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Meditation and Yoga in Psychotherapy

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Techniques for Clinical Practice

Annellen M. SimpkinsC. Alexander Simpkins

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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This book is printed on acid-free paper. o

Copyright © 2011 by Annellen M. Simpkins and C. Alexander Simpkins. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Simpkins, Annellen M. Meditation and yoga in psychotherapy : techniques for clinical practice / Annellen M. Simpkins, C. Alexander Simpkins. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-470-56241-3 (pbk.); ISBN 978-0-470-92055-8 (ebk); ISBN 978-0-470-92056-5 (ebk); ISBN 978-0-470-92057-2 (ebk)1. Meditation—Therapeutic use. 2. Yoga—Therapeutic use.I. Simpkins, C. Alexander. II. Title. RC489.M43S557 2010 616.89’165—dc22 2010023271Printed in the United States of America

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We dedicate this book to our family: Alura, Anthony, Kira, and Kaia Aguilera,

C. Alexander Simpkins Jr., and R. Joanne Jao who helped usbring these methods to you.

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Contents

Preface xiHow Yoga Can Help the Th erapeutic Process xiiYoga’s Popularity xivAbout Th is Book xiv

Part I: Effi cacy and Neuroscience Research 1

1 ◆ Effi cacy 3Effi cacy Studies Overview 6Effi cacy Studies for Specifi c Problems 10Factors of Healing 17Conclusion 21

2 ◆ Yoga and the Brain 23Th e Relationship Between Mind and Brain 23Overview of How Yoga Aff ects the Brain 25Th e Neuroanatomy of Yoga 26From Mind to Brain: Neuroplasticity and Neurogenesis 32Conclusion 41

Part II: What Is Yoga? 43

3 ◆ Traditions 45Tracing Yoga’s Roots in Ancient Texts 46Diff erent Forms of Yoga 49Introduction to the West Th rough Great Teachers 58Conclusion 71

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viii CONTENTS

4 ◆ Philosophy 73From Samkhya to Yoga: Integration of Mind and Matter 74Th e Eight Limbs of Yoga 75Integration 85Conclusion 86

5 ◆ Practices 87Integrating Yamas and Niyamas as a Th erapeutic Tool 88Asana Postures 89Pranayama Breathing 100Meditation 105Conclusion 111

Part III: Applications 113

6 ◆ Overcoming Stress With the Eight Limbs of Th erapy 115Background and Th eory 115Taking Yoga From Th eory to Practice 120Using the Yamas and Niyamas 121Pratyahara: Withdrawing 123Dharana: Narrowing the Focus 124Dhyana: Opening the Focus 129Fostering Relaxation 129Conclusion 132

7 ◆ Transcending Anxiety 133Th e Anxious Mind, Brain, Body, and Spirit 133Categories of Anxiety 135Yoga Treatments 136Overcoming Anxiety Actively 139Dynamic Work on the Anxious Mind-Body-Brain System 148Working With Panic Disorder 149Treatments for PTSD 151Treatment for OCD: Trading Rituals 154Conclusion 155

8 ◆ Freedom From Depression’s Grip 157Th eories of Depression and Th eir Integration 157Working With Depression Integratively 160Altering the Neurochemical Balance 162

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Contents ix

Fostering Cognitive Change 170Improving Social Interactions 174Conclusion 178

9 ◆ Addiction: Five Steps to Lasting Release 179Defi nitions 180Neurobiology of Addiction 181A Five-Step Method for Treating Addiction 182Conclusion 194

10 ◆ Adapting Yoga for Children 195ADHD: Discovering Steady Attention 196Overcoming Anxiety and Stress 203Aggressive Behavior 207Some Special Variations for Children 210Learning and Memory: Using Wisdom to Gain Knowledge 211Conclusion 216

11 ◆ Healthy Aging 217Th e Aging Mind, Brain, and Body 217Uncovering the Value of Aging 222Enhancing Vitality, Flexibility, and Strength: Chair-Sitting Yoga 223Working With Memory 231Pain Control 236Conclusion 239

12 ◆ Freedom: Living From the Soul for Clients and Th erapists 241What Is the Soul? 241Soul of the Client: Fostering the Best 244Drawing on the Soul of the Th erapist 248Attainment of Freedom 250

Appendix I: Warming Up for Supplemental Practice 253

Appendix II: A Quick Tour Th rough the Brain 257

References 269

Index 285

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xi

Preface

We can have cognitions about our emotions and have emotions about our cognitions, but to exert control over either of these requires an additional set of capacities—those that enable self-direction.

(McCloskey, Hewitt, Henzel, & Eusebio, 2009, p. 73)

We live in challenging times. Powerful forces swirl about, pushing against the fabric of the world, changing it. Blown by these winds, we are hurled into an unknown future. We often feel that our lives are be-yond our control, that all we can do is suff er the pushes and pulls of fate. Yoga off ers hope. Th ere is a way to take hold of and defi ne our direction, and it is open to everyone. Th ough at times the path may be uncertain, lost in the ever-changing chaotic world, our way can be clear, anchored in the internal world. We can gain freedom and wisdom through training our con-sciousness, and with its development, we shape our destiny.

Many people think of yoga as simply being a set of postures, but the tradition includes much more. It off ers a long-lived method to overcome suff ering and reach higher consciousness developed through the body (the temple of the soul), the breath (the lord of the mind), and the mind (the lord of the senses) (Iyengar, 2001). Yoga uses each of these tools, and through their practice improves regulation of the mind-brain-body system.

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xii PREFACE

It enhances self-direction through self-awareness. Th e result is an accessible set of invaluable interventions for overcoming psychological problems.

HOW YOGA CAN HELP THE THERAPEUTIC PROCESS

Th erapists go through extensive training, and, as a result, they usually know what clients need. Th ey are fully capable of sensitively guiding their clients through procedures that should help them resolve problems and grow. But sometimes even the experienced therapist using the most appropriate tech-nique fi nds the intervention does not work. Th e client may sincerely try to comply, but simply cannot. Th is problem may stem from the fact that the client, who is untrained in psychological matters, is often out of touch with deeper emotions and doesn’t know how to access them. Ask the simple question, “What are you feeling right now?” Most people will respond with a judgment such as “I’m good” or “I feel lousy.” And they have no idea that this response is an abstraction from what is actually going on in their emo-tions at that moment.

Clients often lack the tools they need to link their attention to their thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and sensations, and yet, we frequently ask them to do so as part of therapy. Furthermore, they lack objectivity. When people are disturbed by confl icts, they have increased diffi culty in focusing their attention, let alone holding it steady and observing what is there. Th e mental skills they lack are the very tools they need to overcome their prob-lem and end their suff ering.

We would not expect someone to be able to read if they didn’t know the alphabet, understand how words are formed, or recognize the connection between words and meanings. Similarly, we will better help clients by teach-ing them to notice the signs they receive from their sensations and thoughts, to understand how these signs form patterns, and to read the meaningful connection between patterns and confl icts.

Yoga off ers distinctive methods to address these defi cits and build fun-damental skills. Each step of yoga practice dispels illusions and resolves problems. Specifi c mental techniques begin with the simplest skills for paying attention, moving the body, and noticing breathing. Included are diverse meditative methods for cognition and emotions that develop a refl ective ability, where consciousness becomes capable of observing itself objectively.

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Preface xiii

Facilitating Mind-Brain Change

Th e brain can be mobilized for healing as well. Contemporary neurosci-ence research has found that patterns of brain functioning, beginning with neuronal connections at the synapses are intimately involved in conscious experience. Th e brain responds to experience all the way down to the neu-ron. Many parts of the brain play a role, with multiple systems working to-gether to facilitate control and regulate functions. Imbalances in any of these systems can lead to psychological problems. Yoga methods off er experiences to foster the healthy, natural rebalancing of the mind-brain system that cli-ents need to alter psychological disturbance. Th e yoga framework integrates seamlessly with traditional therapeutic techniques by activating the mind and brain to undergo healthy change.

Fostering Human Potential

Clients develop the tools they need to succeed in treatment and make the best use possible of therapeutic interventions. When yoga methods are in-tegrated into psychotherapeutic treatments, clients increase awareness and self-control, but what they gain goes far beyond rudimentary skills. Th e ultimate goal of yoga is more than just resolving problems: It seeks optimal functioning, higher consciousness, and spiritual enlightenment. Yoga’s re-fi ned methods activate the natural abilities within for truly knowing oneself deeply. With self-knowledge comes a broader perspective that transcends problems as it develops attuned wisdom. And as skills improve, there comes a point when the mental processes are freed. Spontaneous meditation at the highest levels leads to happiness and bliss—what the ancients call Samadhi, enlightenment.

Th rough yoga practice, clients galvanize their intuition. Th ey generate positive unconscious processes and make them available for conscious direc-tion. Th ey tap into the reservoir of inner truth, long extolled by the ancients as the means to revealing nature’s deepest secrets. Th ese time-honored and well-researched techniques will help clients gain mastery of their mental and physical well-being as they express their human potential in meaningful lifeworks and relationships.

For the purposes of psychotherapy, deliberate focused practice leads to eff ortless actualizing of potential. Positive psychology encourages directing

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xiv PREFACE

therapy toward the good life (Kasser, 2004). Yoga’s higher aims could be interpreted as a way of discovering the good life, found in the good within rather than searching for it outside of the self. Nothing stands in the way of higher functioning when clients can renounce their deluded thinking using tools that make it possible to truly let go of problems. Motivations are changed as well, so that people fi nd reward in living a healthy life, their best life, and in a fi nely tuned mind, body, and spirit. What results is a deep and pervasive feeling of freedom and happiness.

YOGA’S POPULARITY

A recent “Yoga in America” market survey lends support for therapists to incorporate yoga and meditation into their therapy. Collected by the Harris Interactive Service Bureau for Yoga Journal, this 2008 survey found that 6.9% of U.S. adults, or 15.8 million people, practice yoga (Yoga Journal, 2008)—and interest is growing. Th e survey also found that nearly 8% of Americans, or 18.3 million people, who do not currently practice yoga say they are very or extremely interested in yoga and plan to start practicing soon. Th is fi gure is triple the number from a 2004 study. Another relevant fi nding was that 49.4% of the current practitioners began yoga to improve their overall health. Th is number was only 5.6% in a 2003 study, indicating that more people today are aware of yoga’s health benefi ts. With an ever-growing body of research on yoga’s use with a wide variety of problems and the growing interest in yoga, therapists can consider adding it as a helpful therapeutic tool.

ABOUT THIS BOOK

Th e book is divided into three parts. Part I covers research. Th erapists want to know that the methods they use have been tested, and yoga has been under the microscope of scientifi c inquiry for many decades. Chapter 1 provides effi cacy studies as well as investigations into the factors that may account for yoga’s healing eff ects. Chapter 2 covers the latest neuroscience fi ndings, showing how the brain and larger nervous system are altered by yoga methods.

Part II describes yoga. First, in Chapter 3, readers will enjoy sharing in the rich heritage of great writings by yoga masters throughout history, who

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Preface xv

have helped shape the discipline, along with a description of the many types of yoga that can be used for therapy. Chapter 4 explains the philosophical and psychological principles on which yoga is based. Interestingly, mod-ern neuroscience is fi nding that many of these ancient theories seem to accurately refl ect how the mind-brain-body system works. Th erapists are trained to understand the therapeutic methods they use. Similarly, medita-tion methods should not simply be followed without understanding them. Th is book provides readers with the philosophical assumptions, rationales, and eff ects of yoga methods, so that therapists will not only learn what to do but also understand how, when, and why to use a particular technique.

Part III describes applications to common psychological problems. We provide cases to illustrate and exercises that therapists can do with clients. We address the person doing the technique directly, so that therapists can easily apply the exercises or clients can readily try them. Th e instructions can either be used directly as written or be individualized to suit the client’s situation and personality, as well as to fi t with the therapist’s approach. We encourage creative individualizing of these methods to make them most helpful.

Books on meditation often promote only one meditation method, such as mindfulness or breathing, but experienced therapists would never use the same method with every client or problem. Similarly, people respond to meditation diff erently, fi nding some meditative skills easier and more help-ful than others. Th e methods provided in Part III off er a range of techniques to give therapists many tools for the diversity and uniqueness of clients. Flexibly meeting the special needs of each person is one of the hallmarks of an eff ective therapist, so we off er a variety of methods and guide in how to creatively individualize techniques for best results.

At many points, we have included simple postures to be used as a focal point for meditation. Th erapists who include active bodywork in their ther-apy may fi nd the postures helpful. Th ose who do not use body movements can substitute simple sitting, lying down, or standing upright when varied postures are off ered. In the integration of meditative focus with awareness of breathing and body positioning, just sitting in a chair can be transformed into a seat for healing.

Appendix I includes fundamental stretching exercises. We advise careful stretching before performing physical activity. Th erapists should encourage clients to check with a medical doctor before engaging in any of the yoga movements included in this book.

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xvi PREFACE

Appendix II is a brief tour of the brain so that even readers who are unfa-miliar with neuroscience will have a deeper understanding of how yoga alters the nervous system. Th en therapists can add the dimension of brain change into their assessments and treatment plans.

We have incorporated practices that therapists can readily integrate into traditional psychotherapeutic treatments. We have also used only those methods that have multiple studies from several diff erent investigators for a larger evidence base from scientifi c research. Yoga includes philosophical principles, traditions, styles, and techniques beyond the scope of this book. Readers may be motivated to use this book as a foundation for further study, which may be available in your community.

Th is book draws from our decades of practice, teaching, writing, and ap-plying meditation to therapy. Over many years, we have developed a diverse collection of methods for working with people of all ages and with many diff erent problems. Our sources for the book include traditional texts, mod-ern interpretations, meditation research, neuroscience fi ndings, illustrative legends, stories, and case examples.

May these methods inspire your own work, so that you continue to evolve and reach out to help your clients, for you are the source to inspire them to turn to the deepest wellsprings within.

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PART I

EFFICACY AND NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH

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3

1Effi cacy

Th e world is ready to give up its secrets if only we know how to knock, how to give it the necessary blow. Th e strength and force of the blow come through concentration. Th ere is no limit to the power of the human mind. Th e more concentrated it is, the more power is brought to bear on one point. Th at is the secret.

(Vivekananda, 1953, p. 582)

Nathan seemed to be a client with a great deal of potential. Although his mother died when he was very young, he had grown up in a loving home with a caring, committed father. He had excelled in high school as captain of the football team and as a National Merit Scholar. He was ac-cepted into so many great colleges that he could not decide which one to choose. So, over spring break, he and his father embarked on a driving trip together to visit each college. Th e trip was fun, a shared adventure. By the last days of the trip, they were a little behind schedule with two schools left to visit. Nathan urged his father to drive straight through to the next college without stopping. It was late at night as they approached their destination. Nathan drifted off to sleep for just a few minutes. He awoke in a hospital, with no memory of what had happened. He was informed that they had

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4 EFFICACY AND NEUROSCIENCE RESEARCH

been in a car accident. His father had died, whereas he survived. He recov-ered after a short stay in the hospital.

He felt overwhelmed by guilt over not staying awake to help keep his father alert and for having urged his father to continue driving that night. He began to dread the nearness of death, and going to college had a new meaning for him: Th e thought of it made him anxious.

Nathan had been to several therapists who had off ered him various treat-ments, such as catharsis, desensitization therapy, and cognitive restructur-ing. He said that although each treatment was helpful in general, therapy could not remove that terrifying feeling that hung over him. So, he tried to not think about things too deeply, to help himself cope. As a result, this complex, highly intelligent young man simplifi ed his life and worked only when he had to, at menial jobs. He lost interest in going to college, and instead, engaged in daring, dangerous extreme sports to escape his feeling concerning death. As he put it, “When I’m completely absorbed in what I am doing, with my life on the line, I really feel alive, and lose my feeling of fear about being near death.” But a recent brush with death while attempt-ing an extreme sport convinced him that this was probably not the best way for him to lose that feeling. He realized that he should attempt to change, so he decided to try a diff erent therapy, a meditational one.

Nathan found relief as he learned to work with his mental faculties. He practiced yoga meditation and enjoyed the feeling of control he gained. He could then apply his attention fully to his therapeutic concerns, allowing him to address his problems at a level he never could before. He also appre-ciated yoga’s integration of postures with breathing exercises, which allowed him to control his tension and fear. Th en he could do some further analyti-cal work, to help him come to terms with his guilt feelings, the meaning of college for him, and of his life in relation to his father’s death. Soon, Nathan was able to ease his anxiety, engage in his life fully, and move forward. We heard from him a few years later, that he had gone to college and was pursu-ing a career in bioengineering. He continued to participate in sports, now as part of a college team, without the need for extreme risks.

Another client was in his early forties. He was short, with a stocky build, which had earned him the nickname “Tank.” Unlike our client Nathan, Tank was unskilled. He had little education and low motivation. He lived with his sister and grandmother, barely getting by. He felt lethargic and spent much of his time sitting on the couch, watching television. He complained


Efficacy 5

of feeling bored, but he could not think of anything he wanted to do. He did not say or do too much until something got him annoyed. Th en he was prone to angry outbursts, which he claimed were not a problem to him, but they were a problem to everyone in the family, who wanted him to change. So, he grudgingly agreed to try psychotherapy.

From the very beginning phases, we could see that Tank was lacking in mental tools. He could barely hold his attention on what we were saying. Nor could he refl ect on his own experiences. Clearly, Tank needed to build some skills. He began by turning his attention to breathing. He was truly amazed the fi rst time he noticed the sensations of his breathing. He told us, “I never knew you could do that!” Tank’s reaction is a reminder not to take for granted self-awareness skills. Although anyone can learn to access their attention, they may not automatically do so.

Gradually, building slowly along the way, Tank learned many of the exercises in this book, which helped him improve his attentional focus. He could turn his attention inward to his sensations or outward, extending his attention as he chose. As he became more capable of being self-aware, he was able to address his anger problem, which involved resolving some of his frustrations and resentments.

In time, Tank began to feel interested in the world around him. He took a trip to the local zoo. Th is was a big step for him, because he rarely went anywhere. Not only did he enjoy the animals, but he was even more interested in looking at the plants. We encouraged him to go to the public library to take out a book on gardening. He did, and he then followed the directions for planting a small garden. His attentional skills sharpened, as he learned how to follow his thought into action, right in his own backyard. His self-confi dence improved as well, and he enrolled in a gardening class at the local nursery. Eventually, he got a job working for a landscape company. His family told us that his temper problem was greatly improved. “Now he’s even nice to be around!” his sister told us. When we last saw him, he was happy, with a healthy curiosity about the world, and he had the mental skills to pursue his interests as they arose.

Yoga has stood the test of time as an approach that fosters transforma-tion. Modern psychotherapists need to know that the methods they employ that seem sound conceptually have also been tested empirically. Interest in meditation has increased dramatically in the West over the past 50 years. In response, scientifi c research on yoga and meditation methods fi rst gathered



momentum during the 1960s. Over the past two decades, the number and quality of studies have increased signifi cantly. Research on meditation’s effi cacy, along with neuroscience’s evidence of real and positive eff ects on the brain have made it viable to include yoga in psychotherapeutic treatments. Th erapists can now feel confi dent that these methods have an ever-growing scientifi c basis for helping with a wide variety of problems.

Th is chapter covers some highlights from the many research projects that have been done. Researchers are measuring the general eff ects of yoga when used therapeutically and what problems yoga can best address. Another type of research is investigating the healing factors involved. What makes yoga an eff ective method of treatment? How is it working? Both effi cacy research and healing factors research are covered in this chapter, and the neuroscience fi ndings are discussed in Chapter 2.

EFFICACY STUDIES OVERVIEW

Meditation and yoga were largely unknown in the West before the 1960s, except for a few isolated cases. It was not until meditation was popularized in that decade that it became broadly practiced in the West. Transcendental Meditation was one of the fi rst meditation methods to be performed en masse, and the Transcendental Meditation organization, recognizing the importance of scientifi c verifi cation, sponsored many scientifi c studies, some of which are included in this chapter. Although the quality of the studies may have varied, the sheer number and consistent results encouraged further investigation.

Effi cacy studies usually compare yoga treatment to no treatment or to an alternative approach. Th ese projects cover the eff ects of various forms of short-term yoga treatments. Some of the treatments involve postures combined with simple breathing awareness and meditative quieting. Other studies utilize more varied breathing exercises, at times combined with man-tras (chanting a simple sound) and mudras (making a simple hand gesture) performed in a sitting position. And some yoga research is based solely in the use of meditation. All of these studies fall under the category of yoga research.

Neuroscience has been another boon to meditation research, off ering strong scientifi c evidence for how meditation and yoga alter the nervous sys-tem in general and specifi c regions of the brain in particular. Taken together,


Efficacy 7

the meditation and yoga research provides an ever-growing body of evidence that there is a scientifi c basis for using these methods in therapy.

Considering the positive fi ndings from the use of diff erent types and combinations of yoga techniques, it is clear that therapists have a rich source for methods to add into treatment. For example, you might want to incorporate a set of breathing exercises, simple postures, meditation, or any combination of these methods integrated together. Th e choice of technique should be tailored to fi t the client’s problem as well as the individual needs, and we will guide this process in Part III.

Some General Eff ects

Yoga fosters certain general eff ects. Researchers have found that yoga medi-tation has a positive infl uence on health. A summary of medical research on yoga over a 10-year period found that yoga can provide measurable health benefi ts for people who are healthy as well as those who suff er from muscu-loskeletal or cardiopulmonary disease (Raub, 2002).

A study performed at two companies tested managers and employees who practiced meditation regularly. Th e participants improved signifi cantly in overall physical health, mental well-being, and vitality when compared to control subjects with similar jobs in the same companies. Meditation practitioners also reported signifi cant reductions in health problems such as headaches and backaches, improved quality of sleep, and a signifi cant reduction in the use of alcohol and cigarettes, compared to personnel in the control groups (Alexander et al., 1993).

Studies of many diff erent forms of meditation have found that the prac-tice improves the quality of life in terms of better memory and productivity, reduced anxiety, improvements in hypertension and sleeplessness, as well as converting loneliness, usually felt as a troubling emotion, into solitude, which can be a source for personal growth and even enlightenment (Dhar, 2002). Several studies found that Transcendental Meditation (TM), a prac-tice that involves focusing attention using a mantra, led to overall psycho-logical health (Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos, 1991). A meta-analysis of 42 independent studies considered the eff ects of meditation on a general increase in self-actualization. Th e researchers found that meditators had markedly higher levels of self-actualization as compared with other forms of relaxation (Alexander et al., 1991).



Many diff erent yoga methods have been studied and compared over the recent decades. A healthy group of men and women, ages 18 to 30 years old, participated in a three-month-long course in yoga. Th e fi rst 30 days they practiced yoga breathing exercises, and then the last two months they added a series of yoga postures. Both the women and men showed positive improvements and reductions in risk factors for metabolic and cardiovascular diseases, as measured by reduced levels of total cholesterol and triglycerides following the breathing segment of the study. Th e subjects maintained that improvement when measured following the addition of postures in the third month of the study (Prasad et al., 2006).

Even in the midst of diffi cult circumstances, yoga can help people to cope better and experience improved mental and physical well-being. For example, individuals who have had HIV/AIDS learned breathing combined with meditation methods. Of the 47 subjects who completed the study, all showed marked improvement in their feelings of well-being right after the program. In follow-up interviews with the participants, subjects described having made positive life changes, even though their quantitative measures indicated that they were under increased stress (Brazier, Mulkins, & Verhoef, 2006).

Improved Memory and Intelligence

Th e ancient yogis believed that yoga techniques combining stimulating postures with calming relaxation meditations would bring about a state of mental balance. Recent studies have found that this claim may be true. Th e researchers measured the peak latency and peak amplitude of P300 auditory event-related potentials in 47 subjects, before and after these combined yoga practices. P300 is an indicator of cognitive processing. Th e results showed an enhancement of the P300, indicating that the combined practice of stimu-lating and calming yoga methods enhanced cognitive functioning (Sarang & Telles, 2006).

Studies were performed to test memory. For example, college students instructed in meditation displayed signifi cant improvements in performance over a two-week period on a perceptual and short-term memory test involv-ing the identifi cation of familiar letter sequences presented rapidly. Th ey were compared with subjects who were randomly assigned to a routine of twice-daily rest with their eyes closed, and with subjects who made no


Efficacy 9

change in their daily routine (Dillbeck, 1982). In several studies, univer-sity students who meditated regularly showed signifi cant improvement compared to control subjects on intelligence measures over a two-year period (Cranson, Orme-Johnson, Gakenbach, & Dillbeck, 1991; Dillbeck, Assimakis, Raimondi, & Orme-Johnson, 1986).

Large-Scale Studies: Th e Maharishi Eff ect

Under the guidance of the founder of TM, the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (see Chapter 3 for details on the Maharishi and TM), and his organization, a group of large studies were performed in varied locations around the United States between the years of 1976 and 1993. Th e Maharishi pointed out that people have seen for millennia that meditation can help individuals. He sought to validate scientifi cally that the practice of meditation could change a whole society. In an address given by the Maharishi, he said:

When the number of people practicing the Transcendental Meditation program rises to about one per cent of a city’s population, the one per cent eff ect comes into play immediately. Crime, illness, and all other negative aspects of social life diminish sharply, and an infl uence of coherence and harmony spreads throughout society.

(Mahesh, 1990, p. 32)

Th is phenomenon became known as the Maharishi Eff ect. During periods when large-scale Transcendental Meditation groups numbering more than 1% of the population were holding regular meditation sessions, researchers did fi nd a statistically signifi cant reduction in the rate of fatalities resulting from automobile accidents, suicides, and homicides in the United States (Dillbeck, 1980).

Th is TM project also investigated the eff ects of meditation on violence. Meditation is known to produce a feeling of inner peace and well-being. Some of these large-scale studies seem to bear out this time-honored claim. Four thousand practitioners of Transcendental Meditation assembled in Washington, D.C. from June 7 to June 30, 1993. Th e local police monitored the crime rate for the district. Statistics revealed that the crimes decreased 15% during this period and stayed lower for some time after the 21-day event (Hagelin et al., 1999).



Another large-group meditation study revealed a distinct improvement in the quality of life in Rhode Island. Crime rates dropped, auto accidents decreased, and there were fewer deaths resulting from cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption (Dillbeck, Cavanaugh, Glenn, Orme-Johnson, & Mittlefehldt, 1987). Meditation has even been shown to help in a wartime situation. Th ere was a reported decrease in hostilities during the Lebanese war from collective meditation sessions (Abou-Nader, Alexander, & Davies, 1990; Davies & Alexander, 1989).

EFFICACY STUDIES FOR SPECIFIC PROBLEMS

A great many studies have been performed to test the effi cacy of the use of yoga for specifi c problems, both physical and psychological. Yoga has been tested for high blood pressure, memory loss, movement disorders such as Parkinson’s disease, and addictions, as well as for most psychological prob-lems, including stress, anxiety, and depression. It has also been found to be helpful with children and problems of aging.

Research on Yoga for Stress

Yoga and meditation are eff ective ways to combat stress. Yoga exercises can help a person to take the steps needed to dramatically alter the brain’s stress response, changing the mind-body balance for more comfortable coping. We present a few examples of the kind of research that is being done that shows how yoga is an eff ective treatment for stress.

Th e ability to focus attention can be helpful for better toleration of stress. Vaitl and Ott (2005) found that all altered states involve changes in the focus of attention. Th ese changes can vary from a narrow focus of attention to a broad, extended awareness that includes all in a single grasp. Control of attention span has been shown to have many therapeutic applications, with stress being one of them.

For example, an experiment performed by Hempel and Ott (2006) tested 31 students before and after they underwent a 10-week yoga program. Th ey found that narrowing the focus of attention using yoga methods brought signifi cant improvement in handling an induced stressor, as indicated by psychological and physiological measures. Th e subjects scored higher on the TAS, a test that measures the ability to become absorbed, indicating focus


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