JHU Hogan Thesis

8/4/2019 JHU Hogan Thesis

1/46

Running head: MEDIA PORTRAYAL OF ADOPTION AND FOSTER CARE ISSUES

Media Portrayal of Adoption and Foster Care Issues: A Content Analysis Examining Use

of Episodic and Thematic Frames

By

Elizabeth Hogan

A thesis submitted to The Johns Hopkins University

in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts

COMMUNICATIONWashington, DC

June 2010

Elizabeth Hogan

All rights reserved


2/46

MEDIA PORTRAYAL OF ADOPTION AND FOSTER CARE ISSUES

ii

Abstract

This study used a content analysis of major local newspapers from diverse geographic

areas to examine the print medias portrayal of adoption and foster care issues to

determine if news media use episodic or thematic frames more often when reporting on

adoption issues. The study also sought to determine what types of adoption and foster

care stories were covered most frequently in episodic or thematic ways and to examine

what relevant issues the media chose not to address. The study revealed that the majority

of the stories (60%) were episodic and only a small portion (12%) used both episodic and

thematic frames. The highest percentage of story themes focused on changes in

adoption/foster care programs and budgets (27%). The three themes with the highest

percentage of episodic coverage included profiles of adoption and foster care advocates,

difficulties of and barriers to domestic adoptions, and crimes and adopted/foster children.

Thesis Readers:

Dr. Erika Falk

Paula Weissman, M. A.


3/46


iii

Preface

Acknowledgements

Since I began the Communication graduate program at Johns Hopkins University

roughly three years ago, I have feared the arrival of my thesis semester. However, Paula

Weissman eased my anxieties with her helpful feedback and encouragement throughout

this process.

My parents, Kathy and Griff Hogan, deserve special thanks for repeatedly

emphasizing the importance of education by sitting by my side while solving geometry

problems and staying up late to edit a term paper. I would also like to thank my aunt,

Grace Hogan, who has taught me that you are never too old to stop learning, and my

brother, Tom Hogan, who proves that some of the most effective teachers work outside of

the classroom. Thank you also to my generous grandmother, Patience Hogan, for helping

to make my education possible.

I am forever in debt to my sister, Mame Hogan, who overachieves in all things,

especially her duty as my role model. She completed her dissertation during the naptimes

of her two children both under the age of two. This thesis looked like a piece of cake next

to that accomplishment.

Finally, this thesis would not have been possible without the unwavering support

of my best friend, John Stauffer. Not only did he graciously volunteer to drive me to

Saturday morning classes, but he also never let me lose sight of the big picture.


4/46


iv

Table of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . ii

Preface. . . . . . . . . iii

List of Tables . . . . . . . . v

Introduction . . . . . . . . 01

Purpose of Research

Literature Review . . . . . . . 03

Media & Framing Effects . . . . . . 03

Framing Political and Social Issues . . . . 06

Adoption and Foster Care Perception and Portrayal . . 08

Summary . . . . . . . . 10Research Questions . . . . . . 12

Method . . . . . . . . 13

Data Selection . . . . . . . 13

Coder Training . . . . . . . 14Intercoder Reliability . . . . . . 15

Data Analysis . . . . . . . 15

Results . . . . . . . . . 17

Discussion . . . . . . . . 25

Recommendations . . . . . . . 29

Study Limitations & Future Research . . . . 32

Appendix. . . . . . . . . 34

References . . . . . . . . 38

Curriculum Vitae . . . . . . . 41


5/46


v

List of Tables

Table 1:Frequency & Percent of Articles by Source

Table 2: Theme Descriptions and Prevalence

Table 3: Topical Themes by Type of Portrayal


6/46


7/46

MEDIA PORTRAYAL OF ADOPTION AND FOSTER CARE ISSUES 2

the numbers gap is not due to systemic problems, but rather an insufficient number of

individuals ready and able to adopt deserving children. These media-driven

misperceptions of the adoption system inhibit the necessary awareness to stimulate

policymaking and other systemic changes needed to streamline the adoption process.

This study examines news media portrayal of adoption and foster care issues, and

specifically seeks to determine whether newspapers use episodic or thematic frames more

often when reporting on adoption issues. Episodic frames tend to humanize an issue by

focusing on a specific example or case study. Conversely, thematic frames present an

issue within its larger context. Stories that use thematic frames often address societal

implications, and include research, statistics, and social commentary (Iyengar, 1991).

This study also seeks to determine what types of adoption and foster care stories were

covered most frequently in episodic or thematic ways and to examine what relevant

issues the media choose not to address. This will provide insight into the type of

information the public receives about adoption and foster care issues. Adoption advocates

can use the results of this study to learn how to work with the media to generate news that

would more effectively advocate for change in the adoption system.


8/46


Literature Review

This literature review discusses framing effects and provides research to

demonstrate how a storys frame can influence emotions, thoughts, and decisions. This

section also examines the different types of frames used in stories about political and

social issues and explains how these portrayals affect policymaking and public

perception. Finally, the review of the literature provides evidence to suggest that the

media, a main source of information about adoption and foster care, often fails to report

on systemic problems and frames stories relating to these issues in a problematic way.

Media & Framing Effects

Scholars who study framing effects examine how exposure to media frames can

lead to shifts in individuals perceptions and attitudes. While agenda-setting theory

(McCombs & Shaw, 1972) explores how media influence public perception ofwhat

issues are most important, framing goes beyond perceptions of importance to explore

howpeople think about an issue. Entman (1993) argued that to frame is to select some

aspects of perceived reality and make them more salient in communicating text, in such a

way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation

and/or treatment recommendation for the item described (p. 52). In order to understand

how the media frames the news, an individual must observe how the reporter conveys the

slant, structure, emphasis, selection, word choice, and context of the story (Cappella &

Jamieson, 1997). Framing research also suggests that individuals perceive the same

information differently depending on how the reporter conveys it to the audience.

Journalists often use episodic frames to engage individuals on an emotional level

(Gross, 2008). Gross sought to explore how the use of episodic and thematic frames in a


9/46


persuasive message affect emotional response and opinion change by conducting two

experiments with 163 undergraduate students. Two weeks after completing a pretest

questionnaire to measure their opinions on mandatory minimum sentencing and other

policy and demographic variables, participants were randomly assigned to read one of

three articles that argued against mandatory minimum sentencing for drug offenses or

participate in the control condition by reading a story on voting rights. The thematically-

framed article argued the case against minimum sentencing by discussing the guidelines

that determine if an individuals case is eligible for minimal sentencing, the exploding

prison population, and the high costs of incarceration. The two episodic articles featured

the story of an individual, along with comments from an interest group representative and

Supreme Court Justice, to present the case against minimum sentencing. The results

showed that in both experiments, episodic frames had a greater emotional impact on the

reader than the thematic frame. Individuals who read articles that featured an episodic

frame were significantly more likely to express emotions like pity or anger. While

episodic frames influenced emotion, they did little to move opinion. Hence, the

thematically framed column more effectively shifted opinions about minimum

sentencing.

Similarly, Price, Tewksburgy, and Powers (1997) investigated how frames used

by journalists can affect the thoughts and feelings of the audience by conducting two

experiments with 278 undergraduate students. Participants read a fictitious story about

possible reductions in state funding of their university. Researchers randomly assigned

individuals to one of four groups. Three of the groups read a story with a frame and the

fourth group read a story with no frame. The three frames employed were: human


10/46


interest, conflict, and personal consequences. The story utilizing a human interest frame

emphasized a personal angle; the conflict framed story portrayed the facts as a game

where individuals were pit against each other; and the personal consequence framed story

addressed how the issue affected the audience. All of the stories included the same

information, with the exception of the first and last paragraphs, which researchers altered

according to the frame. The first study asked each participant to list their thoughts

immediately after reading the story; the second study evaluated participants opinions.

The results showed that the stories frames did not affect the total number of thoughts,

but they did have an impact on the substantive focus of the thoughts. Participants in the

three treatment conditions had fewer thoughts about the funding decrease than

individuals in the control condition. In addition, the participants cognitive responses

were directed towards ideas related to the frame they were exposed to.

Levin, Schnittjer, and Thee (1987) executed an experiment examining how

message framing affects social and moral decisions. In the first experiment,

undergraduate students were asked three questions about cheating. The first related to the

probability of someone else cheating; the second asked about the likelihood of the

participant turning in a cheater; and the third asked about the possibility of them cheating.

Researchers developed two versions of the survey; in the 65% cheated frame,

participants were told that 65% of graduating seniors had admitted to cheating. In the

35% never cheated frame, individuals were informed that 35% of graduating seniors

said they never cheated. Researchers randomly assigned students to each group so that

both groups contained an equal number of individuals. Students had to rate the

probability of cheating incidence on a scale of one to ten. The results indicated that


11/46


12/46


episodic framing of poverty increased perceptions of individual responsibility, while

thematic framing increased attributions of societal responsibility.

Lawrence (2004) also sought to determine how certain types of frames used by

the media influence the perception of individual or societal accountability by executing a

content analysis of newspaper articles on obesity. The researcher selected 136 articles

that addressed the issue and appeared on page one of any section in theNew York Times

from 1985-2003. This specific outlet was chosen because the author was interested to

learn how the press frames issues for more educated members of the population. Page

one articles were selected because of their prominence in the paper. The results showed

that the episodic or an individual responsibility frame was less likely to promote

change in public policy than a frame that highlighted environmental factors like excessive

marketing of junk food in schools. The public was more likely to respond when the

distribution of risk was widespread or universal rather than contained to one segment of a

population.

Similarly, Ott and Aoki (2002) looked at 71 news stories to determine how the

Washington Post, theNew York Times,Los Angeles Times, Time, and The Advocate

covered thedeath of Matthew Shepard, a gay college student murdered in 1998. The

authors found that the majority of stories focused solely on one individual rather than

describing the event as a hate crime in which Shepard was the latest victim. These

episodic frames downplayed societal causes and implications and placed blame solely on

the two individuals who committed the crime.

Nelson and Clawson (1997) examined how television news outlets framed a Ku

Klux Klan (KKK) demonstration and rally in a small Ohio city. Researchers randomly


13/46


assigned over two hundred undergraduate students to watch different news stories about

KKK activities. The students had to express their tolerance for KKK rallies after viewing

the stories. The stories utilized either the free speech frame or public order frame.

The theme of the free speech frame was that KKK members and those individuals who

protested their appearance were determined to make their message known, while the

theme of the public order frame was that KKK rallies could promote disorder and

physical violence between KKK supporters and those who oppose the organization.

Immediately after participants viewed the stories, researchers asked them if they support

or oppose allowing members of the KKK to hold public rallies in the city, and if they

support or oppose allowing members of the KKK to make a speech in the city.

Participants in the free speech framing condition were more tolerant of KKK speeches

than individuals assigned to the public order frame.

These studies suggest that the way in which the media frames a story has the

potential to shift responsibility from society to the individual (Iyengar, 1991). This

perception of accountability hinders changes in public policy and fails to convey greater

societal problems (Lawrence, 2004; Nelson & Clawson, 1997; Ott & Aoki, 2002).

Adoption and Foster Care Perception and Portrayal

Adoption and foster care are two social issues depicted by the media; one fact not

often reported is that there are more people who want to adopt than there are children to

be adopted. Research shows that the media is a major source of information about

adoption and foster care. However, studies focusing on media coverage have found that

the media often reports on adoption or foster care stories in problematic ways.


14/46


Katz (2005) conducted a study that involved four research methods including an

analysis of data from the federal Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting

System; a national survey of state adoption directors; case studies of adoption practices;

and an analysis of adoption applicant case record abstraction. He found that over

240,000 Americans call social service agencies for information about adopting a child

from foster care each year. However, only one in 28 people who call for information

about adopting a child actually do so. Katz identified several reasons for this

discrepancy. Many parents who seek information about adopting a child are dismayed by

how the current system treats them; individuals felt that the focus of the initial call was to

screen out inappropriate applicants rather than welcome prospective adoptive parents.

Callers also reported having difficulty reaching the appropriate person and being

transferred from one person to another. However, individuals who made a positive initial

connection with the agency worker were more tolerant of frustrations encountered later

on in the process. When asked about general barriers to the adoption of children from

foster care, the primary concerns mentioned by individuals were childrens problems

(21%), length of the process (18%), and role of the birth families (15%).

In 2007, the Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption commissioned a national

market research company to execute the National Foster Care Adoption Attitudes Survey

of 1,600 adults between April 12 and May 1, 2007. Individuals were selected from a

database of people who agreed to participate in research studies. The survey found that

three in ten Americans have or are considering adoption. The results also showed that

individuals do not have a clear understanding of the 114,000 eligible children in the U.S.

foster care system who are waiting to be adopted, and that 67% of participants do not


15/46


understand the U.S. foster care adoption process. Two-thirds of individuals surveyed

thought that society should be doing more to encourage and support adoption. Finally,

the survey results showed that 43% of people get their information about adoption from

television, newspapers, magazines, or the radio. Twenty-eight percent of individuals

thought that media coverage of adoption is somewhat favorable.

Kline, Karel, and Chatterjee (2006) found that the majority of media coverage of

adoption is not favorable. The researchers conducted a content analysis of 292 news

stories relating to adoption that appeared on major broadcast networks between 2001 and

2004 to determine if the media depicts adoption participants and their families in

problematic or stigmatizing ways. To be coded problematic, stories must explicitly

create a sense of separation and devalue others (p. 489). The coding instrument

included two sections: the first focused on adoption-relevant content or actions, and the

second included categories for discussion of changing family ideology by coding for birth

family reunions. The results showed that problematic depictions occurred in 56% of the

stories coded. These stories portrayed adoptees as having identity problems or emotional,

social, or health issues. Forty-one percent of stories portrayed adoptees in socially

desirable ways. Adoptive parents were also frequently depicted in news stories, as were

their reasons for adopting. Unlike adoptees, the majority of stories portrayed adoptive

parents in a positive way. Overall, 91% of stories utilized a human interest news frame to

portray adoptive family interactions.

Summary

These studies show that there are more people interested in adopting a child than

there are children to be adopted (Katz, 2005). The information also indicates that many


16/46


people receive information about adoption and foster care issues from the media, and that

media portrayal is often problematic. Problematic or unfavorable stories portray adoptees

as having identity problems or emotional, social, or health issues. Finally, the majority of

stories examined utilized a human interest news frame (Dave Thomas Foundation for

Adoption, 2007; Kline, Karel, & Chatterjee, 2006).

The literature reviewed demonstrates that compared to thematically-framed

articles, stories utilizing an episodic frame have greater impact on a persons emotions,

but little effect on an individuals opinion (Gross, 2008). In addition, when used in stories

discussing social and moral issues, episodic frames increase perceptions of individual

responsibility, while thematic frames increase attributions of societal responsibility

(Iyengar, 1991). An episodic or individual responsibility frame is less likely to promote

change in public policy than a frame that highlights societal responsibility.

Forty-three percent of people get their information about adoption from

television, newspapers, magazines, or the radio. The majority of individuals do not have a

clear understanding of the eligible children in the U.S. foster care system, or of foster

care and adoption processes (Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption, 2007). By

examining the news media portrayal of adoption and foster care issues, and specifically

determining if newspapers use episodic or thematic frames more often when reporting on

adoption issues, this study will be able to determine if the way in which news media

report on adoption and foster care issues contributes to misperceptions of the adoption

system and inhibits policymaking and other systemic changes needed to streamline the

adoption process. Finally, this study will also examine story themes and topics to


17/46


determine if news media have reported on problems in the adoption and foster care

system that have been identified by advocates.

Research Questions

RQ1: Do newspapers more often use episodic or thematic frames when

reporting on adoption and foster care stories?

RQ2: What are the main topics addressed in adoption and foster care

stories?

RQ2a: What topics were covered most often in an episodic

manner?

RQ2b: What topics were covered most often in a thematic

manner?


18/46


Method

I conducted a content analysis of major national and regional newspaper coverage

of adoption and foster care issues that appeared during the time period of April 9, 2009 -

April 9, 2010. A year provided sufficient time for a substantial amount of issue coverage

to appear.

Weber (1990) provided a list of purposes for which to conduct a content analysis.

By using this method, I was able to reveal the focus of individual, group, institutional, or

societal attention; and describe trends in communication content (p. 9). This method

allowed me to make reliable, reproducible conclusions about the way major national and

regional newspapers cover adoption and foster care issues.

According to Poindexter and McCombs (2000) a content analysis looks solely at

the content and not the authors intentions. A content analysis was an appropriate

research tool for this study because I was not attempting to gauge the knowledge or

motivation of individuals who report on adoption and foster care issues. Conversely, the

goal of my research was to discover how news media use frames to report on these

subjects.

Data Selection

To select sources for this study, I selected the top circulating newspapers from

2008-2009 from the Audit Bureau of Circulations. I selected major newspapers from

various regions to ensure geographically comprehensive coverage. The eight sources I

chose arethe Plain Dealer, TheAtlanta Journal-Constitution, The Houston Chronicle,

The Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, The New York Times, The Philadelphia

Inquirer, and the Chicago Sun Times.


19/46


I used the Lexis-Nexis database and the search string adoption or foster care

AND child to search for articles in these publications that contained the words

adoption, or foster care and child in the story. I selected these terms after

reviewing many articles about adoption and foster care and determining that these words

were almost always apparent in each of the stories; therefore, I felt confident that this

search string would retrieve most of the articles written on this topic. These search strings

yielded 893 articles. For the purposes of this study, in order to be classified as an article,

a story must have been written by an individual representing the media outlet, or an

adoption advocacy group or organization. The piece also needed to focus on real-life

adoption and foster care issues, and discuss adoption and foster care as they relate to

human beings in the United States. The following are examples of items that were

excluded from the sample: movie reviews, articles discussing the adoption or foster care

of pets or human beings from other countries, volunteer advertisements, and Letters to

the Editor. After omitting those articles from my research, I ended up with 220 articles.

Next, I randomly shuffled the remaining 220 articles and removed every tenth article. My

final sample was comprised of 200 articles.

Codebook. The codebook contained three variables that were examined,

including the geographic scope of the article, whether an episodic or thematic frame was

used in the article, and the articles topical focus or theme (See Appendix for codebook).

Coder training & intercoder reliability. I trained one additional coder for this

study. The second coder was trained on articles that met the search criteria for this study,

but were gathered from coverage during the year prior to the studys timeframe. I trained

the coder on how to identify episodic and thematic elements of a story. I also defined


20/46


each one of the eight topical themes and provided examples of stories depicting these

themes.

After the coder was trained and had participated in several practice sessions, I

conducted a reliability test prior to beginning the coding process. I randomly selected 20

articles or ten percent of the total sample size from the actual dataset, and both coders

independently coded these articles. Since both coders applied the codebook for each

variable, I assessed each one for percent agreement. I used the following formula for this

calculation (Holsti, 1969, as cited in Poindexter & McCombs, 2000, p. 203):

Coefficient of Reliability = 2M/(N1 + N2)

M = Number of coding decision agreed on

N1 = Total number of coding decisions by the first coder

N2 = Total number of coding decisions by the second coder

After the first intercoder reliability test, we discussed disagreements that had

arisen as a result of confusing language in the codebook, and I revised the codebook

accordingly. I also provided the second coder with additional training. We then tested a

second sample of 20 randomly selected articles. The coefficient of reliability was as

follows for the three variables coded: 84% for episodic frames, 91% for thematic frames,

and 90% for topical themes. All of these were above the 80% minimum needed to

proceed. After the reliability test was complete, the author coded all of the remaining

data.

Data Analysis

To answer research question one, which asks if newspapers more often use

episodic or thematic frames when reporting on adoption and foster care stories, I reported


21/46


the percent of articles that utilized episodic frames and the percent of articles that

contained thematic frames. To be coded as episodic, an article must profile an individual,

a group of individuals, or discuss a case study. An article was coded as thematic if the

author provided statistics in addition to survey results or expert interviews. This coding

system was selected because Iyengar (1991) said that thematic frames apply a wide-

angle lens to the coverage of the issue (p. 13). Providing statistics in addition to other

qualitative data was sufficient evidence of portrayal of a larger issue. I also included the

percent of articles that used both episodic and thematic frames, and the percent of articles

that did not use either type of frame.

To answer research question two, which asks what are the main topics addressed

in adoption and foster care stories, I reported the number and percentage of stories that

were categorized under each of the eight themes.

To answer research question two a, which asks what topics were covered most

often in an episodic manner, I reported on the percent of each of the eight themes present

in each of the articles coded as utilizing an episodic frame.

To answer research question two b, which asked what topics were covered

most often in a thematic manner, I reported on the percent of each of the eight themes

present in each of the articles coded as utilizing a thematic frame.


22/46


Results

This study analyzed newspaper coverage of adoption and foster care issues that

appeared during the time period of April 9, 2009 - April 9, 2010. All eight of the outlets

were represented, with most of the articles coded from The Washington Postand theLos

Angeles Times, at 23.5% and 17% respectively. The least of amount of articles, 5.5%,

were from thePlain Dealer(See Table 1 for a full breakdown of the amount of articles

from each newspaper present in the study). Eighty-two percent of the articles discussed

adoption locally in the context of community, county or state, and 6% of the articles

discussed adoption locally and nationally.

Table 1

Frequency & Percent of Articles by Source

NewspaperFrequency & Percentof Articles By Source

The Washington Post (47) 23.5%

Los Angeles Times (34) 17%

The New York Times (30) 15%

The Philadelphia Inquirer (26)13%

The Houston Chronicle (22) 11%

TheAtlanta Journal-Constitution(18) 9%

Chicago Sun Times (12) 6%

Plain Dealer (11) 5.5%

Total (N) (200) 100%


23/46


The results of the content analysis of these articles are presented below by

research question:

RQ1: Do newspapers more often use episodic or thematic frames when reporting on

adoption and foster care stories?

The first research question asked if newspapers more often use episodic or

thematic frames when reporting on adoption and foster care stories. Stories coded as

episodic had to profile an individual or group of individuals or discuss a case study. To

be coded thematic, a story had to include two of the following: statistics, survey/data

results, and interviews with individuals who work for adoption organizations or social

service agencies. The majority of the stories, 60% (n=118), were coded episodic,

compared with 7% (n=14) that were coded thematic. Twelve percent (n=25) of stories

utilized both episodic and thematic frames. Twenty-one percent (n=43) of stories did not

use either of the frames.

Frames Used in Stories

An example of a story that contained both an episodic and thematic frame was an

April 2010 feature story in TheNew York Times that discussed the disadvantages many

children experience when they age out of the foster care system at 18 years old. The

Times covered the issue with a thematic frame by providing statistics about the number of


24/46


25/46


removed from their home because of the coupless sexuality. These two individuals hired

an attorney and eventually regained custody of and finalized the adoption of the baby, but

their experience left them financially and emotionally drained.


26/46


Table 2

Theme Descriptions and Prevalence

Theme/Story Topic Description Frequency

& Percentof Stories

Changes in Adoption/FosterCare Programs/Budgets

Stories discuss increases, cuts, or changesin adoption or foster care system programs

and/or budgets.

(54) 27%

Crimes and Adopted/FosterChildren

Stories provide details about crimescommitted against or by an adoptive or

foster child. If crime was committed

against a foster child, the crime musthappen while they were in foster care.

(52) 26%

Insufficient System Stories depict an adoption or foster caresystem that is not working. These articles

could discuss how the system is notworking for the children, for the birth

parents, or for the adoptive parents.

(36) 18%

Adoption/Foster CareAdvocate Profile

Stories highlight the contributions of anadoption/foster care advocate or adoptive

parent.

(23) 11%

Unique Adoption Stories Stories describe unique circumstances in

adoption placements.

(17) 8%

Commemorative Events Stories may discuss events surroundingNational Adoption Day, Adoption

Awareness Month activities or

anniversaries of adoption legislation.

(11) 5%

Community Service Activities Stories may describe holiday events or

programs designed to benefit individuals

in the adoption or foster care system.

(10) 5 %

Difficulty of/ Barriers to

Domestic Adoptions

Stories discuss barriers to domestic

adoptions. Examples include financial,geographical, and systemic obstacles.

Another example would be a gay parent

family who encountered problems when

adopting in the United States.

(8) 4%

Note: Percentages total to more than 100% because an article could include more than

one theme.


27/46


RQ2a & RQ2b: What topics were covered most often in an episodic manner? What topics

were covered most often in a thematic manner?

Research question two a, asked what topics were covered most often in an

episodic manner. As demonstrated in Table 3, the majority of coverage for each one of

the eight themes was episodic. However, the three topics with the highest percentage of

episodic coverage were Adoption/Foster Care Advocate Profile, which profiled the

contributions of adoption and foster care advocates and parents; Barriers to Adoption,

which focused on financial, geographical, and other systemic barriers potential adoptive

parents face when trying to adopt domestically; and Crimes and Adopted/Foster Child,

which focused on crimes committed against or by an adopted foster child. Crimes and

Adopted/Foster Care Children was the second largest driver of adoption/foster care

news coverage overall, and 65% of those articles were coded episodic. As noted before, a

main driver of these stories was about a Maryland foster mother who had abused her

three foster children. A portion of the coverage focused on this individuals criminal trial

and testimony from the victims.


28/46


Table 3

Topical Themes by Type of Portrayal

Research question two b, asked what topics were covered most often in a

thematic manner. Table 3 shows that, among the eight themes, Changes in

Adoption/Foster Care Programs/Budgets, which focused on increases, cuts, or changes

in adoption or foster care system programs and/or budgets, and Insufficient System,

which focused on how the system is not working for the children, for the birth parents, or

for the adoptive parents, had the highest percent of thematic coverage at 15% and 11%

respectively. Five of the eight themes never appeared in the coded sample with a solely

thematic portrayal (Adoption Advocate/Parent Profile, Unique Adoption Stories,

Barriers to Adoption, Commemorative Events, and Community Service

Activities), but four of those five themes did appear with a combined episodic and

Theme/Topic Episodic

Portrayal

Thematic

Portrayal

Both

Frames

Neither

Frame

Total

Crimes andAdopted/Foster

Child

(34) 65% (2) 4% (5) 10% (11) 21% (n=52)100%

Changes inPrograms/Budgets

(23) 42% (8) 15% (7) 13% (16) 30% (n=54)100%

Adoption

Advocate/ParentProfile

(18) 78% (0) 0% (0) 0% (5) 22% (n=23)

100%

Unique Adoption

Stories

(10) 59% (0) 0% (3) 18% (4) 23% (n=17)

100%

Barriers toAdoption (6) 75% ()) 0% (1) 12% (1) 12% (n=8)100%

Insufficient

System

(17) 47% (4) 11% (6) 17% (9) 25% (n=36)

100%Commemorative

Events

(5) 45% (0) 0% (3) 27% (3) 27% (n=11)

100%

CommunityService Activities

(5) 50% (0) 0% (4) 40% (1) 10% (n=10)100%


29/46


thematic portrayal (Unique Adoption Stories, Barriers to Adoption, Commemorative

Events, and Community Service Activities).


30/46


Discussion

In 2002, Americans adopted more than 20,000 children from foreign countries.

That number is three times as many as were adopted in 1992. This growing number of

foreign adoptions may be partly explained by inherent flaws in the domestic adoption and

foster care process, including poor customer care and the length of the process (Katz,

2005). This research demonstrated that the media does not adequately report on these

systemic problems. Of the 200 articles examined, only eight mentioned the difficulty of

and barriers to domestic adoptions. The majority of story themes centered on Crimes

and Adoption/Foster Care Children or Changes in Adoption/Foster Care

Programs/Budgets.

The first research question sought to determine if news media more often use

episodic or thematic frames when reporting on stories relating to adoption and foster care.

The results demonstrated that the majority of newspaper coverage, 60%, was episodic,

compared with 7% of the results coded as solely containing thematic frames. The second

research question, which asked what topics were covered most often in an episodic

manner, concluded that Adoption/Foster Care Advocate Profile and Difficulty of/

Barriers to Domestic Adoptions topped the list. While these two themes accounted for a

small percentage of total percentage of topics portrayed, the second largest theme-driver

Crimes and Adopted/Foster Care Children used an episodic frame 65% of the time. The

results of research question two b, which showed that the highest percentage of stories

coded as thematic was only 15%, highlighted just how little reporters solely utilize

thematic frames when reporting on adoption and foster care issues.


31/46


The goal of this research was to determine how the news media reports on

adoption and foster care issues. However, after reviewing the results, perhaps the

research should have focused on what types of adoption and foster care issues are of

interest to the news media. More than a quarter of the stories coded depicted crimes

committed against adopted or foster children or crimes committed by adopted or foster

children. Stories that discussed crimes committed against foster children by their foster

parents often cited faults in the foster parent recruitment process or necessary systematic

changes needed to be made by adoption and foster care workers. Several stories noted

that for some of the foster parents who abused or neglected their foster children, this was

not their first time doing so. One question remains unasked by reporters: Why, with so

many individuals who want to foster or adopt children, are some children continuing to

be placed in dangerous environments or with abusive individuals?

Additionally, many of the stories that depicted crimes committed by foster care

children also described how these individuals had aged out of the system. By the time

they had turned 18 years old, they were no longer in the custody of the state and were

therefore released on their own without the safety net of a family. Rather than

investigating why these kids hadnt been adopted when the statistics show that there are

people wanting to adopt individuals in this age demographic, the reporters chose to focus

on the details of the crime. While not every crime story warrants an explanation of the

perpetrators background, a reporter who acknowledges an individuals background and

felt compelled to note that they were at one time in the foster care system also has the

responsibility to explain to the audience why this tidbit of information is relevant to the


32/46


33/46


In his 2005 study, Katz found that over 240,000 Americans call social service

agencies for information about adopting a child from foster care each year. However,

only one in 28 people who call for information about adopting a child actually do so.

Katz analyzed this data and found that many people who seek information about adopting

a child are dismayed by how the system treats them. Despite these documented internal

flaws in the system that discourage would-be foster parents, each year child welfare

agencies spend tens of millions of dollars to recruit families to adopt children from foster

care.

In an attempt to encourage the news media to cover these pressing problems, an

article was published in September 2005 in theNeiman Watchdog: Questions the Press

Should Ask, a report published on behalf of the Neiman Foundation for Journalism at

Harvard University. The article, entitled Overcoming the Barriers to the Adoption of

Foster Children, provided questions that reporters should be asking at the state and

federal levels. These inquiries relate to the training of individuals who answer the initial

telephone call from people interested in becoming foster parents; attrition rates for people

interested in adopting a child from foster care; methods the state uses to measure

customer satisfaction among prospective adoptive parents; steps the federal government

is taking to force states to measure parent satisfaction with the adoption process; and

incentives that federal and state governments can create for individual workers to

facilitate adoptions for children on their caseload. Although some adoption advocates

have created resources like this to assist the media in addressing barriers in the adoption

and foster care system, the results of the content analysis show that the news media has

yet to utilize these tools.


34/46


The results of this study are consistent with research that shows that the media use

episodic frames when reporting on social issues such as adoption and foster care

(Iyengar, 1991). The results also echo a research finding that episodic frames downplay

societal causes and implications and hold individuals accountable (Ott & Aoki, 2002).

Since over a quarter of the articles coded addressed Crimes Committed by or Against

Adoption/Foster Children, one could conclude that a large portion of newspaper

coverage of adoption and foster care is not favorable and depicts adoption participants

and their families in problematic or stigmatizing ways (Kline, Karel & Chatterjee, 2006).

Recommendations

Members of the news media have the opportunity to investigate barriers that

prevent children from being adopted and to raise awareness of these issues among

individuals who have the power to make necessary systemic changes. These types of

stories should include both episodic and thematic frames that highlight the numbers

disparity but also attach a personal face to the issue. However, in order to accurately

report on these systemic problems, adoption and foster care advocates must inform

members of the media of these issues and also provide examples of how they are

affecting individuals trying to adopt children.

The following steps must be taken by adoption and foster care advocates and

organizations to ensure that members of the news media accurately report on adoption

and foster care issues:

Develop a media toolkit for individuals who report on foster care and adoption

issues. Adoption and foster care organizations such as the Evan B. Donaldson Adoption

Institute and the Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption have resources available for


35/46


research projects designed to raise awareness about adoption and foster care issues. These

organizations should work with a media relations consultant to develop a toolkit for

members of the news media who report on issues relating to adoption and foster care.

Print and broadcast journalists who focus on these issues could be identified by executing

a Lexis-Nexis search on national coverage relating to adoption and foster care, and by

researching local media outlets that have weekly or monthly adoption feature pieces such

as Wednesdays Child. Items in this toolkit should include: DVD and CD-ROM with

sample broadcast and print stories highlighting barriers in the domestic adoption process

that use both episodic and thematic frames; a one-pager that compares adoption and

foster care myths versus the realities and cites statistics; and a sheet providing contact

information for adoption advocates, experts and individuals who are willing to share their

experiences about encountering barriers to domestic adoptions.

Organize desk-side briefings with members of the media. Adoption and foster care

advocates should organize desk-side briefings with broadcast and print journalists

mentioned above to inform these individuals of the availability of the media toolkit.

These meetings would provide an opportunity to answer any questions that these

journalists have about the information provided. Since research shows that journalists

often use episodic frames when reporting on adoption issues, individuals who have

encountered these obstacles and who are willing to share their personal stories and

experiences can attend these meetings with adoption advocates to help facilitate accurate

coverage.

Publicize barriers to domestic adoptions and availability of toolkit at journalism

conferences and colleges. Adoption advocates can increase awareness of barriers to


36/46


domestic adoptions and availability of the media toolkit by scheduling speaking

engagements or requesting exhibition spaces at professional journalism conferences,

including Society of Professional Journalists and National Journalism Conference and the

Allied Media Conference. In addition, adoption advocates and representatives from

adoption organizations should also contact journalism professors and ask to lead a guest

lecture on media portrayal of adoption and foster care issues. Top journalism schools in

the United States include the University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia University in

New York, and Northwestern University in Chicago.

Capitalize on Media Opportunities for National Adoption Awareness Month.

Adoption advocates must take advantage of opportune events such as National Adoption

Awareness Month in November. Communications professionals who represent adoption

agencies and advocacy organizations should recognize this as a time of celebrating new

families, but also as a time to recognize individuals who are trying to adopt a child.

Working with members of the media, communications professionals could propose

stories that profile families waiting to adopt children instead of solely focusing on

children waiting to be adopted. These types of stories will shift responsibility from the

individual to the system and initiate important dialogue about why children and parents

must both await a family.

Respond to inaccurate portrayals of adoptions and foster care issues. Finally,

adoption advocates must respond to stories that do not accurately portray adoption and

foster care issues. For example, if a reporter covers a crime committed by or against a

foster child, adoption advocates should respond by supplying the storys missing


37/46


information through op-eds, letters to the editor, e-mails to the reporter, and statements

on their organizations website.

Study Limitations & Future Research

This study is not without flaws. There was no definition of or formula for what

constituted a story focusing on adoption. The method section noted that to be classified as

an article, a story must be written by an individual representing the media outlet, or an

adoption advocacy group or organization. The piece must have also focused on real-life

adoption and foster care issues or discussed adoption and foster care as they related to

human beings in the United States. Items that were excluded from the sample included,

movie reviews, articles discussing the adoption of foster care of pets or human beings

from other countries, volunteer advertisements, and Letters to the Editor. However, even

after omitting these pieces, several stories still remained that only briefly discussed

adoption or foster care. The subject matter would have been more relevant had the search

time period been expanded and had it specified that articles had to include the words

adoption or foster care in the headline or lead paragraph.

While the coefficient of reliability for each variable was above 80%, several of

the thematic categories could still be considered subjective. The codebook provided

examples of how each theme may be depicted in stories, but it could be argued that the

themes are broader or more defined than what was represented.

Future research is needed to determine how the medias coverage of adoption and

foster care affects public perception of these issues. The eight media outlets that were the

sources of the 200 articles coded were larger, geographically diverse newspapers.


38/46


However, future researchers should consider examining small media outlets since

domestic adoptions are often completed at the local level.

Researchers should also investigate how adoption features both on television and

in newspapers affect rates of adoption. Every Wednesday the NBC affiliate in

Washington, DC, features a child who needs to be adopted. It would be helpful to not

only examine the content of these segments, but to also interview adoption agencies and

organizations regarding the effectiveness of stories like these. Finally, media who cover

adoption and foster care as well as issue advocates would benefit from learning about the

results of an experiment measuring individuals attitudes and knowledge of adoption and

foster care prior to and after being exposed to episodic and thematic-framed articles that

discuss these issues.


39/46


Appendix

Codebook for Newspaper Articles on Adoption and Foster Care

A.

Article Number:

B.Newspaper:1= Cleveland Plain Dealer

2= Atlanta Journal and Constitution

3= Houston Chronicle

4= Washington Post5= Los Angeles Times

6= New York Times

7= Philadelphia Inquirer8= Chicago Sun Times

Answer: _______

C. Year:1= 2009

2= 2010

Answer: _______

D.NATLOCALLocal scope

Article discusses adoption in the context of community, county, or state

Circle one: 0 (no) 1 (yes)

National scope

Article discusses adoption in the context of country


E. EPINFO


40/46


Does the article profile an individual or group of individuals or discuss a case

study? An example of this would be a story discussing adoption that profiles achild who has been in the adoption or foster care system.


F. THEMINFO

Does the article include any statistics relating to adoption and foster care?

Example of statistics would be the number of children currently in the foster caresystem, the number of children adopted during a specific time period, the number

of adults seeking to adopt children, etc.


If yes, how many statistics are mentioned?

Circle one:

1 (one statistic)

2 (two statistics)3 (three statistics)

4 (four or more statistics)

Does the article include any survey data/results relating to adoption and foster

care? Example of survey data/results includes studies with adoption workers,adoptive children, or adoptive parents?


Does the article include interviews with individuals who work for adoption

organizations or social service agencies?


G. STORYTHEME:


41/46


Please read each of the descriptions below and circle 0 if the article does not

include this theme or 1 if the article does include this theme.

Crimes and Adopted/Foster Care Children:

These stories may provide details about crimes committed against or by an adoptiveor foster child. If the crime was committed against a foster child, the crime must

happen while they were in foster care. Stories that are not included in this theme areones that discuss a crime committed against a child and then mention that the child

was put in foster care or child protective services. If a crime was committed by a

foster child, it does not have to have been committed while they were in a foster care

environment. The article just must note that at one point they were in the foster caresystem.


Changes in Adoption/Foster Care Programs/Budgets:

These stories discuss increases or cuts in adoption or foster care system programs

and/or budgets.


Adoption/Foster Care Advocate Profile

These stories highlight the contributions of an adoption/foster care advocate oradoptive parent.


Unique Adoption Stories:These stories describe unique circumstances in adoption placements. Examples

include profiling older children, children whose ethnicity differed from their adoptive

parents or siblings adopted together.


Difficulty of/ Barriers to Domestic Adoptions:

These stories discuss barriers to domestic adoptions. Examples include financial,

geographical, and systemic obstacles. Another example would be a gay parent familywho encountered problems when adopting in the United States.



42/46


Insufficient System:These stories depict an adoption or foster care system that is not working. These

articles could discuss how the system is not working for the children, for the birth

parents, or for the adoptive parents.


Commemorative Events

These stories may discuss events surrounding National Adoption Day, Adoption

Awareness Month activities or anniversaries of adoption legislation.


Community Service Activities

These stories may describe holiday events or programs designed to benefitindividuals in the adoption or foster care system.



43/46


References

Banks, S. M., Salovey, P., Greener, S., Rothman, A. J., Moyer, M., Beauvais, J., & Epel,

E. (1995). The effects of message framing on mammography utilization.Health

Psychology, 14(2), 178-184.

Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm.Journal of

Communication, 43, 51-58.

Cappella, J. N., & Jamieson, K. H. (1997). Spiral of cynicism: The press and the public

good. New York: Oxford University Press.

Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption, 2007 National Foster Care Adoption Attitudes

Survey.Report of the 2007 National Foster Care Adoption Attitudes Survey.

Retrieved from: http://www.davethomasfoundation.org/getdoc/9999a5f5-33ed-

40fb-aedc-a676adc98546/Harris_DTFA-Report_FINAL_2_29_08

Fessler, P. (2010, April 7). Report: Foster Kids Face Tough Times After Age 18.

National Public Radio. Retrieved from

http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=125594259

Gross, K. (2008). Framing persuasive appeals: Episodic and thematic framing, emotional

response, and policy opinion.Political Psychology, 29(2), 169-192.

Iyengar, S. (1991)Is anyone responsible?: How television frames political issues.

Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Katz, J. (2005).Listening to Parents: Overcoming barriers to the adoption of children

from foster care. Retrieved from Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute website:

http://www.adoptioninstitute.org/publications/2005_listenparents_all.pdf

Katz, J. (2005, September 13). Overcoming barriers to the adoption of foster children.


44/46


Nieman Watchdog. Retrieved from

http://www.niemanwatchdog.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=Ask_this.view&askthisid

=139

Katz, J. (2008, November 8). Adoptions numbers mystery. The Washington Post, pp. A

17.

Kline, S. L., Karel, A. I., & Chatterjee, K. (2006). Covering adoption: General depictions

in broadcast news.Family Relations, 55, 487-498.

Levin, I. P., Schnittjer, S. K., & Thee, S. L. (1987). Information framing effects in social

and personal decisions.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 24, 520-529.

Lawrence, R. (2004). Framing obesity: The evolution of news discourse on a public

health issue. Press/Politics, 9(3), 56-75.

McCombs, M. E. & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media.

Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 176-187.

Nelson, T.E., Clawson, R.A., & Oxley, Z. M. (1997). Media framing of a civil liberties

conflict and its effect on tolerance.American Political Science Review, 91, 567-

583.

Ott, B. L. & Aoki, E. (2002). The politics of negotiating public tragedy: Media framing

of the Matthew Shepard murder.Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 5(3), 483-505.

Pondexter, P. M., & McCombs, M. E. (2000). Research in mass communication: A

practical guide. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martins.

Price, V., Tewksburgy, D., & Powers, E. (1997). Switching trains of thought: The impact

of news frames on readers cognitive responses. Communication Research, 24,

481- 506.


45/46


46/46


Curriculum Vitae

Elizabeth Hogan received a B.A. in Communication from Saint Louis University.

Elizabeth currently serves as the Communications Manager at the Trust for Americas

Health, a non-profit, non-partisan organization dedicated to saving lives by protecting the

health of every community and working to make disease prevention a national priority.

Elizabeth developed a strong interest in health communication while enrolled in the

Communication graduate program at Johns Hopkins University. Elizabeths related

academic interests include health psychology, stigmatization of mental health issues, and

disease prevention.

JHU Hogan Thesis

Documents

Transcript of JHU Hogan Thesis