Jewish Funerary Customs Practices and Rites in the Second Temple Period Supplements to the Journal...

7/23/2019 Jewish Funerary Customs Practices and Rites in the Second Temple Period Supplements to the Journal for the Stud

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Jewish Funerary Customs, Practices

and Rites in the Second Temple Period


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Supplementsto the

Journal for the Studyof Judaism

Editor

John J. CollinsThe Divinity School, Yale University

Associate Editor

Florentino Garca MartnezQumran Institute, University of Groningen

Advisory Board

. . .. . -

.. ....

. . ... .

VOLUME 94


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Jewish Funerary Customs,Practices and Rites in theSecond Temple Period

By

Rachel Hachlili

BRILLLEIDEN BOSTON

2005


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ISSN 1384-2161ISBN 90 04 12373 3

Copyright 2005 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated,stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior

written permission from the publisher.

Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is grantedby Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to

The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910Danvers, MA 01923, USA.Fees are subject to change.

.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in Publication data

Hachlili, Rachel.Jewish funerary customs, practices, and rites in the Second Temple period/byRachel Hachlili.

p. cm. (Supplements to the Journal for the study of Judaism, ISSN 1384-2161; v. 94)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 90-04-12373-31. TombsPalestine. 2. BurialPalestine. 3. Jewish mourning customs.

4. Excavations (Archaeology)Palestine. 5. PalestineAntiquities. 6. DeadReligious aspectsJudaism. 7. JudaismHistoryPost-exilic period, 586

B.C.210 A.D. I. Title. II. Series.

DS111.9.H33 2005393.1089924033dc22 2004056754


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CONTENTS

List of Figures .......................................................................... xiList of Plates ............................................................................ xxiiiList of Tables .......................................................................... xxixForeword .................................................................................. xxxiAcknowledgements .................................................................. xxxiiiIntroduction .............................................................................. xxxv

Terminology ............................................................................ xxxviiGlossary .................................................................................... xli

C O: C .................................................... 1A. Jerusalem ........................................................................ 1B. Jericho ............................................................................ 4C. 'En Gedi ........................................................................ 11

The Burial Caves of Naal David .............................. 11Nine Tombs at 'En Gedi .............................................. 12

D. Qumran .......................................................................... 13E. 'En El-Ghuewir .............................................................. 20

The Judean Desert Documents and BurialPractices ...................................................................... 22

F. Other Burials .................................................................. 23Tombs in South Judea .................................................. 23Burials in Caves in the Judean Desert ........................ 26

C T: A R- T .......... 29A. Monumental Tombs ...................................................... 29Monumental Tombs in the Kidron Valley ................ 30Jasons Tomb .................................................................. 34Tomb of Queen Helene of Adiabene .......................... 36The Tomb of Herods Family ...................................... 37The Nazarite Family Tomb .......................................... 41The Tomb of Nicanor .................................................. 42

B. Tombs with Ornamented Faade ................................ 43

Classification of Rock-cut Tombs by their FaadeOrnamentation .......................................................... 43

C. Loculi Tombs ................................................................ 55Tomb Plan, Formation and Dimensions .................... 55


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The Entrance ................................................................ 62Origins and Comparison of Loculi Tombs .................... 66

D. Arcosolia Tombs .............................................................. 69Headrests ............................................................................ 72

E. Other Tombs .................................................................... 72

C T: I R .............................. 75A. Wooden Coffins ................................................................ 75

Jericho Wooden Coffins .................................................... 76'En Gedi Wooden Coffins ................................................ 85Naal David Caves, 'En Gedi ........................................ 88Qumran Wooden Coffins ................................................ 91Comparative Material ...................................................... 91

B. Ossuaries ............................................................................ 94The Ossuaries: Material, Technique, Form .................... 94Ossuary Ornamentation .................................................... 96Sarcophagus-shaped Ossuaries ........................................ 110Undecorated Ossuaries .................................................... 111Clay Ossuaries .................................................................. 111

Comparable Material ........................................................ 113Origin of Ossuaries .......................................................... 114C. Stone Sarcophagi .............................................................. 115

Description of Sarcophagi ................................................ 116

C F: F A ................................................ 127A. Tomb Ornamentation ...................................................... 127

Ashlar Masonry Decoration ............................................ 128Ornamented Dome and Ceiling ...................................... 129

Architectural Decoration .................................................. 130B. Wall-Painting .................................................................... 133

Description ........................................................................ 133Style and Technique ........................................................ 137Significance of Motifs ...................................................... 144Conclusions ........................................................................ 146Wall-painting in Other Tombs ........................................ 146

C. Drawing and Graffiti ........................................................ 148

D. Ornamentations of Coffins, Ossuaries andSarcophagi ........................................................................ 150Wooden Coffin Decoration .............................................. 150Ossuaries Ornamentation ................................................ 152


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Sarcophagi Ornamentation .............................................. 155E. Intentional Imperfection in Jewish Funerary Art .......... 156

Tombs ................................................................................ 156Ossuaries ............................................................................ 157Motifs Arranged in Unidentical Symmetry .................... 159

C F: I ...................................................... 163A. Selected Inscriptions on Tombs, Sarcophagi and

Ossuaries ............................................................................ 163Inscriptions on Tombs ...................................................... 163Sarcophagi Inscriptions .................................................... 168Selected Ossuary Inscriptions .......................................... 170Ossuary Inscriptions from Jericho .................................. 178

B. Personal Names, Nicknames and Family Names .......... 193Choosing a Name ............................................................ 194Personal Names ................................................................ 196Family Names and Family Relations .............................. 203Nicknames .......................................................................... 205Summary and Conclusions .............................................. 231

C S: F T .................................................... 235A. Description of Family Tombs .......................................... 235

Family Tombs at Jerusalem ............................................ 235Priestly and High-Priestly Family Tombs ...................... 262Family Tombs of Interred Jews from the Diaspora ...... 273Family Tombs from Jericho ............................................ 287

B. Family Tombs and Relations, Discussion ...................... 301Location of the Ossuaries in the Tomb ........................ 302

Family Relationship .......................................................... 303Dedication to Parents by Children: A Son who

Interred a Relatives Remains ...................................... 305Dedication to Children by Parents .................................. 307Dedication of Siblings ...................................................... 307Marks and Emblems Designating Family Rank ............ 309Conclusions ........................................................................ 309

C S: W ............................................................ 311A. The Status of Women in the Family ............................ 311Womens Status and Family Relationship as

Conveyed by Inscriptions ............................................ 311


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Daughter (Patronym) ........................................................ 313Wife .................................................................................... 316

Mother .............................................................................. 317Womens Status in the Family ........................................ 319Women Proselytes ............................................................ 320

B. Burial of Women and Children ...................................... 321Women Dying in Childbirth ............................................ 321Individual Burial of Women and Children .................... 322Women and the Cemetery of Qumran .......................... 324

C. Burial Rites involving Women ........................................ 325D. Womens Graves Marked by Personal Belongings ........ 327

Summary and Conclusions .............................................. 335

C E: TNEFESH .................................................... 339A. The Finds .......................................................................... 340

TheNefesh as a Funerary Architectural Monument ...... 340B. The Form of theNefesh .................................................... 344

A Rectangular, Pyramid-capped Monument .................. 344A Detached Column, Cone-formed, Obelisk-shaped .... 346

A Cubical Construction Surmounted by Domes .......... 347C. Discussion .......................................................................... 349

C N: W C .......................... 355A. Ossuaries and Sarcophagi Production and

Workshops .......................................................................... 355Ossuary Production .......................................................... 355Sarcophagi Workshops ...................................................... 357

B. Artists and Craftsmen ...................................................... 358

Inscriptions that Mention Artists .................................... 359C. Ossuary Groups with Similar Design ............................ 361

Group 1 ............................................................................ 361Group 2 ............................................................................ 366Group 3 ............................................................................ 370Marketing of Ossuaries .................................................... 373

C T: G G .................................................... 375

A. Pottery ................................................................................ 377Bowls .................................................................................. 378Krater ................................................................................ 379Cooking Pots .................................................................... 380


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Unguentaria ...................................................................... 383Jugs and Jars .................................................................... 385

Storage Jars ........................................................................ 386Lamps ................................................................................ 387

B. Varia .................................................................................. 390Glass Vessels ...................................................................... 390Wooden Vessels ................................................................ 392Leather .............................................................................. 394Cosmetic Utensils, Toilet Vessels .................................... 395Spindle Whorl .................................................................. 396Jewelry ................................................................................ 397Bronze Items ...................................................................... 398Iron Objects ...................................................................... 398Bone Items ........................................................................ 400Diverse Objects ................................................................ 401

C. Coins .................................................................................. 437D. Conclusions ........................................................................ 443

C E: F C R .................. 447

A. Burial Types: Jerusalem, Jericho, 'En Gedi,Qumran ............................................................................ 450Jerusalem Burial Types, Customs, and Chronology ...... 450Jericho Burial Types, Customs and Chronology ............ 457'En Gedi Burial Types, Customs and Chronology ........ 464Qumran Burial Practices .................................................. 467Burial Practices at Qumran, Jerusalem and Jericho:

a Discussion .................................................................. 475B. Funerary Rites, Practices and Customs .......................... 479

Burial Rites ........................................................................ 483C. Protective Measures Employed against the

Desacration of Tombs, Coffins and Ossuaries .............. 489Physical Evidence .............................................................. 490Symbolic Evidence ............................................................ 492Epitaphs and Inscriptions with Curses and

Warnings ........................................................................ 494Protective Jewish Inscriptions and Curse-Formulae

in Aramic, Hebrew and Greek .................................... 496D. Magic Practice .................................................................. 507Abecedaria Inscriptions .................................................... 508Iron Nails .......................................................................... 511


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E. Evaluation of Jewish Burial Customs .............................. 512F. Jewish Burial Customs and their Connections with

the Pagan World .............................................................. 514

C T: C C ................ 517A. Chronology ........................................................................ 517

Tomb Architecture ............................................................ 517The Classification and Typology .................................... 517Stratigraphy ........................................................................ 519Inscriptions ........................................................................ 519Grave Goods .................................................................... 519Chronology and Geographic Distribution of

Ossuaries ........................................................................ 520Historical Evidence .......................................................... 521

B. Conclusions ........................................................................ 522

A: A N T .................. 529

Abbreviations .............................................................................. 543

Bibliography ................................................................................ 545Index of Subjects ........................................................................ 573Index of Sources ........................................................................ 585Plates following page 588


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LIST OF FIGURES

Introduction .............................................................................. xxxixFig. 1. Greek Inscription Ostophagos(after Avigad 1967:

Fig. 35)

Figure I1. Plan of the Jerusalem necropolis (after Stern1993, Vol. 3) ........................................................................ 3

Figure I2. Beth Zafafa cemetery (after Zisso 1996:Fig. 2) .................................................................................. 5

Figure I3. The Jericho cemetery (after Hachlili 1999:Figs. II.1,2) .......................................................................... 7

Figure I4. 'En Gedi tombs (after Hadas 1994: Fig. 1) .... 12Figure I5. Qumran cemeteries and tombs location

(after Rhrer-Etrl et al. 1999: Abb. 1) .............................. 14Figure I6. Khirbet Qumran and the cemeteries

(after Eshel et al. 2002: Map. 1) ...................................... 16Figure I7. 'En el-Ghuweir tombs (after Bar-Adon 1977:

Fig. 18) ................................................................................ 21

Figure II1. Monumental tombs in the Kidron Valley(after Avigad 1954: fig. 48) ................................................ 30

Figure II2. Plan of the Bene ezir and the Zechariahtombs (after Avigad 1954: fig. 22) .................................... 31

Figure II3ac. The tomb and nefesh of: a. Zechariah;

b. Monument of Absalom west faade; c. Bene Hezir;(after Avigad 1954: figs. 42, 44, 52) .................................. 33Figure II4. Plan of the Tomb of the Monument of

Absalom and the Tomb of Jehoshaphat (after Avigad1954: fig. 51) ........................................................................ 34

Figure II5. Plan of Jasons Tomb (after Rahmani1967: Fig. 3) ........................................................................ 35

Figure II6. Plan of the Tomb of Queen Helene ofAdiabene (after Avigad 1956: Fig. 19) .............................. 37

Figure II7. Tomb of Queen Helene of Adiabene:Reconstruction of Faade (a. after Vincent 1954:Fig. 100, b. after Mazar, B., 1975: 231) .......................... 38


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Figure II8a,b. a. Plan of Tomb of Herods Family;b. Plan of the Nazirite family tomb (after Avigad

1956: Fig. 27; 1967: Fig. 1) .................................................. 39Figure II9. The Nazirite Family Tomb, elevations

(after Avigad 1971: Fig. 3) .................................................... 41Figure II10. Plan of the Tomb of Nicanor (after Avigad

1967: Fig. 1) ............................................................................ 42Figure II11. a. Faade with small entrance; b. Faade

with moulded frame (after Vincent 1954: Figs. 93b,102) .......................................................................................... 44

Figure II12. Faade with moulded frame surmounted bya gable (after Macalister 1901b: 148; Vincent 1954:Figs. 93a; Avigad 1956: Fig. 25) .......................................... 45

Figure II13. Decorated facades: a. Frieze Tomb;b. Hinnom Valley Tomb (after Avigad 1956: Fig. 17,Vincent 1954: Fig. 94) .......................................................... 47

Figure II14. Faades of: a. Grape tomb; b. SanhedrinTomb; c. The Tomb of Jehoshaphat (after Avigad1954: Figs. 51, 77; 1956: Fig. 13) ........................................ 48

Figure II15. Tomb facades of: a. Bene ezir;b. Queen Helene of Adiabene; c. Umm el-Amed(after Avigad 1954: Fig. 29; 1956: Figs. 11, 18) ................ 51

Figure II16. Tomb facades: a. Two-Storied Tomb;b. Sanhedriya Tomb VIII; c. Nicanor Tomb(after Avigad 1956: Figs. 15, 16; 1967: Fig. 5) .................. 53

Figure II17. Tomb in Hinnom Valley: a. Faade;b. Plan; c. Decorated dome (after Avigad 1956:Fig. 26; Vincent 1954: Fig. 95) ............................................ 54

Figure II18. Plan of loculi tomb ( Jericho, after Hachlili1999: Fig. II.51) ...................................................................... 55

Figure II19. Jericho, The Goliath Tomb (tomb H):schematic plan and sections of Courtyard, Uppergallery and Ritual bath (after Netzer 1999: Fig. II.78) ...... 58

Figure II20. Jericho. The Goliath Tomb (tomb H),Mourning Enclosure reconstruction (after Netzer 1999:Fig. II.80) ................................................................................ 59

Figure II21ab. Tomb entrances (after Hachlili 1999:Figs. II.39, 53) ........................................................................ 62Figure II22 Sealing stones examples: stopper, and flat

(after Hachlili 1999: Fig. II.84) ............................................ 63


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Figure II23. Stone door, Akeldama Tomb 2, Chamber C(after Avni and Greenhut 1996: Fig. 1.31) .......................... 65

Figure II24. Acrosolia tomb plans: a. Akeldama Tomb 3,Chamber C (after Avni and Greenhut 1996: Plan 1.12);b. Pilaster Tomb (after Galling 19356: Fig. 7). ................ 70

Figure II25. Sanhedriya Tomb 7 (after Kloner 1980:Pl. 3) ........................................................................................ 71

Figure III1. Jericho wooden coffin Type A, Coffin 113:a. Reconstruction; b. Carpentry of the coffin (afterHachlili 1999: Fig. III.2) ........................................................ 79

Figure III2. Jericho Coffin 113: a. Wooden hinges;b. Iron corner sheets c. Iron plate (after Hachlili1999: Figs. III.68) ................................................................ 81

Figure III3. Jericho wooden Coffins Type B,reconstruction of: a. Coffin 59, b. Coffin 78; c. Coffin94 (after Hachlili 1999: Figs. III.10, 15, 18) ...................... 83

Figure III4. Jericho wooden Coffin Type C, reconstructionof: a. Coffin 187; b. Coffin 190 (after Hachlili 1999:

Figs. III.27, 33) ...................................................................... 84Figure III5. 'En Gedi wooden coffin: a. Type A;b. Type A1; c. Type B; d. Type B1 (after Hadas 1994:Figs. 7174) ............................................................................ 86

Figure III6. 'En Gedi wooden coffin carpentry(Coffin 10, Tomb 5) (after Hadas 1994: Fig. 45) .............. 89

Figure III7a,b. 'En Gedi wooden coffin decoration(after Hadas 1994: Figs. 46, 52) .......................................... 90

Figure III8. Wooden coffins from Egypt (after Watzinger

1905: Sarc. No. 2; Figs. 3334) ............................................ 92Figure III9. Wooden coffins from Egypt (after Watzinger

1905: Sarc. No. 3; Figs. 3739) ............................................ 92Figure III10. Decorated wooden coffin from South

Russia (after Watzinger 1905: Sarc. No. 4;Figs. 4344) ............................................................................ 93

Figure III11. Wooden coffin from Nabatean MampsisTomb 100 (after Negev 1971: Fig. 6) .................................. 93

Figure III12. Stone ossuary forms .......................................... 95Figure III13. Tools used to produce Ossuaries .................... 96Figure III14. Decorated Type I ossuaries (after Figueras

1983) ........................................................................................ 97


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Figure III15. Decorated Type II ossuaries (after Figueras1983; Avigad 1967) ................................................................ 98

Figure III16. Decorated Type III ossuaries (after Figueras1983) ........................................................................................ 99Figure III17. Decorated Type IV ossuaries (after Figueras

1983) ........................................................................................ 100Figure III18. Various rosettes decorating ossuaries .............. 101Figure III19. Examples of rosettes decorating ossuaries ........ 102Figure III20. Plant motifs decorating ossuaries .................... 103Figure III21. Architectural motifs decorating ossuaries

(after Rahmani 1994: Figs. 100101) .................................. 103Figure III22. Amphora motifs decorating ossuaries

(after Rahmani 1994: Figs. 3638) ...................................... 104Figure III23. Various motifs decorating ossuaries

(after Rahmani 1994: Figs. 109, 116, 118, 1278) ............ 105Figure III24. Frames Decorating Ossuaries .......................... 106Figure III25a,b. Ossuaries with painted decoration

(a. after Rahmani 1994: No. 209; b. Hachlili 1999:Fig. III.40, Ossuary 3) .......................................................... 108

Figure III26. Clay Ossuary (After Rahmani 1994: 258,No. 866) .................................................................................. 112Figure III27. Sarcophagus 2 (After Avigad 1971: Fig. 4) ...... 117Figure III28. Tomb of Herods family: chamber with

sarcophagi (After Schick 1892: 119) .................................... 117Figure III29. Sarcophagus 4: a. front; b. decorated lid

(two sides) (a. After Avigad 1956: Fig. 28; b. Schick1892: 120) .............................................................................. 118

Figure III30. Sarcophagus 5 (after Vincent 1954:

Fig. 96) .................................................................................... 119Figure III31. Sarcophagus 6 (after Avigad 1956:

Fig. 20; Foerster 1998: Fig. 2) .............................................. 120Figure III32. Sarcophagus 7, lid (after Goodenough

1953, III: Fig. 241) ................................................................ 121Figure III33. Sarcophagus 8 (after Kon 1947: 71,

Fig. 17) .................................................................................... 121Figure III34. Sarcophagus 10 (after Goodenough 1953,

III: Fig. 240) .......................................................................... 122Figure III35. Decorated lid of Sarcopagus 11(after Kon 1947: Fig. 14) ...................................................... 123


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Figure III36. Sarcophagus carved into the left-handchamber of Tomb VII at Sanhedriya (after Rothschild

1952: Pl. 8:2) .......................................................................... 124

Figure IV1. Decorated ceiling of Absalom Tomb chamber(after Avigad 1954: 102, Fig. 64) .......................................... 129

Figure IV2a,b. a. Grape tomb decorated soffit and jambs;b. Rosette decorating domed ceiling of Hinnom ValleyTomb (after a. Macalister 1900: Pl. III; b. 1901b: 217) .... 130

Figure IV3. Carved decoration on Silwan village tomb(after Avigad 1967a: Fig. 11) ................................................ 131

Figure IV4. Jericho, Goliath Tomb Chamber A withwall paintings .......................................................................... 134

Figure IV5. Jericho, Goliath Tomb Chamber A wallpaintings .................................................................................. 135

Figure IV6. Jericho, Goliath Tomb wall-painting onthe north wall (section AA), on the south wall(section BB); on the west wall (section CC) .................... 136

Figure IV7. Decorated pediment of Tomb of the Grapes,

Jerusalem (after Macalister 1900: Pl. III) ............................ 139Figure IV8. Painted vaulted ceiling of a House at Siqel Bared (after Glueck 1965: Fig. 203b) .............................. 140

Figure IV9. Mokata 'Abud decoration (after Conder andKitchener 1882: 362363) ...................................................... 148

Figure IV10. Jasons Tomb drawings: Ships (afterRahmani 1967: Fig. 5a,b) ...................................................... 149

Figure IV11. Jasons Tomb drawings: a. Stag, b. Graffitiof menoroth (after Rahmani 1967: Figs. 6, 7) .................... 151

Figure IV12. Ossuaries with unfinished carvedornamentation ........................................................................ 158

Figure IV13. Beth She'arim Sarcophagi with incompleteornamentation ........................................................................ 160

Figure V1. Jason Tomb, Aramaic inscription (after Avigad1967b: Fig. 1) .......................................................................... 165

Figure V2 Jasons Tomb, Greek inscription (after Benoit

1967: Pl. xx) ............................................................................ 166Figure V3. The Bene ezir inscription (after Avigad 1954:Fig. 36) .................................................................................... 169


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Figure V4. The Sadah Queen inscription onSarcophagus (after Avigad 1956: 341) .................................. 170

Figure V5. The Nicanor inscription ...................................... 173Figure V6. The Simon inscription (after Rahmani 1994:

No. 200) .................................................................................. 173Figure V7. The Yehoana inscription (after Barag and

Flusser 1986: Fig. 1) .............................................................. 174Figure V8. The Burial in Jerusalem inscription (after

Puech 1982: 35) ...................................................................... 175Figure V9. The list from Beth Phage (after Sukenik

1935: 10) ................................................................................ 177Figure V10ab. Jericho, Goliath family, Inscriptions

1112 ...................................................................................... 181Figure V11a,b. Jericho Goliath Family, Inscriptions

910 ........................................................................................ 182Figure V12. Jericho, Goliath family: Theodotos

Inscription 3 ............................................................................ 184Figure V13. Jericho, Goliath Family: Mariah

Inscription 7 ............................................................................ 186

Figure V14. Jericho, Goliath family: Inscription 8 .............. 187Figure V15. Jericho, Goliath family: Inscription 13 ............ 187Figure V16ab. Jericho, bowl inscriptions from Jerusalem

(Inscriptions 15a,b) .................................................................. 189Figure V17a,b. Jericho, Ossuary Inscriptions 16, 17 ............ 189Figure V18. Nicknames mentioning Places of Origin

(after Rahmani 1994: Nos. 99, 290, 293, 404; Bagatti& Milik 1958: Figs. 23:3, 4) .................................................. 211

Figure V19. Title Nicknames (after Puech 1983: Fig. 2:1;

Bagatti & Milik 1958: Fig. 18:1; Naveh 1992: Fig. 131;Ilan 1996: 62; Rahmani 1994: No. 893) ............................ 214

Figure V20. Nicknames with Occupation and Trade(after Rahmani 1994: Nos. 80, 222) .................................... 218

Figure V21. Physical Nicknames (after Rahmani 1994:Nos. 421, 552) ........................................................................ 221

Figure V22. Nicknames of disability and defects(after Rahmani 1994: Nos. 62, 117, 218 ............................ 222

Figure V23. Nicknames with Honorific and Age-relatedtitles (after Rahmani 1994: Nos. 12, 865; Lidzbarski1908: 196) .............................................................................. 224


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Figure V24 Nicknames with negative qualities(after Rahmani 1994: Nos. 44, 198, 498, 821) .................. 226

Figure V25. Nicknames with positive qualities (after Ilan1996: 66; Bagatti & Milik 1958: Fig. 21, 6; FreyNos. 1385, 1390) .................................................................... 228

Figure V26. Nicknames of Endearment (after Rahmani1994: Nos. 35, 461; Bagatti & Milik 1958: Fig. 22, 3) ...... 230

Figure VI1. Inscriptions on ossuaries found at alletet-Turi (after Milik 195657: Figs. 7, 9, 10, 13,14, 16) .................................................................................... 236

Figure VI2. Kidron Valley tomb plan (after Sukenik1945: Fig. 2) ............................................................................ 237

Figure VI3. Inscriptions on ossuaries found in theKidron Valley tomb (after Sukenik 1945: Fig. 3) .............. 238

Figure VI4. Kidron Valley tomb plan (after Mayer1924: Pl. V) ............................................................................ 240

Figure VI5. Inscriptions on ossuaries from the KidronValley tomb (after Mayer 1924: Pl. VI) .............................. 241

Figure VI6. Plan of Tomb of Monogramma, Mountof Olives (after Bagatti and Milik 1958: Fig. 3) .................. 244Figure VI7. Inscriptions on ossuaries from the tomb

of Monogramma, Mount of Olives (after Bagattiand Milik 1958: Figs. 19, 23:3) ............................................ 245

Figure VI8. Plan, tomb of the Agra family, Mountof Olives (after Bagatti and Milik 1958: Fig. 8) .................. 245

Figure VI9. Inscriptions on ossuaries from the tombof the Agra Family, Mount of Olives (after Bagatti

and Milik 1958: Figs. 21:4, 22:4, 23:1) ................................ 246Figure VI10. Mount of Olives: a. Tomb Plan,

b. Ossuaries inside the chamber (after Sukenik1930b: Pls. 1, 2) .................................................................... 248

Figure VI11. Inscriptions on ossuaries from the Mountof Olives tomb (after Sukenik 1930b: Pls. 35) .................. 250

Figure VI12a,b. Mount Offense tomb: a. plan;b. Inscriptions on ossuaries (after Gibson and Avni

1998: Fig. 2; Clermont-Ganneau 1899: Nos. 1, 36, 9) .... 251Figure VI13a,b. Nazirite family tomb: a. plan;b. inscriptions (after Avigad 1971: Figs. 1, 68) .................. 254


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Figure VI14. Inscriptions on three ossuaries from theSchneller tomb (after Lidzbarski 1908: 1956; Misgav

1997: Fig. 1; Rahmani 1994: no. 139) ................................ 256Figure VI15. Talbiyeh tomb plan (after Sukenik 1928:

Pl. 1) ........................................................................................ 258Figure VI16. Inscriptions on ossuaries from the Talbiyeh

tomb (after Rahmani 1994: Nos. 7076) ............................ 259Figure VI17. Talpiyot tomb plan (after Sukenik 1947:

Figs. 1) .................................................................................... 260Figure VI18. Inscriptions on ossuaries from the Talpiyot

tomb (after Sukenik 1947: Figs. 19, 21, 23, 25) ................ 261Figure VI19. Boethos family tomb plan (after Sukenik

1934: Fig. 1) ............................................................................ 264Figure VI20. Inscriptions from the Boethos family

tomb (after Rahmani 1994: Nos. 4142, 4445) ................ 265Figure VI21. Caiaphas tomb plan and inscriptions on

ossuaries (after Greenhut 1992: Plan 1; Puech 1993:Fig. 4; Reich 1992: Fig. 7) .................................................... 266

Figure VI22. Inscriptions on ossuaries from the Caiaphas

tomb (after Puech 1993: 44; Reich 1992: Fig. 7) .............. 267Figure VI23. Kallon family tomb plan (after Hnsler1913: 93) ................................................................................ 268

Figure VI24. Inscriptions 1, 2 and 4 on ossuaries fromthe Kallon family tomb (after Grimme 1912: 532534) .... 270

Figure VI25. Inscriptions 3 and 5 on ossuaries fromthe Kallon family tomb (after Hnsler 1913: 133135) ...... 271

Figure VI26. The Eros family tomb, Akeldama (Tomb 2)plan (after Avni and Greenhut 1996: Plan 1.6) .................. 275

Figure VI27. Inscriptions on ossuaries from the Erosfamily tomb 2, Akeldama (after Ilan 1996: 5763) ............ 276

Figure VI28. The Ariston family tomb 3, Akeldama,plan (after Avni and Greenhut 1996: Plan 1.9) .................. 277

Figure VI29. Inscriptions on ossuaries from the Aristonfamily tomb 3, Akeldama (after Ilan 1996: 6468) ............ 278

Figure VI30. Inscriptions on ossuaries from the Aristonfamily tomb 3, Akeldama (after Ilan 1996: 6468) ............ 280

Figure VI31. Kidron Valley tomb plan and inscriptions(Avigad 1962: Figs. 1, 1116) ................................................ 281Figure VI32. Mount of Olives tomb (the Sisters of Zion):

plan (after Vincent 1902b: 27879) ...................................... 283


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Figure VI33. Mount of Olives tomb (the Sisters of Zion):inscriptions (after Vincent 1902a: 104, 1067) .................... 284

Figure VI34 Tomb at Shu'afat (Arad el-Beida): plan(after Abel 1913: Fig. 1) ........................................................ 285

Figure VI35. Tomb at Shu'afat (Arad el-Beida): inscriptions(after Abel 1913: Pls. I, II) .................................................... 285

Figure VI36. Jericho, Goliath tomb plan .............................. 288Figure VI37. Jericho, Goliath tomb, Inscription 1 ................ 291Figure VI38. Jericho, Goliath tomb, Inscription 2 ................ 291Figure VI39a,b. Jericho, Goliath tomb, Inscriptions 56 .... 292Figure VI40. The Goliath family tree .................................... 294Figure VI41. Jericho tomb D1, plan ...................................... 296

Figure VII1. Womens personal name (after Rahmani1994) ........................................................................................ 313

Figure VII2. Examples of daugthers names followedby fathers name (after Rahmani 1994) .............................. 314

Figure VII3. Examples of names followed by wife of . . .(after Rahmani 1994) ............................................................ 316

Figure VII4. Examples of names followed by Mother(after Rahmani 1994) ............................................................ 318Figure VII5. Inscription of Shalom the Proselyte from

the Mount of Olives (after Bagatti and Milik 1958:Fig. 21) .................................................................................... 321

Figure VII6. Inscription from Giv'at Hamivtar(after Rahmani 1994: No. 226) ............................................ 322

Figure VII7. Personal Belongings of Women fromJerusalem Tombs .................................................................... 328

Figure VII8. Personal Belongings of a Woman anda Child from Jericho, Coffin 78 .......................................... 329

Figure VII9. Personal Belongings of Women from'En Gedi, Tomb 6 (after Hadas 1994: Figs. 61, 62) .......... 330

Figure VIII1. The Jericho StoneNefesh .................................. 341Figure VIII2. The Jericho Drawing of Nefeshot ...................... 342Figure VIII3. Column-Nefesh carved on Ossuaries ................ 343

Figure VIII4.Nefesh carved on an Ossuary lid(after Rahmani 1994: 227, No. 730) .................................... 344Figure VIII5.Nefesh carved on an Ossuary

(after Rahmani 1994: Fig. 26) .............................................. 344


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Figure VIII6. Nabatean inscribed Nefesh (after Avigad1954: Fig. 39) .......................................................................... 345

Figure VIII7. Variation of Column-Nefesh (after Rahmani1994: Figs. 3134) .................................................................. 348Figure VIII8ac. Cubic Pyramid-cappedNefesh (after

Rahmani 1994: Fig. 27) ........................................................ 349Figure VIII9. Nabatean engraved Nefesh ................................ 351Figure VIII10. Funerary columns (cippi) from Sidon

(after Contenau 1920: Fig. 85) .............................................. 352

Figure IX1. Tools used to produce Ossuaries ...................... 357Figure IX2. Ossuary Inscriptions mentioning Craftsmen:

a. East Talpiyot (after Rahmani No. 730); b. AkeldamaInscription on Ossuary 17 (after Ilan 1996: 61) .................. 360

Figure IX3. Ossuaries from Jerusalem: a. Type 1;b. Type 2; c. Type 3, ossuaries from Jericho andJerusalem ................................................................................ 362

Figure IX4. Central motif Types A, B, C ............................ 364Figure IX5ad. Ossuaries with Stylized Palm-tree Design

(after Rahmani 1959: Figs. 1, 2) .......................................... 367Figure IX6. Group 2, Types A, B, C (after Figueras1983: Pls. 13, 14) .................................................................. 369

Figure IX7. Ossuaries Decorated with Ashlar Wall Motif(after Figueras 1983: Pl. 18; Rahmani 1994: Fig. 42) ........ 371

Figure X1. Bowls ...................................................................... 379Figure X2. Kraters .................................................................. 380Figure X3. Cooking pots ........................................................ 381

Figure X4. Unguentaria .......................................................... 384Figure X5. Jugs ........................................................................ 386Figure X6. Storage jars .......................................................... 387Figure X7. Lamps .................................................................... 388Figure X8. Miscellaneous ceramic vessels .............................. 389Figure X9. Glass vessels .......................................................... 391Figure X10. Wooden bowls and objects (after Hadas

1994: Fig. 14, 15) .................................................................. 393

Figure X11. Leather sandal from coffin 187, Jericho .......... 394Figure X12. Beads from tombs at Jericho ............................ 397Figure X13. Bronze clasp from Tomb D1 at Jericho .......... 398


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Figure X14. Iron Shovel from a tomb at French Hill,Jerusalem (after Mazar, A 1982: 43, Fig. 2:12) .................. 399

Figure XI1. French Hill Tomb (after Mazar, A. 1982:42, Fig. 1) ................................................................................ 451

Figure XI2. Giv'at HaMivtar Tomb II (after Tzafiris1970: Fig. 3) ............................................................................ 453

Figure XI3. French Hill Tomb (after Kloner 1980a:Fig. 1) ...................................................................................... 454

Figure XI4. Tomb on Mount Scopus (after Kloner 1993:Fig. 2) ...................................................................................... 456

Figure XI5. Jericho, Tomb Type I with wooden coffins(after Hachlili 1999: Fig. II.39, Tomb D 12) ...................... 458

Figure XI6. Jericho Tomb D3 with collected bones(after Hachlili 1999: Fig. II.27) ............................................ 461

Figure XI7. 'En Gedi Tombs (after Hadas 1994:plans 17) ................................................................................ 465

Figure XI8. Qumran tombs (after de Vaux 1953;Humbert & Chambon 1994) ................................................ 468

Figure XI9. 'En el-Ghuweir tombs (after Bar-Adon1977: Fig. 19) .......................................................................... 473Figure XI10. Beth Zafafa tombs (after Zisso 1996:

Fig. 3) ...................................................................................... 474Figure XI11. a. Nazirite sarcophagus No. 1; b. Kidron

Valley ossuary (after Avigad 1967: Fig. 35; 1971: Fig. 4) .... 487Figure XI12. 'En Gedi wrapped wooden coffin

(after Hadas 1994: Fig. 4, Coffin 8, Tomb 1) .................... 491Figure XI13. a. An iron lock plate of wooden coffin 113,

Jericho (after Hachlili 1999: III.8); b. a lock graffito(after Rahmani 1994: 168, No. 403) .................................... 493

Figure XI14. a. Inscription 1 (after Avigad 1953: Pl. 9B);b. Inscription 2 (after Sukenik 1931: Pl. II,2) .................... 497

Figure XI15. Inscription 5 (after Rahmani 1994: No. 70);Inscription 6 (after Milik 19561957: Inscription A1,Figs. 2, 3); Inscription 7 (after Bilig 2000: Fig. 3);Inscription 8 (after Puech 1989: Fig. III.1) .......................... 500

Figure XI16. Inscription 9 (after Rahmani 1994: no. 455);Inscription 10 (after Rahmani 1994: No. 610); Inscription11 (after Avigad 1961: Fig. 1) .............................................. 501


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Figure XI17. Inscription 12 (after Rahmani 1994:No. 259); Inscription 13 (after Rahmani 1994: No. 142);

Inscription 14 (after Rahmani 1994: No. 559) .................... 503Figure XI18. Inscription 15 (after Avigad 1976: Fig. 104);

Inscription 16 (after Avigad 1976: Fig. 105); Inscription17 (after Avigad 1976: Fig. 106) .......................................... 505

Figure XI19. Jericho, abecedary inscription on the lidof an ossuary (after Hachlili 1999: Fig. IV.2) ...................... 509


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LIST OF PLATES

Plate I1. Jericho, general view of cemeteryPlate I2. Qumran view of the site and of the cemeteryPlate I3. Qumran general view of the cemetery

Plate II1. Jerusalem, Monumental Tombs in the KidronValley

Plate II2. Bene ezir TombPlate II3. Tomb of ZechariahPlate II4. Absalom TombPlate II5. Jasons TombPlate II6. Tomb of Queen Helene of Adiabene, LintelPlate II7. Nazirite family Tomb (Courtesy of the

Department of Archeology, Hebrew University,Jerusalem)

Plate II8. Sanhedriya tomb, facadePlate II9. Sanhedriya tomb, interiorPlate II10. Frieze tomb, LintelPlate II11. Jericho loculi tombPlate II12. Jericho mourning enclosure

(Photo. Z Radovan)Plate II13. Jericho miqveh (Photo. Z Radovan)Plate II14a,b. Jericho entrance and sealings

(Photo. Z Radovan)

Plate II15. Akeldama, Tomb 2, Chamber C(Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate III1. Jericho, Tomb D14 with wooden Coffin 113Plate III2. 'En Gedi wooden coffin (Courtesy of Israel

Antiquities Authority)Plate III3. Naal David decorated wooden coffinPlate III4ab. Decorated ossuaries: Type I (Courtesy

of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate III5ad. Decorated ossuaries: Type II: a,b(Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)


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Plate III6ad. Decorated ossuaries: a,b Type III;c,d Type IV (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities

Authority)Plate III7a,b. Decorated ossuaries with architectural

motifsPlate III8. Clay ossuary (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities

Authority)Plate III9. Sacophagus No. 1, Akeldama (Courtesy of

Israel Antiquities Authority)Plate III10. Sacophagus No. 2, Nazirite Sacophagus 1Plate III11. Sacophagus No. 4, Tomb of Herods family

(after Vincent and Steve 1954: Pls. 84, 1, 2)Plate III12a,b. Sacophagi Nos. 9, 10 (after Rahmani

1994a: p. 233)Plate III13a,b. Sacophagus No. 12 (Z. Radovan)Plate III14. Sacophagus No. 14 (Courtesy of Israel

Antiquities Authority)Plate III15. Sacophagus No. 15 (Courtesy of Israel

Antiquities Authority)

Plate IV1a,b. Masonry, Nazirite Tomb (Courtesy ofthe Department of Archeology, Hebrew University,Jerusalem)

Plate IV2. Tomb of Jehoshaphat with pedimentdecoration

Plate IV3. Jericho, Goliath Tomb wall painting, northwall

Plate IV4. Jericho Goliath Tomb wall painting, north

wall, detailPlate IV5. Jericho Goliath Tomb wall painting, south

wall with birdsPlate IV6. Akeldama, carved and painted architectural

decoration (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)Plate IV7 ae. Ossuaries with incomplete decoration

(five ossuaries) (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)Plate IV8 ab. Ossuaries with incomplete decoration

(two ossuaries) (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)


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Plate V1a,b. Abba Inscription (after Tzaferis 1974: Pl. XX)(Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate V2. Simon builder of the Temple inscription onossuary front (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate V3. Simon builder of the Temple inscription onossuary side (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate V4. Yehoana daughter of High Priest inscription(Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate V5a. Jericho, Goliath Family Inscription 12(Photo Z. Radovan)

Plate V6a b. Jericho, Goliath Family Inscriptions 11(Photo Z. Radovan)

Plate V7. Jericho, Goliath Family Inscription 9(Photo Z. Radovan)

Plate V8. Jericho Goliath Family Inscription 10(Photo Z. Radovan)

Plate V9. Jericho Goliath Family Inscription 3(Photo Z. Radovan)

Plate V10. Jericho Goliath Family Inscription 7

(Photo Z. Radovan)Plate V11. Jericho Goliath Family Inscriptiona. Inscription 8; b. Inscription 13 (Photo Z. Radovan)

Plate V12a,b. Jericho memorial bowl inscriptions offamily from Jerusalem (Photo Z. Radovan)

Plate V13ad. selected inscriptions with nicknames:origin, title, honorific, positive (Courtesy of IsraelAntiquities Authority)

Plate VI1. Ossuaries from Nazirite family TombPlate VI2. Ossuary (No. 17) from Akeldama, Eros

family Tomb (Courtesy of Israel AntiquitiesAuthority)

Plate VI3ac. Goliath Tomb sealingPlate VI4a,b. The Goliath family Tomb chambers:

a. Chamber A; b. Chamber BPlate VI5. Ossuaries found in Goliath Tomb

Plate VI6a,b. Ossuaries XVIII, XX from the Goliathfamily Tomb, Jericho (Photo Z. Radovan)


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Plate VI6a,b. Ossuaries XIX, XXI from Goliath familyTomb, Jericho

Plate VI7. Tomb D1 ossuaries and the written bowl

Plate VII1. Ossuary with womens name, X daughterof Y (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate VII2. Ossuary with woman name + father +husband (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate VII3. Ossuary with womans name, wifePlate VII4. Bronze mirrors, Jason Tomb (Courtesy of

Israel Antiquities Authority)Plate VII5. Wooden coffins of a woman and a child,Jericho Tomb D12

Plate VIII1. Jericho Nefesh stonePlate VIII2a,b. Ossuaries with Nefesh (Courtesy of Israel

Antiquities Authority)Plate VIII3. Ossuary with Nefesh (Courtesy of Israel

Antiquities Authority)

Plate VIII4. Ossuary with column (Courtesy of IsraelAntiquities Authority)Plate VIII5. Petra, the Obelisk TombPlate VIII6. Petra, KhasnehPlate VIII7. Petra, ed-Deir

Plate IX1. Ossuary Group 1: Ossuary type A, withtwo columned porch (Courtesy of Israel AntiquitiesAuthority)

Plate IX2. Ossuary Group 1: Ossuary type A, withthree columned porch (Courtesy of Israel AntiquitiesAuthority)

Plate IX3. Ossuary Group 1: Ossuary type A, withcolumned porch and arrows (Courtesy of IsraelAntiquities Authority)

Plate IX4a,b. Ossuary Group 1: Ossuary with centralmotif type B (Courtesy of the Department of Archaeology,

Hebrew University, Jerusalem collectionNos. 1522, 1523)Plate IX5a,b. Ossuary Group I: Ossuary with central

motif type B (Courtesy of Israel AntiquitiesAuthority)


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Plate IX6. Ossuary Group I: Ossuary with central motiftype C (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate IX7. Ossuary Group I: Jericho Ossuary with centralmotif type C (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate IX8. Ossuary Group 2: Ossuary with central motiftype A (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate IX9. Ossuary Group 2: Ossuary with central motiftype B (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate IX10. Ossuary Group 2: Ossuary with central motiftype B (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate IX11. Ossuary Group 2: Ossuary with central motiftype C (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate IX12. Ossuary Group 3: motif a (Courtesy of IsraelAntiquities Authority)

Plate IX13. Ossuary Group 3: motif b (Courtesy of IsraelAntiquities Authority)

Plate IX14. Ossuary Group 3: motif c (Courtesy of IsraelAntiquities Authority)

Plate X1. Bowl, Jericho (Courtesy of Israel AntiquitiesAuthority)Plate X2. Krater, Jericho (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities

Authority)Plate X3. Cooking pots, ungunteria, and glass

amphoriskos, Jericho (Courtesy of Israel AntiquitiesAuthority)

Plate X4. Storage Jars, Jericho (Courtesy of IsraelAntiquities Authority)

Plate X5. Grave goods from the Goliath Tomb, Jericho(Photo) (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate X6. Glass amphoriskos, JerichoPlate X7. Wooden vessels from 'En Gedi tombs

(Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)Plate X8. Leather sandal, Jericho (Courtesy of Israel

Antiquities Authority)Plate X9. Coin of Herod Archelaus, Jericho (Courtesy of

Israel Antiquities Authority)Plate X10. Coin of Yehoanan Hyrcanus I, Jericho(Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)

Plate X11. Two coins of Agrippa I, Jericho (Courtesy ofIsrael Antiquities Authority)


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Plate XI1. Jerusalem Burial Type IIIPlate XI2. Jericho Burial Type I (Courtesy of Israel

Antiquities Authority)Plate XI3. Jericho Burial Type II (Courtesy of Israel

Antiquities Authority)Plate XI4. Jericho Burial Type III (Courtesy of Israel

Antiquities Authority)Plate XI5. Qumran Burial (after de Vaux 1953:

Pl. IV:a,b)Plate XI6a,b. Jericho Ossuary II faade and lid (Photo

Z. Radovan) (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)Plate XI7a,b. Jericho Ossuary XV faade and side (Photo

Z. Radovan) (Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)Plate XI8. Jericho Ossuary XXII (Photo Z. Radovan)

(Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)Plate XI9. Jericho Ossuary VIII (Photo, Z. Radovan)

(Courtesy of Israel Antiquities Authority)Plate XI10. Aramaic inscribed epitaph No. 2Plate XI11. Aramaic inscribed epitaph No. 3

Plate XI12. Aramaic painted dipinto No. 4Plate XI13. Greek abecedary inscribed on an ossuarylid, Jericho (Photo Z. Radovan) (Courtesy of IsraelAntiquities Authority)

Plate XI14. Chisels and iron nails found in Goliathtomb, Jericho (Courtesy of Israel AntiquitiesAuthority)


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LIST OF TABLES

Table I1 .................................................................................... 1Table I2 .................................................................................... 6Table I3 .................................................................................... 15Table III1 .................................................................................. 75Table III2 .................................................................................. 77Table III3 .................................................................................. 87

Table III4 ................................................................................ 126Table V1 .................................................................................. 179Table V2a,b .............................................................................. 200Table VI1 .................................................................................. 297Table VII1 ................................................................................ 331Table X12 Jerusalem ............................................................ 402Table X35 Jericho .................................................................. 424Table X6 Various tombs ........................................................ 430Table X78 'En Gedi .............................................................. 431Table X9 Total ........................................................................ 434Table X10 coins ...................................................................... 439

Appendix: Anthropological Tables 17 .................................... 534


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FOREWORD

This volume is intended to provide a comprehensive and instructivestudy of Jewish funerary customs, practices, and rituals in the SecondTemple period, attitudes towards the dead, and the implications andsignificance of the beliefs are illuminated. The book is a collectionof studies devoted to Jewish customs relating to death, burial andmourning, addressing the meaning of Jewish funerary art and tradition.

This survey is a compilation of the material excavated in the pastfew decades, especially the latest results, together with previous mate-rials and studies.

The study outlines the material preserved in the ancient Jewishcemeteries of the Hellenistic and Roman periods at Jerusalem, Jericho,'En Gedi, and Qumran, although it should be noted that manytombs were systematically robbed. This volume also explores therelationship with literary texts, and offers an interpretation of deathand burial rituals.

The latent contribution of archaeology to the study of Jewish bur-ial is vast, and is investigated here. As a result of many excavationsin recent decades a large body of new material has come to lightwhich now permits comprehensive treatment of ancient Jewish bur-ial rites, art, and beliefs. The archaeology is dealt with in detail,with emphasis on various aspects of practices relating to death, par-ticularly the manifestation of the burial rites.

The discussion takes the form of a general comparison, divided

according to topics with specific themes and issues surveyed, reex-amined, and redefined. Such topics are a description of the ceme-teries, funerary architecture, inscriptions, interment receptacles andtheir ornamentation, assorted aspects of family tombs, the status ofwomen in funerary relations, and more. Together, these subjects cre-ate what I hope is a conclusive case for the existence of distinctiveJewish burial customs and rites in Second Temple period. A com-prehensive and illuminating interpretation of burial customs and ritesis presented, and an overview of funerary art and insights into the

social life of the Jews in the Second Temple period. An under-standing of the heritage bequeathed to us by our ancestors can helppenetrate the mists of time separating us from those periods.


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Research of burials constitutes one of the main reliable sources ofinformation related to various aspects of funerary practices and rit-

uals, and offers a perception of ancient social life and communityorganization. Here the archaeological evidence is followed by amethodical account and interpretation, though there are some areasin the study where much remains to be done.

The survey and salvage excavations and the following research ofthe Jericho cemetery, conducted by Dr. Ann Killebrew and myself,on behalf of the Israel Department of Antiquities (now the IsraelAntiquities Authority), and the StaffOfficer for Archaeology in Judeaand Samaria, were the essential initiation of this volume. The wellpreserved condition of many tombs and the exceptional state ofpreservation of the organic remains proved to be of significant impor-tance for our knowledge of burial customs and material culture ofthe Second Temple period.

Several of the chapters included in the present collection haveappeared as articles published previously, while others appear herefor the first time. Some chapters have undergone extensive revisionand expansion, and are revised and updated version of articles. Other

chapters were written specifically for the present publication.

Rachel HachliliUniversity of HaifaNovember 2003


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I had been researching and collecting material on this specific sub-ject for the past years starting at the first excavation I conducted atthe Jericho cemetery; I had now reached the stage when I wishedto present the outcome of this labour.

Various people have contributed to my work. I should like espe-cially to acknowledge my special gratitude to my friend, colleague

and partner in the excavations at Jericho Dr. Ann Killebrew for heradvice and encouragement, her reading and commenting on themanuscript. Some of the research was conducted together with her(see our joint articles). I am especially grateful to Dr. L.Y. Rahmanifor his attention, support and assistance during the excavation andresearch of the Jewish burial practices at Jericho and his help withcomparable material from Jerusalem.

I am likewise indebted to those who have helped me prepare thisbook: warm thanks are due to Prof. John J. Collins for his thoroughediting; to Murray Rosovsky for his diligent work on the English; toVered Raz-Romeo, my research assistant, for her help with sometechnical aspects, preparing parts of the tables and checking someof the bibliography. I thank particularly my colleagues Prof. AmosKloner and Dr. Bo'az Zissu for the many significant and valuablestudies of the necropolis of Jerusalem I relied on in this volume.

My sincere thanks are due to the following individuals and insti-tutions who allowed me the publication and use of their photographs

and drawings: Dr. G. Avni, Dr. G. Hadas, Prof. A. Kloner, Dr. L.Y.Rahmani; The Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem for permissionto publish some of the items and for many of the photographs fromexcavations in Israel; The Department of Archaeology, Hebrew Uni-versity, Jerusalem for permission to publish some ossuaries photographs.

Affectionate thanks go especially to my husband Gad for all his helpand to my children Guy, Sigal and Niv for their unfailing supportand encouragement.


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INTRODUCTION

Death is connected with mysterious perceptions; burial and gravesexpress faith, belief, and ideas in different periods and diverse soci-eties. The research and analysis of the tombs form, the status andsituation of the interred, the grave goods, the inscriptions, andsignificantly the burial customs, furnish us with evidence about theassumptions and notions regarding death in the given society.

Essential proof on the connection between the living and the deadis revealed by burial data. The mortuary rites and ceremonies, suchas memorial architecture, inscribed texts, and effects belonging tothe deceased placed in and around the burial place, evince a beliefin a connection of the living with the world of the dead and pro-vide enough elements to recreate past social organizations. The com-memoration of ancestors appears regularly as a significant part ofthe present.

The deceaseds relation to the grave goods preserved in tombsprovide data on mourning customs and burial practices such asofferings, personal possessions, expression of grief, type of receptacleand fittings, the inhumation process, the individuals status in thecommunity, family relations and burial status, monument construc-tion, and the material culture of a given period.

The tombs offer ample data on the artistic taste evinced by funer-ary architecture and the ornamentation of receptacles and objects.Material culture is an important part of human contact and sub-

stance, articulating ideas and practices.The skeletal remains preserved in tombs are almost the only sourcefor anthropological data and research, providing information on theinterreds ethnic origin, life expectancy, sex, gender, and age, med-ical condition, and cause of death.

Research into burial practices and the material remains of mor-tuary rituals is effective in reconstructing the history of a society, itsreligious beliefs and its social outlook. Burial customs might indicatethe social status of the deceased, revealing social position as expressed

in family tombs, their size, location, and the grave goods.Changes in Jewish funerary practices did not alter the plan and

architecture of the tombs. Though the funerary rites changed from


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inhumation in coffins and loculi to secondary burial by collection ofbones in ossuaries the artifacts associated with these graves did not

alter much and indicate that these were culturally and socially iden-tical people. Most of the grave goods assemblages are shared by bothsexes, with certain types found in graves that show gender associa-tion and trends, but not strict gender roles.

This study sets forth research based on material remains intendedto reveal Jewish burial traditions, practices, and rituals, as well asthe role the dead played in the life of the living.

The data gathered in this book include most of the publishedarchaeological and epigraphic material, mainly from excavated tombsand graves. Architecture and decoration are discussed, as well as thefinds, rites, and customs. The amount of data available from exca-vations is unfortunately limited to a restricted number of sites, espe-cially Jerusalem. Enough evidence exists, however, to draw a pictureof the Jewish funerary customs in the Second Temple period (firstcentury to first century ).

The conclusions reached in this book are based on an analysis of

excavation reports, the finds, and the research work of many scholars.Several significant issues are raised in these pages: the particularJewish customs identified by the material culture; family tombs, kinand ancestor relations; the interaction with earlier burial practicesand with the neighboring cultures.

Chapter I describes the cemeteries, their location, and finds. ChapterII discusses the architectural and decorative features of the tombs;monumental tombs, tombs with ornamented faade, loculi tombs(tombs with a burial recess hewn in the tomb walls), acrosolia (tombs

with arched niches) and other tombs, examining the characteristicfeatures of tomb architecture. Chapter III is devoted to the portrayalof the burial receptacles: coffins, ossuaries, and sarcophagi; attentionis paid to their manufacture and ornamentation. Chapter IV exam-ines funerary art: compositions and styles are analyzed and the mean-ing and interpretations are discussed. Chapter V deals with selectedfunerary inscriptions on tombs, sarcophagi, and ossuaries, which aredescribed and evaluated. Chapter VI records Jerusalem family tombs,

priestly and high priestly tombs, Jericho family tombs; family rela-tions are appraised. Chapter VII examines the status of women andtheir family relations. Chapter VIII discusses the nefesh as a funerarycommemoration monument. Chapter IX focuses on the craftsmen


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and workshops that built the tombs and produced the ossuaries.Chapter X records the grave goods recovered in the tombs such as

pottery, glass, iron, personal items, and coins, and considers theirsignificance and meaning. Chapter XI describes and analyzes bur-ial types, funerary customs and rites, protective measures, and magicpractices; it deals with the evolution of burial customs and the con-nection with the pagan world. Chapter XII places the material dis-cussed in the book within a chronological framework and summarizesthe evidence presented in this volume and draws conclusions aboutJewish burial rites and customs.

The Second Temple period in general extends from the returnfrom Babylon (mid 6th century ) until the destruction of Jerusalemand Masada (70 and 73 ) or possibly until the Second War againstthe Romans, the Bar Kokhba war (132135 ). However, this bookreports on the end of this period, the second century to the endof the first century .

T

Terms for tomb and the receptacles (especially ossuary) appear oninscriptions on some ossuaries; some of the same terms are men-tioned in Jewish sources of the period.

Terms for Tomb

Several terms such as rbq in Hebrew and tpow in Greek (bothwords meaning tomb) are inscribed on ossuaries from Jerusalem(Rahmani 1994: 3). The word tomb on these ossuaries was prob-

ably used in the sense of ossuary; the word may also be a verbindicating buried.

On an ossuary from French Hill, Jerusalem, the inscriptions inHebrew rbq yrm and in Greek kure tuw toupou refer to the mastersof the tomb (Rahmani 1994: Nos. 560). The Greek inscription alsomentions the two brothers Mathia and Simon, sons of Yair, themasters of the tomb. Here the term tomb possibly refers to ossuary.

arbyq tomb appears without a personal name on an ossuary from

Abu Tor, Jerusalem (Rahmani 1994: No. 125). The word probablymeans either tomb or ossuary.The term aqwq hd the kokh, a Palmyrene inscription, is engraved

on an ossuary from Shu'afat. It probably means the sepulchral


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chamber or perhaps a funerary urn (Abel 1913: 271, No. 11 Fitzmyerand Harrington 1978: No. 141; Rahmani 1994: 1).

Terms for receptacles: coffins, ossuaries

Greek terms for coffin (aron in Hebrew) and ossuary (a rectangularstone box for collecting bones) appear, and an Aramaic term waswritten or engraved on ossuaries found in Jericho and Jerusalem(Hachlili 1979: 55; Rahmani 1994: 3). Note that on some of the ossuar-ies the terms appear unaccompanied by the name of the deceased.

The Greek word COPOC (Soros) was written in ink, on OssuaryVIII (Inscription 3a) (Fig. V) found in the back of kokh 2, ChamberA at Jericho Tomb H (Hachlili 1979: 55, Figs. 4142; 1999: 144,153, Fig. IV.2, Table IV.1). This term appears for the first timeon an inscription.

In the Hebrew Bible the word wra (aron) has three different mean-ings: holy ark, container, and coffin. wra aron meaning coffin occursonly once in the Bible (Gen 50: 26) and refers to the coffin used totransport Josephs bones from Egypt to Israel. In the LXX this wordis translated into Greek as sorow soros coffin or cinerary urn. Ascoffins for burial were only used in the Second Temple period, theappearance of the coffin is probably a reflection of Egyptian prac-tice (see Marcus 1975: 8990, for the term coffin in other Semiticlanguages). In Rabbinical sources dealing with ossilegium the termwra (aron) is used to describe both large coffins (sarcophagi) and sec-ondary burial containers (i.e., ossuaries). There are some problem-atic words, such as yzr (TY Mo'ed Katan I. 4), yzra (Sanhedrin 6.12)

and yzry (Semahot12. 8), which Lieberman (1962 V:1235) and Zlotnick(1966: 160, n. 8) interpreted as being mistranslations of the LXXword sorow (soros), here meaning wra coffin (but see Meyers 1971:6061). Thus, sorw (soros) was a term for ossuary in use during theSecond Temple period and was equivalent to wra (aron) in Hebrew.

Ostophagos. The Greek term stofgow, ostophagos, literarallybone eater (Strabo, 16.4.17), appears twice on an inscriptionscratched on a plain ossuary (Fig. 1) from a single-chamber tomb

in the Kidron Valley, Jerusalem (Avigad 1967: 141, fig. 35).It refers to the ossuary itself, as it apparently was the designationfor ossuaries at this period (Sukenik 1937: 12930, Pls. V:4, VI:4;Meyers 1971: 4951; Avigad 1967: 141, fig. 35; Rahmani 1994: 3).


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A similar term ston osteon occurs at Beth She'arim (Schwabeand Lifshitz 1974: no. 131).

Gloskoma in Greek was a variant of glsskomon and was inter-preted as a case for reed musical instruments (Liddell and Scott1940 1:353. Klein 1908: 34, n. 2. Krauss 1910 1:398. 399, andn. 173). The term glvsskomon was found inscribed on a tombwall in the Beth She'arim necropolis (Schwabe and Liftshitz 1974:no. 50, 78). In an inscription from Pamphiliagloskomon refers to asarcophagus (Ormerod and Robinson 191011: 235). From theseinscriptions and their contexts it is possible to conclude that thetermgloskomon means burial or coffin (but see Meyers 1971: 5354).The term amqswlg (gloskoma), which is probably a transliteration ofthe Greek into Aramaic, occurs several times in Rabbinic writings:wqswlg (M. Oho. 9.15) and wqswlg (T. Oho. 10.8), referring tothecoffin and its purifying laws (Meyers 1971: 55). The only placewhere the term amqswld is connected with a container for col-

lected bones is in Semaot 12.9. The same word amqswld occursonce again in Semaot 3.2, where it refers to a childs coffin(Zlotnik 1966: 107, see note: a small or simple casket, aron). Thisterm is spelled differently in each of the four citations presented.

The above data indicate that the Greek COPOC (Soros) in the Jerichoinscription was the term for ossuary in use during the Second Templeperiod and is equivalent to wra aron in Hebrew. Ostophagos(stoc-gow) may also have been used, but it was not the standard term forossuary in Greek, as has been claimed (AvI-Yonah 1955: 799). Theterm amqswlggloskamaand glsskomongloskomon, and its peculiar vari-ants, when used in the context of secondary burials and bone col-lection is a later term used for coffin or burial, but not exclusively

Figure I. Greek Inscription Ostophagos (after Avigad 1967: Fig. 35).


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for ossuary, as this term is used in present-day Hebrew. However,it must be asked whether the term gloskomon means ossuary, i.e., a

container for secondary burials. It may not necessarily refer to anossuary, but to a box or a container wra in the or to burial ora coffin in the inscriptions.

Aramaic term for ossuary

The word atlj, tlj is interpreted ossuary; it appears on fourJerusalem ossuaries (in status constructus and the last one in statusemphaticus):

An Aramaic protective formula on an ossuary lid from Jebel Hallatet-Turi mentions the word htljb (Halat) the ossuary (Milik 19561957:235, Inscription A1, Figs. 2, 3; Habermann 1956; Fitzmyer 1959;Rahmani 1994: 3).

The other inscriptions appear on ossuaries followed by the nameof the deceased women buried in them (Fig. VII6):

htrb wl trbd yd/lwa trb wl tlj The ossuary of Shalom,daughter of Saul, who died from difficulties in child-bearing, Shalomher daughter (Naveh 1970: 367; Rahmani 1994: 226; but see Fitz-myer and Harrington 1978: No. 88).

w[m trb yrm atlj the ossuary of Miriam daughter of Shim'on(Rahmani 1994: No. 502). amzlb tlj Ossuary of Balzama (Rahmani1994: No. 461).


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GLOSSARY

Arcosolium, Arched niche, particularly to hold a coffin in a tomb.arcosoliaDistylos in A faade with two columns flanked by twoantis pilasters.Halakha Religious rulesLoculus, Loculi burial recess hewn in the tomb walls. A loculus

(Kokh in Hebrew) was semi-circular in shape and long (appr. 1.0 m.high, 2.0 m. long) enough to place in it a bodyor a coffin.

Miqveh A ritual bath in which purification rites tookplace.

Mishna (M) Collection of binding precepts which forms thebasis of the Talmud and embodies the contentsof the oral law. Compiled by Rabbi Judah Ha-Nasi, probably at Sepphoris, c. 200 .

Mortise and The coffin was assembled with mortised joints,tenon joints that is, with wooden pegs called tenons which

interlock with rectangular shaped cavities. Thewalls of the coffin were mortised to the four-corner posts and to the base of the gabled lid.

Ossilegium An intentional act of collecting the bones of arelative individually and placing them into anossuary (a specially prepared separate stone con-

tainer), or into a separate heap of bones.Talmud Body of Jewish traditional law consisting of theMishna and the Gemara. Two editions exist,the Jerusalem Talmud ( JT) and the BabylonianTalmud (BT).

Tosefta (Tos.) Collected corpus of traditions and teachings con-nected with the Mishna.


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CHAPTER ONE

CEMETERIES

Several Jewish cemeteries have been found in the Land of Israel.Two main cemeteries of the Second Temple period are at Jerusalemand Jericho, and these furnish most of our data for funerary cus-toms. Other smaller cemeteries were found around Jerusalem, in the

Judean foothills, at 'En Gedi, Qumran, and some other sites in theDead Sea area, and in the Galilee (Hachlili 2000c).The necropolis was sited outside the town limits, in accordance

with Jewish law. In the following sections the general outline anddescription of the cemeteries are summarized.

A. J

The Jerusalem necropolis consisted of tombs surrounding the citywalls, all in important areas to the north, south, west, and east, con-centrated in about a ring about five kilometers in circumferencearound the city limits of Jerusalem of the Second Temple period(Figure I1) (Kloner 1980, 2000, 2001, 2003; Rahmani 1994; Zissu1995; Geva and Avigad 1993; Kloner and Zissu 2003: 113). About1000 tombs are known from excavations and surveys conducted inthe last 150 years around the city (Table I.1). Few known tombshave been discovered within the Old City limits.

Table I.1: Tombs in Jerusalem

Area No. of Tombs %

North 309 38%South 237 30%East 124 16%West 123 16%Total 793 100%

Table I.1 (based on Zissu 1995: 149; Kloner and Zissu 2003: 10)indicates that the tombs were scattered all around Jerusalem, with


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a much larger number in the north and south and fewer in the eastand west (Kloner 1980: 259269; 2003: Table 12. On p. 33* he

mentions that approximately 950 Second Temple period tombs werefound, about 650 loculi tombs and 140 acrosolia tombs; Zissu 1995:147150; Kloner and Zissu 2003: 13). However, it is quite clearthat many of the original tombs were destroyed through the agesand that the number of excavated and surveyed tombs (about 5%10%,Kloner 1980: 260) is only a fraction of the total number of tombsin the Jerusalem necropolis. The most important areas of hewn tombswere in the north and the south: in the north, they are in KidronValley, Mount Scopus, the Mount of Olives, and the Hinnom Valley;in the Sanhedriyya area many quarries for masonry were located,and it was easier for tombs to be hewn and even ornamented.

The tombs were hewn and rock-cut out of melekeh, mizi, helu andmizi ahmarof the turon. Others were cut in the chalk of menuhaandmishash formations. The monumental and decorated tombs werecarved in the harder Turonian rock and therefore were better pre-served (Kloner 1980: 261262, XVI; Kloner & Zissu 2003: 34).

Several crowded burial quarters and plots exist in the present-day

areas of Mount Scopus, the Mount of Olives (Dominus Flevit), andFrench Hill, Sanhedriya and other parts of Jerusalem. The concen-tration and orientation of the tombs in Jerusalem indicate that theywere dispersed at random and depended on local topography andthe type of rock rather than on a central plan. They were gener-ally hewn at a distance from the main roads out of the city.

There was no pattern in the arrangement of the tombs in specificareas of Jerusalem, as is indicated by the various sites of the necrop-olis around all sides of the city (Figure I1). The necropolis formed

a belt around the city that contained small agricultural settlements,industrial terraces, fruit trees, guard houses, wine and olive presses,as well as quarries, roads, aqueducts and pools. Various plants inaddition to the agricultural setting sometimes enhanced the sur-roundings of the tombs (Kloner 1980: 262270; Kloner and Zissu2003: 1113).

The majority of the tombs discovered in Jerusalem are small andsimple loculi tombs, as well as some acrosolia tombs; in many of

them burial in ossuaries was found, as well as a few sarcophagi.Some of the tombs show continuous use and reuse by several gen-erations, forming an intricate arrangement of burial chambers and


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Figure I1. Plan of the Jerusalem necropolis.

loculi. Many of the tombs were partly destroyed, plundered, andlooted through the ages.

A group of monumental decorated rock-hewn tombs (see Chap.

II) were discovered in Jerusalem: the Kidron Valley group consistsof the tomb of Zechariah, the Bene-ezir tomb, and the Monumentof Absalom; the Jason Tomb and the Tomb of Helen and others


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probably belonged to prominent Jerusalem families; some have amemorial or nefesh in the shape of a pyramid or tholus standing

above the ground and others have richly ornamented facades, whileother tombs have a chamber wall faced with ashlars. The lavishornamentation not withstanding, burial was probably similar to thatof the simpler, undecorated loculi tombs. Many of the discoveredtombs were found in disarray and looted.

During the Persian and early Hellenistic period Jerusalem Jewsburied their dead in field and cist tombs (Zissu 1995: 170172). Afew such tombs were found in Jerusalem, perhaps indicating a sim-pler way of burial. The Jerusalem Jews also continued the use ofbench tombs of the First Temple period. Zissu further suggests, thatthe Jewish cemetery of Jerusalem in this period was in the areas ofMamilla, Ketef Hinnom, and Mount Zion, to the west and south-west of Jerusalem.

Several tombs hewn into the soil, shaft (dug-out, similar to theQumran tombs) and field tombs, were found in several locations inJerusalem (Kloner and Zissu 2003: 4647). Two shaft tombs cov-ered with stone slabs were discovered in East Talpiot, in proximity

to other chambe

Jewish Funerary Customs Practices and Rites in the Second Temple Period Supplements to the Journal...

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