males consider teaching to be a

feminine profession (Gaad, 2004, pp.3, 6).

Alghazo and Gaad (2004) and Gaad (2004, p.319) demonstrated that UAE teachers were the least accepting of

including students with intellectual disabilities in the classroom. Also, attitudinal problems and terminology are

hampering efforts at inclusive education – until recently, children with Down’s Syndrome were known as

‘Mongols’ (Gaad, 2001, p.199; Gaad, 2006, p.136), a particularly troubling term given the brutal destruction of

Baghdad by invading Mongol troops in the 13th

century. However, the first national support group for Down

Syndrome children, parents and caregivers was formed in 2004 (Gaad, 2006).

The studies by Alghazo and Gaad (2004) and Gaad and Khan (2007) indicate that the majority of teachers in the

UAE prefer the traditional method of delivery of special needs education (segregation) over the model of

inclusion. It is understandable that if teachers do not have training or experience with special needs students,

that they would be reluctant to include them in class rooms with high functioning students, since students with

behavioral problems can disrupt the classroom and giving individual attention to special needs students, if

adequate teacher assistants are not available, can be simply impractical, even if instructors philosophically

support the inclusive philosophy and have a willingness to help.

Oman

As with Qatar, Oman provides services to special needs students through both traditional mainstream schools

and specialized institutes. A whole spectrum of levels of inclusion currently exists from exclusion in special

schools on one hand, to partial and full inclusion, and social inclusion (students integrate with mainstream

students during non-academic activities). Oman has a very new educational system as formal education was

almost non-existent before 1970. In 2007-2008 there were only 705 total students studying at three special

institutes: The Al-Amal School for the hearing impaired (est. 1979), Al Fikryah School for the mentally

challenged (est. 1984), and the Omar bin Khataab Institute for the visually impaired (est. 1999), which based on

international averages appears to indicate that disability in Oman is under-diagnosed or not publically

acknowledged. Officially, the Sultanate of Oman accepts and endorses the UNESCO “definition of inclusive

education. It implies the need to provide opportunities for all young people to have learning opportunities in

mainstream schools regardless of their cultural and social backgrounds or differences in abilities and

capacities” (Sultanate of Oman, 2008, p.52).

In 2005, the Oman Ministry of Education launched an inclusion program for primary school students with

special needs in the Al Batinah and Al Dakhelia regions. Although the inclusion project has achieved some

success in Muscat, the most populous city, challenges, primarily financial and attitudinal, remain in the rural

areas. Oman is a large and spread out country occupying 2/3 of the tip of the Arabian peninsula containing

extensive mountainous areas and portions of the empty quarter (Rub al-Khali). Traditional attitudes to the

disabled as a burden are still prevalent. Resources are therefore not evenly distributed, with a bias towards

urban inhabitants, but this is a problem that is publically recognized by the government. Also, the national

university Sultan Qaboos University introduced a special needs teaching diploma in 2006 to address the needs

of inadequate staffing. The Ministry of Education believes that cultural and social factors are the most

important barriers to inclusive education, i.e. society and teachers need to be convinced that education as well

as equal access to educational resources is a moral right.

CONCLUSION

Clearly a growing interest in inclusive education in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries is developing,


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paralleled by international efforts to establish the rights of children and special needs children in particular in

the last two decades. The untiring efforts of the UN Special Rapporteur on Disability Sheikha Hessa Al Thani

were instrumental in raising awareness about the disabled in the GCC and MENA regions. Some GCC states will

retain their established special schools systems, while many are moving towards mixed models of partial

inclusion and mainstreaming. As judged by official reports, all GCC states have embraced the theoretical

framework of education for all and providing educational opportunity for all citizens, broadening the definition

of inclusion to embrace gifted individuals, returning adult learners, socially and economically disadvantaged

individuals as well as the physically disabled or mentally impaired. Part of this shift in educational policy and

attitudes stems from concerns about the large under-thirty populations of the Gulf (youth bulge), the large

influx of expatriate workers to the Gulf in the preceding decades, and the need for Gulf governments to shift

their economies from hydrocarbon production (i.e. declining natural resources) to knowledge producing

activities and more diverse economic activity. In this future scenario, every citizen needs to play a role in the

newly developing society, and for very practical reasons, anyone who can make any kind of contribution, even

if it is limited because of an innate or environmental restraint on ability, must be encouraged, trained, and

embraced by the culture.




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Al-Faiz, H.S. (2006). Attitudes of elementary school teachers in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia toward the inclusion of

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Al-Herz, M.M. (2008). Achievement of goals of the individualized education program (IEP) for students with

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banderalotaibi.com/new/admin/ uploads/2/doc17-5.pdf.

Al Attiyah, A. and Lazarus, B. (2007). “Hope in the Life”: The Children of Qatar Speak about Inclusion. Childhood

Education, 83.6, 366-69.

Al Attiyah, A. and Mian, M. (2009). Disability in the State of Qatar. In C. Marshall et al., (Eds.), Disabilities

insights from across fields and around the world, Vol. 3. (pp.27-42). Wesport, CT: Praeger.

Alghazo, E.M., Gaad, E. (2004). General education teachers in the United Arab Emirates and their acceptance of

the inclusion of students with disabilities. British Journal of Special Education, 31.2, 94-99.

Al-Kaabi, I. (2010). The Socio-Family and Care Staff Opinion of Services and Role of Children with Special Needs

in Qatar. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 1.3, 18-25.

Alquraini, T. (2011). Special Education in Saudi Arabia: Challenges, Perspectives, Future Possibilities.

International Journal of Special Education, 25.3, 139-147.


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Al-Shammari, Z. (2005). Investigation of Special Education teachers' attitudes towards students with special

needs in State of Kuwait. Ph.D. Thesis. The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.

Al-Shammari, Z., Yawkey, T.D. (2007). Examining the Development and Recommendations for Special Education

in the State of Kuwait: An Evolving Program. Education, 127.4, 534-540.

Al Thani, H. (2009). Disability in the Arab World. Retrieved January 6, 2012 from the U.N. Special Rapporteur on

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Ashencaen Crabtree, S.A., Williams, R. (2010). Inclusive Education and Children with Disabilities in the Gulf

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Projects, Struggles and Geometries of Power (pp. 196-213). New York: Routledge.

Bazna, M., Reid, D.M. (2007). Rethinking Learning Disabilities in Kuwait: A More Humanistic and Culturally

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THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE TURKISH VERSION OF THE STATE HOPE SCALE

Ahmet Akin

Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi

TURKEY

[email protected]

Seydi Ahmet Satıcı

Anadolu Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi

TURKEY

[email protected]

Ahmet Rıfat Kayış

Anadolu Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi

TURKEY

[email protected]

Nihan Çitemel

TURKEY

[email protected]

Abstract

The aim of this study is to examine validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the State Hope Scale (SHS;

Snyder et al., 1996). The sample of this study consisted of 411 university students. The results of exploratory

factor analysis demonstrated that the six items loaded on one factor. The amount of total variance explained

was 50% and factor loadings ranged from .60 to .73. Similarly, the results of confirmatory factor analysis

indicated that the model was well fit (x²=13.44, sd=9, p=0.14378, RMSEA=.035, NFI=.98, CFI=.99, IFI=.99,

RFI=.96, GFI=.99, and SRMR=.027). The internal consistency coefficient of the scale was .74 and the corrected

item-total correlations ranged from .40 to .56.

Key Words: State hope, validity, reliability, factor analysis.

INTRODUCTION

Psychology has tended to explore emotions and thoughts to understand human behaviors but there are

controversial concepts whether are thought or emotion. In this manner, we can ask these questions: is hope a

thought? , otherwise is hope an emotion? These questions were variously answered by different researchers.

Ortony, Clore ve Collins (1988) defined hope as an emotional state that included that positively assess future.

Similarly, some authors (Miller, 1985; Romero, 1989) highlighted emotional aspect of hope. Also, hope was

defined by Frank (1968) as mixture of emotions and thoughts. In this manner, hope has emotional aspect and

also cognitive aspect.

Snyder, Irving and Anderson (1991) have lengthy defined the hope in hope theory. They argued that hope

included three components that interacted with each other. These components are goals, pathways thinking

and agency thinking. The goal is the cognitive component of hope theory (Snyder, 1994a, 1994b, 1998). Goal is

keystone of the hope theory and other component of hope theory is necessary to reach to desired goals.

Pathways thinking are to produce ways to reach desired goals (Snyder, 2002). According to hope theory,

however, pathways thinking are not enough to attain desired goals. In order to reach to desired goal, agency

thinking is also necessary. Agency thinking was defined by Snyder (2002) as “Agency thought – the perceived


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capacity to use one’s pathways to reach desired goals – is the motivational component in hope theory.” (p.

251). Briefly, pathways thinking and agency thinking serve to reach desired goals.

Feldman and Snyder (2005) investigated the relationship between hope and life meaning and they founded

that ‘hope is a component of meaning’ (p. 408). On the other hand, Snyder (2004) argued that hope is a natural

balancing force against depression. Gum, Snyder and Duncan (2006) by supporting this allegation was found

that ‘hope was the strongest predictor of depressive symptoms, more than the level of activities or

participation, such that low-hope stroke survivors experienced more depressive symptoms’ (p. 329). Besides,

hope positively related to coping (Stanton, Danoff-burg, & Huggins, 2002; Folkman, 2010), job satisfaction and

performance (Duggleby, Cooper & Penz, 2009) and academic performances (Snyder, Cheavens, & Michael,

1999), and negatively related to depression (Geffken et al., 2006; Chow, 2010; Ashby, Dickinson, Ginilka, &

Noble, 2011).

The purpose of this study is to adapt State Hope Scale developed by Snyder, Sympson, Ybasco, Borders, Babyak

and Higgins (1996) to Turkish.

METHOD

Participant

Participants were 411 university students (240 (58%) were female, 123 (42%) were male) who were enrolled in

mid-size state University, in Turkey.

Measures

State Hope Scale. State Hope Scale was developed by Snyder, Sympson, Ybasco, Borders, Babyak and Higgins

(1996). It has six items and two subscales as agency and pathway. State hope correlated positively with state

self-esteem, r = .49, p < .001 and state positive affect schedule, r = .48, p < .001, and correlated negatively with

state negative affect schedule scores, r = -.37, p < .001. Internal consistency coefficients were computed for the

pretest and posttest and these indices were .81 and .88, respectively. In addition, the pretest and posttest

internal consistency coefficients for the agency subscale were .79 and .76, and .82 and .63 for the pathways

subscale. The amount of total variance explained was 71% and factor loadings ranged from .69 to .89. Also, the

correlation between the factors was .80.

Procedure

Permission for participation of students was obtained from related chief departments and students voluntarily

participated in research. Completion of the scales was anonymous and there was a guarantee of

confidentiality. The scales were administered to the students in groups in the classrooms. The measures were

counterbalanced in administration. Prior to administration of scales, all participants were told about purposes

of the study. In this study exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed to examine the factor structure of

the scale according to the data obtained from the Turkish students and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was

executed to confirm the original scale’s structure in Turkish culture. Data were analyzed using LISREL 8.54 and

SPSS 15 package programs.

RESULT

The results of the internal consistency coefficient of the State Hope Scale were .74. Confirmatory factor

analysis indicated that the model was well fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999) and Chi-Square value (x²=13.44, df=9,

p=0.14378) which was calculated for the adaptation of the model was found to be significant. The goodness of

fit index values of the model were RMSEA=.035, NFI=.98, CFI=.99, IFI=.99, RFI=.96, GFI=.99, and SRMR=.027.


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Figure 1 showed path diagram and factor loadings.

Figure 1: Path Diagram and Factor Loadings

The results of exploratory factor analysis have demonstrated that the items loaded on one factor. The amount

of total variance explained by one factors was nearly 50%. Factor loadings ranged from .60 to 73. Table 1

showed factor loadings, means and standard deviations.

Table 1: Factor Loadings

Items Factor Loadings X sd

1. .60 4,55 2,24

2. .70 6,52 1,54

3. .62 5,82 1,58

4. .73 5,35 1,55

5. .72 6,34 1,47

6. .71 5,77 1,59

Total Variance Explained 50%

CONCULUSION

The purpose of this study was to translate State Hope Scale into Turkish and to examine its psychometric

properties. Although original form of state hope scale has two subscales as agency and pathways, according to

findings Turkish form of state hope scale adapting original form consist of one factor. Because of this finding, it

can be useful to make new study about this measure with another sample. Also, further studies that will use

State Hope Scale are important to its measurement force for convergent validity.




REFERENCES

Ashby, J. L., Dickinson, W. L., Ginilka, P. B., Noble, C. L. (2011). Hope as a Mediator and Moderator of

Multidimensional Perfectionism and Depression in Middle School Students. Journal Of Counseling &

Development, 89(2), 131-139.

Chow, A. Y. M., (2010). The role of hope in bereavement for chinese people in hong kong. Death Studies, 34,

330–350.

I 1

I 2

I 3

I 4

I 5

I 6

State Hope

.60

.47

.69

.63

.64

,61


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Duggleby, W., Cooper, D., & Penz, K. (2009). Hope, self-efficacy, spiritual well-being and job satisfaction.

Journal of Advanced Nursing, 65(11), 2376–2385.

Feldman, D. B., Snyder, C. R. (2005). HOPE and the meaningful life: theoretical and empirical associations

between goal–directed thinking and life meaning. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(3), 401-421.

Folkman, S., (2010). Stress, coping, and hope. Psycho-Oncology 19, 901–908.

Frank J., (1968). The Role of Hope in Psychotherapy, International Journal of Psychiatry, 5(5), 383-395.

Geffken, G. R., Storch, E. A., Duke, D. C., Monaco, L., Lewin, A. B., & Goodman, W. K. (2006). Hope and coping in

family members of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20(5), 614-629.

Gum, A., Snyder C. R., & Duncan, P. W. (2006). Hopeful thinking, participation, and depressive symptoms three

months after stroke. Psychology and Health, 21(3), 319–334.

Hu, L. T., & Bnetler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structural analysis: Conventional

criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55.

Miller J. F., (1985). Hope Doesn't Necessary Spring Eternal Sometimes lt Has To Be Carefully Minedand

Channeled, American Journal of Nursing, 85, 22-25.

Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Collins, A. (1988). The cognitive structure of emotions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

University Press.

Romero, M. (1989). Hope and Outrome Anticipation, Dissertation Abstract International, 50(5) 1258-A.

Snyder C. R., (2004). Hope and depression: a light in the darkness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,

23(3), 347-351.

Snyder, C. R. (1994a). Hope and optimism. In V. S. Ramachandren (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 2,

pp. 535–542). San Diego, CA: Academic.

Snyder, C. R. (1994b). The psychology of hope: You can get there from here. New York: Free Press.

Snyder, C. R. (1998). Hope. In H. S. Friedman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of mental health (pp. 421–431). San Diego, CA:

Academic.

Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry, 13(4), 249-275.

Snyder, C. R., Cheavens, J.,&Michael, S. T. (1999). Hoping. In C. R. Snyder (Ed.),Coping: The psychology of what

works (pp. 205–231). New York: Oxford University Press.

Snyder, C. R., Irving, L., &Anderson, J. R. (1991). Hope and health: Measuring the will and the ways. In C. R.

Snyder & D. R. Forsyth (Eds.) Handbook of social and clinical psychology: The health perspective (pp. 285-305).

Elmsford, New York: Pergamon Press.

Snyder, C. R., Sympson, S. C., Ybasco, F. C., & Borders, T. F., Babyak, M. A.,&Higgins, R. L. (1996). Development

and validation of the State Hope Scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 321–335.

Stanton, A. L., Danoff-burg, S., & Huggins, M. E. (2002). The first year after breast cancer diagnosis: hope and

coping strategies as predictors of adjustment. Psycho-Oncology, 11(2), 93-102.


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CLASSROOM EFFECTS ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A SCHOOL

Habip Ozgan

Gaziantep University

Gaziantep- TURKEY

[email protected]

Mustafa Toprak

Zirve University

Gaziantep- TURKEY

[email protected]

Abstract

This study aims to assess the effects of classroom environment on the overall effectiveness of a school.

Whether steps towards effective schools should be taken from top-down, that is from leaders, or bottom-up,

that is from other members of school has been a matter of discussion. The truth is that a leadership that

cannot reach classes cannot be considered to be an effective leadership. Among many factors leading up to

effective schools, classroom environment is one of the most significant. Quality of classroom teaching and

learning, teachers’ characteristics, nature of teacher-student, student-teacher and student-student

interactions, the way conflicts are resolved in class, learning habits, attitudes towards learning and how these

factors are reflected on students’ academic success and their social and cognitive attitudes play a role in

increasing effectiveness of schools.

Key Words: Classroom Environment, Quality of Teaching, School Effectiveness, Teacher Characteristics.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, class-level effectiveness and quality of instruction in classes have gained importance for the

research on school and instruction. Whether school in macro-level influences class context or vice-versa has

been a matter of discussion for years. Delving into school effectiveness research liteature, it is possible to see

that there are a lot of studies showing that in order to ensure a change in a school, leadership, school-parents

cooperation, school climate and culture are indispensable assets. The questions that this study will focus on

are:

• Should school improvement efforts start from top or bottom level of the organization?

• What characteristics of classes contribute to overall school effectiveness of a school?

Leadership in school change efforts

As Townsend (1997) notes, nearly fifty discrete characteristics are identified as being consistent with improved

school effectiveness. Apart from these, in trying to put these characteristics in priority order, he enumerates a

lot of other qualities an effective school has to embody:

� A Clear School purpose (Policy),

� Academic and Administrative Leadership,

� Dedicated and Qualified Staff,

� Staff Development,

� High Expectations,

� Academic Focus on the curriculum,

� Time on task, Monitoring students Progress,

� Safe and Orderly Environment,

� Positive School Climate,

� Home school relations,


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� School-based decision making,

� Teachers take responsibility for and are involved in school planning,

� Positive motivational strategies,

� Opportunities for student involvement (Townsend, 1997).

Looking at all these features that are naturally among a school leader’s goals to be achieved, we can’t help

asking how all these characteristics could be integrated into a school culture. The question itself is harder than

coming up with all these characteristics mentioned. Taking school-context into account, we can conclude that

while theories behind school processes are of high importance, the “know-how” abilities that teachers, school

leaders and all other partners involved in schools have to own are crucial, as well. That’s, knowing about

implementation strategies will show the way the change will take place. In that sense, whether there will be a

bottom-up or top-down process in implementation process should be determined.

Elaborating more on top-down or buttom-up processes, the school change policies adopted in the US with the

publication of A Nation at Risk in 1983 shed light on how to initiate change plans. The policy sparked a major

wave of educational reform that focused on a need for greater governmental regulation of schools by raising

standards for graduation and increasing testing requirements. Mandates and inducements were the favored

policy instruments to promote excellence and efficiency (Stringfield, 1997). Decisions were made at the state

level under former President Reagan's new federalism, thus reducing local control at the school site level.

These reforms allowed teachers little freedom to decide the curriculum as a whole or to determine what to

teach in their classrooms (McNeil, 1988).

Policy makers soon concluded that top-down implementation of standardized policies did not meet the diverse

needs of students at the classroom level (Stringfield, 1997). The changes we are talking about in the US case

are whether they should be at state level or school level and the policy makers agreed that teachers are best

poised to make decisions about what their students need (Darling-Hammond, 1988). The failure seen by

American educationalists was that the change should occur from bottom to top not vice-versa. Transferring this

to school level, what we mean by bottom is of course class context and teacher characteristics and that any

change effort has to start from improvement of classes.

Class context, quality of instruction and its attributes

Class context is not only to be interpreted as a simple aggregation of students' characteristics, but as an

educational or socio-psychological construct with an additional potential of explanation beyond students'

characteristics. Class context also refers to instruction quality, knowledge structuring strategies, grade level,

socio-economic status of the students, cognitive prerequisites, ethnic composition, instructional styles, subject

matter, lesson segments (Wolfgang, Treinies, 1997). As John Anderson, the head of New American Schools

(NAS) articulates, national academics focus on the class level change which refers to well-designed materials

and more comprehensive, detailed professional development programs. Referring to the fact that systemic

changes should start from curriculum content enrichment, Schlecty (2005) believes that in order to have

engaged students who learn at high levels and have a profound grasp of what they learn, and who can transfer

what they learn to new contexts, instead of compliant students who find no meaning in what they learn in

class, who try to attain to miniums and only try to meet exit requirements, the content should be restructured

as to have content richness and texture by which he means curriculum content should appeal to students and

arise the desire to learn meaningfully.

We use the term 'class context' in this double meaning: (a) cognitive abilities as an aggregated characteristic,

(b) educational process as a global feature (Wolfgang, Treinies, 1997). Class context is the environment where

the core activities of schooling process take place. It is where teaching-learning take place, where social living

principles are learned and where students encounter emotional experiences. Restricting class context only to a

place where student strive for academic excellence is a misperception as students learn how to behave and

how to conduct social behaviors in micro-level, as well. So, in addition to academic dimensions, there are social

and emotional dimensions of a class context.


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In an international study, Scheerens, Vermeulen, and Pelgrum (1989) found that the class variables explained

more variance of students' achievement than school variables did (Wolfgang, Treinies, 1997). Mortimore

(1993), Scheerens (1993) and other researchers take the view that in the field of teaching research there are a

lot of important results which have not been integrated enough into research on school effectiveness (cited in:

Sammons, 95). Although, in his study about key characteristics of effective schools, Sammons (95) also stresses

that there is less evidence about classroom processes that are important in determining a school’s success,

later studies show the profound effects of class context on an effectiveness of a school. Within that context,

teachers are directly responsible for creating activities leading to results that will help students learn. (Schlecty,

2005).

Schools are made up of classes in the first place which are governed by teachers. In that sense, classes are the

building blocks of school the strength of which depends largely on how these blocks are constructed, how they

are managed and how they are maintained. Student outcomes to a great extend determines the success of a

school. Although from the point of view of many school leaders, academic outcomes such as test results are

the ultimate indicators of effective classes, schools are bound to achieve some social/affective outcomes, as

well. In that sense, a very “powerful learning and teaching” have to be achieved in classes (Hopkins, 2001).

Referring to that “powerful learning and teaching”, Hopkins (2001) maintains that ‘effective student learning’ is

commonly equated with a range of test scores or examination results, rather than something broader.

Powerful learning is more than just results and scores, it subsumes a range of cognitive and affective processes

and outcomes. The challenge is to find ways of raising levels of attainment while at the same time helping

students become more powerful learners, by expanding and making articulate their repertoire of learning

strategies.

A key focus for authentic school improvement is high quality teaching. This reflects the teacher’s ability to

create powerful learning experiences for her students. Successful teachers are not, as Joyce and Showers

(1991) note, simply charismatic, persuasive, and expert presenters; rather, they provide their students with

powerful cognitive and social tasks and teach them how to make productive use of them.

Talking about the evidence of effectiveness in a school, Sammons (1995) maintains that most school

effectiveness studies have focused on academic achievement in terms of basic skills in reading and

mathematics, or examination results (Goodlad, 1984). He also mentioned that only some studies provided

evidence of important differences in social/affective outcomes such as attendance, attitudes and behaviour

(Reynolds, 1976; Rutter et all, 1979; Mortimore et all,1988a). So, we may note that as schools exist and develop

in their social environment, it is very natural that they have a mission to shape characteristics of its members.

These members all go through and are influenced by schooling process (Sammons, 1995).

Of course, pupils come to schols with some intake characteristics and these also influence success of the

students. But, as schooling is a long process that influences students’ development largely, class context, the

way teachers behave and interact with students, the way students interact with each other, the way learning

occurs, the perceptions teacher and pupils hold towards learning and life in general have an overwhelming

effect on students outcomes.

In that sense, it is useful to claim that instructional climate is an important factor in determining school

effectiveness (Grift, Hutveen, Vermeulen, 1997). Grift, Hutveen and Vermeulen (1997) in their study on school

climate emphasize the fact that social school climate and social class climate have to be integrated. They point

out that student behaviour and student attitude (e.g. enjoyment in learning) can be seen as outcome measures

that can be influenced by learning climate. Schlecty (2005) makes a comparison between attendance,

compliance, attention and commmitment. He notes that school systems today function under the pretense of

compliance and attendance. Compliant and attendance do not produce learning while students who put

meaning to what they learn and identify with it are engaged learners. Compliant and attentive learners just do

what they are asked to do while engaged learners who are actively attending and committed to learning tasks

analyze and question what they are taught. Our classroom enivironments must be designed to make students

more engaged in the tasks they are given.


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Student behavior and student attitudes are good indicators for the quality of instructional climate (Grift,

Hutveen, Vermeulen, 1997). That’s why, it is possible to argue that safe, task-oriented, orderly learning

environment with useful teaching strategies will create desirable behaviors in students. Getting both

academically and social/affectively desirable behaviors from students will add to the strength of school

effectiveness.

Cohen (1983) also notes that school effectiveness is clearly dependent upon effective classroom teaching.

Similar conclusions about importance of teaching and learning at the classroom level are evident in reviews by

Scheerens (1992), Mortimore (1993) and Creemers (1994). Sammons (1995) mentions the quality as well as

the quantity of teaching and learning that take place in class.

Creemers (1994), likewise, in his book The Effective Classroom elaborates on class context and quality of

instruction and argues that the classroom is the most important place for achieving educational effectiveness.

It is acknowledged that teaching quality, time, and opportunity at the classroom level are influenced by factors

at the school and classroom level that may or may not promote these classroom factors. Thus, indirectly these

factors may contribute to students’ learning achievement as well, respectively may hinder this to take place.

So, it can be argued that while classroom outputs such as test scores, whether students are engaged in higher

order thinking skills influence the effectiveness of a school, school level variables such as positive instructional

climate, effective leadership, how innovation is perceived by all members of the school affect clasroom level

effectiveness. Creemers (1994)’ table that shows the details of quality of instruction is given below:

Figure 1. The basic model of educational effectiveness: quality of instruction (Creemers, 1994, p. 98).

For Creemers (1994), a quality instruction cannot be ensured without the quality of teacher behaviours,

grouping procedures and the design of curriculum. How teacher perceive these features add a lot to overall

quality of instruction and class context. He also maintains that the quality of instruction the details of which are

given above have a profound effect on the general effectiveness of a school. Schlecty (2005) argues that all

school programs that do not enhance student learning must be abandoned. A school’s first mission is to create

safe and rich learning environments, to come up with good works for students, and to annihilate obstacles

beyond teachers to achieve these goals.


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Paralell to the features mentioned by Creemers (1994), while talking about increasing the quality of instruction,

Hopkins (2001) touches upon four characteristics a powerful teacher has to have: a) the creation of powerful

learning experiences, b) perspectives on the research on curriculum and teaching, c) a framework for thinking

about teaching, d) the nature of teaching style (p.72).

a) Creating Powerful Learning Experiences: Teaching cannot be confined to only present the material and let it

happen. It is more about how to integrate learning content to learning experiences through use of appropriate

teaching strategies.

In Models of Learning: Tools for Teaching (Joyce et al., 1997: 7) the idea of powerful learning experiences is

expressed in this way:

“Learning experiences are composed of content, process and social climate. As teachers we create for and with

our children opportunities to explore and build important areas of knowledge, develop powerful tools for

learning, and live in humanising social conditions.”

It is the integration of ‘content, process and social climate’ that puts the ‘power’ into the powerful learning

experience. Bruner (1966:21) has written evocatively about the dialectic between curriculum, teaching and

learning. In his book, Towards a Theory of Instruction, he wrote:

“Let me conclude with one last point. What I have said suggests that mental

growth is in very considerable measure dependent upon growth from the

outside in – a mastering of techniques that are embodied in the culture and

that are passed on in a contingent dialogue by agents of the culture.”

There is a similarity between Bruner’s notion of ‘mental growth’ and what has been referred to here as

‘powerful learning’. He argues convincingly for an integration of the ways in which individuals develop and

grow, the ways in which they are taught, and what it is that they are taught. Teaching is more than just

presenting material, it is about infusing curriculum content with appropriate instructional strategies that are

selected in order to achieve the learning goals the teacher has for her students (Hopkins, 2001). It will be more

useful if students not only learn but also experience whatever they are involved in the class. The person who

has the most responsibility in that sense is of course the class teacher.

b) Perspectives on the research on curriculum and teaching: One of the most important barriers for creating

an effective class context and teaching methods is that most teachers are not informed enough about the

research on teaching. The lack of profound knowledge and insights about curriculum designs and learning

strategies result in problems that put obstacles beyond effective teaching. In addition to not knowing enough

about the nature of teaching and learning, teachers often do not keep up with the latest developments in their

area. Joyce (1997: 43) mentions some key lessons for school improvement and for creating effective class:

• There are a number of well-developed models of teaching and curriculum that generate substantially high

levels of student learning than does normative practice.

• The most effective curricular and teaching patterns induce students to construct knowledge – to enquire

into subject areas intensively. The result is to increase student capacity to learn and to work more

effectively.

• The most effective models of curriculum and teaching increase learning capacity for all students, greatly

reducing the effects of gender, socioeconomic status, linguistic background, and learning styles as factors

in student learning.

This is just one model teachers have to be updated about. Learning about the nature of learning, various

curriculum designs, learning behaviors will all lead to a more powerful class context.

c) A framework for thinking about teaching: How teaching and its nature is viewed by individual teacher

contributes a lot to the quality of teaching. How teacher maintains his relationships with students, how he

integrates his teaching skills into meaningful learning experiences are very important in creating a positive

atmosphere in a class. Teachers’ skills, relationships they create with students and the models they base their

teaching are important in creating that class atmosphere (Hopkins, 2001).


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d) The Nature of Teaching Style: Teaching style refers to teacher perceptions, teaching models and strategies.

It is about how teacher reflects on teaching processes. In his book, School Improvement for Real, Hopkins

(2001:90) notes that it is through reflection that the teacher harmonises, integrates and transcends the

necessary classroom management skills, the acquisition of a repertoire of models of teaching, and the personal

aspects of her teaching into a strategy that has meaning for her students.

In a comparative study of policies aimed at improving teacher quality conducted for the OECD six

characteristics of high quality teachers were identified (Hopkins and Stern, 1996):

• commitment

• love of children

• mastery of subject didactics

• a repertoire of multiple models of teaching

• the ability to collaborate with other teachers

• a capacity for reflection.

All these factors constitute powerful teaching which powerful teachers carry out, leading to powerful class

context with powerful students which will ultimately result in powerful and effective schools.

Class Culture vs. School Culture

Each class is a unique entity with its pupils, teacher, resources and interactions going on. That is what Fullan

(2007) means by asserting that classes have different “personalities” (p.24). Classes obviously develop their

own “culture”, genuine styles of a more formal interaction or of an interaction which has higher cognitive

demands. The research on school effectiveness and on instruction should try to identify further types of class

contexts, such as types resulting from groups of student characteristics and types resulting within the cognitive

and socio-emotional domain (Brady, 2005).

Teachers are very effective in creating a sub-culture, in other words, class culture. However, when creating this

culture, they have to be extra vigilant to create a culture consistent with school culture. According to Page

(1987:) , teachers’ definitions of students reflect the culture of the educational organizations and are,

simultaneously, one of its defining elements (p. 89), a factor that is related directly to the manner in which they

interact with their students (Brady, 2005).

DISCUSSION AND RESULTS

Studies on school effectiveness imply that creating an effective school is a long-term process that starts with

small steps each of which has to be taken cautiously. Research also show that a school leader has to create

common values, shared rules and agreed-upon strategies while increasing effectiveness of a school. So as to

achieve this end, all members of the school community have to believe in change and strive for excellence in

that community. Among the most important assets of a school community are students and teachers.

Teachers’ perceptions, their interactions with students, problem-solving strategies, learning habits, perceptions

about learning, how these perceptions are transferred to student are of high importance in creating an

effective class. One of three dimensions mentioned by Fullan (2007) as the possible use of new teaching

approaches refers to classroom effects In order to create effective schools and bring about positive change.

While turning ineffective schools into effective ones is seen as a daunting task, decision makers who launch

such efforts must pay strong attention to what is going in classes. Classes are where the culture,- in its small

sense-, is created in a school. As every school has a culture, each class with its culture comprises the big

picture, that is, school culture. So, in order to create a strong culture that is open to change in a school, the first

place to start is to create a desirable class culture. It’s crucial to note here that creating a positive school

culture is hard without a positive class culture, since “a sense of belonging to a community” initiates from

inside a positive class environment. Effective classes give a “driving force” to effectiveness of a school. So, it will

not be an exaggeration to claim that effectiveness in a school is hard to attain unless the core of school

community is enhanced and empowered. And, that core is the class and its members.


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REFERENCES

Brady, P. (2005) Inclusionary and exclusionary secondary schools: the effect of school culture on student

outcomes. Lakehead University, Interchange, Vol. 36/3, 295-311.

Bruner, J. (1966) Towards a theory of instruction, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Cohen, M. (1983). Instructional management and social conditions in effective schools. School Finance And

School Improvement. Linkages in 1980s. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.

Creemers, B. (1994). The effective classroom. London / New York: Routledge.

Darling-Hammond, L. (1988). Policy and professionalism. In A. Lieberman (Ed.), Buildinga professional culture in

schools. New York: Teachers College Press.

Einsiedler, W., & Treinies, G. (1997). Effects of teaching methods, class effects, and patterns of cognitive

teacher-pupil interactions in an experimental study in primary school classes. School Effectiveness and School

Improvement, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 327-353.

Fullan, M. (2007). The new meaning of educational change. Teachers College Press.

Grift, W., & Houtveen, T., & Vermeulen C. (1997). Instructional climate in dutch secondary education. School

Effectiveness and School Improvement.8, No. 4, pp. 449-162.

Hopkins, D.(2001). School improvement for real. Taylor & Francis e-Library:2004.

Hopkins, D. & Stern, D. (1996) Quality teachers, quality schools. Teaching and Teacher Education, 12 (5): 1–170.

Joyce, B. R. & Showers, B. (1995) Student achievement through staff development. 2nd edn, White Plains, NY:

Longman.

Joyce, B. R. , & Calhoun, E. F., & Hopkins, D. (1997) Models for teaching: tools for learning. Buckingham: Open

University Press.

McNeil, L. M. (1988). Contradictions of control: School structure and school knowledge. New York: Routledge.

Opdenakker, M., & Van Damme J. (2000) Effects of schools, teaching staff and classes on achievement and well-

being in secondary education: similarities and differences between school outcomes. School Effectiveness and

School Improvement Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 165–196.

Page, R. (1987). Teachers’ perceptions of students: A link between classrooms, school cultures and the social

order. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 18, 77-99.

Sammons, P., & Hillman, J., & Mortimore, P. (1995). Key characteristics of effective schools: a review of school

effectiveness research. London Univ. Institute of Education, London.

Schlecty, P. ( 2005). Shaking up the school house: how to support and sustain educational innovation. Jossey

Bass.


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Stringfield, S., & Datnow, A., & Herman, R., & Berkeley C. (1997). Introduction to the memphis restructuring

initiative. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 3-35.

Townsend, T. (1997). What makes schools effective? A comparison between school communities in Australia

and the USA. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 311-326 .

Werf, G. (1997). Differences in school and İnstruction characteristics between high-average and low-effective

schools. School Effectiveness and School Improvement. Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 430-448.


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GADAMER'S PHILOSOPHICAL HERMENEUTICS ON EDUCATION

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Feryal Cubukcu

Dokuz Eylul University

Izmir, TURKEY

[email protected]

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to examine philosophical hermeneutics as a referent for language learning

concepts. This study seeks to explicate a descriptive set of principles based on Hans Georg Gadamer’s theory of

interpretation that has the potential for developing dispositions necessary for understanding. Central among

these are the concepts of forestructure, prejudice, temporal distance, history of effect, dialogue, writing,

tradition, virtue and culture all of which constitute part of the whole of the hermeneutic circle as envisaged by

Gadamer. As such, Gadamer’s hermeneutics is contrasted with Cartesian epistemology and its primacy of

method, the Enlightenment’s prejudice against prejudice, the modernist/progressive tendency to consider all

situations as problems to be solved by relegating all forms of knowledge to techné, and the subjective nature

of interpretation inherent in a hermeneutics of suspicion. While he did not write extensively on the subject of

education, Gadamer is credited with developing a hermeneutics not as an attempt to prescribe a method or set

of methods for understanding but to discover what is common to all modes of understanding and to show that

understanding is never a subjective relation to a given ‘object’ but to the history of its effect.

Key Words: Gadamer, education, understanding.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study is to examine philosophical hermeneutics as a referent for language learning

concepts.This study seeks to explicate a descriptive set of principles based on Hans Georg Gadamer’s theory of

interpretation that has the potential for developing dispositions necessary for understanding. Central among

these are the concepts of forestructure, prejudice, temporal distance, history of effect, dialogue, writing,

tradition, virtue and culture all of which constitute part of the whole of the hermeneutic circle as envisaged by

Gadamer. As such, Gadamer’s hermeneutics is contrasted with Cartesian epistemology and its primacy of

method, the Enlightenment’s prejudice against prejudice, the modernist/progressive tendency to consider all

situations as problems to be solved by relegating all forms of knowledge to techné, and the subjective nature

of interpretation inherent in a hermeneutics of suspicion. While he did not write extensively on the subject of

education, Gadamer is credited with developing a hermeneutics not as an attempt to prescribe a method or set

of methods for understanding but to discover what is common to all modes of understanding and to show that

understanding is never a subjective relation to a given ‘object’ but to the history of its effect; in other words,

understanding belongs to the being of that which is understood.

FORESTRUCTURES

According to Gadamer, Heidegger’s Being and Time provides the hermeneut with a circle of understanding that

is comprised of working out a series of fore-structures (fore-having, fore-sight, and fore-conception) in an

attempt to project a meaning for a given text. Furthermore, understanding is possible only when these fore-

structures are not arbitrary but rather considered in light of the things themselves. Gadamer is explicit in

suggesting that what is constitutive to the art of understanding involves not a subjugation of these particular

fore-structure rather a hermeneutic consciousness that remains open to the meaning of the other. Of course,

this does not mean that when we listen to someone or read a book we must forget all our fore-meanings

concerning the content and all our own ideas. All that is asked is that we remain open to the meaning of the

other person or text. But this openness always includes our situating the other meaning in relation to the


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whole of our own meanings or ourselves in relation to it…this kind of sensitivity involves neither neutrality with

respect to content nor the extinction of one’s self, but the foregrounding and appropriation of one’s own fore-

meanings and prejudices. The important thing is to be aware of one’s own bias, so that the text can present

itself in all its otherness and assert its own truth against one’s own fore-meanings.

HISTORICAL HORIZONS

In explaining the history of effect as it relates to a fusion of horizons, Gadamer (1977) further distinguishes his

notion of understanding predicated on a dialogical interchange between the past and the present:

Understanding tradition undoubtedly requires a historical horizon then. For what do we mean by transposing

ourselves? Certainly not just disregarding ourselves. This is necessary insofar as we must imagine the other

situation. But into this other situation we must bring, precisely, ourselves. Transposing ourselves consists

neither in the empathy of one individual for another nor in subordinating another person to our own

standards; rather it always involves rising to a higher universality that overcomes not only our own particularity

but also that of the other. To acquire a horizon means that one learns to look beyond what is close at hand- not

in order to look away from it, but to see it better, within a larger whole and in truer proportion. The horizon of

the present cannot be formed without the past. Rather understanding is always the fusion of these horizons

supposedly existing by themselves. The hermeneutic task consists in not covering up this tension (between

horizons) by attempting a naïve assimilation of the two but in consciously bringing it out.

Gadamer next addresses the concept of experience (Erfahrung) for the philosophical hermeneut. He contends

that self knowledge cannot be separated from experience as in the case of knowing how to do for oneself. The

latter form of reasoning is predicated on a teleological view of experience that concerns itself with the

knowledge to be gained through a confirmable event. Gadamer favors a dialectic of experience that has its

proper fulfillment not in definitive knowledge but in the openness to experience that is made possible by

experience itself. In describing the dispositions characteristic of the experienced person, Gadamer writes that

the consummation of his experience, the perfection that we call being experienced, does not consist in the fact

that someone already knows everything and knows better than anyone else. Rather, the experienced person

proves to be, on the contrary, someone who, because of the many experiences he has had and the knowledge

he has drawn from them, is particularly well equipped to have new experiences and to learn from them.

Gadamer’s hermeneutics considers understanding as capable of being enlarged into different understandings,

not necessarily superior or better, than those inherited from the horizon of tradition. Such a perspective is

predicated on the aforementioned Gadamerian notions of experience and questioning, both of which seek to

retain an open dialectic that does not admit of routine or foreclosure. Philosophical hermeneutics additionally

permits a reconsideration of these assessments in light of its insistence on an inseparable relation between

understanding and application.

LISTENING AND DIALOGUE

For Gadamer, what hermeneutics means is understanding (das Verstehen). What anyone is attempting to do in

the hermeneutical situation is to understand the other, to understand the text. In this attempt to understand,

one is trying to come to an understanding with the other. Gadamer offers us the model of the dialogue. A basic

presupposition of the dialogue, within which we attempt to come to an understanding, is a good will toward

the other. In the essay, “Text and Interpretation,” Gadamer (Palmer, 2007: 172) writes: “Thus for a written

conversation basically the same fundamental condition obtains as for an oral exchange. Both partners must

have the good will to try to understand one another”, which calls humility.

Genuine listening or careful reading asks that we let the text or our partner in dialogue speak to us and possibly

correct us. Gadamer clearly sees trust, humility, modesty, fidelity, and carefulness as the hermeneutic virtues.

At the core of this is what Donald Davidson calls “the principle of charity”(1980) and Jonathan Lear, “the

principle of humanity.”(2006:4) Virtues are appropriate of a discipline; principles, of a method. Recall the

concluding line of Truth and Method (2006): what method cannot achieve, discipline (or a habit of mind) can

provide—a warrant for truth.


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Gadamer develops his account of the interpretation of a text on the model of a dialogue or conversation

between two speakers. There is a limit to the way a text can act as a partner in a dialogue. As Plato has

Socrates point out in Phaedrus 275D, texts quite literally say the same thing over and over again. It is with

regard to the written text (and not the dialogical partner of oral speech) that Gadamer advocates the

submission/service/subordination of the reader to the text. For example, in “Text and Interpretation,”

Gadamer writes, with regard to the interpretation of written texts, that the interpreter has no other function

than to disappear completely into the achievement of full harmony in understanding. The discourse of the

interpreter is therefore not itself a text; rather it serves a text (Michelfelder & Palmer, 1989: 41). There is no

intention [in the interpretation of texts] to place the realization of the text aside from the text itself. On the

contrary, the ultimate ideal of appropriateness seems to be total self-effacement because the meaning

[Verständnis] of the text has become self-evident.

Focusing less on the prejudice structures inherent in understanding and considering that the goal of dialogue,

for Gadamer, is to reach an understanding that centers less on asserting one’s point of view and more on

individual transformation, he contends that the personal growth is at the center of the dialogical interplay as

well as development of the cognition and understanding.

TEXT AND WRITING

As noted earlier in this paper, the center of Gadamer’s hermeneutics is an account of understanding

(Verstehen) according to which we attempt to come to an understanding (Verständigung) with the other, be it

a text or a dialogical partner. In addition to Plato, there is a second moment in the history of philosophy for

which irony is extremely important and which is also important for Gadamer—the moment of German

romanticism, especially the work of Friedrich Schlegel. It is telling that one of F. Schlegel’s most important

writings on irony is entitled: “Über die Unverständlichkeit”—literally, “On Nonunderstandability” or, as it has

been translated, “On Incomprehensibility.” In short, what makes a text incomprehensible for Schlegel is irony.

How does a Gadamerian hermeneutic withstand the challenge of irony and the hermeneutics of German

romanticism?

We need to unmask the text, to find the deeper meaning behind the surface meaning. This seems very like the

hermeneutical task that psychoanalysis and the critique of ideology set for themselves. Gadamer is here

acknowledging the importance of this question when he writes that this presents one of the most difficult

hermeneutic problems.We might be led to think that if the text does not say what it means, that we need to

concern ourselves with what the author or speaker ironically means—that is, that the intention of the author

would become primary in this context. Gadamer insists 1) that such texts are the exception (Ausnahmefall ),

and 2) that the key to the unmasking irony can be understood only by someone who shares his knowledge of

the subject matter. He reterates his claim that artistic irony can be understood by someone who shares his

knowledge of the subject matter.

Texts are meant for raeders who do not share the same lived context with the author. It is this not being a part

of the immediate lived experience of the reader that constitutes a text for Gadamer and why he rejects notes,

letters, transcribed conversations, or tape recordings as genuine texts. A challenge for the written text is to

provide, to some degree, its own context. What people take the primacy of the spoken to mean for Gadamer is

the primacy of lived experience that has linguistic, nonlinguistic,and pre-linguistic aspects and this primacy

points to the central significance, again, of die Sache, the matter at hand, for language and lived experience are

always of something. Here we see the “phenomenological” side of Gadamer’s hermeneutics. In his later work

Gadamer is much concerned with the limits of language and the limits of understanding. For him, this concern

for limits is simply the other side of the concern for the conditions of understanding, which is closely tied to

language and which predominates in Truth and Method (1989).

The text, which is simply linguistic—that is, words on a page—may evoke lived experience and the limits of

speech and understanding through words. We see the priority of the spoken even for the text that is not

derived from the spoken, as Gadamer develops his account of the text by discussing the text’s “ideality” and


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the reader’s “inner ear” ( Palmer, 2007:145).The text prescribes how it is to be read. In this reading, though it

be silent, we hear it in our “inner ear.”

For Gadamer, what is spoken and not written is not a form of writing. What is written is not necessarily a text.

Gadamer, in contrast to Derrida, does give a certain kind of priority to spoken discourse; but the highest form

of writing, that is, the texts of literature and poetry, prescribe what is to be said and are not derivative from

spoken discourse. For Gadamer, as we have seen, the priority of the spoken does not mean that a text is

derived from or refers back to spoken speech; rather it refers forward to repetition in speech, if only for the

inner ear. This kind of priority Derrida does not consider.

TRUTH

Gadamer’s definition of truth is not scientific, but humanistic. It is not the traditional Western “correspondence

theory of truth,” which means that an objective statement corresponds correctly to a public fact, or the

“pragmatic theory of truth,” that whatever works is true. No, the ideals of the ancients, of Plato and Aristotle,

echo in Gadamer’s thinking. Gadamer speaks of the striking truth, the radiance of art shining forth in the work

of poetry or visual art or the persuasiveness of poetic truth because it appeals to what we all recognize to be

true. The truth of a tragic play, for instance, is one experienced so that afterward, one says, “So true!”

Gadamer’s concept goes back to Plato,where truth is closely associated with what is right and also with beauty.

When one lives truthfully or in truth, one lives up to being a father, a son, a wife, or a minister of the state. It is

a truth that grows out of the social fabric of the tradition, a truth that one “recognizes” as true.

TEXTUAL CONTEMPORANEITY

The German word Zeitlichkeit in Gadamer refers to the fact that a text of poetry or of philosophy or a great

work of art speaks as vividly and compellingly today as when it was created—if it is truly poetry, truly

philosophy, or truly art. This is almost magical. It overcomes time! The work can be written or created 2,500

years ago or only five hundred or a hundred years ago, but it is as relevant now as it was then, if it is humanly

true in the deeper sense of truth. If it is a “classic,” its truth shines through and has been confirmed over and

over in our experience of it. This is the reason it is so important to preserve the great works of art, poetry,

philosophy, and religion of the past. This is something Gadamer worked on for his whole life. This is the

significance and importance of Bildung, of culture. In his education to prepare a perfect Gentleman and civil

servant, education trains a person not only in mathematics and logic, but also in the arts and poetry, in history,

in literature.This is the fabric that humanizes and creates the Gentleman.

PHRONESIS (“PRACTICAL WISDOM” IN GREEK)

The term phronesis in Aristotle’s ethics refers to the ability of a person to make wise judgments in practical,

personal, and political matters.Gadamer takes this term from Aristotle and integrates it into his hermeneutical

theory. In the case of phronesis, for both Gadamer and Aristotle, one’s understanding and judgment are part of

the social fabric, the fabric of tradition. These are at work in wise and personal judgments as well as in the

decisions one makes in public life. For Gadamer, it is in the context of the social–historical–linguistic fabric of

one’s life (one’s wirkungsgeschichtliches Bewusstsein or “historically effected consciousness”) that one makes

wise judgments. The parallel in the Confucian tradition is the Gentleman ( junzi) who thinks and lives well. Of

course, the Gentleman has a piety for his parents and ancestors that is deeper than that of Gadamer for his

familial and philosophical for ebearers, a piety that is expressed in ritual sincerely practiced. But Gadamer’s

respect for culture, tradition, and authority sets him apart from most other Western philosophers.

APPLICATION

Application is one of the most central concepts in Gadamer’s hermeneutical philosophy. For him, in contrast to

many others in the hermeneutical tradition, to understand a text is not just to know what it means; rather, it is

to grasp how it would apply today and in one’s own personal life and understanding. Here Gadamer draws

upon the tradition of Western law, where one not only has a set of rules and prescriptions, or a constitution


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and set of laws, but also needs to see how these rules would apply to the current situation. In religious texts,

also, one needs to see what their relevance and application would be to one’s own life and situation. It is not

enough just to see that the Good Samaritan cares for the man in trouble beside the road, while the Priest and

the Levite have walked past him on the other side of the road; one needs to grasp what this means for how one

personally lives now in relation to those who are currently our neighbors and are in need of help. But Gadamer

is not satisfied to limit applicatio to either interpreting the body of law in legal judgments or with the practical

interpretation of scripture, sometimes called “the proclamation of theWord.” No, he elevates applicatio to a

general principle of all understanding! To truly understand a text is to see its application, its context, and

direction of meaning; it is to get the point (Palmer, 2006: 85).

TRADITION

Tradition in Gadamer’s German is Überlieferung—that is, that which is “handed down,” or handed over to us,

but which nevertheless has to be made alive and meaningful today through interpretation. Gadamer is

skeptical of claims made during the eighteenth-century Enlightenment period that tradition is a dogma that

must be transcended and overcome by reason. Palmer (2006) uses a consciousness in which history is always at

work, which other translators are satisfied to translate it as a historically effected consciousness. In any case,

for Gadamer’s hermeneutics, to understand anything is already to have a pre-understanding of the topic

involved, of the language, of the question involved. All of these are shaped by the historical situation in which

one finds oneself. Some translators call this phenomenon the historicity of understanding. In short, the

consciousness in which we understand what we understand is already pre-shaped by history.This means we

cannot escape from a prior understanding, which Gadamer provocatively calls people’s prejudice. Gadamer

even defends prejudice as he understands it as necessary and in many cases fruitful. He puts a positive spin on

certain prejudices, but not on racial, cultural, or religious prejudices. One should certainly try to become aware

of one’s prejudices and to purge those that are undesirable. On the other hand, one can never purge oneself of

one’s language, which has certain ways of seeing built into it, nor can one purge oneself of the historical

moment and place in which one finds oneself, and these influence the way one understands and interprets a

text or an utterance. This is what Gadamer calls the historically effective consciousness. One should not purge

oneself of one’s tradition but rather become conscious of its positive and negative sides, and try to overcome

the undesirable prior beliefs.

CONVERSATION, DIALOGUE

Conversation or dialogue is a central element in Gadamer’s hermeneutics. This emphasis comes out of

Gadamer’s studies of the dialogues of Plato, where he became an expert. As he learned from them, Socrates

always assumed as part of his dialogic method that the other person could be right [Greek: eumeneis elenchoi];

in dialogue he saw himself and the other person engaged in a common quest for truth. This assumption

created a hermeneutical openness to the other person. In the outstanding recent book on Gadamer by James

Risser, Hermeneutics is the “art of listening” to the voice of the other, the art of hearing the voice of the text in

a deep and dialogical way (Palmer, 2006). He places a high value on tradition; both emphasize the importance

of virtue, culture, and poetry; and both value harmony and balance in social life.

Gadamer believes that language is by nature the language of conversation. Three central themes that a

hermeneutic analysis of questioning offers education are what Bingham (2005:27) calls ‘non-superficiality’,

‘pedagogical humility’, and ‘circuitry’. As Gadamer put it during his interchange with Habermas around the

scope of hermeneutics, there is no societal reality, with all its concrete forces, that does not bring itself to

representation in a consciousness that is linguistically articulated. Reality does not happen behind the back of

language … reality happens precisely within language’. Gadamer explains the circuitry of the questioning

process as follows: To understand a question means to ask it. To understand meaning is to understand it as the

answer to a question. In other words, the process of questioning, once begun by a person in a particular

situation, requires that the recipient of the question must walk in the shoes of the questioner, must experience

the questioner’s particular situation. The one-questioned must do more than simply acquire a questioner’s

humility; she must also acquire the particular humility that the questioner used to pose the question in a


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particular way. The one-questioned needs to be able to think through the question from the questioner’s

position, or, in other words, she must be in a position to pose the same question in the same way.

As is seen above, there is no simple definition for hermeneutics. Broadly speaking, hermeneutics is a

philosophical mode of thought. In a more general definition, hermeneutics is regarded as the art of philosophy

of interpretation and understanding. Likewise, Dostal (2002: 81) defines hermeneutics as a historical circle in

which our understanding is oriented by the effective history or history of influences of that which we are trying

to understand. Hermeneutics then claims that the meaning of a text is richer than the content the author

intended, while deconstruction says meaning is indeterminate and beyond authorial control. An easy example

for hermeneutics may be this: The Ancient Greek Philosopher Aristotle’s in his “Poetica” explained the rules of

‘Tragedies’ how to be written. But most of the pages about comedies in his book are lost. By applying

hermeneutics here, we must think about Aristotle’s personality and thoughts and subsequently write like

Aristoteles in such a way that what he must have said about “comedy”. Therefore, it would not be surprisingly

to say that hermeneutics includes traces which give evidence of a former influence of something. Because of

this, hermeneutics is a footprint which is left by the text to the reader.

In short, establishing the principles of historical effect, temporal distance, prejudice, and forestructures then is

integral to the development of a hermeneutic consciousness and these same principles allow Gadamer to

expound on a series of topics, namely the priority of the question, the meaning of experience, and the idea of

application even in the field of language learning where it is indispensable for teachers to establish a good

rapport with students to help them proceed from the already acquired experiences to the new ones, apply the

new language items to the personal life experiences and practice vigorously.

REFERENCES

Bingham, C. (2005) Hermeneutics of Education, Philosophy of Education, 24, 1-18.

Davidson, D. (1980) Essays on Actions and Events, Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Davidson, D. (1984) Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation, Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Dostal, R . ( 2002) The Cambridge Companion of Gadamer. Cambridge. CUP.

Gadamer, H. G (1976) “On the Scope and Function of Hermeneutical Reflection.” In Philosophical Hermeneutics,

ed. David E. Linge, 18-44. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Gadamer, H. G (1976) “Universality of the Problem.” In Philosophical Hermeneutics,ed. David E. Linge, 3-18.

Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Gadamer, H. G.(1976) “On the Problem of Self Understanding.” In Philosophical Hermeneutics, ed. David E.

Linge, 44-59. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Gadamer, H. G. (1988) “On the Circle of Understanding.” In Hermeneutics vs. Science, eds. John Connolly and

Thomas Keutner, 68-78. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.

Gadamer, H. G. (1989) Truth and Method, translated by J. Weinsheimer and D. G. Marshall, New York:

Continuum.

Gadamer, H.G. (1994) “What is Truth?” In Hermeneutics and Truth, ed. Brice R. Wachterhauser, 33-46.

Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.

Gadamer, H. G. (1977) Philosophical Hermeneutics. Translated and edited by David E. Linge. LA. University of

Berkeley.


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Gadamer, H. G. (2001) “Education is Self-Education.” Journal of Philosophy of Education 35, no. 4 (2001): 529-

538.

Gadamer, H. G. (2006) Truth and Method. Translated by Joel Weinsheimer and Donald Marshall. New York, NY:

Continuum Press, 2006.

Lear, J. (2006) Radical Hope.Boston: Harvard University Press.

Michelfelder, D. & Palmer R. (1989) Dialogue and Deconstruction. NY: State University of NY.

Palmer , R. (2006) Gadamer and Confucius. The Journal of Chinese Philosophy, 33,1, 81-92.

Palmer , R. (2007) The Gadamer Reader. Tubingen . Northwestern University Press.


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EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAINING THE CHOICE THEORY OF GLASSER TO TEACHERS

ON IMPROVEMENT OF STUDENTS' ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION

Omar Kianipour

Allame Tabataba'i University

Department of Psychology and Educational Sciences

Tehran- IRAN

[email protected]

Barzan Hoseini

Allame Tabataba'i University

Department of Psychology and Educational Sciences

Tehran- IRAN

[email protected]

Abstract

Improvement of students' academic qualification is one of the main concerns of any educational system, then

psychological and counseling theories may be applied in the way of reaching the point. This research

investigated the effectiveness of training the Choice Theory of Glasser to teachers on improvement of students'

academic qualification. The study was One Group Pre-Post Test Quasi Experimental Design. Statistical universe

included all teachers of Sarv Abad( a city in Iran, Kurdistan Province) Education Office and teahers in Ghaleji

Secondary School were selected as sample conveniencely. 8 sessions of training the Choice Theory were

implemented for teachers. Within-Subject ANOVA was applied to analyze data; results showed significant

difference between students' scores in pre and post test(P<0/01). Training the Choice Theory could affect and

improve students' academic qualification.

Key Words: Academic qualification, choice theory, Glasser, Sarv Abad

INTRODUCTION

Educating today’s children is in constant flux. Keeping students motivated and eager to learn is an important

task. Educators must use strategies to keep students engaged in their learning and provide an education that

will meet the needs of today’s society. According to Hatch and Bowers (2002), the primary mission of school

counselors is to support and encourage academic achievement. Many school counselors often try to work in

isolation to meet the needs of students, even though the ratio of students to counselors is usually very high.

This approach might indicate success, but only for a small number of students, usually the very high or very low

achieving students. The American School Counselor Association (ASCA,2005) has provided a clear and concise

definition of what constitutes a school counseling program in the modern age: A school counseling program is

comprehensive in scope, preventative in design and developmental in nature. The ASCA National Model: A

Framework for School Counseling Programs is written to reflect a comprehensive approach to program

foundation, delivery management and accountability. School counseling programs are designed to ensure that

every student receives the program benefits. (p.13).

School counseling programs exist to provide services and implement programming that has a positive impact

on student achievement. In this study, the influence of a school counselor-directed training program for

educators that teaches the theory and methods of William Glasser’s Choice Theory and Reality Therapy was

examined. The beliefs behind the teacher training program are that school climate will improve, and as a result

achievement scores will increase. William Glasser’s model focuses on improving the responsibility level of

students by helping them realize that they are in control of themselves. This often increases intrinsic

motivation. One of the theories about why achievement will increase as a result of using choice theory and

reality theory methods is because students will be more intrinsically motivated to learn.


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The ASCA Model (2005) suggests that school counselors need to be more active in the systemic processes of

the school and collaborate with teachers, parents, administration, and outside services to provide

comprehensive services to a larger number of students. A school counseling based intervention program of

training teachers and staff is one way that a school counselor can use systemic methods to collaborate with

school personnel to reach more students (ASCA, 2005).

Training teachers how to utilize the theory and strategies of William Glasser’s (1998) CT/RT is an example of a

collaborative and systemic intervention program that is aligned with ASCA (2005) and the Education Trusts’

definition of the role of the school counselor (The Education Trust, 2009). The premise of the program operates

on the belief that if the classroom climate is a positive learning environment, then motivation will increase,

behavioral problems will decrease, and school attendance will improve, which ultimately leads to enhanced

academic success (Glasser, 2010).

The main precept of choice theory is based on the idea that people choose behaviors to attempt to meet their

basic needs met. Glasser describes the five basic needs that all humans possess as love and belonging, fun,

freedom, power, and survival. The needs do not exist on a hierarchy; rather, everyone has different levels of

need strength (Glasser, 1998). Glasser (1998) believes that relationships are paramount to living a healthy life

and that all ills can be traced back to a relationship deficit or problem.

Theoretically, if a person’s basic needs are not met, then he or she will act in a way to get his or her needs met.

For instance, a student who does not feel powerful may be disruptive in class to feel more in control. If a

teacher recognizes that the student does not feel powerful in his or her life, then a teacher might respond with

giving the student an opportunity to gain power in a healthy way. As a result, the power is met in a positive

way and the need to disrupt to meet his or her power need will dissipate. Many times teachers might have to

share their power to allow students to have some influence on the classroom climate and rules. This can be

very difficult for teachers to do; however, the results are usually worthwhile. A high school teacher in Detroit,

Michigan who uses reality therapy in her classroom reports “I had to give up power, to gain power” (Agency for

Instructional Technology DVD, 1994). She has seen an increase in student participation, motivation, and

achievement, and a decrease in discipline infractions (Agency for Instructional Technology DVD, 1994).

Glasser believes that CT/RT is a perfect match for improving achievement in schools. He wrote the books

Schools without Failure in 1969, Control Theory in the Classroom in 1986, The Quality School in 1990, and Every

Student Can Succeed in 2000. Some schools across the country have incorporated Glasser’s ideas according to

his program for implementation and are categorized as “quality schools”. Currently there are schools that are

labeled as quality schools across the United States of America (Wubbolding, Roby, & Brickell, 2011).

Glasser purported that part of the reason CT/RT is effective in the classroom is because students begin to

operate from an internal locus of control rather than an external locus of control. The act of learning becomes

a part of a student’s quality world, and intrinsic motivation becomes more meaningful than extrinsic rewards

(Glasser, 1992/1998). Deci, Ryan, and Koestner (1999) completed a meta-analysis of research studies

measuring the impact of intrinsic rewards compared to extrinsic rewards to change behavior. The results

showed that intrinsic rewards were significantly better than extrinsic rewards for creating positive change.

Extrinsic rewards might work at first, but after the extrinsic reward was removed, the unwanted behaviors

resumed (Deci,Ryan, & Koestner, 1999).

Parish (1992) discussed the importance of teachers being able to model efficient behaviors that help students

learn about CT/RT. If teachers are continually operating from an external focus, then it will be next to

impossible for students to be able to operate from an internal locus of control and get their basic needs met

(Parish, 1992). Therefore, teachers need to realize how they feel when they are valued, given tasks they

perceive as meaningful, and not coerced to behave in certain ways as an educator, spouse, parent,

etc.(Glasser,1990; Parrish, 1992). Chances are that teachers will feel more motivated to perform well in their

role, just as students will be more motivated to achieve.


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As mentioned above, the role of the school counselor is to remove barriers to learning that ultimately affect

school achievement . A school counseling based intervention program of training teachers and staff is one way

that a school counselor can use systemic methods to collaborate with school personnel to reach more

students; so the intent of this study is to determine if training the Choice Theory of Glasser to teachers

improves students' academic qualification.

METHOD

The study was One Group Pre-Post Test Quasi Experimental Design. Statistical universe included all teachers of

Sarv Abad( a city in Iran, Kurdistan Province) Education Office and teahers in Ghaleji Secondary School were

selected as sample conveniencely. After giving monthly report cards to students in September, teachers of one

classroom(included 24 students) were asked to participate in a training course on the basis of Choice Theory of

Glasser in order to improve academic qualification of students. School counselor was in charge of performing

the course. 8 sessions of training the Choice Theory were implemented for teachers which lasted 1 month.

After giving monthly report cards to students in December, researchers compared scores of students in

September and December. Within-Subject ANOVA was applied to analyze data. Description of 8 training

sessions illustrated in Table1.

Table: Summary of 8 sessions

Session no Session description

1 Introduction of the project, commitment to perform the project

2 Changing attitudes of teachers from previously applied methods to the new pattern

3 Discussion and debate about job satisfaction and its relation with the concept "joyance" of

Glasser which is neglected in the schools

4 Description of theoretical basis of Choice Theory, quality world, involvement, failure identity,

self-worth, love and being loved

5 7 harmful behavior and 7 positive alternative behavior in Choice Theory of Glasser for real

life

6 7 harmful behavior and 7 positive alternative behavior in Choice Theory of Glasser for school

and classroom

7 Formative evaluation and pay more attention to aptitude-based tasks

8 Reviewing previous sessions, make clear ambiguities and misunderstandings, make oneself

ready to teach and perform in the school which due to our behaviors and Choice Theory

would be more like to real life

RESULTS

As mentioned earlier, in this study students' scores of two different periods(before training and after training)

were compared together. In Table 2 mean of 24 students' scores have been listed(pre taining and post

training).

Table 2. Mean of scores

Lessons N Mean(pre training) Mean(post training)

Persian literature 24 13.625 14.917

Persian language 24 13.917 15.875

Mathematics 24 12.625 14.25

Chemistry 24 13.5 15.75

Biology 24 13.688 15.042

Theology 24 14.979 18.062

English language 24 13.396 14.292

Arabic language 24 14.062 14.485


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As seen in table 2. Mean of scores in all lessons promoted. Within-Subject ANOVA was applied to consider if

there is significant difference between scores of pre and post training which its result shown in Table 3.

Table 3: Tests of Within-Subjects Effects

Measure:MEASURE_1

Source

Type III Sum

of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Partial Eta

Squared

Sphericity Assumed 32.736 1 32.736 101.774 .000 .816

Greenhouse-

Geisser

32.736 1.000 32.736 101.774 .000 .816

Huynh-Feldt 32.736 1.000 32.736 101.774 .000 .816

Factor1

Lower-bound 32.736 1.000 32.736 101.774 .000 .816

Sphericity Assumed 7.398 23 .322

Greenhouse-

Geisser

7.398 23.000 .322

Huynh-Feldt 7.398 23.000 .322

Error(factor1)

Lower-bound 7.398 23.000 .322

As considered in table 3. there is significant difference between scores in pre and post training(F(1,23)=101.774,

P<0.001 η2=0.816). It means training Choice Theory(C/T) of Glasser resulted in higher academic achievement.

DISCUSSION

Findings of current study showed training C/T to teachers can improve academic achievement of students. This

result has been gained by Egan and Judson(2008). It can be said to explain the findings of the current study that

the school/classroom climate plays a role in improving student achievement (Mitchell, Bradshaw, & Leaf,

2010). In Mitchell, Bradshaw, and Leaf (2010), school climate is defined as “the shared beliefs, values, and

attitudes that shape interactions between the students, teachers, and administrators (p. 3)”. The belief that

students need to experience a positive environment in the classroom, consisting of mattering (Dixon & Tucker,

2008), love and belonging (Glasser, 1988), and safety (Heydenberk, Heydenberk & Bochnowicz, 2006) is

essential for students to experience positive educational outcomes. Neibuhr and Neibuhr (1999) found that

high school freshman who reported experiencing positive student-teacher relationships had higher grade point

averages then their peers. This relates to Glasser’s need of love and belonging being met and as a result, the

students showed higher achievement.

Motivation is often connected to academic success. In educational research literature, there are two commonly

defined philosophies of motivation: 1) extrinsic motivation and 2) intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation

consists of giving a student an incentive or reward for completing a task. Rewards might be tangible, such as

candy or a special privilege, or might consist of praise or receiving a high grade. The avoidance of an unpleasant

activity or punishment is another method of employing extrinsic motivation methods (Dev & Poonam, 1997).

Extrinsic motivation can be beneficial at first, but not long lasting (Glasser, 1988). Intrinsic motivation is defined

as “the performance of activities for their own sake in which pleasure is inherent in the activity itself (Berlyne,

1965; Deci, 1975 as cited in Gottfried, 1985, p. 631).” Academic intrinsic motivation is characterized by a

mastery orientation, curiosity, persistence, a high degree of task involvement, and the learning of challenging,

difficult, and novel tasks (Gottfried, 1990). Gottfried’s (1990) findings showed that students in grades 4-9 with

higher levels of academic intrinsic motivation showed significantly lower academic anxiety, higher school

achievement, and reported more positive perceptions of their academic abilities than their peers who had


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lower levels of academic intrinsic motivation. In younger elementary students, the findings remained

concurrent and showed that academic intrinsic motivation was significantly related to achievement (Gottfried,

1990). An approach that some elementary schools use to increase student achievement is through increasing

intrinsic student motivation (Covington, 2000). It has been recognized that intrinsic motivation level and

achievement level are positively correlated (Gottfried, 1990). The integration of reality therapy methods in the

classroom is one technique used to increase intrinsic motivation of students (Glasser, 1992/1998). If a student

has his or her basic needs met through experiencing a positive school climate, then motivation to learn will

increase and students will work harder, thus improving achievement (Neibuhr & Neibuhr, 1999).

Another explanation for the finding is related to teacher-student relationships. What is taught and how it is

taught exert tremendous influence on student performance and learning. “Children,” Ashworth (1990) asserts,

“are keenly aware of where they stand in the school community and of how they are perceived by other

students and teachers” (p. 3). “By nature,” Ashworth (1990) adds, “human beings are social

creatures…biologically intended to live, work, play and succeed together…deeply influenced by others and how

they treat us” (p. 6). For Perry (2001), the “capacity to form and maintain relationships is the most important

trait of humankind—without it, none of us would survive,learn, work, or procreate” (p. 32). In positive teacher-

student relationships, Payne (2005) states “emotional deposits are made to the student, emotional

withdrawals are avoided, and students are respected” (p.111). Moos (1979) and Goodenow (1993) suggest

teachers who show personal involvement with students show those students that they are respected. These

feelings of respect motivate and engage students toward increased positive productivity and academic

achievement (Wentzel, 1997). There is abundant research stressing the importance of teachers caring for their

students and believing that these students can learn and holding high expectations for them as learners (Barr &

Parrett, 1995). Numerous studies suggest a connection between teacher beliefs and how they teach or fail to

teach children (White-Clark, 2005). The relationship between a teacher and a student, therefore, is the

foundation upon which learning rests. For many students, their successes or failures are largely dependent

upon the relationships they enjoy or fail to enjoy with their teachers. Kohn (2006) suggests most children do

not fail due to their cognitive abilities but because they feel unwelcome, detached, or alienated from significant

others in the educational environment. Effective teachers care about their students and demonstrate that they

care in such a way that their students are aware of it. According to Thayer-Bacon and Bacon (1996), “Teachers

who care about their students are remembered, effect change, stimulate growth, and are more likely to be

successful at teaching their students” (p. 255). Research indicates that children who are securely attached to

significant adults become more curious, self-directed and empathetic. Such relationships foster achievement,

autonomy and altruism (Brendro et al., 1990). Students need to feel affirmed and to be assured they are

valued. They need to be challenged and they need to know they can succeed at a high level of expectation.

Teacher expectations can be very powerful and can influence a student’s attitudes and actions and lead to

success or failure (Tomlinson & Eidson, 2003). The research supports that relationships between teachers and

students are critical for academic achievement and school success. According to its 2002 Set for Success report,

the Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation (Blankstein, 2004) asserts, “positive relationships are essential to a

child’s ability to grow up healthy and achieve later social, emotional, and academic success” (p. 59). Lewis (

2000) also concluded that fostering relationships between children and adults provides opportunities for them

to “see each other in new ways” (p. 643). According to Glasser (1992), “The better we know someone and the

more we like about what we know, the harder we will work for that person” (p. 30). Similarly, Ryan and Patrick

(2001) found that students who believe that their teachers care about them perform better on tests.




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TOWARD EFFECTIVE INCLUSION AT UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES:

APPLICATIONS OF UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING

Khalaf Al’Abri

Sultan Qaboos University

SULTANATE OF OMAN

[email protected]

Abstract

Almost everywhere in the world, higher education witnesses increasingly diverse student population which has

become a challenge. Such diversity is looked up as a real problem that faces instructors at higher education.

Indeed, numerous studies have shown that this issue has to be addressed properly by higher education

institutions (universities and colleges) and therefore, work very hard if not to eliminate it, at least to decrease

it. This means that all students regardless of their differences from the mainstream have to be included, taking

their rights like the others.

At Sultan Qaboos University (SQU), the issue of diversity among students comes to classes in different fashions

each semester. With students from all the regions of the Sultanate beside a number of them from around the

world, classes at SQU see different types of students who possess almost unlike characteristics. As it is clear,

the issue of diversity at SQU is not different from the other universities in the world. The main purpose of the

paper was to deal with my classroom at Sultan Qaboos University, college of education in Oman as a case study

using UDL. This paper presented the potentiality of applying what is called universal design for learning (UDL) in

university courses. The revolutionary idea of UD worked to design spaces, products, and services that met the

needs of the widest range of diverse individuals who used these services.

Key Words: Udl, diversity, inclusion

INTRODUCTION

Globally, higher education witnesses an increasingly diverse student population which has become a challenge

(Pliner & Johnson, 2004). Organizations dealing with those students such as universities and colleges have to

recognize such diversity and plan to engage and include all students regardless of their differences from the

mainstream. Accordingly, instructors in higher education need to understand the necessities of diversity in the

classroom and try productively to vary and adopt their practices (Pace & Schwartz, 2008). They need to provide

all students fair access to information and opportunities to learn. Using a variety of teaching and classroom

practices that are usable by all students is seen as a way to ensure that all students' differences in learning

styles, backgrounds, disability and so on are recognized and included. Indeed, accessibility and usability of

curriculum by all students are addressed by the approach of Universal Design for Learning (UDL), which will be

the focus of this paper.

The main purpose of the paper is to deal with a classroom at Sultan Qaboos University, college of education in

Oman as a case study using UDL. To address the case properly, the paper is divided into three main parts. The

first part is the literature review in which the origins and nature of UDL are presented in general. Moreover,

UDL principles are outlined to help in analyzing the case study. The second part gives a full description of the

context of the classroom. Using the principles of UDL, the third part analyzes the case study in light of these

principles.

Literature Review

The idea of Universal Design was first developed purposely for the field of architecture by an engineer called

Rone Mace and his colleagues at North Carolina State University's Center for Universal Design (Rose & Meyer,

2002). The goal was to promote design for all by making products, environments, information, and systems


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that are useable by all people (Burgstahler, 2006; Scott, McGuire, & Shaw, 2003). In other words, the

revolutionary idea of UD works to design spaces, products, and services that meet the needs of the widest

range of diverse individuals who use these services. Indeed, diversity is considered as an essential element in

the principles of UD (Kortering, McClannon, & Braziel, 2008). This leads to confirmation that UD aims to ensure

accessibility by the greatest number of diverse potential users of a particular service. To guide the designing of

such accessible products, the framework of the seven principles of UD was established (Scott et al., 2001),

which will be explained in more details later on.

Then, after having been successful, UD principles have been adapted and adopted by various fields. According

to Rose and Meyer (2002), education has been one of the first fields to use UD in order to reflect the diversity

of its population and promote inclusion of all students. Since that time, educators have termed the concepts

such as Universal Design for Learning (Rose, 2001) and Universal Design for Instruction (Scott et al., 2001,

2003). This section has indicated the origins of UD and where education has stemmed the idea of UDL. The next

section will present the principles of UD.

UD Principles

A group of experts at the Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University came up with seven

principles for the universal design of any product or environment (CAST, 2001). These principles are flexible and

thus can be applied and implemented in other fields, depending on the needs of each field (Rose, 2001).

Educators coined theses principles and made them appropriate to educational contexts. This section outlines

these principles briefly and gives an example of each one generally. At this stage of the paper, their application

in education will not be mentioned, as it is going to be analyzed and described at the end of the paper in the

analysis section. The seven principles are:

1. Equitable Use (CAST, 2001).

The design provides the same means of use for all people by avoiding discrimination for any user. This

principle suggests that the design should be accessible and fair for all users. A good example is that of

power doors with sensors at entrances that give equitable access for all people.

2. Flexibility in Use (CAST, 2001).

The design has a flexible choice in methods of use. To exemplify, ATM bank machines have different

methods of giving feedback: visual, tactile, and audible which suit diverse users with diverse abilities.

3. Simple and Intuitive (CAST, 2001).

The use of the design is easy, straightforward, and consistent to all users. It eliminates unnecessary

complexity. A good example is an electronic devise with clear and intuitive control buttons.

4. Perceptible Information (CAST, 2001).

In the design, the necessary information is communicated effectively to the user regardless of his or her

sensory limitation. For instance, redundant cueing such as voice communication and signage in airports

and train stations is a clear product applying this principle.

5. Tolerance for Error (CAST, 2001).

"The design minimizes hazards and the adverse consequences of accidental or unintended actions". This

principle can be exemplified by educational software that provides guidance when the student makes an

inappropriate selection.

6. Low Physical Effort (CAST, 2001).

People use the product efficiently and comfortably with a minimum of fatigue. The design here allows

users to maintain a neutral body position. A good example of this principle is touch lamps operated

without a switch.

7. Size and Space for Approach and Use (CAST, 2001).

Appropriate size and space are provided for approach, reach, manipulation, and use regardless of the

user's body size, posture, or mobility. Wide gates at subway stations are an example of employing this

principle.

UD in Education

As noted earlier, UDL is based on acknowledging learner differences and the diversity of student population in

schools (Meyer & Rose, 2005; Rose & Meyer, 2002). It is a framework that helps instructors to create more

interesting learning opportunities for every learner regardless of his/ her background, learning style, abilities,


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and disabilities. This section looks at why UD is needed in education and then elaborates how UD can be

applied in education. According to Hitchcock and Stahl (2004), UDL as an approach in education was grounded

genuinely in prompting healthy environment for students with disabilities to perform well in their learning (see

also Scott, McGuire, & Shaw, 2003). However, UDL has then been developed to design instruction, materials,

and course content that fit all diverse students of all learning styles without the need for adaptation or

retrofitting (Coyne, Ganley, Hall, Meo, Murray, & Gordon, 2006). Indeed, the key feature of UDL is the

encouragement of equal access, participation, and engagement to learning for all learners. Compared to "one

size fits all" approaches, which arguably do not fit anymore in education, UDL recognizes the unique needs of

every learner (Coyne et al., 2006). Accordingly, UDL does not mean the creation of a universal design for all

learners that can be used in any classroom, but it suggests the designing of curriculum that maximizes

accessibility for all and minimizes learning barriers.

If UD is so important to learning, how is it applied in education? According to Coyne et al. (2006), UDL is a set of

principles and techniques that help instructors to design inclusive instructional methods and accessible

materials that are flexible enough to accommodate learner differences (see also Rose & Meyer, 2002). It

reflects an awareness of the unique nature of each learner and the need to address differences. To elaborate,

the major goal of UDL is to make curriculum accessible to a wide group of diverse students with a wide range of

learning styles, abilities, and preferences. Implying accessibility suggests that curriculum should be flexible to

advantage all students with or without disabilities.

Another Framework of UDL Principles

Beside the seven principles of UD, Rose and Meyer (2002, p. 75) described a framework of UDL consisting of

three principles to guide teachers in designing curriculum. The framework confirms that UDL is about providing

multiple means of presentation, expression, and engagement. The first principle implies that information and

ideas are presented to students in multiple ways. A university instructor, for example, offers documents in

multiple electronic formats (HTML, RTF, PDF, etc.). The second principle suggests that students should be given

multiple ways to express their comprehension and mastery of what they know. For instance, a professor gives

students the opportunity to choose the way for doing a project. These choices are an oral presentation, written

essay, a practical study, or a group project. In this case students can choose one of these alternative ways to

express their mastery of the topic provided by the professor. Finally, the third principle makes teachers think of

providing multiple opportunities for student engagement. Such engagement can be achieved by tapping into

learners’ interests, offering appropriate challenges, and increasing motivation.

The context

This paper used case study as a research methodology to look at the application of UDL at universities. The case

was my classroom. It was a graduate course in the school leadership diploma program at college of education

at Sultan Qaboos University. This course was called “introduction to educational leadership theories” in which

students learn the fundamental leadership concepts and engage with leadership theories in their readings. The

contact hours of the class were two times a week with 2 hours each. In this class, I had 44 students who were

with very different sets of skills, life experiences, abilities, and learning styles.

Ladies represented 40 percent of the class, while the rest were men. The age of the group ranged from 26 to

around 40, all of whom who were in leadership positions in their schools coming to do diploma in school

leadership. There was a heterogeneous mix of Arabic dialects among the class, as the students came from the

eight regions of the Sultanate of Oman. At the same time, 6 students out of the 44 were from 3 different Arab

Gulf countries who had different backgrounds and different school leadership experiences. In terms of

disabilities, a student had a moving disability in which he was using a wheelchair, another one had little

deafness and another one had some blindness. Overall, this classroom was a diverse one in terms of students’

culture, linguistics, experiences, abilities, skills, knowledge as well as learning styles.

In the following section of this paper, my classroom context will be analyzed in light of the UDL principles.


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Analysis

Why UDL in My Classroom?

Having a close look at the student population of my classroom, it was characterized by diversity. 40 per cent of

the students were above 35 years old. Their school leadership experience and positions varied significantly.

What was more was that their background, family class, sex, regions, disability, skills, and learning styles made

the class more diverse.

Considering this classroom, the lecturer recognized that using the traditional way of lecturing and "one size fits

all" approach was not suitable to such a mix of heterogeneous classroom (see e.g. Pliner & Johnson, 2004).

Besides, the assessment methods that I was following strictly by assigning weekly reflective journals, giving

quizzes, and administering in-class examinations did not work properly. It is was not easy to include all those

students and planed properly for them using the typical way of only giving lectures (Higbee, Chung, & Hsu,

2008). My decision was then to use UDL basic ideas and principles in order to meet the needs of all learners

and maximize their learning including those students with disabilities. To do so, I designed my classroom to be

inclusive by providing accessible and usable curriculum and pedagogies (Scott et al., 2003) according to the UDL

framework. In my design, I planed and adapted classroom practices and material to meet all students’ needs,

not the opposite, that is, that students make the required adaption (Coyne et al., 2006).

Some may argue that UDL is better for school contexts rather than university. However, the increasing diversity

in such university classrooms pushes instructors to search for alternative ways of including all learners (see e.g.

Higbee et al., 2008). Indeed, the idea of this paper was to confirm that UDL worked effectively to overcome

the obstacles of diversity in university teaching and learning. The next sections deal with application of UDL in

course materials, instruction and assessments.

Course Content and Materials

Traditionally, I used to assign a book called School Leadership Theories and students had to go through the

chapters of the book. As a theoretical course, I had nothing more than this book for this course as learning

materials.

Applying the principles of UDL, the class materials and the course content had changed to provide alternative

ways and formats. I started using the Moodle on which I put my lectures, notes, directions, and any material

related to the course in multiple electronic ways. Through the Moodle, electronic textbooks were offered and

sometimes printed materials were converted into an electronic format. It also allowed me to offer documents

in multiple electronic formats (HTML, RTF, PDF, etc.) so the classroom materials were accessible to diverse

learning needs and styles. According to Blair (2006), when materials were presented in electronic formats, the

specific learning needs of students were met as these formats allowed modifications in font size, style or

colour. Moreover, recording lectures and making them available in the Moodle made materials accessible to

students with vision and hearing impairment, as well the other students at any time.

Indeed, using the Moodle helped me to offer varied representation of the course content and materials and

that could allow the students to learn in their preferred means. Furthermore, all students had become able to

accesses materials from their own computers at anytime they want. The flexibility, accessibility and usability of

the class presentations were made easier with the Moodle, regardless of the learners' sensory abilities or other

life pressures. Another benefit is that the Moodle provided multiple means of engagement for students. They

could chat with each other and with me too through the icon of discussion. In this way, interactions between

students and me, and students themselves helped students to engage productively with the course materials.

Instruction

Before using UDL, I used to introduce topics by reminding students about the previous classes and then keep

lecturing till the end of the class. As mentioned above, standing in front of the class and being a lecturer for the

whole two hours of the class was the only way of my instruction. By the end of the class, I normally assigned

some homework or readings to be done by the next meeting.


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Using UDL approach to learning, a variety of instructional methods was introduced in each lesson in a more

flexible and accessible way for the wide range of diversity in the classroom. The teaching methods were now in

a straightforward and predictable manner. My way of instruction had changed totally to start breaking the two

hours into smaller portions. I stared normally by warming up and introducing the new topic which takes around

10 minutes. Students at this stage were engaged in different ways in each lesson. As an example, questions

were asked to check their background about the new topic. The next step was to lecture for around 40

minutes. I used different materials like PowerPoint presentation, diagrams on leadership theories

development, whiteboard, and videos. Sometimes to change, another professor was invited to come and give a

short lecture on a certain topic that of his research interest.

To engage students in alternative ways, they were divided into small groups of three or four to think how they

could apply the topic practically in their schools. We spent around 10 to 15 minutes for collaborative group

discussion. Each group then had to stand at the front of the class and present their discussion which takes 30

minutes. Indeed, working in small groups and presenting gave students extra opportunities to learn by

interacting with their colleagues. The group work also helped me to engage all students and particularly those

who were attentive during the lecture. Alternatively to small group work, in each lesson I tried to vary my

teaching practices to include, for example, whole group discussion, active learning, and problem solving

activities in order to maximize learning opportunities for all students and to promote inclusiveness.

The last ten minutes of the class, I concluded the class and assign an interactive homework task to keep

students engaged with the topic. Considering the way of breaking the class into segments, students were

engaged with the class and not forced to listen only for two hours for a lecture. The variety of activities I

offered to students helped them to express their learning in different ways and enhance gains of new

knowledge. In general, the multiple teaching methods worked effectively to engage all my students in the

classroom and force them indirectly to demonstrate what they have learned.

Assessment

I recognized that using only a typical final exam and quizzes with such diverse students in my classroom would

not accurately reflect what my students had learned. It was not the appropriate way as some students were

good test-takers, while others were not. Through my teaching experience, I had discovered that some students

expressed themselves well in writing, others expressed themselves very well orally, and some others through

practical projects. Accordingly, UDL guided me to give students alternative ways of assessment to express

themselves rather than exclusively traditional quizzes and exams.

For this course, I offered students the choices of doing a written essay, a practical study or a presentation. They

had to choose only one of those options and in fact, they could also work in groups of 3 or 4. Most importantly,

students had to choose their own topics which should be related to the development of school leadership

theories, but of course they needed my approval at the end. This task equaled 60 per cent of the whole grade

of the course. All assessment choices were equal in terms of quality, content and grades.

The second task was to keep a weekly reflective journal which was collected twice in week 6 and 12 of the

semester. Students were given the choice on how to do this task. The total grade for this task was 10 per cent.

Besides, students were encouraged to interact in the class and engage with others; I allocate 10 per cent of the

total grade for my observation of students' engagement. As it was the standard of the university, a final exam

has to be administered to students. To reduce its impact on students, a total of 20 per cent of the course grade

was assigned for the final exams.

Clearly, students were provided with multiple ways of expressing what they had learned in the course. UDL

helped me to design various assessments that could be adjusted to many individual differences.

CONCLUSION

As a new paradigm in education, UDL worked to create equal access, participation, and engagement to learning

for all learners, including those with disabilities. Considering my classroom at Sultan Qaboos University, it was a

mix of heterogeneous student population that required from me to pay attention to such differences and then


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planed to promote inclusion of all students. Indeed, applying UDL had been my intention to remove diversity

barriers to learning and include all students. The paper had showed how UDL principles were applied to my

instruction, course materials, and assessment. My course had shifted from "one size fits all" curriculum to

provide accessible design to all students. To do so, the course content and materials were provided in

alternative ways and formats, a variety of instructional methods was introduced, and alternative ways of

assessment were offered. Without doubt, this shift had made the course fitting all diverse students of all

learning styles without the need for adaptation or retrofitting.




REFERENCES

Burgstahler, S. (2006). Equal access: Universal design of instruction. Seattle: DO-IT, University of Washington.

Available from http://www.washington.edu/doit/ Brochures/Academics/equal_access_udi.html

Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST). (2001). Universal design for learning. Retrieved October 10,

2009, from http://www.cast.org

Coyne, P., Ganley, P., Hall, T., Meo, G., Murray, E., & Gordon, D. (2006). Applying universal design for learning

in the classroom. In D. H. Rose & A. Meyer (Eds.), A practical reader in universal design for learning. Cambridge,

MA: Harvard Education Press.

Hitchcock, C., & Stahl, S. (2004). Assistive technology, universal design, universal design for learning: Improved

learning outcomes. Journal of Special Education Technology, 18, 45-52.

Kortering, J., McClannon, W., & Braziel, M. (2008). Universal design for learning: A look at what algebra and

biology students with and without high incidence conditions are saying. Remedial and Special Education, 29 (6),

352- 363.

Meyer, A. & Rose, D. H. (2002). The future in the margins: The role of technology and diability in educational

reform. In D. H. Rose, A. Meyer, & C. Hitchcock (Eds.), The universally designed classroom: Accessible and

digital technologies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

Pace, D. & Schwartz, D. (2008). Accessibility in post secondary education: Application of UDL to college

curriculum. US-China Education Review, 12 (5), 20-26.

Pliner S. M. & Johnson, J. R. (2004). Historical, theoretical, and foundational principles of universal instructional

design in higher education. Equity & Excellence in Education, 37 (2), 105-113.

Rose, D. H. & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age: Universal design for learning.

Alexandria, VA. Available from http://www.cast.org.

Rose, D. H. (2001). Universal design for learning: Deriving guiding principles from networks that learn. Journal

of Special Education Technology, 16(2), 66-67.

Scott, S. S., McGuire, J. M., & Shaw, S. F. (2001). Principles of Universal Design for Instruction. Storrs, CT:

University of Connecticut, Center on Postsecondary Education and Disability.

Scott, S. S., McGuire, J. M.,&Shaw, S. F. (2003). Universal design for instruction: A new paradigm for adult

instruction in postsecondary education. Remedial and Special Education, 24(6), 369-379.


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COMPARING THE IMPORTANCE OF MANAGERIAL AND LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS

FROM VIEWS OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND TEACHERS

Amin Mohammadi

University of Sistan and Baluchestan

Department of Education, Zahedan, IRAN

[email protected]

Habibe Alaie



[email protected]

Assist. Prof. Dr. Abdulwhab Pourghaz



Abstract

Present study has been conducted to compare importance of managerial and leadership behaviors from views

of schools’ principals and teachers in Zahedan.

Participants were 59 school principals, were selected by systematic random sampling and 118 teachers were

selected by simple random sampling from subset of same principals. Participants responded to the leadership

behavior Inventory (Couzes and Pasner’s, 1987) and to the managerial behavior Inventory (Peterson, 2000).

Results were analyzed by using, paired T-test and independent T-test.

Study findings showed that Encourage the heart is the most important from the view of principals and

modeling the way is the most important from the view of teachers. Also, Challenging is the least important

from the view of teachers and principals. Analyses of data showed that principals and teachers paid attention

equally to leadership and managerial behaviors. The Results also showed that female principals paid more

attention to leadership and managerial behaviors than male principals. Furthermore, results showed that male

and female teachers paid attention equally to leadership and managerial behaviors.

Key Words: Managerial behavior, leadership behavior, school principals, teacher.

INTRODUCTION

In every organization, leadership and management are a key process and the most important factor for success

or failure of an organization (Anand, 2010). There is an emphasis on educational leadership, leaders’

preparation and leaders’ roles in the twenty first century educational system (Lyles, 2009). Because, the leaders

in educational organizations are significant due to their constructive role in making the future of society (Boyd,

2004). Kouzes & Posner reasoned that the leadership is a set of skills that can be acquired (Posner, 2010); and,

leadership is the management which is, a combination of official ranks, knowledge, information, intelligence,

bravery and severity (Collins, 2002), and causes the vision and relationship among the staff (Palmgren, 2010).

Leaders and managers penetrate their staff through their behaviors (Shamir, et al, 2005), Due to that the staffs’

understanding of leadership and management is influenced by the leadership and managerial behaviors of the

managers (Burke, et al, 2009). Thus, awareness of differences between the management and leadership

behaviors in creating the organization, organization changes and guiding the organizational teams are

important (Bolzmann, et al, 2007), and influences on the improvement and performance constancy of the


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organization. Managers and leaders have different points of view towards the aims, working concepts, personal

style and understandings (Weaver & Usaf, 2001). School leaders’ (educational) roles, education improvement

and students learning (Usdan, et al 2000; Watson, 2009), and school (educational) principals’ roles are to guide

the activities in order to achieve the goals (Bush, 2008) and to cause the discipline and stability in the

organization (Collins, 2002). So, even though there are obvious differences between management and

leadership, these two concepts overlap with each other and complete each other (Weaver & Usaf, 2001); for

example, when managers penetrate in the group to have the staff evolved for aims they play leadership role

and when They are put in the process of planning, organizing, guidance and controlling the activities, they do

the role of management (Farahbakhsh, 2007). Peterson determines the management behaviors in more details

and considers them to include reward, Delegation of authority, role clarification, goal setting, supervision,

Training, informing, coordinating, work facilitation and discipline (White, 2005).

Since 1940, researchers have been inclined to determine the leadership behavior, especially influential leaders'

behaviors. In the late 1930, at IOWA University three kinds of leadership behaviors were determined,

Democratic style, Autocratic style and Laissez Faire style (Morero, et al, 2007). In the late 1940 and 1950,

advanced researches were conducted at Ohio and Michigan universities; at Ohio university two kinds of

leadership behavior were determined; Task based and Relation based (Mc Guire & Silvia, 2009). At Michigan

university two kinds of leadership behavior were determined; Employee Orientated and Production Orientated

(Madlock, 2008). According to Kouses and Posner leadership behavior consist of: modeling the way, inspiring a

shared vision, challenging the process, enable other to act and encourage the heart (Condren & Martin, 2006).

As regards, in this study, this view of leadership was investigated, we explain features of it.

1) Modeling the way: leaders have a bright view about their business value and beliefs; therefore, they

matched their behaviors with these values, using modeling the way from they what expect, they put the people

in their wanted way to act (Russell, 2000). thus, modeling the way is, considering the sample and model and

planning for little victories (Razzalli, 2007).

2) Inspiring a shared vision: Leaders make a vision of future in their minds and this picture leads them forward

(Weaver& Usaf, 2001). So, inspiring a shared vision consists of, future imagination and attracting others to

follow the future (Gatlin, 2010).

3) Challening the process: Leaders are looking for opportunities to change the current Situations and to

perform these actions they risk and accept it as an inevitable educational opportunity (Kozes, & Posner, 2001).

Therefore, challenging the process includes, searching for opportunities for experiment and risking and finding

the ways for changing the current conditions (Hyatt, 2010).

4) Enabling other to act: Successful leaders propagate the cooperation (Fullan, 2007), they know, for achieving

the goals, a person should feel self-power and ownership and leaders should provide this feel for people

(Stumpf, 2007). Thus, Enable others to act consists of developing the cooperation and encouraging the persons

(Gatlin, 2010; Timothy & Cox, 2007).

5) Encourage the heart: Leaders increase the passion in their staff, with encouraging and appreciating them

and encourage them to work (Razzalli, 2007). Thus, Encourage the heart includes, recognizeing other’s

participation and distinguishing other’s roles and celebrating success and achievements (Zagorsek, et al, 2006).

Riley (1991) about the importance of managerial behaviors, stated that Encourage the heart is the least

important behavior among the five behaviors. Elliot’s (1990) showed that modeling the way is the most

important factor from the view of trainers. Research findings of Okorie (1990) in the field of leadership

behaviors indicated that teachers’ understanding is remarkably different with those of principals. Quitugua

(1990) revealed that leadership behaviors in male and female teachers are different from female and male

principals (Manning, 2004). Also, Osborn’s & Vicars showed that sex does not influence leadership behavior

(Osborn & Vicars, 1976; Kipnis, 1983). Naeemullah (2010) showed that female principals show better

managerial behaviors.


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So, principals are expected to act in schools as leader, because the success of a school in the way of achieving

goals depends on the capability of principal in the field of staff leadership (Farahbakhsh, 2007). Then, the

existence of adequate managerial and leadership behaviors based on the school situation is one of the factors

of success in educational aims. The main aim of the present article is to investigate the differentiation of

inclination towards managerial and leadership behaviors of school principals from the view of principals and

teachers and also comparison between female and male principals. Therefore, this research is looking for the

answers to these questions. 1) How important are the subscales of leadership behaviors from the view of

principals and teachers? 2) Which is more important to principals and teachers, leadership behaviors or

managerial behaviors? 3) Does the gender of principals and teachers in the field of caring leadership and

managerial behaviors make any difference?

METHOD

The descriptive survey model was employed in the study. Participants were 59 (34 male and 25 female) school

principals of high school of Zahedan City, were selected by systematic random sampling and 118 (68 male and

50 female) teachers were selected by simple random sampling from subset of same principals.

The participants responded to two inventories: 1) Leadership Behavior Inventory (Couzes and Pasner’s, 1987):

This Inventory consisted of 5 subscales (Challenging the process, Modeling the way, Encourage the heart,

Enable other to act and inspiring a shared vision) including 5 items for each subscale with a 5 point Likert scale

(25 items total). 2) Managerial Behavior Inventory (Peterson, 2000): This Inventory consisted of ten subscales,

which assess the managerial behaviors, such as: reward, permission giving, clarity of roles and aims, aim

adjustment, supervision, education, informing, coordination, facilities and performance of working and

discipline. This subscales assessed by 10 items, each item is rated on a five-point Likert scale.

Apart from having good internal and external validity, the leadership behavior inventory and managerial

behavior inventory also have been successful in obtaining good reliability data. Reliability estimates for the

scales in the two inventories were obtained through Cronbach’s (1951) alphas. Generally the Cronbach alpha

coefficients in the present study are 0.86 for leadership behavior inventory and 0.74 for managerial behavior

inventory. The obtained data was analyzed by employing some statistical techniques such as descriptive

statistics, paired T-test and independent T-test techniques.

FINDINGS

Question 1: How important are the subscales of leadership behaviors from the view of principals and

teachers?

Results of table 1 show that encourage the heart is the most important from the view of principals and

modeling the way is the most important from the view of teachers. Also, challenging is the least important

from the view of teachers and principals.

Table 1: Mean and standard deviation leadership behavior subscales’

Principals Teachers Leadership behavior

subscales’ M S.D M S.D Challenging the process 42.92 4.40 41.77 4.57

Inspiring a shared vision 45.12 4.98 45.02 3.86

Enable other to act 43.52 4.95 44.25 3.59

Modeling the way 45.77 3.75 45.08 3.32

Encourage the heart 46.16 3.58 44.82 3.42


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Question 2: which is more important to principals and teachers, leadership behaviors or managerial

behaviors?

To analyze the related results of this question, paired T-test was applied and results are shown in table-2 and

table-3.

Table 2: Comparison between the importance of leadership behaviors and managerial behaviors from the view

of principals

sig t df S.D M n 3.11 45.02 59 Importance Leadership Behaviors

0.40 0.83 58 4.25 44.71 59 Importance Managerial Behaviors

As shown in table-2, because of (t=0.83, p>0.05) there is no statistically significant difference between the mean

scores importance of leadership behaviors and managerial behaviors from the view of principals. So we can

claim that the importance of leadership behaviors and managerial behavior are same to principals.

Table 3: Comparison between the importance of leadership behaviors and managerial behaviors from the view

of teachers

sig t df S.D M n

2.83 44.45 118 Importance Leadership Behaviors 0.10 1.64 117

3.72 44.85 118 Importance Managerial Behaviors

As shown in table-3, because of (t=1.64, p>0.05) there is no statistically significant difference between the mean

scores importance of leadership behaviors and managerial behaviors from the view of teachers. So we can

claim that the importance of leadership behaviors and managerial behavior are same to teachers, too.

Question 3: Does the gender of principals and teachers in the field of caring leadership and managerial

behaviors make any difference?

To analyze the related results of this question, independent T-test was applied and results are shown in table-4

and table-5.

Table 4: Differentiation between the importance of managerial and leadership behaviors from the view of

principals based on gender

sig t df S.D M n Gender

3.32 44.04 34 Male 0.004* -2.99 57

2.25 46.35 25 Female Leadership Behaviors

4.24 43.38 34 Male 0.004* -2.98 57

3.59 46.52 25 Female Managerial Behaviors

*p<.001

As shown in table-4 because of, for leadership behaviors (t=2.99, p<0.01) and for managerial behavior (t=2.98,

p<0.01) there is statistically significant difference between the mean scores of principals on gender and

indicates female principals paid more attention to leadership and managerial behaviors than male principals.


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Table 5: Differentiation between the importance of managerial and leadership behaviors from the view of

teachers based on gender sig t df S.D M n Gender

2.82 44.46 68 Male 0.96 0.04 116

2.87 44.43 50 Female Leadership Behaviors

3.56 44.94 68 Male 0.77 0.28 116

3.95 44.74 50 Female Managerial Behaviors

As shown in table-5 because of, for leadership behaviors (t= 0.04, p>0.05) and for managerial behavior, (t=0.28,

p>0.05) there is no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of teachers on gender.


The purpose of the present study was to compare importance of managerial and leadership behaviors from

views of schools’ principals and teachers. The results of the first question of research demonstrated that

among the leadership behaviors, from the view of principals, encourage the heart, and from the view of

teachers modeling the way is the most important. The current results are consistent with the result of study

that carried out by Elliott (1990), but this finding does not match with Riley’s (1991) research results. In this

connection, we can reason that encourage the heart is important for principals because using encouraging the

heart they can increase the cooperation and bring success to the organization. Also, modeling the way is

important for teachers because, leaders using modeling the way, from what they expect, put persons in their

ways to act and facilitate the way for persons to achieve the goals. Results also showed that among the

leadership behaviors from the view of principals and teachers, challenging process is the least important,

because challenging the processes may cause principals and teachers to encounter with some barriers that

breeds failure to them and changes the situation. The results of the second question of research showed that

principals and teachers paid attention equally to leadership and managerial behaviors, that these findings do

not match Okorie’s (1990) research findings.

The results of the third question of research demonstrated that female principals paid more attention to

leadership and managerial behaviors than male principals. The probable cause of this difference is that male

principals are more risk-taking than female principals; it’s possible that men due to having more confidence,

without considering the managerial leadership behaviors, saw themselves capable of doing the duties.

Furthermore, results showed that there is no meaningful differentiation between male and female teachers

based on leadership and managerial behaviors. This similarity between the view of male and female teachers

can prove that male teachers were not in the place of managerial duties, to benefit them their risking power or

self-confidence. In conclusion, both groups, male and female, expressed their opinions orally and similar results

were gained. The current results are consistent with the results of studies that carried out by Quitugua (1990)

and Naeemullah (2010).

Since the principal should supervise the school matters and at the same time play management and leadership

roles, so it is recommended for principals to be trained to reform their expectations from their duties and

utilize the managerial and leadership behaviors adequately.




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TRENDS IN TEACHING AND CHALLENGES ON AN EXAMPLE

OF SPECIFIC ENGLISH LANGUAGE (FOR GASTRONOMY INDUSTRY)

Monika Jagłowska

Kielce Scool of Economics Tourism and Social Sciences

Piwnika Ponurego St49, Kielce 25-666, POLAND,

[email protected]

Abstract

Learning Specific English is rather boring and daunting for students. They do it because their aim is to function

adequately at future work but not all of them can develop necessary skills. Teaching English language is a great

proffesion nowadays, but it seems to miss the Leeds generated from countries’ fast development in science,

economy as well as technology (internet communications tools) and of course from increasing contact with the

whole world. That is why the significance of English CANNOT BE OVEREMPHASISED.

The purpose of this paper is to provide a portrait of Specific English learning and teaching, to prezent major

trends, to show ways teachers can include these ideas to their own teaching practice.

Key Words: New trends in English teaching, technology, E-learning, Specific English for Gastronomy Industry

INTRODUCTION

A lot of actions, targeting changes of the traditional educational system, have been observed recently. The

educational process should be so organized, to make possible to the student the obtainment of necessary

information and also abilities by the active activity. Therefore, there are introduced new, nontraditional,

progressive strategies to schools’ systems which are up to the mark the present days. It is necessary, not only

the change of the content of the instruction, but also methods of technologies and forms of the work, the

relation between the teacher and schoolboys. Every teacher wants to have active, eagerly engaged students to

the pursuance of their aims and tasks during classes. If the student is properly motivated he can actively and

creatively join to all actions.

The effective learning demands the acquaintance of many methods of teaching. They are more meaningful, if

the student is to acquaint a huge part of new material, and at the same time wants to gain the time on

learning other, school-subjects.

The preparation of the young man to the life in the today's society, who is flooded by stream of the information

and the consumption, is a difficult task. It demands the active attitude from the teacher and the schoolboy. The

most essential in the process of teaching is the effective communication among the schoolboy and the

teacher.

The educational reform extorts the change of methods of the teacher’s work, that is from giving information,

on activating -- directed on the activity of students. In this new situation, an active site is the schoolchild, while

the teacher is the organizer of the whole didactic process. The teacher is responsible for the organization of

the didactic situation. In order to achieve the intentional aim, he must construct tasks, create conditions to

their execution, support and inspire schoolboys.

Motivating of schoolboys makes crucial part of the teacher’s work. However, the student also takes his own

responsibility for motivation and achievements. The , aim, for which he learns foreign languages, his age, and

also the relation to the given language are very significant here. The results of the learning process, however,

are relative to taught material, properly chosen methods and technologies of the work, and also its

organization.


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HOW IS ESP DIFFERENT FROM ESL

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) very significantly from English as a Second Language (ESL). The most

important difference is in the learners and their purpose for learning English. ESP concentrate especially on

vocabulary, language in context rather than on teaching grammar. If English for Gastronomy Industry is

discussed, there should be taken into account the following issues: vocabulary connected with the customer’s

service, names of grocery products, shops, methods of heat-treatment of these goods, ways of preparing and

serving food, original names of meals ( in this: traditional meals characteristic for given cuisine-Walsh, Scottish

etc.- culture and holidays), names of professions connected with gastronomy, activities in the kitchen and any

locals where food is served, orders, names of kitchen utensils and cutlery, seasonings, as well as grammatical

structures which are helpful to cope with customers’ complains or problems in the kitchen during cooking etc.

English here is not taught as the subject separated students’ real world, it is integrated into the subject matter

area of the learners on the contrary, it is integrated with their interests. In fact, while in English as a Second

Language all four language skills (listening, writing, reading, speaking) are stressed equally, in ESP, it needs

analyses that determine which language skills are most needed by the students and syllabus is designed in such

a way that it can develop, for example: spoken skills for students who preparing for real communication with

foreigner-customers are the most significant. ESP therefore combines subject matter and English Language

Learning. In such situation, that combination is highly motivating because students are able to apply what they

learn and prepare during English classes to their main field of study. When students use the vocabulary and

structures in a meaningful context, they reinforce what is taught and this increases their motivation. The

students’ abilities in their subject-matter fields improve their ability to absorb the English language and learn it

faster, since their interest in the field motivates them to interact with the speakers and texts.

Because students learn in the classroom what is relevant to them, they are able to use it in their work. That is

why, it is significant for the teacher to establish a positive learning environment in the classroom. It is because

the students learn language easier when they have opportunities to use the language in an interaction with

other participants. In order to do so, in the interaction with students, the teacher must listen to them carefully,

answer their questions and give understanding and misunderstanding back at them (reply as many times as

possible and needed). It is connected with the students’ attention which they pay especially to the meaning of

the language they hear or read. Here the contact with the real language ( cassettes, conversation with native

speaker, observation of real situations) is very crucial.

The students are particularly well disposed to focus on learning, in the subject-matter of ESP. English must be

presented not as the subject to be learned in isolation from reacting or mechanical skills or habits to be

developed. It must be presented in authentic contexts to make the learners acquainted with the particular

ways in which language is used in functions that they will need to perform in their fields of specialty or job-

related situations.

Identifying requirements of learners of English for Students of Schools of Gastronomy Industry, the focus must

be done on the type of English that is taught in order to meet students’ expectations and to help them achieve

their purposes. A group of participants (my own students) in the questionnaire need special and characteristic

kind of vocabulary, structures and names, determined by topics and language used. The use of English in this

area involves especially communicating with foreigners (customers, chefs, co-workers), language of

negotiation, dealing with difficult situations, when they meet customers and their problems (complains,

questions about meal\s ingredients etc.) including restaurants, bar and pub work and other locals with

gastronomy character, gaining abilities of explaining, suggesting and giving orders, explaining traditional meals

as well as writing letters, e-mails, filling in authentic forms, invoices, confirmations and other documents.

Answering the phone which is the most often used kind of communication is very crucial, too. Conversation

that takes part on the telephone significantly differs from face-to-face interaction because some expressions

and words are employed especially for phone conversation to communicate successfully, that is why, the

learner has to develop skills in exchanging information, explanation, taking orders, he must know how to ask


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the speaker for repetition, slowing down, clarification and the speaker cannot use any supporting materials

such as figures, graphs, pictures. It must be remembered that language used in formal conversation will be

different from that used in informal dialogues. That is why teaching such students must be focused on

communicative skills and teaching English in general, which is more significant than teaching grammatical

structures. The structure of such a course ought to stimulate real-life situations as closely as possible.

The main aim of the classroom activities during the ESP teaching is to develop students’ communicative

competence as it has been mentioned earlier. It does not mean only the ability to produce appropriate sounds

and words in English to form sentences, but the knowledge of how to produce coherent speeches and texts,

but ability to interact with others.

From the very beginning all four skills must be developed. Speaking, listening, writing and reading are to be

taught with the vocabulary typical for students of gastronomy industry schools and their needs.

Diversity of language areas and function that the process of teaching and learning should contain are:

• Vocabulary connected with gastronomy industry

• Giving information (e.g. explaining ingredients of dishes)

• Presenting dishes, services which are recommended to customers

• Formal conversation with Staff in the kitchen, the restaurant or bar

• Writing invoices, orders, food and kitchen facilities, notes, letters, names of dishes

• Names of traditional and regional dishes and drinks which often harking back to history and culture

Speaking task ought to include interacting with people as well as giving speech individually. The first skill

involves giving informal and formal presentations, instructing, demonstrating on the job, giving descriptions

and explanations. The second ability covers showing visitors and customers around, giving directions,

participating in discussions, interviewing and telephoning (taking orders). The focus during the classes is put on

pair and group work, which is equivalent of real-life situations. The best activities include role playing,

simulations, dramatization and discussions. The students should be familiarized with specific Jargon used in

professional conversation as well as the language needed for less formal communication with customers or

colleagues. Thus, the learner should be conscious of appropriate language, behavior and cultural situations in

which he will operate.

Reading tasks ought to be concentrated on the ability to read and understand authentic texts, such as: invoices,

original recipes,. The student should know all reading sub-skills.

Listening tasks ought to involve understanding instructions and orders of supervisors, explanations,

descriptions as well as discussions between customers in the restaurant or the kitchen. That gives students an

opportunity to become familiar with the language used in those situations.

Writing tasks ought to involve the following: writing shopping list, writing recipes, short notes, invoices, menu

and wine lists, e-mails confirming orders etc.

We can speak about the gastronomy in the manner of which it demands, when the dialogue takes place

between professionals e.g., the cook with the cook or the waiter, banking up professional vocabulary,

specifying notions. The gastronomy, however, has its own second face, daily face. In both, there appear

specific for the professional language expressions and vocabulary.

The subject matter of the gastronomy, the kitchen and the cookery seems to be very meaning nowadays, what

is expressed by numerous television and radio programmes connected with cooking, the quantity of cookery

books on our market, treating our national kitchens, both as so fashionable „today” recipes on foreign dishes,

especially western, dishes of the vegetarian cuisine and Fast food. Examples can be multiplied. This subject

matter, seems to surround us from every side, we see and meet it at every turn. This fact in the more and

more greater degree, extorts on the society the extension of the lingual repertoire for foreign-language names

( sandwich, the kebab, the hamburger, hot wings, etc.) more and more often used by the younger generation.


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METHODS OF TEACHING ESP AND NEW TRENDS IN TEACHING ESP

Before considering teaching for specific purpose, it is significant to identify students who will be taught.

Teenagers involved in this study combine their future with work in restaurants, kitchens, as waiters. But first of

all they want to graduate from school and pass Matura Exam. In this kind of study, students are to work hard,

to learn for those two purposes. They should be actively involved in the training process and acquisition of

marketable skills and, what is so important nowadays, they ought to be involved in self- evaluating training and

effort. The most important here is, therefore, to arouse students’ constant interest in the learning process.

Since the teacher-student good relationships are a crucial source of support, companionship and cooperation

in learning is an effective method for knowing learners’ varied language styles and for involving them actively in

the language process.

So far, teachers are able to arouse students motivation by creating and maintaining success expectations, teach

learning and techniques that enhance learners’ performance. The student is activated by teaching materials,

which introduce him to the contemporary world, to the world in which he lives. Activating virtues possess also

topics, referring to students’ interests which arouse their curiosity and release spontaneous aspirations for

gaining knowledge. That is why, to develop students’ motivation, they need to be interested in the subject they

are studying as well as in activities they are presented. Their interest is enhanced not only by the content

selection but also by suitable and varied work methods. Thus, more and more teachers use activating methods

during teaching, which have become so popular recently. However every teacher should remember about

psychological bases concerning students’ preferences and perception, concentration and decentralization of

activation and sound-proofing. He must remember that the average ability for remembering of his schoolboys

depends on used method of teaching.

There are the following activating methods-the most often used by teachers nowadays- which are ways of

teaching and learning and require cooperation of both, the teacher and the learner:

• brainstorm,

• recall and share,

• inscenization and drama,

• reading during 5 steps,

• notions’ map, project ,

• metaplan,

• discussion,

• decision making tree,

• group work,

• didactic games

They are understood as hints, manners of an action which help students to: communicate, discuss and argue

about different subjects, develop own ideas and knowledge, easily absorb new knowledge.

It is clear that English has become a necessity nowadays. We use it and need in various fields of our life. It is the

popular means of communication between people of various parts of the world.

Todays’ language classroom is significant different from that of the 20th

century. The latest research give the

means to identify current trends in the subject which are forming the 21st

century language classroom, these

are: individualized learner-centered approach, saying that learning language is easy, language labs, clear

demonstration of learning, proving the value of language learning through stories and speeches, using

technology for language, using L1 (mother tongue) during teaching, authoritative teacher attitudes,

communicative approach and of course activating methods which are still in use and give great effects

especially when used together. Shortly speaking, nowadays-in the 21st

century- the focus in language education

is no longer on grammar and memorization but on using language and cultural knowledge as means to

communicate with others around the world.


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The use of L1 during ESP classes is the main issue that has dominated the acquisition of ESP. Generally, it is said

that ESP should be taught only through English. But there have appeared trends and a method which support

the use of L1during teaching (especially specific gastronomy vocabulary). It helps teachers, if translation tasks

cane make contribution to improve students’ skills to better understanding and students’ results. It is a New

Currant Method which requires teachers to balance L1 and ESP during the process of teaching, for instance:

explaining grammar and structures ( especially passive voice very often used in gastronomy language),

introducing new vocabulary and concepts. It helps students to learn and acquaint more effectively, more

quickly (they can save time) and makes them feel more comfortable and secure during the process of learning

in the classroom full of schoolmates.. More to the point, comparing ESP and L1 can be interesting and enriching

experience, because when similarities and differences of both languages are known by students, learning ESP is

enhanced.

Changes in the didactics of foreign languages contribute to the takeover of the new part by the teacher of

based on the Individualisation of the teaching process -- the freedom of individual (unit) learning. In this

process, remembering is more effective if material invokes the emotion and schoolboys can identify

themselves with presented problems (the method Webquest, the method of the project, CLiL- Content and

Language Integrated Learning). Teaching of language is like facing needs of the schoolboy as the individual unit,

having different fancies, interests as well as habits, e.g.: somebody likes to fill gaps in tasks of the grammar,

somebody else likes to read, other likes to listen or to watch television a lot, films in the foreign language.

What is more, every of these persons is passionately fond of other domain of life: sport, art or gastronomy

etc..

To satisfy these needs, the teacher should organize occupations so, that except tasks done together, connected

with the subject matter placed in syllabi, should create the possibility to describe also himself, his own fancies

events from the life. Then, the class will become a place of the authentic communication and he will encourage

individual persons to the activity which most suits them, so he will show different methods of learning and the

schoolboy has then a possibility to choose most suitable for himself.

What is more the contemporary education has the task to create, that is to create an autonomous person, the

man who will be independent , consciously will drive both his own life and the learning process, to attain

appointed his aims, will be able to self-improving also after the completion of the learning at school, at

university.

The communicative approach serving as a means of intercourse with some elements of other methods – task-

based -learning, where students are to solve and produce characteristic tasks for true living standards is the

next example of new trends.

The reason for which students learn foreign languages, is their need to communicate. That's why teachers

should put the emphasize on the skill of the communication. The suitable encouragement and motivating of

the schoolboy induces him to the extra work also outside the class-room, not also at home and during

shopping, dinner in the restaurant or fast food bar or preparing the food in the kitchen. It is a good way to

easier acquaint new vocabulary. and structures.

It would appear that in English for Gastronomy Industry there is a narrow (limited) range of knowledge,

vocabulary and structures to acquaint by students, but that is why it is much more complicated for Teachers to

enhance them to learn and practice. In such situation it is much more challengeable for teachers to be creative

and encourage to learning these students to learn, especially traditional names of dishes, products and kitchen

equipment. As far as I know from my students, they have not had enough motivation to learn and have become

lazy with time learning the almost the same things again and again. New technologies give both students and

teachers a great possibility to make the process of education easiest and more pleasure. Internet is an

enormous and bottomless “well” of new, exciting ideas.

Thanks to the development of the technology, the contemporary world has changed considerably and has

offered to schoolboys -- students the wide access to various sources which give them the possibility of the


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independent learning, and what is more effective initiation of methods both making independent and

developing the autonomy of schoolboys.

New technologies influence strongly also on the process of learning and teaching of foreign languages. More

and more general access to computer technicians, to internet has created new possibilities both for learning as

and teachers preparing themselves to their lectures and classes. That means the rich base of materials,

exercises, canned music which are also easily accessible, and the possibility of the exchange of views with other

teachers readers on different forums. Because nowadays quite a lot schools is already equipped into

computers and has the internet access, the teacher should encourage his own schoolboys to the use of

interesting Internet sites, to make pleasant and to facilitate them to foreign, gastronomy language acquisition.

The specificity of the learning of foreign languages lets on this, so that the learning can be also an

entertainment. The internet gives also the possibility to listen to foreign-language dialogues in the restaurants,

kitchens, bars and other gastronomy locals, news on radios, watching the television, the access to books and

very popular lately e-learning courses. There are also the technologies that facilitate students learning, for

example Skype, Moodles, or virtual live classes and blogs.

All geographical boundaries are being transcended by technology as schoolboys learn to reach out the world

and knowledge around them. Students learn faster and easier thanks to new technologies than before Learning

ESP through the web and using new trends make students eager to learn language.

CONCLUSION

Teaching English Language (ESP) is still a field in which new venues and perspectives are unfolding. A huge

extent and innovations have been driven so far because of new knowledge about learners and proliferations of

integrated instructional models. The focus is no longer on grammar, learning from rote but using language as a

mean to connect with others around the world. What is more the purpose of learning English has changed and

evolved from cultural to purpose of international communication. This field is more learner-centered, more

collaborative and driven by technology. New technologies supply English language in authencity and literacy.

What is more, because of technology students learn faster and easier. Learning English through the web make

students much more eager to learn the language. Powerful internet provide various, new opportunities both

for teachers and students.

One is sure, there is no one effective and excellent method of teaching foreign language because the

appropriate method in one school will not have to be suitable in another. However, most teachers, lecturers

and professionals adhere to communicative methodology today.

All the students believe that English is learnt for their utilitarian value :getting better job, going abroad for

study, travelling etc., and that they need to continue learning the foreign language. Therefore the teacher, as

they say, is to provide more opportunities for increasing practice by: the use of authentic materials, particularly

for listening and speaking( dialogues in a restaurant, with clients etc.) and giving the chance to have training

period abroad. There is a case for a reconceptualized field that is more learner- centered, collaborative and

more technological driven., The trends are moving us forward in such a way as to empower our students to

communicate with others across the globe in real time.




REFERENCES

Atkinson, D. (1993). Teaching monolingual classes: using L1 in the classroom, Harlow: Longman Group Ltd.


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Breen, M. (2001).Lerner contributions to language learning: New directions in research, Harlow, England:

Pearson

Brown, H.D. (2000).Principles of Language learning and Teaching, 4th

ed. White Plains, NY: Addison Wesley,

Longman.

Brudnik, E., Moszyńska, A., Owczarska, B. (2000). Ja i mój uczeń pracujemy aktywnie, Zakład Wydawniczy SFS,

Kielce.

Butzkamm, W. (2003). We only learn language once. The role of the mother tongue in ELT classrooms: Death of

the dogma, in language Learning Journal, 28 (1), 29-39.

Citation:Eaton, S.E.(2010). Global Trends in Language Learning in the Twenty-First Century. Calgary:Onate

Press.

Harmer, J. (2003)The practice of English Language teching, Pearson Education Ltd., 4th

ed. Longman.

Jacobs, G. and Farrell, T.S. C. (2001). Paradigm Shift: Understanding and Implementing Change in Second

Language Education, TESL-EJ.

Komorowska, H. (2001). Metodyka nauczania języków obcych, Fraszka Edukacujna, Waeszawa.

LeLoup, J. and Ponterio, R. (1997). Internet technologies for authentic language learning experiences. ERIC

Digest ED 414770 retrieved on 7 January from htp//www.eric.ed.gov

McKay, S. (, 2002).Teaching English as an international language, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Rodgers, T. (2003). Methodology in the new millennium. English Teaching Forum, vol.38, No.2.

Ur Penny, (1991). A course in Language Teaching Practice and Theory, CUP.


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ANALYSIS OF THE MOTOR ABILITIES

OF SCHOOLGIRLS WITH SPECIFIC EDUCATIONAL NEEDS

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nedyalka Mavrudieva

National Sports Academy „V. Levski“,

Department „Theory of the Physical Education“

Sofia, BULGARIA

[email protected]

Abstract

The objective of the research is to optimize the process of education for girls with specific educational and

educational-coaching needs, practicing volleyball as out-of class activity.

The target of the research is to compare and analyze motors skills level of girls who participate actively in

educational – coaching process in volleyball.

The object of our study covers two volleyball education - training groups at their initial stage of sport

preparation, 20 pupils all at the age of 12-13 years; one group of 10 girls and each at the ordinary Bulgarian

secondary school and one group of 10 girls with specific educational needs from secondary specialized school

for children of impaired hearing in Sofia.

Our working hypothesis is: children of impaired hearing can level their motive abilities with those of children

without such problems under appointed conditions of the education - training process.

Methods: Theoretical-logical analysis, testing, variation analysis, t-criteria of Student.

Key Words: students, specific educational needs, motor ability, training

INTRODUCTION

Sport is an exceptional phenomenon and universal instrument towards education and healthy way of life. Sport

is a powerful integrating factor teaching tolerance and acceptance of the differences between the people since

early child’s age. Practicing physical culture and sport appear as basic instrument for achieving good health and

physical shape during school age, particularly in our time, when accent is predominantly put on theoretical

knowledge, either humanitarian or linguistic. That is the reason why a number of authors are studying and

analyzing the effect of sport as a basic factor for improving the health state, equal standing and socialization of

people of specific needs. Adapted physical culture and sport are part of the general adaptation process of a

number of activities, accompanying the everyday life and education of these people and in particular the

children having various disorders and injuries [2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9].

According to us, practicing sport games have got particular importance about improving adaptation of children

and youths of impaired hearing to the real life situations. By practicing games they are not only establishing

specific motive skills, habits, physical and functional qualities but as well their visual – irritative reactivity is

improved being in contact with partners and opponents during the game. Sport games at the same time, are

building up a number of moral – will qualities as will, persistency, tolerance, pursuit of manifestation, team

work, etc.

Our working hypothesis is: children of impaired hearing can level their motive abilities with those of children

without such problems under appointed conditions of the education - training process.


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ORGANIZATION AND METHODOLOGY

Organization

The study presented has got an attesting nature and its objective is to compare and analyze the level of the

motive qualities of 12-13 years old pupils, systematically participating in volleyball educational - training

lessons during their second year of exercise. [1,6].

The object of our study covers two volleyball education - training groups at their initial stage of sport

preparation, 20 pupils all at the age of 12-13 years; one group of 10 girls and each at the ordinary Bulgarian

secondary school (SS) and one group of 10 girls with specific educational needs from secondary specialized

school for children of impaired hearing (SSS) in Sofia.

Subject o f the stud y are the sy mptoms of the phy s ica l ab i l i ty o f 12-13 y ears o ld

schoo lg ir ls

Меthod s

• Th eoret ica l - log ica l ana lysi s ;

• Test ing ;

• Var iat ion analy s i s ;

• t-criteria of Student’s

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

The average values of the results from the “Long jump with both legs from static position” test for the SS girls

are X – 178 cm while those of the specific education needs pupils are respectively (SSS) X – 159, 5 cm. The

difference of 18, 5 cm is in favor of the 12-13 years old girls from the SS (fig. 1).

Fig.1: Long jump with both legs from static position/cm


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Fig.2: Throwing compact ball 3 kg/cm.

The average values of the “Throwing compact 3 kg ball” test SS girls’ results, taking part in volleyball education

– training lessons are X – 888 cm, the same indicator for the pupils of specific educational needs is respectively

X – 466 cm. The difference of 422 cm is in favor of the 12-13 years old girls from the SS.

The average values of the “Shuttle run” test results for the SS girls are X – 26, 9 s and X – 26, 62 s for the pupils

of special educational needs. The difference of 0, 38 is in favor of the 12-13 years old SS girls.(Fig.3)

Fig.3: Shuttle run/s

Fig. 4 shows the results from the “Jumps on gymnastics bench” test. The average values are X – 34 for the SS

girls and X – 25, 2 are the results of the specific educational needs pupils. The difference of 8,8 is in favor of the

12-13 years old SS girls. (fig. 4)


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Fig.4: “Jumps on gymnastics bench” - number/30s

Fig. 5 presents the results from the “Dynamic flexibility” test. The average values of the test for the SS girls are

X – 20 while those for the pupils of special educational needs they are X – 10,9. The difference of 9,10 is in

favor of the 12-13 years old SS girls.

Fig. 5: Dynamic flexibility - number/30s

The “Dynamic flexibility” test results /fig. 5/ are better for the good in hearing pupils training volleyball. It

turned out that the pupils of specific needs have difficulties in performing this test; we think that could result

from the increased irritation of the vestibular apparatus, located in the impaired ear organ. Additional studies

are needed for more categorical conclusions as the sample is small and the tests are single ones.

Th e an aly s i s o f th e average levels d i f ferences o f th e ind icat ions stud ied sh ows that th e SS

group s h ave h igher ach ievements in a l l researched ind icators . The observed average


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level d i f feren ces o f th e ind icat ions stud ied d o not a l low mak ing ser ious deduct ion s and

con clu s ion s; that i s the reason why the t -cr i ter ia of S tud ent have been calculated (f ig . 6) .

I t i s ob viou s from th e data p resen ted in f ig . 6 that for 4 o f the ind icators for th e g ir l s ,

the va lu es o f th e ca lculated comparat ive t -cr i ter ia a re lower than the cr i t i ca l (h ave

va lu es und er 2.02) an d con sequ ent ly for them, i t can by h igh er gu aran tee probab i l i ty b e

mainta in ed, that th ere do not ex i st con sid erable d i st in ct ion s in th e d evelop men t level o f

the ind icat ion s stud ied and i t i s only for th e f i f th ind icator - “Dynamic f lex ib i l i ty” (t – 2,

86) wh ere th e d i f ferences are cons id erable.

Fig.6: Significance of the differences between the average levels of the motive qualities /t-criteria of Student/

Th e va lues of th e var iat ion coef f i c ient a re u nder 10% for th e th ird , fou rth and f i f th

indicator for th e g ir l s , which sp eaks about homogeneity and stab i l i ty of th e indicators

stud ied, whi le th e va lues o f th e f i r st and second in dicator sp eak about rela t ive

homogen ei ty and stabi l i ty o f th e indicators stud ied .

CONCLUSIONS

The studies conducted and analysis of the results confirms that the effect of the physical exercises is strictly

individual.

The observations described and the analysis of the results of our study, which is of attesting nature, lead to the

conclusion that under the education-training process and the choice of appropriate methods and means,

satisfactory result can be achieved even for pupils of specific educational needs, without the physical exercises

and sport to loose their purposefulness and attraction.

Our suppositions for leveling the motive abilities of pupils having specific educational needs with those of the

SS pupils, practicing volleyball, have been confirmed by the close levels of the physical qualities but they need

deeper studies with a greater number of pupils and defining the program requirements in more details, the

conditions and the regime of work. Additionally we have to underline that it is imposing to put an accent on

demonstrativeness upon teaching pupils of specific educational needs as well as the ability to know, although

not perfectly, mimic speech so that the education in any sport be done more effectively and rapidly.


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The difficulties met by the pupils of specific educational needs upon the execution of the dynamic flexibility

test show the need of deeper researches of the abilities of the deaf children and those with impaired hearing

to perform rapid and complicated motive actions, having an irritated vestibular apparatus and the dynamic

state of the body.

We think that the conclusions presented under our study and researches have got methodological and practical

significance for the education - training process and the physical education of children of impaired hearing.




REFERENCES

Гигова, В., Статистическа обработка и анализ на данни НСА – ИПБ, С., 1999г.

Карагьозов, И. Пл. Легкоступ, В. Кацарска „Основи на специалната педагогика” (част втора). Ш.,2006.

Маврудиева, Н., М. Тошкова, Т. Нейкова – “Подвижните игри, като средство за адаптирана физическа

активност и интегрирано обучение в обучението по физическо възпитание и спорт”, Спорт и наука, С.,

6/2008

Николова, М., „Спорт и адаптирана физическа активност за хора с увреждания”, С., 2006

Радулов, В., „ Интегрираното обучение и специалните училища ” Ш. , С., 1995.

Петкова, Л., М. Квартирникова – “Тестове за оценяване на физическата дееспособност”. МиФ. С., 1985.

Obesity and overweight, World Health Organization, 2003

Riala, E., - Physical development and ability of 16-17years old school girls of specific educational needs from

Republic of Cyprus, Diploma work (Master in APHA, 2009)

Николаидис, Т.,– „Разкриване динамиката на физическото развитие и физическата дееспособност на

учащи се от Балканския регион (Гърция, България, Турция – възраст 7-18 г.)” Канд. Дис.


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AEROBICS FOR DISADVANTAGED PEOPLE

Sanja Selimović



[email protected]

Vesna Bratovčić

Edukacijsko-rehabilitacijski fakultet

7500 Tuzla, Univerzitetska 1


[email protected]

Abstract

Physical activity is essential for good health. Most people feel they should get more exercise, this applies to

people with disabilities. Disabled people often do not get enough exercise, especially if they have problems

with walking. However it is always possible to find the right type of exercise one can do depending on physical

ability. Authors have organized the aerobic training for disadvantaged children and young people. There was a

significant progress of individuals practicing in aerobic exercises in all segments. We included quite a large

number of children and young people with motoric disabilities. The program was developed to suit individual

needs because participants had different levels of psychophysical development and abilities. There was

significant improvement in muscle strength, physical conditions, coordination, ability to imitate motion, and

special orientation. The program shows that regular aerobic exercise can significantly improve the physical and

mental health of for people with disabilities.

Key Words: Aerobics, disadvantaged people, health, improvement.

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, most people are not sufficiently physically active. This is especially true for the group of people with

special needs who often avoid physical activity because of the impairment that they have (motor impairment,

vision). However one can always find the right kind of exercises depending on the impairment. Analyzing the

possible forms of physical activity for people with disabilities it is the authors’ opinion that regular participation

in aerobics classes could significantly improve not only physical but also mental health of participants, and

facilitate their integration into the local community. Aerobics program can improve quality of life for all people

with special needs and contribute to their socialization and quality leisure time. To verify this hypothesis, the

authors analyzed previous studies, prepare an aerobics program and performed a pilot class for children with

special needs.

Many studies have been published on the positive effects of aerobic on physical condition of people with

special needs. Here are some of the relevant results of individual studies:

• Dalgas (2010) found that the quality of life for people with multiple sclerosis improved with aerobic

exercise.

• Kileff and Ashburn (2005) have found that aerobic training improves the general condition and the mobility

of people with special needs.

• Lee and Park (2010) concluded that physical activity increases satisfaction and happiness of people with

special needs

• In the paper by (Smith, 1998) conclusions are that exercising on a treadmill improves general mobility for

people with chronic paralysis suffered after stroke.

• Exercising on a treadmill increases the physiological fitness in chronic stroke patients and improves their

functional mobility (Macko, 2001).


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METHOD

Authors organized aerobic classes for children and young people with special needs. Users are usually

individuals that previously lived at home, often without any contact with adults and children their age outside

their closest family circle. Such children often lack basic skills necessary to meet their own needs. For many

such children first contacts are traumatic. Aerobic exercise programs can be used for preventive and remedial

purposes.

Movement therapy is used for people of all ages and levels of physical fitness. It establishes psychomotor

integrity of a person with disabilities that are acquired or congenital. In this type of exercise they perform

movement and tasks in their own way.

Aerobics improves the sense of balance, movement, perception and motor skills. Fields of application are

psychomotor therapy, from minimal cerebral dysfunction to attention deficit disorder or hyperactivity disorder.

Principles, models and processes of social-group work are preservation of physical and mental health,

maintenance of vitality, rest, refreshment, entertainment and promotion of individual sports and recreational

activities in the society.

Persons with mobility impairments, who mostly missed early rehabilitation, are directed by certain specific

aspects that affect their growth, lifestyle and struggle with oneself and their surroundings, in the terms of

carrying out daily duties and activities. They are affected by varying degrees of disability in mental and physical

development, and consequently their individual capabilities vary in ability to perform daily activities such as

movements; hand movement; cognitive, perception, speech and sensory abilities; thus program has been

adapted to each individual child.

We cannot choose health but we can choose a healthy lifestyle. We are all well aware that a healthy lifestyle

includes movement, activity, sports and nutrition.

For people with disabilities aerobics can be an integral part of rehabilitation, but also a way for psychological

adaptation to different situations and socialization. Group work offers the possibility to implement physical

activities in a form of a game benefiting the child both physically and mentally.

Therapeutic process included children from the NGO "Mothers of handicapped children" TK Tuzla. Fifty children

were included in physiotherapy treatments and corrective gymnastics, with different diagnoses of mental

retardation, cerebral palsy and combined disorders.

Therapeutic process lasted from October 2006 to October 2007 and was performed in groups as well as

individually. Group work included step aerobics and low ground impact exercises with exercise balls, tires and

dumbbells. Groups were comprised of 15 children, relatively homogeneous in age, ability and diagnoses. With

other children, individual sessions were performed in accordance with their capabilities and limitations.

Treatments were performed three times a week, during the weekdays with 7 children per day, lasting 20 to 30

minutes. Individual treatments were carried out accordance with the needs of the child from the massage,

relaxation, passive and active assisted movements and corrective exercises.

Group work:

Trainings were performed three times a week

Children groups: duration of 30 - 40 minutes.

The group consisted of 35 children with different diagnoses and physical abilities.

Aerobics program consisted of two parts. The first part after warm-up consisted of aerobic training of middle

and high intensity for 30 minutes. The second part was spent on strengthen training and shaping of all muscle

groups in a harmonious manner.


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DISCUSSION RESULTS

The result of the initial testing of children in Fig.1

Fig. 1: Initial testing

Test results acquired after passing the course of aerobics are shown in Fig 2.

Fig 2: Final testing

Final Testing

0

20

40

60

80

100

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35

subjects

success

AR1

PL1

Q1

N1

AA1

SG1

S1

L1

LD1

RR1

GV1

Initial Testing

0

20

40

60

80

100

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35

subjects

success

AR

PL

Q

N

AA

SG

S

L

LD

RR

GV


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Legend LD - lifting body and legs together, L - Lifting upper body from the base, S - Sit-ups with arms on the

chest with bent knees, A - Leg extension and lifting of a 2 kg weight with a lower thigh, AA – Lifting of leg N –

Lowering the leg, Pl - Raising with the side rotation SG – Lifting off the chair using arms in 30 seconds - triceps,

GV-Lifting of the back.

Based on the diagram showing individual results we gain insight for each child.

The results and level of improvement vary according to degree of disability and regular attendance during

treatment. There are evident improvements for the duration of the Aerobics program for individuals and

groups. Progress can be seen in Table 1 which shows the median values for the initial and final testing.

Table 1: The mean values for initial and final testing

Element GV RR LD L S SG AA N Q PL AR

Initial

Testing 4,9 5,4 6 5 5,8 5,9 5,4 5,2 5,4 7,2 4,706

Final

Testing 5,1 6,4 6,7 6,2 6,6 6,5 6,1 6,2 6,2 7,6 5,176

Significant improvement was noticed in muscular strength, capability to follow instruction, coordination,

aerobic capability, endurance, progressive muscle relaxation and fine motor skills.

Aerobic program influenced all of the motor capabilities: strength, speed, endurance, flexibility, coordination,

balance and accuracy.

CONCLUSION

The study has shown that subjects who regularly participated in therapy achieved visible improvement in all

spheres of aerobic capabilities: reduction of fatty tissue; shaping of individual groups; core strength;

development of motor functions; flexibility and coordination; fortification and strengthening of

musculoskeletal system and tend segments; general strength improvement; and personal strength. From the

presented results it can be concluded that subjects’ functional capabilities have been improved. It will be easy

to implement the results of our study in physical education classes in educational institutions educating people

with special needs.




REFERENCES

Dalgas U., Stenager E., Jakobsen J., Petersen T., Hansen H.J., Knudsen C., Overgaard K., and Ingemann-Hansen

(2010). Fatigue, mood and quality of life improve in MS patients after progressive resistance training. Retrieved

February 10, 2012, from http://msj.sagepub.com/content/16/4/480.abstract.

Kileff J., Ashburn A. (2005). A pilot study of the effect of aerobic exercise on people with moderate disability

multiple sclerosis. Retrieved February 15, 2012, from http://cre.sagepub.com/content/19/2/165.abstract.

Macko R. F., Smith G. V., Dobrovolny C. L., Sorkin J.D., Goldberg A.P., Silver K.H. (2001). Treadmill Training

Improves Fitness Reserve in Chronic Stroke Patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 82, 879-884.


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Smith G.V, Macko R.F., Kenneth H. C. Silver K.H., Goldberg A.P. (1998) Treadmill Aerobic Exercise Improves

Quadriceps Strength in Patients with Chronic Hemiparesis Following Stroke: A Preliminary Report. Retrieved

February 20, 2012, from http://nnr.sagepub.com/content/12/3/111.abstract

Lee Y.H., Park I. (2010). Happiness and Physical Activity in Special Populations: Evidence From Korean Survey

Data. Retrieved February 20, 2012, from http://jse.sagepub.com/content/11/2/136.


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May 2012, Volume: 2 Issue: 2 From Editors ISSN: 2146-7463


v

Dear WJEIS Readers,

WJEIS appears on your screen now as Volume 2, Number 2. In this issue it publishes 26 articles. 54 authors

from 14 different countries contributed this issue. These countries are Bosnia And Herzegovina, Bulgaria,

Estonia, Iran, Macedonia, Poland, Slovenia, Sultanate of Oman, Sweden, Taiwan, Turkey, Qatar, U.A.E. and

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Colleagues that are in editorial board worked hard to determine the articles of this issue. There are also some

articles that were presented in “3rd International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their

Implications” that took place between 26-28 April 2012 with the contribution of 46 countries. Articles are

evaluated by the referees that are either in editorial board or outside the board. According to the evaluations,

some articles that were presented in “3rd International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their

Implications” will also be published in our next issue.

Although WJEIS is a new journal, it has been welcomed with interest. A lot of journals from various universities

are in the evaluation process. We would like to thank cordially our colleagues who work hard in editorial board

to evaluate the articles, writers who contribute to our journal and all readers.

1st

May, 2012

Best regards

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya

Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray


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Contact Addresses

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi Üniversitesi, Endüstriyel Sanatlar Eğitim Fakültesi,

Eğitim Bilimleri Bölüm Başkanlığı, 06830 Gölbaşı Ankara/Türkiye

E. Mail: [email protected] Fax: +903124853123

Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu Üniversitesi, İletişim Bilimleri Fakültesi,

Yunusemre Kampüsü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye


Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Yabancı Diller Yüksek Okulu,

İki Eylül Kampusü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye


Sponsors

Abstracting & Indexing

WJEIS is listed in;

Editors

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey

Associate Editor

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu University, Turkey


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Editorial Board

Prof. Dr. Abdul Hakim Juri, University of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Prof. Dr. Ahmet Mahiroğlu, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Alan Smith, The University of Southern Queensland, Australia

Prof. Dr. Ali H. Raddaoui, University of Sfax, Tunisia

Prof. Dr. Ali Şimşek, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Augustyn Bańka, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Poland

Prof. Dr. Boriss Misnevs, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia

Prof. Dr. Cevat Celep, Kocaeli University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Coşkun Bayrak, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Emine Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Esmahan Ağaoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Francis Glasgow, Guyana University, South America

Prof. Dr. H. Güçlü Yavuzcan, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Jim Flood, Open University, United Kingdom

Prof. Dr. K. M. Gupta, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, India

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Durdu Karslı, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Kesim, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Modafar Ati, Abu Dhabi University, United Arab Emirates

Prof. Dr. Mohamed Ziad Hamdan, Modern Education House, Syria

Prof. Dr. Müfit Kömleksiz, Cyprus International University,TRNC

Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi, Bejing Normal University, China

Prof. Dr. Ramesh C. Sharma, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

Prof. Dr. Rozhan M. Idrus, School of Distance Education, University Sains, Malaysia

Prof. Dr. Santosh Panda, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

Prof. Dr. Sharif H. Guseynov, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia

Prof. Dr. Tamar Lominadze, Georgian Technical University, Georgia

Prof. Dr. Tayyip Duman, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Tony Townsend, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom

Prof. Dr. Valentina Dagiene, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Lithuania

Prof. Dr. Yoav Yair,The Open University of Israel, Israel

Prof. Dr. Yüksel Kavak, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Zdena Lustigova, Chareles University, Czech Republic

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Antonis Lionarakis, Hellenic Open University, Greece

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gonca Telli Yamamoto, Okan University, Turkey

Assoc. Prof. Dr. I. Hakki Mirici, Akdeniz University, Turkey

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Natalija Lepkova, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Lithuania

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nedim Gürses, Anadolu University, Turkey

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shivakumar Deene, Karnataka State Open University, India

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Steve Wheeler, University of Plymouth, United Kingdom

Assist. Prof. Dr. Irfan Yurdabakan, Dokuz Eykul University, Turkey

Assist. Prof. Dr. Katherine Sinitsa, International Research and Training Center, Ukrania

Assist. Prof. Dr. Roxana Criu, Cuza University, Romania

Dr. Hisham Mobaideen, Mu'tah University, Jordan

Dr. Simon Stobart, University of Teesside, United Kingdom

JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL

AND INSTRUCTIONAL STUDIES

IN THE WORLD

May 2012

Volume 2 Issue 2

ISSN: 2146-7463

http://www.wjeis.org


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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ORGANIZATIONAL INTELLIGENCE

AND THE PERFORMANCE OF MANAGERS

Shahram Gholami

Dep. of Educational Management

Islamic Azad University,

Garmsar Branch, Garmsar, IRAN

[email protected]

Sepideh Safaee

Iranian National Tax administration, Tehran, IRAN

[email protected]

Abstract

Organizational intelligence is one of the issues that is new, interesting and more considerable. There are many

questions about the organizational intelligence, the factors affecting it and its relation to performance of

managers. The question always asked by managers is how to work smarter?

This study examined the relationship between the organizational intelligence and the performances managers

of educational groups in the universities of Garmsar in the 89-90 school year.

The method of the research is applied and the data collection was descriptive correlation.

Statistical population includes all educational managers group in Garmsar universities that those numbers is

reported 40.

The research tools include Albrecht intelligence questionnaire (2003) and a report form of the managers

performance that was created by the researcher.

For data analysis, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics such as regression by SPSS was used.

No significant positive relationship was found between the general organizational intelligence and the

performances managers of educational groups. But the stepwise regression indicated that application of

knowledge (one of the components of organizational intelligence) is a significant predictor of managers

performance in human resources part (one of the sections of managers performance).

Conclusions: It should be noted equally to all component of organizational intelligence That will ultimately lead

to improve performance and productivity.

Key Words: University, performance managers, department manager.

INTRODUCTION

Human as the most exalted creature was always wonderful and creative in universe. He can be the origin of

useful effects for his society with the power of thought and idea that God bestowed him and with learning

science and wisdom during his life. People's lives are suffused with the organizations. Nowadays organizations

face with wide and rapid changes in political, cultural, social, technological and economical environment.


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Organization's successful reaction in a dynamic and variable atmosphere depends on their abilities to provide

concerned information and finding suitable solutions for the problems which they pose. Under these

conditions, theoreticians and organizational managers focus on one aspect based on designing of what is called

thought abilities of an organization (Simic,2005).

Albrecht claims that after the first, second, and third waves (agriculture, industry and information), the fourth

wave is consciousness and brain (Albrecht, 2003).

Similarly in human world and in this turbulence life, there are successful and efficient human beings who have

bountiful intelligence, surely organizational world is the same, especially in this age of the development of

science, technologies, and the emergence of needs and new challenges, the organizations and managing then

will be more complicated and difficult.

The majority of administering managers believe that knowledge is the most blessing in the organization.

They believe that the brain and mental consciousness and the awareness are the main principles in their

organization that cause of competition in the organization, since they make attempts to enjoy organizational

intelligence to gain a true competition (Liebowitz, 1999).

Today in this world the promotion organizational intelligence is one of the undeniable necessities for most of

the organizations in order to increase their capabilities through information acquisition and analysis and also by

increasing knowledge and providing awareness.

Increasing organizational intelligence causes that the organizations analyze their surrounding information

quickly and meticulously and enable them to share the results in a useful way and to make information

available to the decision makers in appropriate times. This matter accelerates the exchange of information and

knowledge in organization and improves the effectiveness of thought and group decision making markedly.

The amounts of organizational intelligence are different and variable like human beings. It means that a series

of external and internal factors effect its growth and emergence. Also the organizations present an amount of

intelligence like human beings. Some of the organizations are so dull. They can not even recognize the powerful

signals from their surrounding changes and they are unable to respond to these stimulants. These

organizations learn slowly and repeat their previous faults without interpretation.

Organization existence philosophy depends on human life. The human beings blow spirit in organizations body,

move it and manage it. Therefore, human sources are the most valuable source for organizations. They form

organizational decisions and offer solutions and ultimately solve their problems. They materialize the

productivity and give sense to the efficiency and effectiveness. This description shows that since human

sources pass the main part of its life as employer, worker or managers in organizational environment, it’s

natural to pay more attention to them.

Manager’s responsibilities make them act efficiently and effectively. The main reason to employ managers is

that they help the organization members to achieve the goals of group attempts. Organizational intelligence

helps you to recognize your organizational weak points and to strengthen your positive points. The

organizational intelligence is looking for the measurement of organizational consciousness condition to

recognize their abilities and weaknesses; Then, based on the outcomes determines to offer vital strategies to

improve organizational intelligence and organizational operation. Organizational intelligence with depending

on human intelligence, is an unlimited source of thought capitals that if recognized and managed correctly, it

can increase its flexibilities. Also with providing an appropriate situation, it paves the way for creating

knowledge management and organizational learning and promotes the power of giving idea, creativity and

innovation.

Also the university as one of the important training institutions should promote its capabilities and abilities for

the sake of fulfillment of its goals to train the generation that is looking for development and pave the way to

achieve the goals with suitable mechanism that are appropriate for people and society. The organizational


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Shared Fate

“Heart”

Knowledge Deployment

Performance Pressure

Alignment &

Congruence

Appetite for

Change

Strategic

Vision

O.I.

intelligence theory helps the university to promote its thought abilities as an intelligent organization and

enables it to make its commissions come true intelligently.

Knowledge viewpoints

Some of scientists examine the organizational intelligence from the knowledge viewpoints. The knowledge,

behavioral and emotional-social viewpoints are the three subjects of organizational intelligence and the

general goal is that we know how different ideologies and association of idea can offer a comprehensive

interpretation from organizational intelligence in management and organizational development literature.

Organizational intelligence is a social process whose fundamental theories are based on absolute individual

intelligence which is being ignored up to now. The usage of individual intelligence couldn’t specify social nature

of organizational intelligence (Akgun, 2007).

Matsuda viewpoints

The organizational intelligence consists of complex, relational, pilled up and coordinator collections of human

intelligence and mechanics of organization as the whole (Matsuda, 1992).

Liebowitz viewpoints

Based on his opinion organizational intelligence consists of all intelligent that are used to make a common

viewpoint, renovation process (examination) leading the whole system (Liebowitz, 1999).

Simic viewpoints

Based on his opinion organizational intelligence consists of thought ability of an organization to solve the

organizational problems that focus a mixture of human and technical abilities to solve the problems (simic,

2005).

Albrecht viewpoints

Based on this viewpoint organizational intelligence consists of organizational capacity to apply all its brain

powers and the focus of that brain powers on its commission. He believes that generally organization damage

themselves more than being injured by their rivals.

Lack of skill in performance, administrative wars, political contests, organizing disorder and nonsense policies

are the obstacles to the organization progress (Albrecht, 2003).

Karl Albrecht believes that organizational intelligence consists of seven components which are as follows:

Figure 1: Seven Indicators of Organizational Intelligence (Karl Albrecht 2002)

1. Strategic Vision: It refers to the capacity of providing goals.

2. Shared Fate: It means having a common goal, unanimity and coordination with the goals.

3. Appetite for Change: Flexibility capacity and more compatibility with environmental changes.


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4. Heart: It shows the tendency to the activity beyond the standard.

5. Alignment and Congruence: Elimination of contradictions and promotion of individual energy appropriate

for achieving common goals.

6. Knowledge Deployment: The ability of creation, transition, organizing, participating and applying

knowledge.

7. Performance Pressure: Forming the culture in which each new member who join the organization feels

cooperation binding toward job.

There are different ambiguities about organizational intelligence, the effective factors and its relation with

manager's performance, in a way that make some researchers do researches about it.

Mangers always ask this question how to act more intelligently.

The main problem of this research is to investigate whether there is any relationship between organizational

intelligence and manager's performance.

As it was mentioned above, organizational intelligence consists of seven Components.

Consequently the purpose of this research is whether there is any relationship between organizational

intelligence and its Components with manager's performance? Implementation of such applied research can lead to promotion of manager's knowledge and prepare a

suitable situation to increase their performance, because each person performance in every situation indicates

person’s knowledge and awareness toward that situation or special matter. With respect to the people

organizational intelligence is the sign of person awareness and information in relation with effective factors on

organization, so organizational intelligence can be one of the effective factors in person performance, because

in every organization the role of manager as one of the important leadership factors is undeniable. So the

investigation of the relationship between organizational intelligence and the manager's performance seems

necessary.

RESEARCH METHOD

The research statistical community, consists of the whole managers of different educational groups at Azad

university, Payam Noor university and Azad university of Garmsar within the second half year 89-90. The

numbers is reported as forty. According to the limitation of statistical community, the research was conducted

upon the whole study community as field research.

The research tools consist of:

• organizational intelligence questionnaire (Albrecht, 2003) that includes thirty six question and it measures

general organizational intelligence and its seven components

• The form that is a work report about the performance of educational groups and measures manager's

performance in three parts including hiring faculty, educational activities and research and scientific

activities.

Cronbach's alpha index indicates that reliability of organizational intelligence is %92 and its indicators are

between %73 to %88. The validity of the 36 item reported as greater than 0.3 that is confirmed by Kohansal

and colleagues. Also the content of work reporting form was confirmed by five professors.

In order to analyze data, we used descriptive and inferential statistic as regression by the use of SPSS statistical

software.


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FINDINGS

Table 1: Multivariable regression results

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

95% Confidence

Interval for B

Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig. Lower

Bound

Upper

Bound

(Constant) 58.697 19.720 2.977 .006 18.529 98.865

Strategic Vision 2.310 2.155 .522 1.072 .292 -2.079 6.699

Shared Fate 1.595 1.990 .319 .801 .429 -2.459 5.650

Appetite for Change .027 1.860 .007 .014 .989 -3.761 3.815

Alignment and Congruence 2.248 2.049 .367 1.097 .281 -1.926 6.423

Knowledge Deployment 4.669 2.287 .874 2.041 .050 .009 9.328

Performance Pressure .998 2.340 .114 .426 .673 -3.768 5.764

OI -1.818 1.199 -2.102 -1.516 .139 -4.261 .625

Table 1 is related to the examining of the main question (Is there any relationship between organizational

intelligence and manager's performance?) indicated that no significant positive relationship was found

between the general organizational intelligence and the performances managers of educational groups. But

Knowledge Deployment (one of the components of organizational intelligence) is significant predictor of

manager's performance in hiring faculty (one of the sections of manager's performance).

The findings of the sub-questions

1. Is there any relationship between the strategic vision and the manager's performance?

Table 2: F test for linear relationship between the strategic vision and the manager's performance

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 199.597 1 199.597 .668 .419a

Residual 11352.803 38 298.758

a. Predictors: Strategic Vision

b. Dependent Variable: Hiring

faculty

Total 11552.400 39

Regression 4637.174 1 4637.174 .032 .859a

Residual 5484254.326 38 144322.482


b. Dependent Variable: Educational

Activities

Total 5488891.500 39

Regression 2378.339 1 2378.339 .891 .351a

Residual 101383.561 38 2667.988


b. Dependent Variable: Research

and Scientific activities

Total 103761.900 39

According to table No. 2 there is not a meaningful relation between the Strategic Vision and manager's

performance.


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2. Is there any relationship between the Shared Fate and the manager's performance?

Table3: F test for linear relationship between the shared fate and the manager's performance


Regression 589.146 1 589.146 2.042 .161a

Residual 10963.254 38 288.507

a. Predictors: Shared Fate b.

Dependent Variable: Hiring faculty

Total 11552.400 39

Regression 135376.196 1 135376.196 .961 .333a

Residual 5353515.304 38 140881.982


Dependent Variable: Educational

Activities

Total 5488891.500 39

Regression 1050.234 1 1050.234 .389 .537a

Residual 102711.666 38 2702.939


Dependent Variable: Research and

Scientific activities

Total 103761.900 39

According to table No. 3, there is not any meaningful relation between the Shared Fate and the manager's

performance.

3. Is there any relationship between the Appetite for Change and the manager's performance?

Table 4: F test for linear relationship between the appetite for change and the manager's performance


Regression 938.132 1 938.132 3.359 .075a

Residual 10614.268 38 279.323

a. Predictors: Appetite for Change


faculty

Total 11552.400 39

Regression 46703.376 1 46703.376 .326 .571a

Residual 5442188.124 38 143215.477



Activities

Total 5488891.500 39

Regression 2334.872 1 2334.872 .875 .356a

Residual 101427.028 38 2669.132




Total 103761.900 39

According to table No. 4, there is not any meaningful relationships between the Appetite for Change and the

manager's performance.


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4. Is there any relationship between the Heart and the manager's performance?

Table 5: F test for linear relationship between the heart and the manager's performance


Regression 1013.635 1 1013.635 3.655 .063a

Residual 10538.765 38 277.336

a. Predictors: Heart b. Dependent Variable: Hiring

faculty

Total 11552.400 39

Regression 137843.675 1 137843.675 .979 .329a

Residual 5351047.825 38 140817.048

a. Predictors: Heart b. Dependent Variable: Educational

Activities

Total 5488891.500 39

Regression 1131.507 1 1131.507 .419 .521a

Residual 102630.393 38 2700.800

a. Predictors: Heart



Total 103761.900 39

According to table No. 5, there is not any meaningful relation between the Heart and the manager's

performance.

5. Is there any relationship between the Alignment and Congruence and the manager's performance?

Table 6: F test for linear relationship between the alignment and congruence and the manager's performance


Regression 106.443 1 106.443 .353 .556a

Residual 11445.957 38 301.209

a. Predictors: Alignment and

Congruence


faculty Total 11552.400 39

Regression 5738.379 1 5738.379 .040 .843a

Residual 5483153.121 38 144293.503


Congruence

b. Dependent Variable:

Educational Activities Total 5488891.500 39

Regression 562.704 1 562.704 .207 .652a

Residual 103199.196 38 2715.768


Congruence


and Scientific activities Total 103761.900 39

According to table No. 6, there is not any meaningful relation between the Heart and the manager's

performance.


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6. Is there any relationship between the Knowledge Deployment and the manager's performance?

Table 7: F test for linear relationship between the knowledge deployment and the manager's performance


Regression 124.231 1 124.231 .413 .524a

Residual 11428.169 38 300.741

a. Predictors: Knowledge

Deployment


faculty Total 11552.400 39

Regression 476.426 1 476.426 .003 .955a

Residual 5488415.074 38 144431.976


Deployment


Activities Total 5488891.500 39

Regression 1420.449 1 1420.449 .527 .472a

Residual 102341.451 38 2693.196


Deployment



According to table No. 7, there is not any meaningful relation between the Knowledge Deployment and the


7. Is there any relationship between the Performance Pressure and the manager's performance?

Table 8: F test for linear relationship between the Performance Pressure and the manager's performance


Regression 455.622 1 455.622 1.560 .219a

Residual 11096.778 38 292.020

a. Predictors: Performance Pressure


faculty

Total 11552.400 39

Regression 53296.684 1 53296.684 .373 .545a

Residual 5435594.816 38 143041.969



Activities

Total 5488891.500 39

Regression 174.814 1 174.814 .064 .801a

Residual 103587.086 38 2725.976




According to table No. 8, there is not any meaningful relation between the Performance Pressure and the



We can generally conclude that organizational intelligence seems so week in our studying organizations, and

they should equally concentrate on all of the components of organizational intelligence so that their resultant


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which become manifest as the organizational intelligence will be improved. In this way good performance and

productivity will occur at the end.

But the findings of research showed that the Knowledge Deployment is a significant predictor of managers’

performance in hiring faculty members. Therefore it is necessary to know that the resultant of Knowledge

Deployment has a meaningful and important share in hiring faculty part of manager's performance.

Hence the managers who believe their abilities in using one of the components of the organizational

intelligence as the Knowledge Deployment, sound be more successful in preparing the hiring faculty area.

That's why we can bring up this matter that the organizations which pay more attention to this component

have suitable and better strategy in attracting powerful and specialized forces. So we can observe better

human relationship in our work environment if we can improve the level of the component of Knowledge

Deployment usage there. According to this subject the most effective person in an organization is the one who

goes on learning and educating constantly and tries to improve his ideas, skills and knowledge.

Various researches have been done in the organizational intelligence the results of which are harmonious. For

example Vedadi and his co-worker's research (2011) showed that among the components of organizational

intelligence, Knowledge Deployment has most correlation with the crisis management. Also Khodadadi and his

co-worker's research (2011) shows that among the components of organizational intelligence, Appetite for

Change, Heart and Knowledge Deployment can lead us to an acceptable productivity. Salasel and his co-

worker's research (2010), Nouruzi and vaezi (2011), Bagherzadeh and Akbari Dibavar (2011) showed that

Strategic Vision has undesirable situation, and Nouruzi and Vaezi (2011) concluded that the studying sample in

Strategic Vision and Shared Fate have undesirable situation.

Satari Ghahfarokhi (2008), Salasel and his co-worker's research (2010) found out that there is a negative

relation between the component of Appetite for Change, Alignment and Congruence, Knowledge Deployment,

Performance Pressure and other research component.

Lefter, Prejmerean and Vasilache (2008) and Satari Ghahfarokhi (2008) also found out that in the organizational

intelligence components, the Heart component does not have a good situation.

Generally the organizations should not be merely satisfied with employing the intelligent people, on the

contrary they should create conditions so that the people can train their potential abilities and actually use

them toward the aim and mission of the organization.

The organizations should be able to strengthen their competitive potentiality in this competitive world. It will

be necessary for the managers and leaders to look at organization in another new point of view so that they

suppose it as an alive creature. Karl Albrecht (2003) believes that employing intelligent people in the

organization can not guarantee the success and development of the organization towards its rivals. When

intelligent people gather in an organization, there will be stupidity and dullness, because every intelligent

person acts individually and neglects his duty to reach the reality and elevation of the organization. It is natural

that every intelligent person keeps his knowledge for himself and does not like to transfer it to the others, and

in order to do his duty he constantly demands the organization something irrationally, and perhaps the

organization is not able to create a searching and seeking environment for him so that he can use his talents

and intelligence properly. As a result he may feel dissatisfied and it may result in many bad consequences that

has no profit for the organization and because of this dissatisfaction he as well as other employees reduce their

concern and undertaking towards the organization that has no profit for them.

Albrecht believes that the only way to solve this problem is using a new concept for the organizational

intelligence in the 21st

century. He has explained it in his book called "The power of minds in working" (2003)

and believes that if every organization has the ability to harmonize and combine and concentrate on the total

forces of the organization so that they use their talents, the organization will be able to reach its mission.

Therefore it is completely necessary to pay attention to this subject matter for reaching the organizational

success, creating desirable organizational environment and atmosphere and efficient criterion will be necessary


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so that the active workers and managers can do their jobs properly. If every employee knows that his ideas,

experiences and suggestions are heard and noticed, they will have tendency to exchange and transfer their

knowledge and they will be encouraged to benefit others from his knowledge and inner talents. Moreover the

employee feels more dependent towards their organization and tries to increase its productivity.

By creating seven basic components and necessary background for moving towards, the collective intelligence

can be obtained.

By entering the knowledge era, for obtaining the opportunity in the searching environment we must move

toward improving the organizational intelligence and obtaining this important goal is possible by installing the

knowledge management.




REFERENCES

Akgun, E. A.; Byrne, J.; Keskin, H. (2007),"Organizational intelligence: A structuration view", Journal of

Organizational Change Management, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 272-289.

Albrecht, karl (2003), Organizational Intelligence and Knowledge Management: Thinking Outside the Silos, PP:

1-17, available at: www.karlalbrecht.com

Albrecht, K. (2003), The Power Minds At Work: Organizational Intelligence.

Bagherzadeh.Majid, Akbari D.Ahmad. (2011), The relationship between the organizational intelligence and

Organizational agility in East Azarbaijan's Cultural Heritage organization. 1st National conference on

Organizational / Business Intelligence.

Khodamoradi.Mohammad R, Kashef. Mir M, Salehzadeh.Karim, Shir M.Mohsen, Khoshnevis.Farhad. (2011), The

relationship between the organizational intelligence and manager's productivity in East Azarbaijan's Offices of

Physical Education, Journal of Sport Management, Tehran university, No. 4, pp. 155-168

Kohansal.Hajar, Saatchi.Mahmud, Javidi.Hojatoallah. (2011), Psychometric adequacy indicators of

Organizational Intelligence, Journal of psychological methods and models, Vol. 1, No. 1

Lefter,V & Prejmerean. M & Vasilache. S. (2008).The Dimension of Organizational intelligence in Romanian

companies a Human Capital perspective. Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest.

Liebowitz, Jay. (1999), Building organizational intelligence knowledge Management primer. CRC press, Bocd

paton London Newyork Washington. D.C.

Matsuda, T (1992), Organizational intelligence: its significance as a process and as a product.proceedings of the

international conference on Economics/Management and information technology.Tokyo.Japan.

Noruzi.Ali, Vaezi.Mozafarodin. (2011), The evaluation of indicators of Organizational Intelligence in Tehran

University Faculty of Technical Sciences and Humanities, 1st National conference on Organizational / Business

Intelligence.

Salasel.Mahan, Kamkar.Manuchehr, Golparvar.Mohsen. (2010), The relationship between the Organizational

intelligence and Organizational citizenship behavior, Journal of Science and Research in Applied Psychology,

No. 40, pp 26-37.


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Simic, Ivan (2005), Organizational learning As a component of organizational intelligence, journal: information

and marketing aspects of the economically, university of national and world Economy, sofia, Bulgaria,

http://unwe.acad.bg/repec/sources/5c 2005.pdf

Vedadi.Ahmad, Sayad sh.Saeed, Shafizadeh b.Maryam. (2011), The relationship between the Organizational

intelligence and the Crisis Management in Iran Insurance Company, 1st National conference on Organizational /

Business Intelligence.


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THE EFFECTS OF EXTENSION- EDUCATION METHODS ON WHEAT SELF-SUFFICIENCY:

CASE STUDY IRAN

Assist. Prof. Dr. Homayon Farhadian


[email protected]

Mohammad Hassan Vakilpoor

PhD. Student in UPM Tehran, IRAN

[email protected]

Mirahmad Hosseini

Instructor in Tarbiat Modares University

Tehran, IRAN

[email protected]

Abstract

The main purpose of this study is investigating the effect of extension - education programs in increasing wheat

production in Iran. The research design was a descriptive and case study method. The population of study was

29 provinces of Iran. Secondary data was used. The result shows that extension – education classes had high

level (Mean= 44522) rank and Farm day program was the least level (Mean = 149) rank in extension- education

activities. On the other hand, results of t-test revealed that, the area of irrigation farmland, wheat production

in irrigation farm land and total wheat production in Iran had significant difference at 0.05 level after

implement “wheat self sufficiency program”. Also wheat productivity per hectare in irrigation farm land was

significant at 0.01 level.

Key Words: Extension-education methods, productivity, self-sufficiency.

INTRODUCTION

Nearly 36 % of the total population in the Islamic Republic of Iran (70 million) is living in the rural areas (24

million) under 4.3 million farm units (2003). Iran was divided into 29 provinces, 252 districts, 680 sub districts

and more than 70000 villages /settlements. About 50 % of the active rural population with age 10 and above is

engaged in the agriculture sector, plus 27% in industrial section and 22% in services section.

However, a large part of about 62% of its cultivable soil resources, amounting to 33 million hectare (ha) has

not yet been put to agricultural utilization, and 18.5 million hectare of cultivated land has been utilized at a

productivity rate of 50-60 percent. Moreover, 33% of agricultural land area is under irrigation, 28 % for rain fed

farming, 27% under fallow and 12% fruit orchards (Anonymous 2007). Approximately, out of 30% of total area

of the country (165 million ha), 51 million is characterized by a high or medium degree of cultivability and is

considered potentially arable land.

Before the oil discovery in 1908, Iran’s economy was based on agricultural activities. Recorded statistics about

Iranian’s economy indexes between two years include first half of twenty century in 1900 and first years of

present century in 2008, indicates that Shares of agriculture in GDP reduced from 65 to15 percentages which

shows the position of the agricultural sector has been weakened than other sectors. Nowadays, Iran's economy

largely thrives on production, extraction and export of oil and its derivatives automatically, causing a result that

illustrates the agricultural sector shares reduced in the country’s GDP (Esfahani & Pesaran, 2009).


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Historically, collective agricultural surplus had been the main source of the financial self-sufficiency and

despotic power of the Iranian provinces (Katouzian, 1979). And it was the largest contributor to Gross National

Production (GNP) throughout the period 1900-1970 (Bharier, 1971). In recent years, the agriculture sector

realized a considerable part of the country foodstuff requirements as well as raw material needed in industrial

fields.

The agriculture sector accounted 15% of Iran's GDP over the period 1991- 2001. The share of agricultural

products in the total non-oil export is 26%. Moreover, this sector provides almost a quarter of the employment

opportunities.

Rural and Agricultural Development Programs in Iran

In a general view, from 1949 to 1978, through the implementation of five National Development Plans and

particularly after conducting 1962 Land Reform program the rural and agricultural structure of Iran was

changed with a focus on ownership system in rural areas by the government decree into local utilization of

resources and in local management. The program was introduced in three stages from 1962 to 1970.

With the start of the oil boom in 1974, policies moved towards a rapid and centralized industrialization,

modernization and urbanization. Now the increasing low attention to the rural life and agriculture sector led to

its gradual depletion. The result was a dislocation of rural communities, fractions of which were ultimately

attracted to the urban areas, seeking better wages in industry and service sectors. The villages faced serious

structural problems, such as migration, lack of employment opportunities, lack of necessary facilities, and weak

terms of trade (Emadi 2003).

Accordingly, from a position of relative agricultural self – sufficiency in the mid 1960s, Iran became one of the

leading food–importing countries of the world. The contribution of agriculture to the GNP declined from 30.1

percent in 1959 to 9.2 percent in 1976 (Sharbatoghlie 1991).

After the revolution of 1979 as a grassroots movement, infrastructural services including health, education and

basic needs, rural infrastructure and agricultural services enhanced. The revolutionary government recognized

the need to identify and utilize the potential resources that existed in the villages, through appropriate

institutions and participatory mechanism. Generally in the post revolutionary period through implementation

the first, second and a part of the 3rd

National Development Plans, agricultural and rural development policies

have been operated by two separate ministries: Ministry of Agriculture (1960 -2000) and the Ministry of Jihad-

e-Sazandegi (1978 – 2000). These two ministries have merged since Jan, 2000 and all the above-mentioned

functions have been conducted by the Ministry of Jihad-e-Keshavarzi and it expects to have more impacts and

determine pattern for rural and agricultural advancement.

So accordingly, increasing the level of farmers' income and rural population’s life quality, sustainable rural

development and poverty alleviation, empowering private and cooperative sectors are the most important

general policies in the Forth National Plan that will be conducted to fulfill the next 20 years perspective's goals

of the country.

In Iran after the Islamic Revolution, working with people was the highest priority of rural development policies.

To this end: 1) institutionalization of people participation for creating appropriate structure and organization

for work, and 2) training and empowering rural people for encouraging active participation in development

process were implemented under the various rural development projects.

Some successful projects implemented by the Ministry of Jihad-e-agriculture during last two decades are: 1)

rural Islamic councils; 2) rural co-help houses; 3) construction groups; 4) rural youth clubs; 5) rural extension

animators; 6) rural productions cooperatives; 7) cooperatives for natural resource management; and 8)

entrusting range lands to animal keepers and range farmers.

Nevertheless, the most important characteristic of the rural and agricultural administration system was the

dominant centralized and top-down, local decision making, governmental and service demanding system and


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emphasizing on eco-centric approach were the major features of rural development process during the last

decades in Iran.

Accordingly, conventional extension system in Iran is governmental, simplified, centralized,

standardized/uniformed and top down approach.

Moreover, employing different strategies in agriculture sector affected the agricultural extension system in

past five decades in Iran. On the other hand, lack of effective farmers' participation in the process of planning,

implementing and evaluating the activities are the most important organizational features of national

extension system in Iran. In addition, majority of farmers in Iran are resource poor and small farmers (43% of

4.3 million households), and middle income farmers and relatively rich farmers are among the clientele of

extension services.

In this situation the major issues confronting the agricultural development and extension in Iran are: 1) low

level of productivity in some of the major agricultural products; 2) inadequacy of access of extension services to

poor- resource farmers; 3) insufficient active interaction among the major stakeholders in the process of

agricultural knowledge management.

According to the above mentioned challenges, applying participatory approaches like promoting local and

grassroots organizations in agriculture sector particularly in extension system for diffusion of useful innovations

in agricultural knowledge and information systems is an important strategy of extension system in Iran.

Therefore the agricultural extension and education system in Iran is shifting from a supply-driven approach to

demand-driven approach to meet the real rural people's and farmers needs.

METHODOLOGY

The main purpose of this study is investigation the effect of extension - education programs in increasing wheat

production in Iran. The research design is descriptive with case study method. The population of the study was

29 provinces in Iran. The data used in this study is based on secondary data. Independent variables were:

extension-education methods. 31 educational approaches were used in all provinces and it categorized in 13

extension-education methods.

FINDINGS

Table 1: shows the result of ranking extension – education methods in Iran.

Extension Method F S.D Mean N(Provinces) Rank

Extension education class 1,276,031 38353,29 44522,7 29 1

Extension publication 738,461 36702,96 29681,4 26 2

Consulting workshop 139,801 10020,51 5531,1 26 3

Farmer Demonstration 130,428 7408,96 4491,8 26 4

Farmer visits 68,932 3175,09 3139,2 25 5

Radio Farmers 35,857 3457,27 2770,6 17 6

Slides and photos 17,288 752,44 844,00 22 7

T&V(visit extension agents) 1,520 1090,59 843,4 19 8

Technical Meeting 5,630 701,84 643,2 11 9

T.V Farmers Program 11,061 557,11 586,6 19 10

Workshop of founds 4,049 363,39 273,9 15 11

Radio school 1,427 208,16 159 9 12

Farm day Program 3,135 232,92 149,2 21 13

Table .1 Ranking of use of educational methods in extension services in Iran (2003-2004)


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The results of the table-1 shows that the extension-education classes (mean = 44522.7), extension publication

(mean = 29881.4) and consulting workshop (mean = 5531.1) had high ranks between all extension approaches;

and farm day program (mean = 149.2), radio programs (mean = 159) and workshop on the research findings

had lowest rank between all programs in extension approaches.

The dependent variables were : area of irrigation farmland , dry farmland, total area farmland, wheat

production in irrigation farmland, wheat production in dry farmland and total wheat production ; and the

productivity of wheat in irrigation farmland and dry farmland in Iran between 2003 – 2004, it shows in

graph(1) .

Graph 1

0

2000000

4000000

6000000

8000000

10000000

12000000

14000000

16000000

IrriLand ** Total Land Pro DryLand

Irri Prod ***

20032004

Land Cultivating and Production of Wheat in Iran(2003-2004) Land Cultivating and Production of Wheat in Iran(2003-2004)

The result of the paired samples t-test show that in the area of irrigation farmland cultivated for wheat there

was a significant difference between 2003 and 2004 in Iran at 0.01 level and there was significant difference in

production of wheat in irrigation farmland between 2003 and 2004 at 0.01 level in Iran.

Also, the result of t-tests show that the total production of wheat was significant difference at the 0.01 level in

Iran between 2003 and 2004; and there was significant difference in productivity of wheat in irrigation

farmland between 2003 and 2004 in Iran at the 0.01 level and there were no significant differences in the area

of dry farmland, total wheat farmland. Wheat production in dry farmland and productivity in dry farmland, in

table 2 shows them as well as:

Result of multiple Regression enter method shows only one independent variable (workshop on research

findings) came into the regression equation and it explain 96.3% of the changes of dependent variable ( total


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production of wheat) and it also significant difference at 0.05 level. According to regression equation 3.7% of

the changes in total production of wheat were related to other variables that it wasn't in this study.

Regression Equation

Y´= a + b1x1 + b2x2 +…+ bnxn

Y´= -112676+5488.95(workshop on research findings)

Y´= - 112676 +5488.953(.037)

CONCLOUSION

The results show that the rank of irrigation wheat land, dry wheat land, total production of wheat, and rank of

productivity in irrigation land had significant differences between 2004 and 2003yrs and many preceding years,

in the past decade of 2004 import of wheat in Iran was about 4,000,000 tones per year. After merging the two

involved ministries in agriculture sector in Iran in 2000, one of the important goals of the new agriculture

Ministry (Jihad-e- keshavarzi Ministry) was self sufficiency in crop production such as; Wheat, Maize, etc. Thus

wheat self-sufficiency happened in 2004yer. The result of regression shows that only one of the extension

methods came in to the regression equation and it was significant. Other educational approaches were not

significant, so it can be said that, the other policies such as: crop insurance, guaranteed purchase, suitable

agricultural loans and other supported policies for farmers which could explain the increase of wheat in Iran

during this year.




REFERENCES

Anonymous (2007). Report of agricultural extension activities Ministry of agriculture. Tehran. Iran.

Emadi, Mohammad. H (2003)(A), Small village of the past, Grate lessons for the future, integrated community

development with Emadi, Mohammad. H (2004)(B), Emerging paradigm on agricultural extension and

education for poverty alleviation. Iranian experiences. The paper presented in 2th international conference on

agricultural education and environment. Best practices in poverty alleviation through education for the new

century. Rural development administration. October 13-16-2004, Seoul, Korea.

Esfahani, H. S., & Pesaran, M. H. (2009). Iranian economy in the twentieth century: a global perspective. Iranian

Studies, 42(2), 177-211.

Falsafi, Peyman (2003), Designing an extension model for institutionalization of participation in farmers’

organizations, the case of Segz-Abad, Boein Zahra, Iran. A thesis submitted to the graduate studies office in

partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD in agricultural extension and education. University

of Tehran, Faculty of agriculture, Karaj, Iran, December 2003.

Kalantari, kalil (2003). Data processing and analysis in socio-economic research. sharif publication. Tehran Iran.

Khorhe people. Symposium on: best cases of integrated community development Asian Productivity

Organization. Tokyo, Japan. 28-31 July 2003.

Sharabatoghlie, A. (1991). Urbanization and regional disparities in post – revolutionary Iran. West view press.

USA. 235pp


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Table.2 shows result of t-test for different farm lands and productivity in

Iran provinces between 2003 – 2004.

Paired Samples Test

-5715.80 7776.34204 1469.591 -8731.15 -2700.45 -3.889 27 .001

-1875.52 30122.43019 6024.486 -14309.4 10558.41 -.311 24 .758

-7140.87 25819.73005 4794.604 -16962.2 2680.4276 -1.489 28 .148

-37996.0 51389.10606 9711.628 -57922.6 -18069.4 -3.912 27 .001

-3442.51 57468.64445 11730.74 -27709.4 20824.37 -.293 23 .772

-39567.5 59732.20871 11091.99 -62288.4 -16846.6 -3.567 28 .001

-269.2225 344.86994 65.17429 -402.9491 -135.4959 -4.131 27 .000

-14.8272 256.79597 51.35919 -120.8274 91.1730 -.289 24 .775

irrigation lands perhactar in2003 - irrigationland in 2004

Pair1

dryland per hactarin2003 - dryland in 2004

Pair2

total farmland in2003 -total farmland in 2004

Pair3

production in irrigationland by ton in 2003 -production in irrigationland by ton in 2004

Pair4

production in dryland byton in2003 - productionin dryland by ton in 2004

Pair5

total production of wheatin 2003 - total productionby tons in 2004

Pair6

productivity in irrigationland per hactar by kg in2003 - productivity ofirrigationland by kg in2004

Pair7

productivity in dryland perhactar by kg in 2003 -productivity 0f dryland bykg in 2004

Pair8

Mean Std. DeviationStd. Error

Mean Lower Upper

95% ConfidenceInterval of the

Difference

Paired Differences

t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Result of T-test:


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COURSE ADVISING & PLANNING FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Mohammad Shakeel Laghari

Department of Electrical Engineering

United Arab Emirates University

P.O. Box: 17555, Al Ain, U.A.E.

[email protected]

Gulzar Ali Khuwaja

Department of Computer Engineering

King Faisal University

Al Ahsa, KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA

[email protected]

Abstract

Student course registration is an important as well as a trivial process and may encounter unnecessary

graduation delays. United Arab Emirates University (UAEU) is one such institution where students have faced

problems depending on number of factors which may include; a lack of a proper advising system,

understanding and experience of Advisers, students’ ability to seek good advice, etc. Students not advised

fittingly may suffer with lose time in selecting unnecessary and wrong courses. Students usually suffer with

problems which may include: course selection with time conflicts, missed out on specific courses for

appropriate semesters, selecting department electives bypassing track restrictions, selecting too many or less

courses, etc. A Student Auto Advising System (SAAS) is devised to guide students in selecting appropriate

courses suitable to register online with the University Registration System. SAAS is developed using JAVA

computer programming language. The outcome of the course selection is stored (semester-wise) to show a

complete typical plan.

Key Words: Advising, course planning, software package, JAVA.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the registration process at an academic institution is commonly to determine which students

will be taking what courses within the university education system, and for the administration to keep its

records up-to-date. From the students’ point of view, the registration process enables them to acquire the

necessary authorized membership of the University and to enable them to obtain their legal & authorized

benefits and privileges. Typically, when students register for particular courses, or modules, then this

registration information is collected by members of the teaching staff and administration to construct class

lists, and offer other academic activities, etc.

The devised Student Auto Advising System at the Faculty of Engineering, United Arab Emirates University, help

and guide students in selecting appropriate courses suitable to register with the online University Registration

System. Students need to consult their Academic Advisers before the start of registration period but this

consultation is commonly plagued with delays or a complete miss out with either Adviser too busy or student

too lazy to seek advice. The registration system ascertains an academic hold on the online course selection but

this hold is automatically released on the second day of registration.

Most of these lose out students experience typical problems which may include: courses registered without

completing prerequisites (this problem is almost resolved with the recent improvements to the banner

system), course selection with time conflicts, missed out on specific courses which may be only offered for

alternate semesters, selecting department electives bypassing track requirements and restrictions, selection of


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free electives restricted for specific colleges, selecting too many courses in a specific semester whereas this

selection is based on academic warnings and low grade point averages, or too less courses which again is based

on minimum credit hour requirements and grade point averages, etc.

Students in some of these categories suffer with problems such as class expulsion after two or three weeks of

the start because of prerequisites requirement, delay graduation because of unnecessary additional taken

courses, drop a complete semester because of minimum number of courses requirement, etc. The SAAS is

devised to counter such miss out or lost students to solve their advising and registration problems. The advising

system helps and guide students in selecting the precise and appropriate courses suitable for online

registration.

The paper describes complete operation of the advising package SAAS which includes prioritized course

selection, course hierarchies, graphical charts, restrictions, and filing of the complete course plan, etc. Students

can run the advising program through the electrical engineering department computer laboratories and create

a typical course selection plan for all the remaining semesters until graduation. The outcome is in the form of

semester-wise course selection stored in a file to show a complete typical plan.

The system is currently being used in the Electrical Engineering Department on a trial basis and modifications

are under process to suit the department needs. Once the testing phase is complete, then the advising

program will be implemented in all departments of the Faculty. Work is also in progress to convert the advising

JAVA application program into a JAVA applet. This completed applet will be mounted on the Faculty web server

for students to access the advising system online.

COURSE REGISTRATION

Before early nineties, at most of the academic institutions throughout the world, the registration process used

to involve student registrations at a single place, where most of the registration related activities were to be

performed after the requisite form was filled and processed by the concerned department. This (centralized)

single point activity used to generate many concerns for queues, fee payments, query handling and other

related issues.

In mid nineties, majority of the well known academic institutions throughout the world started to address this

perspective of registration from many different angles including student advising, student course registration,

class scheduling, administrative purposes, etc. Obviously, the objective seemed to produce a highly available

application that required working in a distributed environment.

Beginning nineties, institutions throughout the world have seen a rapid expansion of tertiary education. As

twenty first century approached, this trend increased nearly doubled. This rapid expansion has an indirect

effect on the institution’s enrolment. The average age of prospective students has increased as well as the

number of students. As the demand is stabilized so is a need to streamline the registration process that

maximizes the allocation of course places and increases the number of registered students.

Additionally, the institutions, in general, have progressed to offer programs that are specialized as well as

multidisciplinary. This variety of programs has introduced time conflicts vis-à-vis chosen courses. The required

registration system(s) are to be developed to provide on-line real time registration for students and enable

students to maximize their opportunities in registering courses of their own interest as well as advising

students in completing their degree requirements in a best possible way.

The multidisciplinary nature of modern day universities where faculties and departments can typically number

as high as 10 and 50, respectively, course registration systems need to be smart enough to comprehend

multiple course selections from different faculties and departments. A decent course advising system in this

regard can prevent and resolve such conflicts.


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The concept of computerized registration system has been to tolerate machine and network failures. It was

hoped that most human errors, such as incorrectly inputting data, would be detected by the system as they

occurred, but it was expected that some "off-line" data manipulation would be necessary for errors which had

not been foreseen.

Therefore, the success of any attempt to computerize this activity depends on the reliability, availability and

integrity of the computer systems, both software and hardware, on which the registration programs are run.

Because many of the departments at any university have most likely made significant investments in computer

hardware, it is logical that no specialized hardware is to be purchased and software fault-tolerance is to be

used instead. The following section looks at some of similar old and recent advising systems.

COURSE ADVISING & REGISTRATION SYSTEMS

The PACE advising system is a decision model representation for course advising based on student’s need to

know “what to do” and “how to do it”. It consisted of profiling a student’s strengths and weakness, generating

a personal curriculum customized to each person’s needs, and producing a schedule for the courses chosen

(Gunadhi, Lim, & Yeong, 1995).

The advising software at the Electrical Engineering, Texas Tech University featured a graphical user interface,

that allowed students to request only courses for which they have appropriate prerequisites, co-requisites, and

standing (Hagler, 1995). Similar work has been investigated by Laghari, Memon, & Habib ur Rehman (2005) on

an old and phased out curriculum.

A Student Advising Software (SAS) is developed using JAVA computer programming language. It is a manual

procedure which helps and guide students in selecting appropriate courses suitable for online registration with

the Banner University Registration System (Laghari & Khuwaja, 2012). The academics at the Florida Atlantic

University developed a similar web-based advising system that supplemented the conventional advising

process (Marques, Ding, & Hsu, 2001).

A Bayesian Network model for planning course registration and advising by using a data mining technique is

developed to predict the sequences of courses to be registered by undergraduate students whose majors are

computer science or engineering (Pumpuang, Srivihok, Praneetpolgrang, & Numprasertchai, 2008).

A SASSY advising system is developed at the Armstrong Atlantic State University. The system suggests courses

for an advisee based on; frequency of the course offering, balancing the course load, shortening the path

length to graduation, preference of advisee and entertaining different scenarios of course loads for the entire

duration of the advisee’s university life (Hashemi & Blondin, 2010).

An expert system using JESS (a JAVA based rule engine and scripting environment) is developed that allows

students to seek quick responses to their queries regarding their plan of study and progress in the program

(Nambiar & Dutta, 2010).

Two project management tools are designed to help the students complete their degree plan sooner. The first

tool provides a visualization map of course sequences, customized for each student, making advising

adjustments that will optimize the time to obtain the degree under a constrained set of resources. The second

tool collects information from multiple students through several semesters and can be used to identify

bottlenecks in the curriculum (Gonzalez & Esparza, 2010).

The Arjuna distributed system was developed at The University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. Its design aims

were to provide tools to assist in the construction of highly available, fault tolerant distributed applications

using atomic actions. Shrivastava, Dixon, & Parrington (1991), have discussed the design and implementation

of the registration system that successfully met their requirements (Shrivastava & Panzieri, 1988) & (Parrington

et al., 1995).


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Another development work was completed at the Wylie College IT for software architectural development of a

course registration system using the specifications created for the college requirements. The Software

Architecture Document provides an architectural overview of the C-Registration System. The C-Registration

System was initiated by Wylie College IT to support online course registration (Johnson, 1999), (WyIT387, V1.0,

Wylie College IT., 1998), (WyIT406, V2.0, 1999), & (WyIT418, V1.0, 1999).

As from one advising and registration system to another are browsed, it has been found that specification

document is fundamental and key to further develop a customized university course registration. Furthermore,

as programs to be offered vary from institution to institution, and at the same time universities continuously

revise their curriculum as well as program requirements in order to meet market demands, the flexibility and

reliability of the registration system to accommodate such changes in the program offerings has been deemed

necessary for such a system to survive and evolve.

Thus, the required development work involves customized design of a network-enabled university student

registration system that is capable of handling scenarios such as add/drop requests, student advising,

availability of courses per term, student's registration status, enrolment summary, reports, etc.

Furthermore, the devised advising system which is under test phase in the department has shown

representational efficiency and flexibility, improved performance, and ease of software development and

maintenance when compared with some of the mentioned systems.

THE SAAS PACKAGE

There are nine United Arab Emirates University Faculties which accommodate approximately 12,279 students.

The student share of the Faculty of Engineering (FOE) is 1854 students distributed among five departments.

Students from Electrical Engineering Department (200 students) take 168 credit hours to fulfill the

requirements for a B.Sc. degree in either of the two tracks of: Electrical Engineering or Communications

Engineering. Typically it takes from a minimum of 11 to a maximum of 16 semesters to complete their degree

requirements with an average course work of 15 to 18 credits (4 to 6 courses) per semester.

The total of the credit hours is divided into UGRU (University General Requirements Unit) - 42 credits, FRU

(Faculty Requirements Unit) - 41 credits, Department Compulsory Specialization Requirements - 52 credits,

Department Elective Specialization Requirements - 12 credits, Industrial Training - 15 credits, and the

Graduation Projects - 6 credits.

The student automated advising software package consists of an interface as shown in Figure 1. The display

consists of two text columns, student information section, several interactive buttons, and a completed credit

hours text window. The first (left) text column displays all courses of the department. A typical advising session

starts with the student pressing the ‘New User’ button shown in the lower button panel of the package. This

allows the user to enter information such as the student name, ID, GPA (Grade Point Average), degree major,

and the current date as shown in the display. Using the ‘Get Selections’ interactive button and by mouse click

on the required all courses first text column creates an display a list of all passed and current registered courses

in the second (right) text column display. Figure shows the results of a typical student input with 72 credit

hours of completed course work.

After this selection procedure, the student starts the process of automated course selection by pressing the

‘Auto Advising’ interactive button. The automated selection procedure continues selecting courses for each

next semester by pressing the ‘Semester’ button until all the degree requirement courses are chosen and

displayed semester-wise.

Figure 2 shows the display for the first semester (Spring 2012) of course selection with six courses

automatically chosen for the student. The credit hours window is also increased to 88. Subsequently, each next

semester courses are displayed in the next semester column until the course selection of the last semester as

shown in Figure 3 with completed credit hours equals to 168 credit hours of degree requirement. All


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subsequent displays are saved in a file for the student to keep a record of advising to use later for registration

purpose. Figure 4 shows the complete contents of the saved file in the Appendix.

Figure 1: Interface of the SAAS package showing 72 CH of previously passed and current semester courses.


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Figure 2: First interaction with the Auto Advising button showing Spring 2012 courses.

Figure 3: Completed auto course selection procedure showing the last semester of Fall 2014.

Department Electives

Some of the department core courses are offered in alternate semesters of either 1st

(Fall) or 2nd

(Spring).

However, most of the courses are offered in both semesters. Figure 5 shows an EE course hierarchical chart

with some of the offered courses distributed according to semesters shown as 1 or 2 over courses. Courses

with no number are offered in both semesters. The course hierarchies are shown with arrows. Similarly,

department electives are also separated to be offered in both semesters. In the auto course selection, when

the system has to choose a department elective it automatically pops up an elective course list specific for the

offering semester. The student is then given a choice to select an appropriate elective of interest. The elective

course selection is completed with the mouse click.

Well, at the course offering time for a scheduled semester the chances are that the earlier chosen elective may

not be offered because all electives are not offered at all times. Then, definitely student has to choose another

department elective. Alternately, student can make a request for a particular elective to be offered.

University Courses

All engineering students take two General Culture/Humanities & Social Science courses and two Free Electives

selected from other Faculties. There is long list of offered courses in both the disciplines. Similar to the

department electives all university courses are not offered in both semesters. Therefore the system

automatically selects courses with generic names such as Free-Elective 1, etc. At the time of registration,

student chooses courses of interest from a pool of university offered courses.

Knowledge Area

As mentioned previously that appropriate courses are offered in specific semesters. In a typical advising

session, student inputs all previously passed or currently registered courses. Dependant on the entry date the

system finds the next semester to be either 1st

or 2nd

. Then based on student entered course data, the system


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selects only specific courses of the next advising semester whose prerequisite has been already been passed or

taken by the student. For example, if for next semester 20 department courses are offered, then only a shorter

list of courses is consider by the system to choose from. Therefore, the systems’ decision to choose specific

courses is not based on all courses offered in the semester but on a shorter list.

Figure 5: Study chart with course hierarchical levels.

The system also calculates the total number of credit hours required after the previously passed and current

semester courses to find out the total number of semesters needed and also the number of courses for each

semester. For example, from Figure 1, the remaining # of credit hours is 168 – 72 = 95. Removing another 15

(industrial training semester) leaves 81 credit hours. With the typical student average of 15 to 18 credit hours

of course work, the student needs a total of six semesters including industrial training as shown in Figure 4.

Students with higher GPAs are given a choice for a normal or fast track of degree completion. More than six

courses per semester may be chosen for a fast track degree.

The SAAS decision to choose a specific course from a pool of offered and appropriate courses is based on the

knowledge area built around each course. Figure 6 shows the MATH 2210 Faculty Requirements Unit course

with its associated knowledge area. All courses are bracket together with additional fields; the first value of 3 in

the field indicates that the course has three forward hierarchical levels; the second indicates the number of

course(s) opening in the next semester which is dependent on this particular course; the third indicates that

there are a total of six courses in the following semesters dependent on this course; and the last value of the

field indicates the number of department electives dependent on this course.

The associated course fields are prioritized in the advising system with the first field having the highest priority.

The advising selection procedure performs a field-wise comparison of all suitable courses. All courses with a

higher first field value are chosen first. If there are courses still remaining to fit in a semester and the first field

UGRU

SOCI 1153 ISLM 1103 ESPU 107GC/H&SS1 GC/H&SS2 Free_El_1 Free_El_2

MATH 1110PHYS 1110 CHEM 1701

ELEC 330

GENG 250 GENG 200

PHYS 1120 GENG 220

GENG 215

GENG 315

MATH 2220

ECOM 360

ELEC 451

ELEC 462

114 credits

ELEC 315

ELEC 325

ELEC 320

ELEC 360

MATH 2210

MATH 1120

EE Study Chart

MECH 390

≥

*

Student # :

STAT 220

ELEC 461

ELEC 472

ELEC 305

ELEC 310

ELEC 335

ELEC 345

ELEC 411

ELEC 481

ELEC 431

ELEC 433 ECOM 432

ECOM 442

ELEC 370

ELEC 375

University General Requirements: 42 credits

Compulsory Specialization Requirements: 52 credits

College Requirements: 41 credits

Elective Specialization Requirements: 12 credits

Industrial Training: 15 credits

Graduation Project: 6 credits

ELEC 495

ELEC 585

ELEC 590

Electives

*

** *

*

*

1

prerequisite to Industrial training

1 first semester only

2 second semester only

1st hierarchal level

5th hierarchal level

4th hierarchal level

3rd hierarchal level

2nd hierarchal level

*

**

*

Elective 1

Elective 2

Elective 3

Elective 4

1

1

2 2

2


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179

value is same for many such courses then second field is considered. Again the selection is the choice of which

course opens more of the next semester courses. If still more courses for an individual semester is required

then the third field is considered and so on.

There is also a chance that there may be two or more choices of same level courses for a specific semester then

the student is allowed to choose between the two or more courses of interest.

Figure 6: Systems’ knowledge area with additional fields.

CONCLUSION

Student course registration is an important as well as a trivial process and may encounter unnecessary

graduation delays. United Arab Emirates University is one such institution where students have faced problems

with advising and course registration. A Student Auto Advising System has been devised to guide students in

selecting appropriate courses suitable to register online with the University Registration System. SAAS is

developed using JAVA computer programming language. The outcome of the course selection is stored

(semester-wise) to show a complete typical plan. Future work will concentrate on integrating the automatic

procedure with a manual procedure investigated earlier.




REFERENCES

Gunadhi, H., Lim, K., & Yeong, W. (1995). PACE: A Planning Advisor on Curriculum and Enrollment. Proceed. 28th

Annual Hawaii Int. Conf. on System Sciences, Maui, Hawaii.

ECOM 360

ELEC 360

MATH 2210

ELEC 431

ELEC 433ECOM 432

ECOM 442

Signals & Systems

Control Systems

Instrumentation& Control Lab

Data Communicationsand Networks

Data Communications & Networks Lab

Fundamentals ofCommunication Systems

Differential Equations &Engineering Applications

MATH 2210 (3, 1, 6, 0)

three hierarchical levelsOpens one course in the next level

Overall opens six courses

Opens zero elective course


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M. Hagler, M. (1995). A Stand-Alone PC-Based Advising Aid for Students. Proceed. Frontiers In Education

Conference, Atlanta, Georgia.

Laghari, M. S., Memon, Q. A., & Habib ur Rehman (2005). Advising for Course Registration: A UAE University

Perspective. Proceed. Int. Conf. on Engineering Education (ICEE), Gliwice, Poland.

Laghari, M. S., & Khuwaja, G. A. (2012). Electrical Engineering Department Advising for Course Planning.

Proceed. IEEE Global Engineering Conference – EDUCON2012, Marrakech, Morocco.

Marques, O., Ding, X., & Hsu, S. (2001) Design and Development of a Web-Based Academic Advising System.

Proceed. 31st

ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education, Reno, Nevada.

Pumpuang, P., Srivihok, A., Praneetpolgrang, P., & Numprasertchai, S. (2008). Using Bayesian Network for

Planning Course Registration Model for Undergraduate students. Proceed. 2nd

IEEE Int. Conf. on Digital

Ecosystems and Technologies, Phitsanulok, Thailand.

Hashemi, R. R., & Blondin, J. (2010). SASSY: A Petri Net based Student-Driven Advising Support System.

Proceed. 7th

Int. Conf. on Information Technology, Las Vegas, Nevada.

Nambiar, A. N., & Dutta, A. K. (2010). Expert System for Student Advising using JESS. Proceed. Int. Conf. on

Educational and Information Technology, San Francisco.

Gonzalez, V., & Esparza, D. (2010). Work In Progress - Advising Tool to Improve the Time for Graduation and

the Transfer of Students from a Community College to Engineering School. Proceed. 40th

ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in

Education, Washington, DC.

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253–306.

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APPENDIX

NAME:Jasem AhmedID #: 201012548MAJOR: Electrical EngineeringGPA: 3.53Date: 24 – 01 - 2012

Total of past and current courses:UGRU, ESPU 107, SOCI 1153, CHEM 1701, GENG 200, GENG 215, MATH 1110, PHYS 1110, GENG 220, GENG 250, MATH 1120,

MECH 390, STAT 220, ELEC 305, ELEC 310, ELEC 330, General-Culture/Humanities & S. Sci., MATH 2210, PHYS 1120.Total Credit is: 72

Spring 2012:ELEC 315 Fund. Microelectronic Devices (3)ELEC 320 Electric Circuits II (3)ELEC 335 Digital Logic Design (3)ELEC 345 Digital Logic Design Lab (1)ELEC 360 Signals & Systems (3)MATH 2220 Linear Algebra & Engg. Appl.(3)

Total Credit is: 88Fall 2012:ELEC 325 Eng. Electromagnetics (3)ECOM 360 Fund. of Communication Systems (3)ELEC 370 Electronic Circuits (3)ELEC 375 Electronic Circuits Lab (1)ELEC 451 Microprocessors (3)ELEC 461 Microprocessors Lab (1)GENG 315 Engg. Practice & Entrepreneurship (3)

Total Credit is: 105Spring 2013:ECOM 432 Data Communications & Networks (3)ECOM 442 Data Communications & Networks Lab (1)ELEC 462 Computer Architecture and Organization (3)ELEC 472 Power Systems (3)ISLM 1103 Islamic Thought (3)Free-Elective (3)

Total Credit is: 121Fall 2013:ELEC 495 Industrial Training (15)

Total Credit is: 136Spring 2014:ELEC 585 Graduation Project I (3)ELEC 522 Industrial Automation (3) ELEC 552 Computer Networks (3)ELEC 562 Embedded Systems Design (3)Free-Elective (3)

Total Credit is: 151Fall 2014:ELEC 431 Control Systems (3)ELEC 433 Instrumentation and Control Lab (1)ELEC 411 Electric Energy Conversion (3)ELEC 481 Electric Energy Conversion Lab (1)ELEC 590 Graduation Project II (3)ELEC 561 Java Programming Applications (3)Culture/Humanities & S. Sci.(3)

Total Credit is: 168


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HOW EFFECTIVE IS “CONCEPTUAL CHANGE APPROACH” IN TEACHING PHYSICS?

Gülbin Özkan

Graduate School of Educational Sciences

Dokuz Eylül University

TURKEY

[email protected]

Gamze Sezgin Selçuk

Department of Secondary Science and Mathematics Education

Dokuz Eylül University

TURKEY

[email protected]

Abstract

Both at home and abroad, the majority of the studies carried out in teaching physics is about students’

misconceptions and ways of overcoming this problem. This results from the fact misconceptions are the most

significant factor that negatively contributes to students’ academic success. It has recently been observed that

most studies discuss the process of “Conceptual Change Approach” so as to eliminate the misconception

problem and improve students’ learning. The “Conceptual Change Approach”, whose aim is to deal with

students’ misconceptions regarding concepts, principles and phenomenologies in physics, embodies many

strategies. This research presents some studies that have proven the effectiveness of conceptual change

strategies in recovering students’ misconceptions. This study, together with some suggestions, explains how it

is possible to do so with “Conceptual Change Approach” in detail.

Key Words: misconception, conceptual change approach, teaching physics.

INTRODUCTION

Everyday, we come across physics in various fields, and in different ways. This gives us a general idea about

some of the concepts in physics. However, sometimes, these concepts, which have developed in line with our

past lives, do not match scientific facts. Those lives that do not overlap with scientific facts lead to

misconceptions.

The word “concept” can be defined as “referring to the common characteristics of similar or sometimes even

different objects and events with one word, or one term.” On the other hand, in a broad sense, “concept” is

information structure that represents the changeable common characteristics of different objects and

phenomena, it is assigned meaning in our minds, and it can be expressed with one word, and is shaped as a

result of people’s opinions (Çeliköz, 1998).

Concepts mean a lot in physics. Misconceptions obstruct the structuring of the acquired knowledge. To avoid

that and for meaningful learning, we need to revise the old information and replace the wrong one with the

right one. This is called “Conceptual Change Process.” (Smith, Blakeslee and Anderson, 1993)

“Conceptual Change Approach” has been put forth by Posner, Strike, Hewson and Gertzog (1982). This

approach represents a perspective that grounds on Piaget and Zeitgeist’s views, yet it has been improved by

Posner and his colleagues. The purpose of this approach, which is an alternative strategy based on Piaget’s

principles of assimilation, regulation and counterbalancing, is to encourage students to remove misconceptions

in their minds, and instead learn scientific knowledge (Wang and Andre, 1991; Chambers and Andre, 1997).

When assimilating, they compare the concepts with their old knowledge, and add more information to


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restructure it. Yet, sometimes, their old knowledge may be incomplete or downright wrong. That is why the

existing concepts must be revised and redefined. When their old knowledge do not match scientific concepts;

in other words, when they develop misconceptions, they cannot learn well. Hence, conceptual change process

must be considered with utmost care and both knowledge must be counterbalanced.

The “Conceptual Change Approach” that was brought up by Posner et al (1982) is fundamentally based on four

conditions; first of all, the student must be aware that the old concept he knows is inadequate (dissatisfaction);

secondly, the new concept must be understandable (intelligiblity); thirdly, the new concept must make sense

to the student (plausibility) and he should be able to easily picture it in his mind, and finally, the new concept

must be beneficial to him (fruitfullnes); that is, he should be able to solve similar problems with the new

concept in the future.

Students do not change their minds easily, so they resist to change. As a result, it takes them a long time to

learn the right scientific terms (Schmidt, 1997). This is a tiring and a very difficult process. Actually, a

misconception is not a wrong answer caused by faulty or missing information. It is information that is

completely different from the scientific definition of a concept. If students try to justify their wrong answers

with some reasons, and they are positive about that, then we should speak of misconceptions. In other words,

all misconceptions are faulty information; on the other hand, all faulty information is not misconceptions

(Eryılmaz and Sürmeli, 2002). Right at this point, it is of crucial importance to incorporate conceptual change

process.

The new curriculum of physics courses at secondary schools have been redesigned with a constructivist

approach. The most sigificant requirements of constructivist approach is that the teacher should guide rather

than teach. He brings out students’ old knowledge, corrects the misconceptions if there are any, makes up for

missing information, and finally enables them to participate in class actively. In addition, he gives examples to

students from daily life so that they can associate their old knowedge with the new one. He encourages his

students to adopt scientific methods. Constructivism, which is closely associated with “Conceptual Change

Approach”, comprises many strategies that teachers can use to spot their students’ misconceptions and correct

them.

The studies illustrate that one of the most critical issues in teaching science is misconceptions. Overcoming

those and the deficiencies has a major role in making learning effective and permanent (Osborne and Freyberk,

1996). In the studies that aim to convert students’ misconceptions into scientific understanding so as to

develop personal conceptual image schemas, researchers generally use conceptual change texts, concept

mapping, analogies, and extra materials (Stavy, 1991). What underlies “constructivism” is students’ structuring

the information on their own, and learning becomes meaningful throughout the process of conceptual change

approach. This approach, which aims to correct students’ misconceptions regarding concepts, principles and

phenomena in physics, consists of many strategies. This survey examines the researches that have studied the

effectiveness of those strategies. This is a compilation of those studies. It includes research articles, compiled

articles, published and yet to be published master’s and PhD dissertations.

Conceptual Change Texts

When students first start learning physics, they bring along some information that is totally different from

scientific information and one that prevents effective physics teaching. They believe that this information

teaches them important things about the world. Those misconceptions in physics boks or physics classes

cannot be spotted by a traditional way of education (Dewey et al, 1992). Therefore, selecting the right strategy

to be used in the newly designed physics curriculum of secondary schools, which has adopted the constructivist

approach, is the most important factor in identifying students’ misconceptions.

Conceptual change texts specify students’ misconceptions, clarifiy their reasons, and explain why they are not

good enough with solid examples (Guzzetti et al, 1997). These texts always start with a question to activate

that misconcepton in the students’ minds. In the next step, the most commonly used misconceptions

concerning that topic are presented, and students are convinced why they are wrong by giving them various

evidences. Here, the purpose is to enable students to question those concepts, and see the inadequacy of what


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they know. When they are able to do so, they are provided with a new set of information, examples so as to

replace the misconception in their minds with the correct one (Pınarbaşı and Canpolat, 2002).

Conceptual change texts present new theories to refute the old ones. When the researches on teaching physics

have been observed, we have found many studies on the effectiveness of conceptual change texts (She, 2003;

Başer, 2006; Başer and Geban, 2007; Karakuyu and Tüysüz, 2011). In some of the researches; on the other

hand, the effectiveness of conceptual change texts has been researched with a different method (Hırça, 2008).

Those studies have all proven the effectiveness of conceptual change texts.

The literature review has shown us that in order to prepare conceptual change texts, the primary thing to do is

to reveal what students already know besides their misconceptions. This is a very effective strategy not only for

getting rid of students’ misconceptions, but also diagnosing them. The studies show that those texts are used

to substitute their old and wrong knowledge with new scientific one. With the help of conceptual change texts,

students have questioned their misconceptions, and noticed that they do not know enough. The studies have

shown that they have replaced the unscientific concepts with scientific ones after reading conceptual change

texts. As a result, that change has reorganized the information in the students’ minds.

Concept Maps

In addition to conceptual change texts, concept maps are another frequently used tool to make learning in

science and physics meaningful (Czerniak and Haney, 1998; Williams, 1998; Guastello, Beasley and Sinatra,

2000; Sungur et al, 2001; Tekkaya, 2003; Uzuntiryaki and Geban, 2005; Kwon and Cifuentes, 2009). In their

study, Karakuyu and Tüysüz (2011) have studied the effectiveness of conceptual change texts, and touched

upon the significant role of concept maps in meaningful learning. Finally, they have concluded that conceptual

change strategies affect students’ academic success in a positive way.

Concept maps are graphs that show the relationship between one single concept and the other concepts in the

same category. That is to say, a concept map is a two-dimensional schema illustrating the mutual correlations

between the concepts under a much broader category (Kaptan, 1999:108). Concept maps rely on Novak’s

approach. When analyzed structure-wise, it can bee seen that they are a way of expressing interconceptual

relationships in graphics. Concept maps are highly preferred by teachers as they help students to learn

concepts in a meaningful way, relate their old knowledge to the new one, and most important of all, prevent

misunderstandings that lead to misconceptions.

Students integrate old and new information, interpret it in their minds, and then organize it. With concept

mapping method, students can show the correlation between old and new information, and so identify the

relationships. Concept maps are schemas that show how information is organized. Thus, they allow meaningful

learning. When the studies in teaching physics are observed, the practicality and reliability of concept maps can

be clearly seen. Improving students’ critical thinking skills is a very effective method used for both revealing

their misconceptions and overcoming them.

Concept Cartoons

One of the most valuable methods used for structuring a piece of information visually is concept cartoons. In

concept cartoons, in speech bubbles, we see people discussing daily happenings or problems. In one of the

bubbles we read a scientifically accepted view; whereas, in the other one we read about a misconception. That

is, concept cartoons represent misconceptions that come from life experience as well as scientific truths. When

this method is applied in classes, students are expected to discuss what those cartoon characters claim, and

then they make it clear who they agree with and try to agree on a solid reason for why they agree with that

character.

On the other hand, some scholars criticize concept cartoons with regards to their inability to probe the subject

matter as they include a limited number of words.

Concept cartoons are used both for disclosing students’ misconceptions and dealing with them. Depending on

the surveys, one can say that those cartoons lead to in-class discussions which in turn motivate students to


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participate more in classes. In this way, they have fun and are more willing to learn. Uğurel and Moralı (2006)

state that cartoons, which make use of humour in a very effective way, have a critical role in learning and

teaching, especially when their psychological effects are considered. Keogh and Naylor (1999) add that

cartoons make people laugh; whereas, concept cartoons are rather used to encourage students to question

how much they know while having fun.

It has recently been understood how important cartoons are when teaching science (Dalacosta et al, 2009). The

literature has some surveys about the effectiveness of concept cartoons (Keogh and Naylor, 2000; Parkinson,

2002; Stephenson and Warwick, 2002; Coll, France and Taylor, 2005; Koch, 2010; Şengül and Üner, 2010).

Researchers have developed concept cartoons rather to make learners become aware of their views

concerning physics concepts and help them understand scientific facts.

The studies also discuss that concept cartoons must be drawn in a way to get rid of those misconceptions.

Furthermore, the ideas of both characters in the cartoon should equally trigger scientific conflict. A concept

cartoon that would definitely attract the attention of students is one that is about daily life. In the light of all

the research done so far, it has been conluded that if drawn appropriately, concept cartoons, which are visual

stimuli, help to overcome misconceptions.

Mind maps

Mind maps were first designed by Tony Buzan in the 1970s. Just like concept mapping, mind mapping is

another technique based on students’ understanding and interpretation (D’Antoni, Zipp and Olson, 2009).

To prepare a mind map, an idea or a concept is drawn in the center of paper. Then, it is circled. The total

number of words to describe that concept must be as few as possible. The symbols and pictures in those mind

maps stimulate a specific part of the brain about learning, and as a result, this boosts the learning process

(Sprenger, 1999).

When structuring a piece of information, a mind map is the tool where students feel the most independent.

Unfortunately, concept maps and mind maps are often confused. Different from concept maps, with mind

maps, learners are able to remember not only concepts, but also information and ideas very well. As mind

maps are shaped by the association the concept makes in learners’ minds, it facilitates the memorability of the

information put down on the paper. In his study on the differences between concept maps and mind maps,

Budd (2004) explains that the main concept is put at the top of the page in a concept map, and various

subconcepts are connected to the bottom of the map. Whereas, in mind maps, there are branches coming out

of the center of the page. Colors and visuals can be used in concept maps, but in a mind map, these are much

more stressed.

There are several studies analyzing the efficiency of mind maps in teaching physics (Eppler, 2006; Akınoğlu and

Yaşar, 2007; AbiEl-Mona and Abd-El-Khalick, 2008; Bütüner and Gür, 2008). In a broad sense, the results prove

that any information learnt through mind maps becomes absolutely permanent as there are pointers on them,

guiding the brain. In addition, mind maps can also be used during the warm up of a class to find out what that

concept means to students. They can categorize their opinions and concepts by relating the information learnt

to the mind map. When we look at the bigger picture, we can say that mind maps definitely encourage active

learning.

Analogies

Like almost in every field, analogies are one of the most commonly used methods to overcome misconceptions

when teaching physics. Analogy can be defined as explaining an unknown phenomenon by means of a known

or similar phenomenon. In this case, the known phenomenon is described as the source; whereas, the

unknown one is the target. To reach the target, we associate to the available sources. In this sense, while

comparing the unknown with the known when making analogies, it is essential to clarify how and why those

similarities have been found (Küçükturan, 2003).


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Duru (2002), in her survey, states that most educators have explained the significance of using analogies in

teaching physics in various ways. They agree that analogies facilitate learning, make it more meaningful, and is

very effective in correcting mislearning. Using analogies also allows for new questions about the topic, and

realizing that the old information is not sufficient. Analogies, whenever used dynamically, have increased their

knowledge about concepts. The students who wanted to clarify the issue have produced new meaningful

problems about the topic by making use of analogies. In this way, the students’ previous knowledge, which

they have difficulty in remembering, would be called forth.

The use of analogies is helpful for learning concepts, and facilitates learning process. We learn by adding on to

the old knowledge and step-by-step, because the new concept is almost always related to the old information.

In this fashion, analogies are very precious learning tools. Analogue and target situation are symmetrical, so

they may exchange roles. Everytime they are used, analogue and target situation are developed more

(Treagust et al, 1992).

Physics educators have benefited from analogies which is a conceptual change approach (Brown,1994; Kaptan

and Arslan, 2002; Yerrick et al, 2003; Oliva, Azcarate and Navarrete, 2007). The literature has proven that the

use of analogies has boosted students’ active participation in classes. This approach has improved students’

creativity as well as their problem-solving skills, and thus has made their knowledge permanent. Analogies,

which materialize abstract concepts, contribute to student-centered education by helping to create an active

learning environment.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The researches conducted on teaching physics mostly focus on spotting misconceptions. However, after doing

that, those misconceptions must be overcome. Hence, replacing students’ old and wrong concepts with the

new and right ones becomes crucial. In the light of all those studies, the conceptual change approach is

believed to be very effective.

It has been agreed that, when conceptual change approach is compared with the traditional one, the former is

much more powerful. When designing the new curriculum of physics courses for secondary schools,

constructivism approach has been adopted. Plus, “Conceptual Change Approach” is also a very effective

method for achieving the objectives. Benefiting from these two approaches will definitely increase student-

teacher interaction, and in return, physics classes where they learn a lot of abstract and complicated concepts

will become more fruitful for students. Thanks to that discussion environment, classes become more learner-

centered.

When compared with the traditional methods, “Conceptual Change Aprroach”, which has gained more

importance in recent years, is a much better alternative to deal with misconception problems. As a summary of

the findings from the literature review, onecan say that conceptual change texts are very efficient in diagnosing

and overcoming students’ misconception problems has been proved by several research. In line with those

findings, there is a significant discrepancy in the rate of students’ academic success in classes where they had

in-class activities with mind maps and concept maps, and the ones where they had traditional classes. It has

been observed that concept cartoons are much more effective on success when supported with various

techniques, instruments or environments. It has been agreed that the physics activities where theachers made

use of concept cartoons and mind maps has led to an increase in students’ both academic success and their

enthusiasm to think critically and question the information. What is more, the findings have also verified that

the use of those techniques have also improved their creativity, problem-solving skills and motivation. About

another visual aid, analogies, it has been realized that they develop students’ guessing abilities, and enable

them to understand that scientific explanations may be temporary and are sometimes subject to change.

Considering the consequences of all these researches, we would like to make some suggestions wishing that it

might help with future studies:

• Teachers should be aware of the possibility that students have some misconceptions, and their previous

knowledge might be wrong. They should also diagnose the reasons for the misinformation. Educators must


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be briefed about the significance of conceptual change texts and how to make use of them so that they

can prepare their lesson plans accordingly.

• The conceptual change materials to be prepared should be eligible, present alternative perspectives, and

bring the previous knowledge and ideas into light.

• When the literature on teaching physics has been reviewed, it has been noticed that there are not enough

number of studies on concept cartoons and mind maps. On the other hand, there are more number of

studies on conceptual change texts. Yet, the problem is that those studies are usually at elementary school

level. That is why aforementioned activities for teaching physics should be conducted at all different

grades.

• In accordance with the findings, it has been agreed that all those conceptual change strategies have a

direct and positive influence on students’ academic success and creativity. Hence, they should be applied

to classes more often.

• Concept maps and concept cartoons should be incorporated into the coursebooks at secondary school

levels. This will make learning much more meaningful for students.

• Teachers should receive in-service training on conceptual change strategies. In addition to this, prospective

teachers in faculties of education should practise these strategies in methodology classes.




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FIBONACCI SPIRAL IN SUNFLOWER WITH GEOGEBRA

Çiğdem Erol Istanbul University, Department of Informatics

Istanbul, TURKEY [email protected]

Şebnem Özdemir

Istanbul University, Department of Informatics Istanbul, TURKEY

[email protected]

Zeki Özen Istanbul University, Department of Informatics


Emre Akadal

Istanbul University, Department of Informatics Istanbul, TURKEY

[email protected]

Zerrin Ayvaz Reis Istanbul University, Faculty of Education


Abstract

Mathematics, one of the ancient occupations through the history of humanity, is accepted as a discipline where abstract concepts are predominant and which contains generalities. When evaluated from the point of perception of abstract concepts and working with such concepts, it becomes evident that certain difficulties are experienced during learning and teaching process. One of methods used to overcome such difficulties is to correlate with everyday life and to present samples from real life to the individual. By this means, mathematical concepts can be materialised and lasting learning can be achieved. Even if we are not aware, almost every object or incident around us has a mathematical basis and a relation with mathematics. One of the most express examples to this relation is the Fibonacci numbers, observed in the order of plants, flowers, their leaves even their seed in the nature. This study includes the demonstration the compliance of relation between biology and mathematics, the order of seeds in the sunflower receptacle with the field of mathematics, taking the interdisciplinary study as basis, using Geogebra, one of the information technology tools developed for the field of mathematics and the evaluation of this practice developed by prospective teachers. Herewith it is aimed to emphasise the importance of interdisciplinary studies. In this study, the opinions of prospective biology and mathematics teachers are obtained and consequently it has been found out that they have positive opinion on the establishment of interdisciplinary relation. Furthermore, although it is not nominated as the main research question, it is understood that the information technology tools cannot be used only for materialisation of mathematics but also for establishment interdisciplinary relation. Key Words: Fibonacci, Geogebra, Biology Education, Mathematics Education, Interdisciplinary Approach.


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INTRODUCTION

The world we live in has always been a subject of curiosity for us. As such interest scaled up, our desire to explore the world and learn more about it increased accordingly. For us, as individuals, not only the world, but also our everyday needs and desire to satisfy such needs constitute factor increasing our motivation to learn. As regards to training and education concepts, such motivation has an important place regarding the interest of a student in the course and his/her achievement therein. When considered from this point of view, the math course is acknowledged as one of the disciplines, where problems are confronted during the learning and teaching process (Gersten, R.. et al., 2005; Keçeci, 2011). Problems encountered in math course are listed, from the students’ point of view, as perception of abstract concepts and some difficulties arising out of working with such concepts, during the course of learning process. (Umay, 1996; Zafran, 2010). From the teachers’ point of view, it is defined as a course being difficult to teach (Cornelius, 1982; Hodgen, Askew, 2011). The student, who considers mathematics as a course which is unsympathetic, unattractive, needs to be memorised, is boring and contains long algebraic operations, refrains from learning and becomes biased (Ersoy, 1999; Baki, 2006). Similar to the bias for math course, Gül and Yeşilyurt (2010) stated, regarding biology course, that with various studies they observed that biology is the leading course where the students have the greatest challenge, they fail and have difficulty to comprehend (Chuang and Cheng, 2003; Staeck, 1995; Yeşilyurt and Gül, 2008) and expressed that the students’ attitudes may be influential on such problems encountered (Chuang and Cheng, 2003; Mutlu, 2006; Telli and Çakıroğlu, 2002). The studies indicate that the students’ scores obtained for biology questions which have an important share, which is 7%, among the questions of university entry exam are at low level (Atav and Morgil, 1999), in other words it is observed that the students fail to attain sufficient level of success for biology course in university entry exam (Ekici and Hevedanlı, 2010). All innovations of today’s technology can be utilised to overcome the difficulties experienced in biology as well as mathematics. So much, according to Nicoll and Harrison (2003), it is possible to utilise the information technologies when attempting to overcome the difficulties in math education. Similarly, as regards to biology and science lectures where biology concepts are used predominantly, designing computer-aided teaching programs ensures that the students learn scientific concepts and opinions, which are hard to comprehend, more easily, as expressed by Taş et al. (2006) (Gorsky and Finegold, 1992). As to be seen, development and use of teaching activities, which would stimulate students’ visual and intellectual systems, is quite important when teaching with abstract and hard-to-understand concepts (Ertepınar et al., 1998; Taş et al., 2006). Several researchers have found out that the use of information technologies during presentation either biology or math concepts to students will considerably improve the achievement (Ferguson and Chapman, 1993; Akdeniz and Yiğit, 2001; Taş et al., 2006, Ayvaz Reis and Özdemir, 2010). Further to referring to information technologies when during the teaching process of concepts, which lead to bias for the students, teaching approaches triggering the student’s curiosity and eagerness for learning can also be employed. One of such teaching approaches is the interdisciplinary approach. The interdisciplinary approach, taking a certain concept or theme as basis, aims to enable the student to treat such concept from different points of view (Jacobs, 1989; Yıldırım, 1996). When construed from this perspective, the concept of “interdisciplinary” can be defined as the interaction between two or more disciplines (Moran, 2010) while it can be expressed as combining, and presentation, of traditional subject area around certain concepts in a significant manner also (Yıldırım, 1996). In this study, the relation between mathematics and biology and the type of changes in opinion of the student it would lead has been explored, taking the interdisciplinary approach as basis and using an information technology (IT) tool. To this end, the relation between biology and mathematics is presented through sunflower, which is a sample from the real world. Main reason choosing sunflower is arising from its use as


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example for various cases in biology and math coursees and the fact that it contains a mathematical mystery. The existence of a mathematical rule is observed at the growth curve or physical appearance of many plants in the real world. The most frequently observed one among such mathematical rules is the golden ratio concept, also defined as a mathematical mystery, expressed via Fibonacci numbers. (Zheng and Wang, 2009). Each spiral of the sunflower plant indicates the existence of Fibonacci numbers, according to the number of seeds arranged outwards from centre (Boeyens, 2003). METHOD

Pre-test – post-test method, one of the quantitative survey techniques, is used in this study, attempting to demonstrate the relation between mathematics and science course by means of Geogebra, an IT tools. The study group consists of students at Istanbul University, Hasan Ali Yücel Faculty of Education, Department of Elementary Education, Mathematics and Science Education, spring semester of academic year 2011-2012. Totally 54 students, 32 from Department of Mathematics Education and 22 from Department of Science, took place in the study. First of all, a survey was conducted to take the opinions of the students on mathematics, science, relation established with everyday life, interdisciplinary relation, IT and the contribution of IT to interdisciplinary relation. First part of the survey, consisting of two parts, includes 13 questions on demographic data, computer and e-mail possession, membership to social media while second part has 53 questions of five point likert type. In this study, it was decided to utilise sunflower plant to exemplify the relation between mathematics and science. For that purpose, a video (URL) is prepared containing the examples supporting the aforesaid relation. In a similar way, the sunflower is modelled by the researchers using Geogebra. Following the pre-test applied to the mathematics and science education students separately, they watched the video film about everyday life, relation between science and mathematics, mentioning the sunflower. Immediately after the video film, the geogebrical presentation emphasising the Fibonacci arrays of sunflower was shown. After the presentation of the chosen and prepared materials, the survey, containing the same questions posed to the study group, was conducted as post-test in order to discover whether or not there is a change in the students’ behaviours. Analysis of the data obtained was made applying independent t-test, by means of SPSS 18.0 program.

FINDINGS

The opinions of the students on establishing interdisciplinary relation, obtained through 53 questions included in the survey, are discussed under headings defined for establishing relation between everyday life and all disciplines, mathematics and everyday life, mathematics and other disciplines, IT and mathematics, IT and biology, IT and all disciplines, everyday life, IT, mathematics and biology. In this context, in accordance with the data obtained from pre-test and post-test indicate it has been found out that the opinions of mathematics and science education students was changed positively, compared to pre-test. Research results are given together with the result representing the group, as the evaluation of question group (Table 1-9). In line with the data obtained, it is attempted to comment on establishing relation between everyday life and all disciplines. Table 1 shows the analysis of pre-test and post-test results of the mathematics and science education students regarding the establishment relation between everyday life and all disciplines, on group basis and independent from the group.


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Table 1: Analysis of pre-test and post-test results of the mathematics and science education students regarding the establishment of relation between everyday life and all disciplines (MES: Mathematics Education Students, SES: Science Education Students). Groups

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Pre Test – Post Test 54 -,759 ,845 ,115 -6,600 53 ,000

MES 32 3,75 ,718 ,127 Pre-Test

SES 22 4,00 ,816 ,174

-1,188 52 ,240

MES 32 4,50 ,622 ,110 Post-Test

SES 22 4,77 ,429 ,091

-1,907 51,995 ,062

As regards to establishment relation between everyday life and disciplines, statistically significant difference (p<0.05) is observed between the pre-test and post-test results of study group. The examination of average value of pre-test and post-test results reveals that the opinion about the probability that everyday life and all disciplines may be correlated with each other showed positive increase, independent from the group. However, at the examination of the same opinion on group basis, it is understood that there is no statistically significant difference between the groups. At this point, it is understood that mathematics and science education students equally believe in the necessity to correlate everyday life and any discipline and the difference of discipline is not determinant at this point (Table 1). Table 2 shows the analysis of pre-test and post-test results of the mathematics and science education students regarding the establishment of relation between everyday life and mathematics discipline, on group basis and independent from the group. Table 2: Analysis of results regarding the establishment of relation between everyday life and mathematics discipline (MES: mathematics Education Students, SES: Science Education Students) Groups

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean T df Sig. (2-tailed)


MES 32 4,06 ,669 ,118 Pre-Test

SES 22 4,05 ,575 ,123

,097 52 ,923

MES 32 4,66 ,545 ,096 Post-Test

SES 22 4,64 ,492 ,105

,137 52 ,892

As regards to establishment relation between everyday life and mathematics discipline, statistically significant difference (p<0.05) is observed between the pre-test and post-test results of study group. The examination of average value of pre-test and post-test results reveals that the opinion about the establishment of relation between everyday life and mathematics discipline showed positive increase, independent from the group. However, at the examination of the same opinion on group basis, it is understood that there is no statistically significant difference between the groups. At this point, it is understood that the pre-serve teachers in the study group, either mathematics education students or science education students, believe in the necessity to correlate everyday life and mathematics discipline (Table 2). Table 3 shows the analysis of pre-test and post-test results of the mathematics and science education students regarding the establishment of relation between mathematics and other disciplines, on group basis and independent from the group.


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Table 3: Analysis of results regarding the establishment of relation between mathematics and other disciplines (MES: Mathematics Education Students, SES: Science Education Students) Groups



MES 32 3,97 ,695 ,123 Pre-Test

SES 22 4,09 ,811 ,173

-,593 52 ,556

MES 32 4,59 ,712 ,126 Post-Test

SES 22 4,73 ,456 ,097

-,840 51,801 ,405

As regards to establishment relation between mathematics and other disciplines, statistically significant difference (p<0.05) is observed between the pre-test and post-test results of study group. The examination of average value of pre-test and post-test results reveals that the opinion about the establishment of relation between everyday life and mathematics discipline showed positive increase, independent from the group. However, at the examination of the same opinion on group basis, it is understood that there is no statistically significant difference between the groups. At this point, it is understood that the prospective teachers in the study group, either mathematics education students or science education students, equally believe in the necessity to correlate everyday life and mathematics discipline (Table 3). Table 4 shows the analysis of pre-test and post-test results of the mathematics and science education students regarding the utilisation of IT tools for math course, on group basis and independent from the group. Table 4: Analysis of results regarding the utilisation of IT tools for math course (MES: Mathematics Education Students, SES: Science Education Students) Groups



MES 32 3,88 ,793 ,140 Pre-Test

SES 21 4,14 ,793 ,173

-1,203 51 ,235

MES 32 4,53 ,621 ,110 Post-Test

SES 21 4,67 ,577 ,126

-,798 51 ,429

As regards to utilisation of IT tools for math course, statistically significant difference (p<0.05) is observed between the pre-test and post-test results of study group. The examination of average value of pre-test and post-test results reveals that the opinion about the utilisation of IT tools for math course showed positive increase, independent from the group. However, at the examination of the same opinion on group basis, it is understood that there is no statistically significant difference between the groups. At this point, it is understood that the mathematics and science education students equally believe in the necessity to correlate everyday life and mathematics discipline (Table 4). Table 5 shows the analysis of pre-test and post-test results of the mathematics and science education students regarding the positive effect of utilisation of IT tools on math course, in relation to the establishment of relation between everyday life, mathematics and biology, on group basis and independent from the group.


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Table 5: Analysis of results regarding the positive effect of utilisation of IT tools on math course, in relation to the establishment of relation between everyday life, mathematics and biology (MES: Mathematics Education Students, SES: Science Education Students) Groups



MES 32 3,78 ,870 ,154 Pre-Test

SES 21 4,05 ,669 ,146

-1,190 51 ,240

MES 32 4,63 ,554 ,098 Post-Test

SES 21 4,67 ,577 ,126

-,264 51 ,793

As regards to the positive effect of utilisation of IT tools on math course, in relation to the establishment of relation between everyday life, mathematics and biology, statistically significant difference (p<0.05) is observed between the pre-test and post-test results of study group. The examination of average value of pre-test and post-test results reveals that the said opinion showed positive increase, independent from the group. However, at the examination of the same opinion on group basis, it is understood that there is no statistically significant difference between the groups. At this point, it is understood that the mathematics and science education students equally believe in the necessity to utilise IT tools in relation to the establishment of relation between everyday life, mathematics and biology (Table 5). Table 6 shows the analysis of pre-test and post-test results of the mathematics and science education students regarding the positive effect of utilisation of IT tools on biology course, in relation to the establishment of relation between everyday life, mathematics and biology, on group basis and independent from the group. Table 6: Analysis of results regarding the positive effect of utilisation of IT tools on biology course, in relation to the establishment of relation between everyday life, mathematics and biology (MES: Mathematics Education Students, SES: Science Education Students) Groups



MES 32 3,84 ,677 ,120 Pre-Test

SES 21 4,10 ,539 ,118

-1,429 51 ,159

MES 32 4,59 ,560 ,099 Post-Test

SES 21 4,67 ,483 ,105

-,489 51 ,627

As regards to the positive effect of utilisation of IT tools on biology course, in relation to the establishment of relation between everyday life, mathematics and biology, statistically significant difference (p<0.05) is observed between the pre-test and post-test results of study group. The examination of average value of pre-test and post-test results reveals that the said opinion showed positive increase, independent from the group. However, at the examination of the same opinion on group basis, it is understood that there is no statistically significant difference between the groups. At this point, it is understood that the mathematics and science education students equally believe in the necessity to utilise IT tools in relation to the establishment of relation between everyday life, mathematics and biology (Table 6).


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Table 7 shows the analysis of pre-test and post-test results of the mathematics and science education students regarding the utilisation of IT tools for all disciplines, on group basis and independent from the group. Table 7: Analysis of results regarding the utilisation of IT tools for all disciplines (MES: Mathematics Education Students, SES: Science Education Students) Groups



MES 32 4,03 ,695 ,123 Pre-Test

SES 21 4,19 ,680 ,148

-,823 51 ,414

MES 32 4,72 ,457 ,081 Post-Test

SES 21 4,76 ,436 ,095

-,342 51 ,734

As regards to the utilisation of IT tools for all disciplines, statistically significant difference (p<0.05) is observed between the pre-test and post-test results of study group. The examination of average value of pre-test and post-test results reveals that the said opinion showed positive increase, independent from the group. However, at the examination of the same opinion on group basis, it is understood that there is no statistically significant difference between the groups. At this point, it is understood that the mathematics and science education students equally believe in the utilisation of IT tools for all disciplines (Table 7). Table 8 shows the analysis of pre-test and post-test results of the mathematics and science education students regarding the utilisation of IT tools for biology course, on group basis and independent from the group. Table 8: Analysis of results regarding the utilisation of IT tools for biology course (MES: Mathematics Education Students, SES: Science Education Students). Groups



MES 32 4,13 ,660 ,117 Pre-Test

SES 21 4,43 ,811 ,177

-1,496 51 ,141

MES 32 4,59 ,615 ,109 Post-Test

SES 21 4,76 ,436 ,095

-,1,164 50,622 ,250

As regards to utilisation of IT tools for biology course, statistically significant difference (p<0.05) is observed between the pre-test and post-test results of study group. The examination of average value of pre-test and post-test results reveals that the said opinion showed positive increase, independent from the group. However, at the examination of the same opinion on group basis, it is understood that there is no statistically significant difference between the groups. At this point, it is understood that the mathematics and science education students equally believe in the utilisation of IT tools for biology (Table 8). Table 9 shows the analysis of pre-test and post-test results of the mathematics and science education students regarding the opinion “Teaching a course by establishing interdisciplinary relation promotes learning”, on group basis and independent from the group.


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Table 9: Analysis of results regarding the opinion “Teaching a course by establishing interdisciplinary relation promotes learning” (MES: Mathematics Education Students, SES: Science Education Students). Groups



MES 32 4,28 ,581 ,103 Pre-Test

SES 21 4,48 ,602 ,131

-1,178 51 ,244

MES 32 4,66 ,483 ,085 Post-Test

SES 21 4,76 ,436 ,095

-,809 51 ,422

As regards to the opinion “Teaching a course by establishing interdisciplinary relation promotes learning”, statistically significant difference (p<0.05) is observed between the pre-test and post-test results of study group. The examination of average value of pre-test and post-test results reveals that the said opinion showed positive increase, independent from the group. However, at the examination of the same opinion on group basis, it is understood that there is no statistically significant difference between the groups. At this point, it is understood that the mathematics and science education students equally believe in the opinion “Teaching a course by establishing interdisciplinary relation promotes learning” (Table 9). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Mathematics, when considered from the viewpoint of teachers and students, is recognised as a course where the parties encounter difficulties within the course of learning and teaching process. Efforts made to overcome such difficulties comprise various teaching approaches, material designs and presentation of abstract concepts through materialisation and supporting with examples. Main objective for performing all such studies is to convert the student’s negative attitude into positive and to improve the interest in course. At the literature review, studies were found stating that difficulties are experienced also in biology course, which are equivalent to those emerging in math course. From this viewpoint, the effort to create student’s interest and positive attitude becomes applicable also for biology course and science course, its extension in elementary school. In this study, a material is designed to bring positive opinion to both coursees, using one of the IT tools, namely Geogebra. By using this material, which can be presented for both biology and math coursees in conformity with the interdisciplinary approach, it is endeavoured to add a different line of vision to prospective elementary mathematics and biology teachers. Through surveys made before and after presentation of the video film, with the content to support the material and the idea of interdisciplinary approach it comprises, the way of perception of the concepts “Everyday life and courses”, “Everyday life and math course”, “math and biology coursees”, “Everyday life, math and biology coursees” by the study group and their way of evaluation of the effects of IT tools on said relations. As conclusion of the study, it is identified that both prospective mathematics and science teachers have positive opinion regarding the establishment of interdisciplinary relations and that such positive opinion was improved after observing a model application in the course of study. Information technology tolls are regarded by prospective mathematic and biology teachers as an important tool, to serve as a bridge, for the purpose of establishing interdisciplinary relation. Consequently, supporting interdisciplinary studies with information technology tolls is of importance with regards to present interdisciplinary relation and to visualise it perceptibly, beyond being of abstract nature. According to findings of the research; there is statistically significant difference in the positive attitudes of both mathematics and science pre-service teachers between pre and posttest. The positive attitudes of working


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group increased after the application, which was prepared with IT tools. Mathematics and science pre-service teachers differently reacted to geogebric representation of sunflower’s receptacle. According to observation of that reaction,

• The Mathematics pre-service teachers respectively realized the point sets, the golden ratio, fibonacci numbers and finally realized the sun flower

• The science pre-service teachers firstly thought as a meaningless figure and then they realized to sunflower’s receptacle. Finally they realized to point sets.

As it is seen in those reactions, both students of those disciplines had enough concepts to find that relationship. Besides they had not any opinions about how to build that relationship. The interdisciplinary approach is important in order to build relationships between courses/subjects/concepts, and to analyze them with different perspective. It is also important for multi-dimensional thinking. İn order to present those approach with the support of IT tools, the pre-service teachers, new-generation teachers, should have new visions, such as how to build that relationship, what kind of IT tools should be used. Especially those teachers should also be informed about the learning behavior of the net generations (digital natives). Nowadays, the technologic devices, such as tablet PCs, smart boards, are started to integrate into primary education program. Therefore the courses, such as “educational technologies and material development”, “principles and methods of teaching”, should be taught with the support of IT tools. It should be also shown that how to use them with which educational approaches and methods. In this study, the role of IT tools in interdisciplinary approach and the positive attitudes of the pre-service teachers is presented. Consequently the IT tools can be used not only for abstract concepts of mathematics or science, and attracting students but also can be used for building relationship between those courses/subjects/concepts. In this context the IT tools has an important role in order to show that educational process is a whole process. Acknowledgements : We would like to thank Prof. Dr. Gülay KIRBAŞLAR, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sevinç HATİPOĞLU, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sevinç GÜLSEÇEN, Assist Prof. Dr. Vakur ÇİFÇİLİ, Istanbul University HAYEF Mathematics Education and Science Education senior students. WJEIS’s Note: This article was presented at International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications - ICONTE, 26-28 April, 2012, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 2 Number 2 of WJEIS 2012 by WJEIS Scientific Committee. REFERENCES

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Questionnaire

1. Relation between everyday life and all disciplines can be established. 2. Establishing relation between everyday life and a discipline improves attendance to course. 3. Teaching a course giving examples from everyday life ensures that the course is learned much better. 4. Establishing relation between everyday life and a discipline improves the efficiency of that course. 5. Most remembered examples given in a course are those supported with everyday life. 6. Everyday life and mathematics discipline are correlated. 7. Establishing relation between everyday life and mathematics discipline improves attendance to course. 8. Teaching mathematics by giving examples from everyday life ensures that the course is learned much

better 9. Establishing relation between everyday life and mathematics discipline improves the efficiency of the

course 10. Most remembered examples given in math course are those supported with everyday life 11. It is possible to establish relation between mathematics and a lot of disciplines 12. Establishing relation between mathematics and other disciplines improves the efficiency of math course 13. Establishing relation between mathematics and other disciplines improves the efficiency of the course 14. Teaching a course by establishing interdisciplinary correlation promotes learning 15. Courses taught by establishing interdisciplinary relation may overcome the bias against the interrelated

disciplines 16. During my student days, I liked math course 17. During my student days, I had a bias against math course 18. During my student days, I liked biology course 19. During my student days, I had a bias against biology course 20. The discipline which is most closely related with everyday life is biology 21. In biology course, plenty of examples may be given from everyday life 22. It is possible to establish relation between mathematics and biology disciplines 23. Establishing relation between mathematics and biology disciplines yields a positive effect with regards to

math course 24. Establishing relation between mathematics and biology disciplines yields a positive effect with regards to

biology course 25. Giving an example from biology course when teaching mathematics improves the interest in course 26. Giving an example from biology course when teaching mathematics arouses the idea for the student that

mathematics is correlated with biology 27. Giving an example from math course when teaching biology improves the interest in course 28. Giving an example from math course when teaching biology arouses the idea for the student that biology

is correlated with mathematics 29. The triple of mathematics, biology and everyday life can be correlated 30. Teaching course/giving examples by establishing relation between mathematics, everyday life and biology

arouses the idea for the student that biology is correlated with mathematics 31. Utilising information technology tools improves attendance to course.


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32. Utilising information technology tools ensures that the course is learned much better. 33. Utilising information technology tools improves the efficiency of that course. 34. Utilising information technology tools improves the interest in course 35. Most remembered examples given in a course are those given using information technology tools 36. Utilisation of information technology tools for math course ensures the development of a positive attitude

for course 37. Utilising information technology tools for math course improves attendance to course 38. Utilising information technology tools for math course improves the interest in course 39. Utilising information technology tools for math course ensures that the course is learned much better 40. Utilising information technology tools for math course improves the efficiency of that course 41. Utilisation of information technology tools for biology course ensures the development of a positive

attitude for course 42. Utilising information technology tools for biology course improves attendance to course 43. Utilising information technology tools for biology course ensures that the course is learned much better 44. Utilising information technology tools for biology course improves the efficiency of that course 45. Utilising information technology tools for biology course improves the interest in course 46. Relation between mathematics, biology and everyday life can be demonstrated using an information

technology tool 47. Relation between mathematics, biology and everyday life can be established using an information

technology tool 48. Relation established between mathematics, biology and everyday life generates positive effect on math

course 49. Relation established between mathematics, biology and everyday life improves the interest in math course 50. Relation established between mathematics, biology and everyday life generates positive effect on biology

course 51. Relation established between mathematics, biology and everyday life improves the interest in biology

course 52. Interdisciplinary relations can be demonstrated using information technology tools 53. Utilising information technology tools facilitates the establishment of interdisciplinary relation.


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A WEB-BASED MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND ITS APPLICATION

FOR STUDENT DESIGN PROJECTS

Muhammet Yorulmaz

Industrial Engineering, Engineering Faculty

Baskent University

Eskisehir Yolu 20. Km. Ankara, TURKEY

[email protected]

Prof. Dr. H. Güçlü Yavuzcan

Gazi University

Department of Industrial Technology Education

06830 Gölbaşı-Ankara, TURKEY

[email protected]

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdullah Togay

Gazi University

Department of Industrial Technology Education

06830 Gölbaşı-Ankara, TURKEY

[email protected]

Abstract

This study introduces a web-based management system called “Design Project” that was developed to direct,

monitor and evaluate students’ design projects according to design processes. This software tool was

developed as a new module in Moodle, which is an open source learning management system (LMS). It was

applied for one academic term with student groups attending the course unit “ETE404-Industrial Design” at the

Industrial Technology Education Department, Gazi University and the data obtained from students was

analyzed at the end of the academic term. The results of using the LMS were assessed by comparing them with

conventional supervisory methods. The results showed that the LMS system increased communication

between student-counselor, student-student; facilitated report submission and archiving; and standardized

assessment criteria between different instructors.

Key Words: Learning Management System, web based design processes, design projects, Moodle.

INTRODUCTION

In the information age that we live in, rapid changes in information and communication technologies (ICT) have

become common in every field of our lives. The tools and materials that we use in our daily lives are renewed

almost daily. In paralleled with these changes, ICT applications have inevitably entered into learning and

teaching activities.

The use of computers in education, which are among the main ICT devices, dates back to the 1950s.

Applications in this field have been defined using many different terms, such as Computer Aided Education–

CAE, and Computer Based Teaching (CBT) (Watson & Watson, 2007). With the introduction of the internet and

its use in education, many other terms such as Web Based Training, Web Based Instruction, Web Based

Learning, and Internet Based Instruction were added to the terms mentioned above. All of these terms define

the same thing, more or less. The term e-learning includes all the terms mentioned in terms of web-based

electronic tools generally and the use of software in education.


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Learning Management Systems (LMS) are currently one of the popular e-learning tools. Similarly to other

technological fields, there is no standardization of terminology in LMS and conflict between the usage of terms

continues. In the United States of America, LMS and CMS-Course Management system are commonly used. In

the UK and Europe, the terms VLE Virtual Learning Environment and MLE-Managed Learning Environment are

used (Martin-Blas & Serrano-Fernandez, 2009). These systems are web-based software that is designed to

support teaching and learning activities. Typically, they provide a combination of functions that can be carried

out online, such as evaluation, communication, content submission, gathering students’ works, management of

student groups, questionnaires, monitoring tools, wiki, blog, chat, and discussion forums.

When ICT applications are mentioned in technology and design education, mostly CAD (Computer Aided

Design), CAM (Computer Aided Manufacture) and general drafting software comes to mind (McCormick, 2004).

In web-based tools, web-based online design tools are commonly used (Karakaya & Şenyapılı, 2006). These

tools are used at certain phases of student design projects in technology and design education. Learning

Management Systems (LMS) can be used to manage, monitor and appraise a design process as a whole.

When used as a verb, the term “design”, which means to plan, prepare a draft, or to draw, is derived from the

Latin word “designare” (Mitcham & Holbrook, 2006). The process in which designing action is performed is

called the design process. In early forms of design methodology, the process was modeled as three phases:

analysis, synthesis and evaluation. In the analysis phase, the list of requirements is prepared; In the synthesis

phase, more than one solution is created; Finally, in the appraisal phase, the solution which best meets the

needs is chosen. Subsequently, different models were created for each stage, and the phases of the process

were typically presented in flow charts and they become common. Some of models are linear, while others are

cyclical (De Vries, 2005; Beyazıt, 2004).

There are many design process models used in technology and design education. The “Design and Technology

Curriculum” is an important model, published in 1990 for England and Wales, which influenced curriculums.

This model adopted the design-make-appraise approach as the basic concept of the design process (Mawson,

2003). When the same curriculum was revised in 2002, ten phases of the process were listed, as follows:

Problem statement, design brief, investigation, proposal, initial idea generation, research, developing the

selected idea, planning, making the product, evaluation of the final product (Niekerk, 2008). The most

comprehensive study carried out on design process models in education was conducted in 1995 by Johnsey

(Johnsey, 1995). In this study, the concept of the design process was described as the method used in order to

reach the end. The activities within this process were determined as process behaviors. The design process was

seen as a problem-solving process (Jakovljevic, 2004). In the study by Johnsey and in other studies, problem-

solving and design processes were used interchangeably (Taylor, 2000). In the study by Johnsey, 17 different

model-explaining implicit or open design and processing skills were examined. Twelve common behaviors were

determined for these different models. The most striking outcome is that models that seemed to be different

fit exactly to each other. It is seen that these models repeat the same thing in general (Johnsey, 1995). Most of

these models are included in the group termed structural approach. According to this approach, the process is

divided into certain periods and is systematically maintained (Mioduser & Dagan 2007). The common point in

all models is the stages continuing from the formation of an idea to the evaluation of the output (Mawson,

2003; ITEA, 2007).

The main purpose of the present study is to create a method for managing, monitoring and appraising student

design projects by way of integrating a selected design process model with the Learning Management Systems

(LMS), which is currently one of the popular e-learning tools. The present study does not aim to determine or

chose the best design process model. A new tool, titled “Design Project”, which may operate on the web-based

LMS, was developed in order to apply the project management model. Many studies have reported on the

success of ICT in general education (Mahdizadeh et al., 2008). However, there are few studies of ICT

applications and their effects in technology and design education (McCormick, 2004; Karakaya & Şenyapılı,

2006 ; Yeo & Quek, 2011). It is thought that there are some opportunities and potential benefits from utilizing

ICT applications in learning and teaching activities in technology and design education, but there is no

conclusive evidence available from previous studies (McCormick, 2004). No previous studies were found of the

use of LMS tools in technology and design education. This study presents evidence obtained from the “Design


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Project” developed for technology and design education and the use of the tool with students. The first part of

this report introduces the software module that was developed and the following part presents the statistical

data obtained from the sample application.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

“Design Project” Module

There are many commercial LMS applications, including the market leaders, Blackboard and WebCT software.

Besides these commercial applications, open source software is also available, the most popular of is Moodle

(Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) (Machado & Tao, 2007; Romero et all, 2008).

Moodle was developed by Martin Dougimas at Perth University, Australia and supports 75 different languages

(Moodle, 2010; Cole & Foster, 2007). Moodle is free of charge, meaning that its testing user group is very

broad. Many new features (block or module) are continuously developed and distributed, and studies suggest

that it is more successful than commercial equivalents (Machado & Tao, 2007; Lawler, 2011). The Moodle

software is based on an educational philosophy of social constructivism, the basic idea of which is that the best

learning is formed by collaborative efforts of people to construct information for others. In this respect, many

e-learning platforms are not based on such a philosophy. Many packages are software-centered, whereas the

Moodle software is learner-centered (Martin-Blas & Serrano-Fernandez, 2007).

In Moodle, all learning and teaching activities are presented as one module. For example, activities such as

homework and quizzes are present as one module in this software. The “Design Project” tool was developed as

one module in Moodle. If Moodle is used in the institution as a LMS, the developed module will be easily

installed in the new system without involving additional investment cost while activities are carried out for

other lessons. If an LMS is not used in the institution, the probability of choosing Moodle is very high, since it is

free of charge, widely used and offers other advantages, mentioned above. For this reason, Moodle was

preferred as a ready LMS platform for the “Design Project” software tool used in the present study.

The developed module was encoded via PHP programming language in which Moodle software is written. The

open source NetBeans IDE 6.7.1 Integrated Development Environment was preferred as the coding

environment. Moodle software version 1.9 was used as test platform. The developed module was tested on

XAMPP easy installation software which incorporates the necessary software (Apache, MySQL, PHP and Perl)

for starting web-based applications and was uploaded to a web server. It was applied for one academic term

with student groups attending the course unit “ETE404-Industrial Design” at the Industrial Technology

Education Department, Gazi University. MySQL was used as the database management system. The developed

module uses 12 new databases in addition to Moodle’s own database tables.

As seen in Table 1, the study determined four user types and the works that can be done by them according to

different privilege levels. Hierarchically, administrators have the highest privilege level, while students

registered on the system have the lowest privilege level. An instructor (Counselor) is the determinant user in

the course and the design process. Instructors may modify the name of the design project module, the highest

grade, and the start and end dates. They may monitor students throughout the process, assigning grades that

allow students to progress to the next phase. They may also send instructions to the students as a group.

Table 1 :User types and the works that can be done

User Types The Works That can be Done

System Administrator

The user with all the rights on the system.

Counselor Users with the highest level in the system other than the Administrator.

Jury

These are users designed to help counselors.

Student These users are defined only for watching the system.


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The jury fulfils the role of an academic assistant who does not give the lecture. The number of juries for a

lecture can be defined as desired. Juries cannot change the options of the “Design Project” module (such as

name, start and end dates). They might monitor student throughout the process; They may send messages to

the students as a group; They may approve students' progress. However, students cannot progress to the next

phase based only on the approval of a jury. The approval granted by a jury is only suggestive for the instructor.

The main purpose of defining jury members is to enable students to benefit from the knowledge and

experiences of other academics. This arrangement ensures that various experts that may be needed in the

management of multidisciplinary projects contribute to the process.

Students are the users with the lowest authorization within the system. They can only change the information

of their groups, follow their status and that of other students, send messages to the instructor and jury

members, and may award points to their friends’ suggestions in the problem definition part. However, these

points only provide the instructor with supplementary information, as points awarded by students do not

change the status of other students.

Adding module to the lesson

The course instructors that use the lesson opened in Moodle can add the “Design Project” module as a new

activity in any week. When instructors choose to add the “design Project” activity, the module data must be

input: name, explanation, maximum grade and the start and end dates of the “Design Project” module. The

part named “General Module Settings”, seen under this form, is the standard Moodle module setting. The

group mode adjusts whether student groups can exist in this module and whether these groups are visible to

other groups.

After saving this form, all students will see the activity link on the week on which the design project activity was

scheduled. A student receiving the lesson will have access to the home page of the module activity, which was

developed, by clicking on “Design Project” icon “ “ or a link on the home page of the lesson.

After searching the available models and processes through the literature, “Design Project” module was

developed considering the main framework of the process model used in the course ETE 404-Industrial Design

that is originated by the adaptation of the examined models to the current educational structure on the basis

of the course objectives and expected learning outcomes. Furthermore, the students to take ETE404-Industrial

Design Course are candidate teachers for Technology and Design Course at secondary schools and the model

structure recommended by the ministry of national education in Turkey is quite identical to the model used in

ETE 404-Industrial Design Course (TTKB, 2009).

In the lesson in which the developed “Design Project” was applied, the process was separated into certain

intervals as of the 2008-2009 spring semester and a spiral model was built, consisting of stages similar to those

of models in the literature. The design process in the lesson was modeled as in Figure 1. Students are guided on

the theme of design process models according to the stages in this model and a report is required from

students at the end of every stage.


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Figure 1: Process model in “ETE404-Industrial Design” lesson

The process model used in the lesson was taken as the basis while developing the “Design Project”. Every stage

in the design process is defined as one tab on the upper part of the module panel of the activity, as shown in

Figure 2. Students’ progress on these tabs depends on their receiving approval from their counselors for the

previous page and on obtaining a passing grade for the report associated with that page. If this is not achieved,

the student continues on the current stage, that is to say, on the previous tab.

Figure 2: “Design Project” module panel

In the “main tab” part of the module panel shown in Figure 2, the name of the lesson and the start and end

dates of the lesson are given. In the sub-section in which all of the projects groups are seen , a red “stop” ( )

symbol means that this stage is not approved by the counselor; a yellow “approval” (√) symbol means that this

stage is approved by at least one jury member; an up arrow ( )means that the counselor approved the data

Problem Analysis- Synthesis &

Planning

Research

Specification

Ideas Developing

Solution

Manufacture

Evaluation

DESIGN PROCESS

Stages


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entered into the system and the stage report is expected; a green “completed” ( ) symbol means that the

report was also evaluated by the counselor with a passing score. The green “completed” symbol means that

the stage in question was completed by the student. Thus, the home page of the activity allows the instructor

to easily see which level the students are on during the process; this information can also be seen by students.

Thus, a student can see where they are in the process and compare their personal progress with other students

in the section. The instructor can send a message to selected project groups via the “Send Message” button.

In all tabs other than the problem tab, after entering the required data, data students can click on the “I have

entered data, check it” button and notify the instructors that the data has been entered for checking. The

system will then send an e-mail notifying the instructors that data have been entered.

Settings / Preparation Tab

The Settings / Preparation tab is seen by instructors as “Settings”, while it is seen by students as “Preparation”

tab. In the settings section, the instructor can register a patent query database, from which students could

benefit during the design process. At this stage, students can carry out research from the databases registered

in the “Preparation” tab. From this part, the instructor can register the projects carried out by students in

previous years in “ETE404-Industrial Design” lesson. At the same time, students can search the projects carried

out in previous years.

Problem Tab

In the “Problem” stage, students are expected to identify a problem and make problem suggestions. The

“Problem” tab in the “Design Project” module corresponds to this stage, which is one of the most difficult

stages of the design process. The students selecting the “Problem” tab can enter suggestions into the system to

address problems related to their projects via the “Add new problem” button. Students can see their previous

suggestions, the scores given to these suggestions, the suggestions of other students and their scores with the

permission of the instructor as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Problem suggestions of students

A student coming to this tab can examine the answers given by other students and instructors about their own

suggestions by clicking on the project subject. Students also see the ideas of other students on this screen and

can make criticism or suggestion. Students, counselor instructors and jury members can evaluate students’

project suggestions on this page by scoring them out of 100 points. In this part, a student is able not only to

score his/her own suggestions; he/she can also score all other suggestions. A counselor instructor can amend

the system settings to make these scores public or private. If a student’s project suggestion is rated above a

certain minimum passing score, it is accepted; the button to make a new suggestion is then hidden and

replaced by the button suggesting that the related report should be submitted.

Analysis-Synthesis and Planning Tab

In the Analysis-Synthesis stage, as many questions and answers as possible are tried to be prepared by taking

the design project into consideration. The planning stage is an estimated timetable created for the stages of

the project, indicating how much time is to be spent on each part of the project. The “Analysis, Synthesis and

Planning” tab in the “Design Project” module corresponds to these stages. Students who click on the “Analysis,

Synthesis and Planning” tab encounter two sub-tabs. The sub-tab named “Analysis-Synthesis” includes parts for


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entering questions and answers, which the student enters and registers into the system; in the “Planning” sub-

tab, students may select “Add New Task” using a “Calendar” graphic. The “Add” button allows them to enter

the name and the start and end dates of the task. At the same time, the task will be placed automatically in the

appropriate time interval on the calendar scheme.

Research Tab

During the research stage, it is possible to investigate which materials should be used in the project, by

determining appropriate and inappropriate materials. Data such as mechanical characteristics, endurance, and

physical and aesthetic features are determined. In addition to this data, environment and security factors,

ergonomics, people interviewed, appropriate production management, functionality and research into similar

products are carried out at this stage. The “Research” tab in the “Design Project” module corresponds to this

stage. Students entering the “Research” tab can add data about the materials they choose and other variables

mentioned above into the system.

Description and Presenting New Ideas Tab

Generally, this section is the list of special points (objectives), each of which is referred to the research study.

The data related to the materials that are chosen, the general shape of the product, its ergonomics and the

groups to which it will address are entered into the system. Data entered by students can be seen by

instructors and other students.

Solution Tab

What are the materials, devices and equipment that will be used in the design; how will they be provided;

usage amounts and units are determined. Students enter the required data on the form, which can be seen by

instructors. The workflow is entered to be seen both by themselves and instructors.

Production and Evaluation Tab

In the production stage, students take photos of the studies they carried out and their production stages and

register them into the system. Thus, the production stages of each design project can easily be monitored. In

the evaluation stage, students are required to undertake self evaluation in an objective way in terms of the

product or prototype’s functioning and the parts of the design that should be revised or improved. Data

summarizing what the students think about the design in general, future improvements, whether or not they

are satisfied with the materials chosen, changes to the color plan, changes in investment cost, security factors;

and the ideas of third persons about the design are entered into the system.

FINDINGS

The study included 118 students from the Industrial Technology Education Department, Gazi University. All

participants attended the course module “ETE404-Industrial Design” during the 2009-2010 spring semester.

The participants were randomly allocated to 5 similar-sized groups. The sections of the lesson and the number

of students in these sections are shown in Table 2. Among these sections, Section-01 and Section-04 were

chosen as experimental groups that would use the LMS; the respective control groups, using standard teaching

methods, were Section-03 and Section-05.

Table 2: Allocation of Students to Sections of “ETE404-Industrial Design” lesson

Section Name Number of Students

Section -01

(Research Group : Those who use the design project module)

23

Section -02 19

Section -03 (Control group of Section-01) 26

Section -04

(Research Group : Those who use the design project module)

24

Section -05 (Control group of Section 04) 22


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In the Section-03 and Section-05 control groups, design project processes were managed using conventional

methods as in previous years. In the experimental groups, Section-01 and Section-04, process management

was supported on the web via LMS using the “Design Project” module described previously. Both students and

instructors in research groups used the tool that was developed to manage project processes. In order to

eliminate variability due to personal teaching styles, the same instructors advised both the research groups and

control groups.

At the end of the semester, the scores of all groups were examined to determine whether the use of the LMS

tool resulted in a difference between the grades of the research groups compared with the control groups.

Comparing Achievement Scores

The grades applied in Gazi University, Industrial Technology Education Department range between FF and AA.

Normality tests were first carried out on the end of semester grades of the study sections (Sections-01 to 05) to

test whether there is a significant difference between success proportions between control and research

groups. It was decided to carry out a Chi square independence test on the groups, since the achievement

scores of the research and control groups did not show consistency with the normal distribution. The frequency

distributions of letter grades according to sections are shown in Table 3. The study examined whether or not

the grades of the sections depend on the allocation to a section. In this condition, the hypotheses were

presented.

H0: Achievement scores are independent of sections.

H1: Achievement scores are dependent on sections.

Table 3: Grade distributions of research and control groups

Letter Grades

Sections CC CB BB BA AA Total

Section 01 8 8 5 1 1 23

Section 03 8 9 5 2 2 26

Section 04 14 1 6 2 1 24

Section 05 7 10 2 1 2 22

It is observed that the grades less than 5 (12 items) in Table 3 correspond to 60% of the total number of cells

(5*4=20), which is greater than the 20% permitted for Chi square independence tests. Letter grades in the table

columns were combined as middle and higher level of success and the test was applied again. The new

frequency table formed by combining the columns is given in Table 4.

Table 4: Students Achieving Middle and High Success in Research and Control Groups

Level of success

Sections Middle success High success

Total

Section01 16 7 23

Section 03 17 9 26

Section 04 15 9 24

Section 05 17 5 22

Total 65 30 95

According to chi square test results, (X2p=1.312, df (degree of freedom) =3, p= 0.726), H0 hypothesis cannot be


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rejected. The results show that the achievement scores are independent from the allocation of research and

control group Sections.

A questionnaire was used to determine differences in students’ attitudes; the validity and reliability of the

questionnaire was tested one year previously. The first part of the questionnaire contains questions on Section

(research group), gender and Yes/No questions. The second part was scored using a 5-point Likert type scale (I

strongly disagree, I disagree, I neither agree nor disagree, I agree, I strongly agree). The data gathered at the

end of the application were examined using the SPSS 15.0 program.

Analysis of Questionnaire Answers

The questionnaire data showed that 56 of the participants are male (74%), and the remaining 20 are female

(26%). The following section examines the responses to the questionnaire. The distribution of responses to the

questions is given in Table 5.

Table 5: Responses to the questions

Questions Section Yes No

1 50.0% 50.0%

3 57.1% 42.9%

4 50.0% 50.0%

Did you wait for the date of lesson for counseling and receive approval?

5 43.8% 56.2%

1 57.9% 42.1%

3 57.1% 42.9%

4 45.0% 55.0%

Did submitting the prepared forms take your time?

5 62.5% 37.5%

1 5.6% 94.4%

3 14.3% 85.7%

4 10.5% 89.5%

Would you be more successful if you were in the other section of

Industrial Design lesson?

5 6.2% 93.8%

1 89.5% 10.5%

3 71.4% 28.6%

4 85.0% 15.0%

Did you take information/opinion from other instructors except for the

instructor of the lesson?

5 75.0% 25.0%

1 89.5% 10.5%

3 81.0% 19.0%

4 95.0% 5.0%

Did you take information about the projects of other students except

for your close friends?

5 87.5% 12.5%

Generally, in conventional teaching methods, the counselor instructor of the lesson meets students weekly in a

1-hour lesson and mentors his/her students. By means of the tool that was developed, students can consult the

lesson instructor and exchange opinions without waiting for the date of the lesson. The study examined

whether or not this feature produced a difference between the sections. The distribution of responses to the

question “Did you wait for the date of lesson for counseling and receive approval?” is given in Table 5. The

proportion of students answering “Yes” was expected to be lower in the research groups. As expected, the

proportion of students saying “Yes” in Section-01 was 7.1% lower than that of the students saying “Yes” in the

Section-03 control group. However, the proportion of students answering “Yes” in Section-04 was 6.2% higher

than that of the Section-05 control group.

Using the tool that was developed, students can load report forms at the end of stages to the system from

home or other locations. In the groups that did not use the tool, students have to take an output of the report

forms they prepare and submit them to the instructor of the lesson. The study examined whether or not this

feature resulted in a difference between the sections. The distribution of answers to the question “Did


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submitting the prepared forms take your time?” is given in Table 5. Since students can easily submit their

report forms using the developed tool, the proportion of students answering “Yes” was expected to be lower in

the research groups. As expected, the proportion of students answering “Yes” was 17.5% lower in Section-04

than in the Section-05 control group. However, the proportion of students answering “Yes” in Section-01 was

0.8% higher in the Section-03 control group.

A design process and the general process in the lessons attempting to present a product at the end of this

process is under the responsibility of the instructor that is assigned as a counselor. The assigned counselor

directs and guides students while the design is carried out from its beginning to the end. Each counselor

generally works with more than one student on different issues. In these lessons, process and process

management depend on the experience of the counselor instructor. For this reason, process management and

evaluation cannot be the same and objective for all students. The developed tool is thought to bring a standard

form of instruction and guidance to the design lesson. As a result, the study examined students’ perceptions of

whether or not their success level would differ in a section supervised by a different instructor. The distribution

of responses to the question “Would you be more successful if you were in the other section of Industrial

Design lesson?” is given in Table 5. A high percentage of students from all sections answered “No” to this

question. The expectation at the end of the application was that the proportion of “Yes” answers would be

lower in the research groups. This situation was observed in the Section-01 research group, which showed an

8.7% lower “Yes” response than its control group, Section 03 However, the opposite result was found for

Section 04 and Section 05.

In conventional teaching methods, there is no transparent mechanism for students to benefit from the

knowledge and experiences of instructors other than their counselors, and so this depends on students’

individual efforts. For this reason, students cannot benefit completely from the experiences of other counselors

or instructors. By means of the developed tool, students can consult and exchange opinions with other

instructors, defined in the system as “Jury”, in addition to the counselors who instruct the lesson. In order to

determine potential difference between the sections, students were asked “Did you take information/opinion

from other instructors except for the instructor of the lesson?” as shown in Table 5. Due to the collaborative

opportunities provided by the developed LMS tool, it was expected that a higher proportion of students in the

research groups would answer “Yes”. As expected, the proportion of students saying “Yes” in Section-01 was

18.1% higher that of the Section-03 control group. Similarly, the proportion of “Yes” answers given by the

students in Section-04 was 10% higher than that of the Section-05 control group.

In the conventional classroom environment, it is difficult for students to obtain information about the projects

of other students beyond their circle of close friends, which negatively affects the cooperation among students.

The developed module allows student to be informed of and to monitor the projects undertaken by a much

wider group of other students. When students are informed, they can make comments and suggestions to

other students through the system, thus potentially increasing the cooperation among students. The study

examined whether or not this feature resulted in a difference between the sections. The distribution of

responses to the question “Did you take information about the projects of other students except for your close

friends?” is shown in Table 5. As expected, the proportion of “Yes” responses in Section-01 was 8.5% higher

than in the Section-03 control group. Similarly, the “Yes” responses in Section-04 were 8.5% higher than in the

Section-05 control group.

The general process of the “ETE404-Industrial Design” lesson is under the responsibility of the instructor

assigned as counselor. The assigned counselor directs and guides students while a design is carried out from its

beginning to the end. Each counselor generally works with more than one student on different issues. In these

lessons, process and process management depend on the experience of the counselor instructor. For this

reason, process management and evaluation cannot be the same and objective for all students. The developed

tool aimed to standardize the process stages that will be followed by each student, independent of the

particular counselor. It is believed that process stages can be carried out objectively. Students were asked

whether they agree or disagree that “There are no differences between the design lesson groups, in terms of

general teaching, attributable to the specific instructor”. The distribution of the responses is given in Table 6.


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Table 6: Responses to the statement “There are no differences in terms of general teaching between the design

lesson groups due to the instructor” according to sections.

Sections

I, strongly

disagree I disagree

I neither agree

nor disagree I agree

I, strongly

agree Total

1 .0% 5.6% 33.3%

44.4% 16.7% 100.0%

3 6 6 3 3 21 3

14.3% 28.6% 28.6% 14.3% 14.3% 100.0%

3 1 6 6 4 20 4

15.0% 5.0% 30.0% 30.0% 20.0% 100.0%

0 1 11 3 1 16 5

.0% 6.2% 68.8% 18.8% 6.2% 100.0%

By means of the tool that was developed, proportion of the students stating “I agree” in research groups was

expected to be higher than that of the students in control group. As expected, the proportion of students

stating “I agree” and “I strongly agree” in Section-01 was higher than in the Section-03 control group. Similarly

proportions of the students stating “I agree” in Section-04 were higher than in the Section-05 control group.

CONCLUSION

A new web based tool was developed to manage, monitor and evaluate design projects. This tool was added as

a module of a common LMS and this increased its preferability. Instructors can use the tool with Moodle

software to manage teaching activities for their other lessons in order to manage design projects without

requiring additional investment. The developed tool allows large groups of students to be monitored and easily

administered in course modules that include management of design projects. The present study can provide an

example of different methods of providing students with courses in which design projects are created.

No conclusive evidence was found to indicate whether or not the developed “Design Project” module has an

effect on students’ project success. Considering the grade of the lesson as project success, it was seen that

there was no difference between the sections using the tool and the sections using traditional teaching

methods. Therefore, it can be stated that the use of the module has not demonstrated a direct positive effect

on achievement scores. On the other hand, it can also be suggested that it has not resulted in a negative effect.

The use of the module did not reduce students’ success. Further studies should determine whether or not the

tool has an effect by separately examining factors such as the achievement scores of each stage instead of only

achievement score, the durations of completing stages, and the proportions of students reaching the

determined targets.

Using the tool that was developed for the study, it is possible for students to consult the instructor at any time

and from everywhere. As a result, the student does not have to wait for the date of the lesson to seek advice.

The proportions of students waiting for lesson to seek advice are the same in both of the study groups. As

expected, one of the experimental groups showed a higher proportion of students seeking advice outside

lesson times compared to the control group. In control groups, however, the proportions are not the same. A

similar result was obtained in the submission of the prepared homework reports. The developed system allows

coursework reports to be quickly and easily submitted via the internet. Nevertheless, students in one of the

control groups expressed that they can submit reports faster via the conventional method and these works do

not take time. This situation may result from the fact that students do not have the same technical

infrastructure available to them outside the campus. Further studies should also consider whether or not

students have personal computers and home internet connections.


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It was observed that, due to the jury feature, the tool increased the proportion of students benefiting from the

knowledge and experiences of other instructors in addition to the lesson counselor. Thus, all instructors can

contribute to the design process for issues within their specialization. Similarly, it was observed that a higher

proportion of students obtained information about the projects of other students beyond their close friends by

means of “Design Project”. Thus, it can be suggested that the tool increased cooperation among students.

The developed tool aimed to standardize the lessons for producing a design project. In comparison to the

control groups, students that used the “Design Project” system agreed to a greater extent that there were no

differences between the groups, in terms of general teaching, related to the instructor. Thus, it can be stated

that the tool introduced a certain level of standardization in the different issues such as management,

monitoring and evaluation independent the knowledge and experiences of instructor.

It is clear that the “Design Project” tool provided benefit for the lesson instructor in issues such as monitoring,

management and evaluation. The instructor can simultaneously monitor students’ progress through the project

and can send messages to individuals or all students, as necessary. Using conventional methods, filing the

coursework submitted after each stage entails a significant workload for the instructor. Locating and examining

any stored report also takes time, as this is carried out by hand. However, since the developed system archives

coursework reports electronically, no further process is needed, and a required report can be accessed easily

and rapidly. Further studies will evaluate the same module from the instructors’ perspective, to determine how

and to what extent they benefited from the tool. It was observed when using the tool that, although some

instructors had much previous experience of using ICT, those instructors who had not used LMS previously

were disadvantaged. It would also be possible to determine whether or not these benefits depend on their

level of preparedness. Usability tests could also be carried out, to measure the efficiency, effectiveness and

satisfaction of the developed tool.

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