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Conceptual Fashion: Design, Practice and Process.

Ms. Jane Morley

A Practice-Led Masters by Research Degree

Faculty of Creative Industries

Queensland University of Technology

Discipline: Fashion

Year of Submission: 2013

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Key Words

Conceptual fashion

Conceptual art

Fashion design

Design process

Fashion practice

Design system

Practice-led

Hussein Chalayan

Rei Kawakubo

Comme des Garons

Issey Miyake

Yohji Yamamoto

Martin Margiela

Viktor & Rolf

Ann Demuelmeester

Junya Watanabe

Sol LeWitt

Joseph Kosuth

Lucy Lippard

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Abstract

While Conceptual fashion design practices have been a pervasive influence in fashion

since the early 1980s, there is little academic analysis that might explain how they are

distinct from conventional fashion design practices. In addition, fashion practitioners

have not historically contributed to fashion research. As a result, contemporary

fashion practitioners have difficulty setting critical contexts and expanding their creative

work as there is little relevant literature available from practitioner perspectives. This

project uses practice-led research to develop a discourse for understanding

Conceptual fashion design process and how it relates to more conventional fashion

design practices. In this exegesis I use Conceptual art as a lens to expand

understandings of Conceptual fashion and my own creative practice. This analysis

demonstrates that there are valuable connections to be drawn between Conceptual art

and Conceptual fashion practice. In particular, these connections reveal the

differences between the way Conceptual and more conventional fashion designers

relate to the conceptual and the visual in their design process. This exploration

demonstrates that while fashion is a visual field, Conceptual fashion designers produce

a more intellectual type of fashion that uses the visual to communicate ideas that

question the nature of fashion. I explore the relevance of these ideas through

application and experimentation in my creative practice projects by drawing from

systems and rules identified in the work of early Conceptual artists and contemporary

Conceptual fashion designers.

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Table of Contents

....................................... Page

Keywords 02

Abstract... 03

Table of contents.. 04

Table of figures. 05

Statement of original authorship.. 06

Acknowledgements.. 07

Introduction. 09

Research Approach: Methodology and Rationale 12

Contextual Review: 17

I. Conventional Fashion 17

II. Conceptual Fashion.. 22

Comparative Analysis:. 29

I. Art as idea/ fashion as idea.. 32

II. Fashion challenging the conventions of fashion.. 40

III. Fashion dematerialised and demystified. 51

IV. Reflections... 60

Creative Practice: System-based creative processes 62

I. Creative Practice Project 1: three-sixty (2011) 65

i. Developing the design system 66

ii. Developing new working methods.. 70

iii. Reflections. 72

II. Creative Practice Project 2: in the round (2011-2012).. 73

i. Developing the design system . 74

ii. Developing new working methods.. 77

iii. Developing construction and fabrication methods.. 85

iv. Colour selection and surface decoration.. 90

v. Reflections.. 92

Conclusion. 94

References. 98

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Table of figures

Figure 1 Hussein Chalayan Spring Summer 2011 collection, Sakoku... 34

Figure 2 Hussein Chalayan Autumn Winter 2000 collection, Afterwords... 35

Figure 3 Comme des Garons Spring Summer 1997 Lumps and Bumps collection. 36

Figure 4 Yohji Yamamoto Autumn Winter 1984 catalogue..... 42

Figure 5 Yohji Yamamoto Spring Summer 1983 collection.... 44

Figure 6 Issey Miyake Pleats Please garment, Zig Zag..... 48

Figure 7 Issey Miyake A-POC Spring Summer collection 1999.. 50

Figure 8 Viktor & Rolf on strike flier, Autumn Winter 1996-7.... 53

Figure 9 Viktor & Rolf Spring Summer 1997 campaign poster for Le Parfum..... 54

Figure 10 Maison Martin Margiela Semi-couture garments (1996). 57

Figure 11 Maison Martin Margiela Spring Summer 2002 shirt 59

Figure 12 A design and flat drawings from creative practice project, three-sixty . 65

Figure 13 Junya Watanabe Autumn Winter 1998 collection... 67

Figure 14 Ann Demeulemeesters Spring Summer 1999 collection. 68

Figure 15 Maison Martin Margielas Spring Summer 1990 collection 69

Figure 16 Working drawings for three-sixty. 71

Figure 17 Hussein Chalayan Autumn Winter 2000 collection, Afterwords 72

Figure 18 Methods of cutting and slashing circles (in-the-round)... 74

Figure 19 Issey Miyake project 132 5.. 77

Figure 20 Initial working diagram (in-the-round).. 78

Figure 21 Initial calico experimentation (in-the-round). 78

Figure 22 Initial diagrams for style one and three (in-the-round). 79

Figure 23 Flat patterns in calico for style one, two, three and four (in-the-round).. 80

Figure 24 Development work for style one (in-the-round) 80

Figure 25 Development work for style five (in-the-round). 81

Figure 26 Development work for style six (in-the-round).. 82

Figure 27 Line drawings of flat patterns for style six and seven (in-the-round).. 83

Figure 28 Style six and seven flat and on the mannequin (in-the-round)... 83

Figure 29 Line drawings of flat patterns for style four and eight (in-the-round)..... 84

Figure 30 Style four and eight flat and on the mannequin (in-the-round).. 84

Figure 31 Style two flat pattern shape and construction lines (in-the-round).... 87

Figure 32 Style three flat construction lines and seaming (in-the-round)...... 87

Figure 33 Style eight laser cutting pieces and fusing (in-the-round).. 88

Figure 34 Style six technical drawings and full scale garment (in-the-round)... 89

Figure 35 Patterns in the Landscape: the notebooks of Philip Hughes. 91

Figure 36 Laser cutting applications (in-the-round).... 91

Figure 37 Final garments for in-the-round... 93

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Statement of original authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet

requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To

the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously

published or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature ___________________

Date ___________________

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Acknowledgements

This project has only been possible with the immense support I have received from my friends, family, supervisors and colleagues, and I would like to offer my sincere thanks for all the time, brainpower, good humour and kindness they have bestowed on me. I would like to thank Kathleen Horton (principal supervisor) and Dr Grant Stevens (associate supervisor) for their patience and flexibility in working with my not-always-conventional approach; for their intelligent insights as they gently, but purposefully guided me through the project; and for their friendship and advice throughout. I would like to offer deep gratitude to my parents, Brian and Diane Morley, who have always offered me unconditional support and encouragement in everything I do. In addition, to my sister, Katherine Morley, who has always had both comfort and good advice to offer me as I meet new challenges. I am especially thankful to my mother for her unwavering enthusiasm to talk about my project, help iron out kinks in my argument, and act as a precious sounding board for new ideas thank you. My colleagues at QUT Fashion have also been invaluable supporters cheering me on throughout my study and I thank you all whole-heartedly. Special thanks must go to Kay McMahon and Dean Brough who share my office-space and have travelled on the rollercoaster of postgraduate study with me everyday their constant encouragement has meant so much to me. I also want to thank all my loyal and thoughtful friends for not deleting my phone number despite my disappearing for months on end your smiles, laughter, kind words and insistence that I occasionally get out of the house have been essential to this project thank you.

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Introduction

While Conceptual fashion has been a pervasive influence in fashion since the early

1980s, it has not been thoroughly explored or defined in academic literature or industry

critique. Therefore, although many fashion designers, such as Martin Margiela, Rei

Kawakubo and Hussein Chalayan, among many others, are widely regarded as

Conceptual fashion designers, there are no tangible understandings available to

explain what defines Conceptual fashion design practice. In fact, fashion design and

construction practices are seldom analysed in the existing body of Fashion Studies

research. Furthermore, very few fashion practitioners have historically contributed to

fashion research and, consequently, critical understandings of contemporary fashion

design practices, such as Conceptual fashion, are underdeveloped. This creates

challenges for fashion practitioners trying to set critical contexts for their work, as there

are many complex questions faced by practitioners that are not addressed in the

current literature. For example, in my own practice I am driven by questions about how

I conduct design research and how I use it in the design process. While the limited

research available suggests that these questions could be effectively explored through

Conceptual fashion design practice, the lack of critical discourse in this area meant I

was unable to determine what relationship my own creative practice had to those of

recognised Conceptual fashion practitioners. As an emerging practitioner, this led me

to ask the research questions How can I gain a deeper understanding of

Conceptual fashion design practice? and How can I understand the critical contexts

and processes of my own creative practice?.

The basis for this project began a number of years ago while I was studying overseas

and recognised that there are diverse approaches to designing fashion, some more

conventional, and others more conceptually-driven. Although I had already

completed a fashion design qualification in Australia, the Australian course had

focused on conventional, widely accepted commercial practices rather than innovative

design and construction. In contrast, during my study at Polimoda in Florence, my

understanding of fashion design practice expanded because I was able to observe and

experience new conceptually-driven ways of approaching design that did not fit the

conventional framework I had been taught. However, as there are very few resources

available to enable fashion practitioners to critically engage with more experimental

fashion practices, it was very difficult for me to effectively analyse these different

approaches, understand how my own approach related to them, and expand my

creative practice methods.

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While in Florence, I studied the conceptually-driven practices of my fellow fashion

design students and their experiences of the fashion industry to try and develop

deeper understandings about my own practice. I further built on these experiences by

working in a variety of commercial fashion environments: an internship with New York-

based luxury fashion label, Marc Jacobs; design work with Australian mass market

company, Colorado; and design work with Australian luxury label, Easton Pearson.

These years working with brands that use predominantly conventional commercial

fashion practices also highlighted the differences between conventional and more

conceptually-driven fashion practices. However, I found a clear distinction between

these Conventional and Conceptual practices hard to define as not only was there

diversity within each paradigm, but also many Conventional and Conceptual practices

demonstrated similarities: for example, the stages of garment sampling, manufacture,

sale and consumption.

This project aims to analyse Conceptual fashion practice and explore the tensions

between conceptually-driven and more conventional fashion practices with the key

goal of developing deeper understandings about my own creative process. In addition

to expanding existing discourse, a key contribution of this project is the exploration of

these fashion practices from a practitioner-perspective through two interwoven strands.

Firstly, in the Contextual Review I develop a context for my practice by reviewing

existing Conceptual fashion discourse, and then in the Comparative Analysis I use

Conceptual art as a lens to analyse the work of Conceptual fashion practitioners. In

this analysis I examine relationships between three key characteristics of Conceptual

art as defined by Joseph Kosuth, Sol LeWitt and Lucy Lippard; my own creative

practice; and those of other contemporary fashion designers such as Hussein

Chalayan, Issey Miyake and Martin Margiela. Through this process I seek to unpack

the various meanings that the word Conceptual implies when it is applied to innovative

contemporary design practice. Specifically, I explore the relationship between the

conceptual and the visual in fashion to more clearly articulate the complex

considerations for Conceptual fashion design practitioners. Secondly, in the Creative

Practice section I test the relevance of the ideas explored in the Contextual Review

and Comparative Analysis by applying and experimenting with them in my own

creative practice projects in a studio-based inquiry. My design practice throughout this

project evolves as a process that is at times methodical, and at times illogical, with key

similarities to some Conceptual art practices of the 1960s. To expand my creative

practice, I explore the similarities between my own system-based creative process

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and those of Conceptual artists, such as Sol LeWitt. Equipped with a deeper

understanding of my own creative process, I am then able to relate it to the practices of

well known Conceptual fashion designers, such as Hussein Chalayan and Issey

Miyake.

This project is comprised of a written exegesis and a body of creative work that are

both equally weighted at fifty percent. Both the theoretical and practical elements of

this project suggest that despite obvious differences between Conceptual fashion and

Conceptual art there are valuable parallels to be made between the two fields.

Although comparing them directly is a relatively rudimentary way to explore fashion

practice, it is necessary due to the lack of existing critical discourse currently available

in Fashion Studies. In this project, I argue that Conceptual art characteristics as

defined by Conceptual artists and critics are useful to understand and explore common

characteristics of Conceptual fashion design practice particularly how the conceptual

relates to the visual. In addition, I argue that Conceptual art creative processes and

practices are useful to develop more explicit understandings about methods and

approaches used in Conceptual fashion design. This project makes a key contribution

to fashion practice research by examining the differences between how Conventional

and Conceptual fashion designers engage with the conceptual and the visual when

translating their ideas into designs and how this relates to my own design practice.

This is an important contribution to new knowledge because it demonstrates how

contemporary fashion designers can relate their practices to Conventional fashion,

Conceptual fashion and Conceptual art from a practical, studio-based perspective as

well as theoretical perspectives. This approach effectively helped me to develop a

critical context for my practice as well as establish future creative directions. It also

contributes to the field of fashion research, not only because of the specific findings I

present, but also because it provides new ways of analysing fashion practice

specifically, fashion design research and the translation of ideas into designs.

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Research Approach:

Methodology and Rationale

This is a practice-led research project that responds to questions emerging from my

creative practice. In addition, this project uses my creative practice to test new ideas.

These are essential qualities of practice-led research as defined by a number of

researchers. For example, Bradley Haseman and Dan Mafe (2009, p. 217) argue that:

practice-led research is a process of inquiry driven by the opportunities, challenges and needs afforded by the creative practitioner/researcher. It is a research strategy specifically designed to investigate the contingencies of practice by seeking to discipline, throughout the duration of the study, the ongoing emergence of problem formulation, methods selection, professional and critical contexts, expressive forms of knowledge representation and finally the benefit of the research to stakeholders.

Haseman and Mafe (2009, p. 217) argue that in practice-led research, the research

question and methods evolve and emerge as the project develops. In Visualising

Research : A Guide for Postgraduate Students in Art and Design, Gray and Malins

(2004, p. 72) also argue for flexible and adaptable methods, suggesting that

methodology for creative practitioners should use multiple method approaches that are

custom-built for each research project so that they are responsive and suited to the

needs of their dynamic, shifting practice. Many researchers argue that these

methodologies need to be bespoke for each project, reflective and designed to explore

complexity and emergent ideas (Gray & Malins, 2004; Haseman & Mafe, 2009), and

most essentially, driven by the creative practice of the researcher (Gray & Malins,

2004; Hamilton & Jaaniste, 2009; Haseman, 2007; Haseman & Mafe, 2009).

Throughout this project, the research design and methods have been refined

constantly to embrace the messy, emergent and reflexive characteristics that Haseman

and Mafe (2009) argue are essential to this research paradigm. Practice has driven

this research inquiry at all stages with theory passed through my creative practice to

facilitate a more constructive comparison between Conceptual art and Conceptual

fashion design practice.

Using a practice-led approach has been important to support a key aim of this project:

to contribute to practitioner-focused research in Fashion Studies. Unlike more

established academic disciplines such as visual art, where practitioners can refer to a

large body of research that critically engages with creative practice, there is very little

published academic research on fashion practice. Although fashion has a long history

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of production and is a well-established cultural and industrial field, it is still in its infancy

as an academic discipline. Historically, fashion designers rarely analysed their work

academically. Consequently, Fashion Studies has emerged in the last few decades

as a complex blend of conceptual frameworks and methods from diverse areas such

as anthropology, sociology, literature, cultural studies, art history, economics, design

studies, history and more (Skov & Riegels Melchior, 2010). While this interdisciplinary

body of research successfully brought fashion into academia, fashion continues to sit

on the margins because it has not yet produced clear, fashion-specific research

approaches (Kawamura, 2011, p. 1). Using and modifying more traditional

methodologies from other more established academic disciplines has been a popular

tactic to ensure fashion research gains academic credibility (Finn, 2010). However, it

has also alienated practitioners from conducting research, as their complex and messy

explorations do not always fit within these traditional academic frameworks.

The lack of relevant literature available on fashion practice has been a significant

factor in shaping the way I conduct this research project. Many researchers and

practitioners claim there are large gaps in fashion research (Skov & Riegels Melchior,

2010) especially in the area of fashion practice (Bugg, 2009; Finn, 2010; Griffiths,

2000). For example, Ian Griffiths (2000) in The Invisible Man expresses his

frustration at the almost non-existent practitioner-authored academic fashion research

and lack of research from a designers perspective. While Fashion Studies has

become a stronger research area since this publication, fashion practitioners are still

without clear representation and guidance in the field. Sandy Black, editor of the 2009

founded Berg journal, Fashion Practice, highlights that there is still a critical need for

more research discussing fashion practice, stating that: Although design disciplines

are evolving, there is need for a greater level of activity and recognition of design-led

research in the fashion and clothing sector (Black, 2010, p. 6).

Fashion researcher Angela Finn (2010, p.3) argues that without a tradition of academic

publication, much of the tacit knowledge wrapped up in past and present fashion

design practice is unavailable to contemporary researchers. Finn argues that because

this knowledge is not made explicit in fashion literature, it is difficult for fashion

practitioner-researchers to develop a literature review that effectively surveys the field

and demonstrates established ideas of rigor. For example, without a history of

academic discussion about fashion design there is very little fashion design practice

terminology. In addition, the limited terms in use tend to have blurred or have multiple

meanings because they have been used in different contexts by different groups and

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have become increasingly fractured over time. The terms Conceptual fashion,

commercial fashion and conventional fashion are prime examples of this. This lack of

critical discourse and terminology leaves fashion practice researchers with the problem

of building a credible base for their research inquiry while unraveling this unwritten

knowledge.

To address this problem, I use Conceptual art as a lens to investigate Conceptual

fashion practices and expand the available discourse. Conducting a comparative

analysis between two clearly distinct fields is quite a rudimentary method of analysis

and, as a result, the findings are quite broad. However, I found this interdisciplinary

lens helped bridge the significant gaps in knowledge relating to fashion practice. Gray

and Malins acknowledge the challenges of exploring relatively unchartered waters in

creative practice research arguing that:

because practice-based research in Art and Design is in development and is investigating new areas of research, Contextual Reviews (for PhD at least) are by necessity wide ranging they are trying to map continents so that more local terrain can be located and understood in relation to them. For the moment, this kind of breadth is necessary, but does have its disadvantages namely lack of depth... Until there is a coherent and detailed set of documented research and practice in an area this will be an ongoing problem and will present a constant dilemmaa balance must be struck. However, our ability to visualize, to think holistically and synthetically, to make connections and develop relationships between ideas are great strengths to apply in contextual understanding. (2004, p. 52)

In spite of my broad findings, this comparative analysis has given me new connections,

ideas and approaches for understanding Conceptual fashion as well as a deeper

understanding of my personal creative practice. While there is no neat translation

between Conceptual art and Conceptual fashion, my study of Conceptual art helps me

to articulate tacit or encoded knowledge wrapped up in the research and design

process of my own creative practice. This more explicit understanding of my practice

then informs my analysis of Conceptual fashion practice.

To develop a context for using art theory in this project and to analyse the similarities

between Conceptual art and fashion, I draw from a diverse array of sources from the

broader field of fashion. To gain a more in-depth understanding of Conceptual fashion

that goes beyond existing academic fashion research, I explore the breath of available

sources from the fashion industry, such as journalists, critics, and practitioners as well

as published academics. In addition, to ensure my research gives these diverse

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sources equal weight and credibility, I adopt an approach inspired by bricolage

methodology. Researchers Denzin and Lincoln (2000, p. 6) describe bricolage stating:

The researcher-as-bricoleur-theorist works between and within competing and overlapping perspectives and paradigms The product of the interpretive bricoleurs labor is a complex, quiltlike bricolage, a reflexive collage or montage-- a set of fluid, interconnected images and representations. This interpretive structure is like a quilt, a performance text, a sequence of representations connecting the parts to the whole.

Athough I have endeavoured to acknowledge the intricacies and indiosyncracies of the

ideas and creative practices examined in this project, I recognise that in creating

meaningful connections and understandings about fashion practices I have in many

ways flattened or over-simplified them. Methodology researcher John Law (2004, p.

6) argues for research that embodies a kaleidoscope of impressions and textures

and method that reflects and refracts a world that in important ways cannot be fully

understood as a specific set of determinate processes. While I have conducted my

inquiry with Laws ideas in mind, my bid to map continents (Gray & Malins, 2004, p.

52) in the relatively unexplored field of fashion practice has necessarily resulted in my

silencing many facets of the practices studied. In this sense, I acknowledge that this

research project is just the beginning of a conversation to which complexity and depth

could be added with further research.

When analysing my research sources I aim to embrace the complexity inherent in a

practice-led research inquiry that addresses such wide research gaps. Haseman and

Mafe (2009, p. 217) argue that cop[ing] with the messy research project requires

practice-led researchers to have an understanding of not only emergence but its

constituting condition of complexity. To this end, throughout this project I have been

guided by Cornings (1998) description of complexity where the unique combined

properties (synergies) that arise in each case, are vastly more important than the

commonalities. For example, Conceptual art and Conceptual fashion have similarities

and differences and comparing them is not a neat and clear-cut process. However, my

use of the highly critiqued area of Conceptual art as a lens to gain a better

understanding of Conceptual fashion design practice is a rational approach I have

adopted after my analysis of fashion discourse identified many valuable connections

between the two fields. Similarly, in using a broad range of sources from different

areas of fashion, I seek to explore, not only similarities, but the possible intersections,

contradictions and new perspectives to be gained. This approach has enabled me to

draw comparisons between diverse fields, sources and practitioners with an

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exploratory focus that in many ways raises more questions than it answers. However,

despite this, the project and the methods employed have effectively deepened my

knowledge and understanding of both Conceptual fashion design practices and my

own creative practice.

Creative practice has been a vitally important method for helping me understand

possible intersections and connections between Conceptual art and Conceptual

fashion. For example, I have expanded my own design research and design process

by drawing on the practices of early Conceptual artists, such as Sol LeWitt, On Kawara

and Roman Opalka. Specifically, as I read literature about Conceptual art, I tested the

emerging relationships to my own rules and system-based creative process through

sketching, model making, pattern and construction experimentation, toiling and making

garments. Studying the ideas and processes of Conceptual artists through studio

experimentation helped me develop and test new creative practice methods that have

even more direct parallels with Conceptual art characteristics and practices. My

creative work involved a constant dialogue between theory and practice as I moved

back-and-forth between reading, sketching and toiling to develop my designs as well

as construction and fabrication methods for the garments. Through this process I

developed two creative practice projects: three-sixty, which consists of working

sketches, model making, design sketches and flat technical drawings for six outfits,

and in-the-round, which consists of extensive pattern and construction

experimentation, toiling and eight finished garments. This practice-led project has

helped me to expand my practice, find similarities with Conceptual art practices and

also identify parallels between my own practice and those of Conceptual and

Conventional fashion designers. Exploring these parallels has also resulted in more

useful connections between Conceptual art and Conceptual fashion in a broader

context to expand understandings about Conceptual and Conventional fashion design

research and design processes.

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Contextual Review:

Conceptual fashion discourse and Conceptual art as a lens for

exploration

I. Conventional Fashion

To effectively explore conceptually-driven fashion design practices, the norms of

conventional fashion design practice first need to be made more explicit. In my work

experience as a fashion designer, I learnt that within both conventional and Conceptual

fashion design paradigms, practices vary enormously and boundaries between the two

paradigms are often blurred. However, for the purposes of expanding understandings

about Conceptual industrial fashion design practice I have identified some common

characteristics of what I will call Conventional fashion design practice.

Fashion is an industry that generally revolves around cyclic imitation and the diffusion

of ideas; however, the point at which this cycle initiates has shifted over time. Early

theorists, such as Georg Simmel (1904), argue for what has been termed the trickle-

down theory in which higher social classes adopt a social pattern that is then adopted

by the class immediately below (Miller, McIntyre & Mantrala, 1993, p.153) with this

process repeating until the pattern eventually filters to the masses. Simmel argues that

the elite initiates a fashion and, when the mass imitates it in an effort to obliterate the

external distinctions of class, abandons it for a newer mode a process that quickens

with the increase of wealth (1957 [1904], p. 541). In contemporary society, due to

increased social mobility, fashion has become increasingly democratised with

Kawamura (2005, p.78) identifying that the diffusion of fashion has become more

difficult to study because the creation of fashion has become less centralised.

However, while the point at which trends originate has become more diverse,

consumers continue to adopt trends or social patterns based on images or people they

aspire to emulate. For example, Keller (2009) argues that elite luxury fashion brand

imagery includes both a vision of the idealised brand user, and a personality or

association attached to the brand itself. Therefore, the influences dictating the

characteristics of the idealised brand user and the resulting trends may have

expanded, but the nature of trends and their rise and fall remains the same. Simmel

explains the nature of trends arguing that:

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The distinctiveness which in the early stages of a set fashion assures for it a certain distribution is destroyed as the fashion spreads, and as this element wanes, the fashion also is bound to die fashion includes a peculiar attraction of limitation, the attraction of a simultaneous beginning and end, the charm of novelty coupled to that of transitoriness (1957 [1904],p. 547).

Fashion brands are positioned at a variety of levels in the market, with some brands,

especially luxury brands, being positioned as elite innovators who initiate trends, while

other brands are positioned progressively lower down the chain of innovation. These

brands generally imitate the patterns of the elite brands at varying speeds depending

on their positioning in the market and the aspirations of their consumer.

Depending on the level of the market and price-point a fashion company is working at,

the steps in the design development and production process can vary in focus and

execution. In my experience as a designer, this generally corresponds directly with the

level of innovation versus mimicry. Despite this diversity, there is value in identifying

an overall framework that conventional commercial designers generally follow.

Fashion researcher, Yuniwara Kawamura (2004, p. 74-75) defines what she terms the

production process of ready-made clothes as she compares ready-made and

custom-made clothing in her book, The Japanese Fashion Revolution in Paris. By

ready-made, Kawamura refers to garments which have been made in standard sizes

designed for either smaller niche markets or the broader mass market. She is

referencing clothing that is bought off-the-rack rather than clothing that is bespoke for

an individual client. Kawamura argues that there are seven basic steps for

conventional ready-to-wear clothing that I have summarised as follows:

1. Fabrics- the designer sources material for the garments.

2. Design- the designer develops appropriate styles for the fabric through

techniques such as sketching and generally creates a visual presentation

indicating the mood of the collection.

3. Draping/ Drafting/ Patternmaking- the designer or other staff develop the

sketches into three-dimensional garments through draping on a mannequin or

other means. This process results in a paper garment pattern which will then

be used to cut and sew the first garment sample.

4. Sample- cutting and sample sewing- the production staff use the patterns to

cut the fabric and make sample garments with the designers instructing and

advising any changes to be made.

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5. Making production patterns and grading- the production staff make any

necessary changes to the patterns and develop a pattern in every size for

each garment to use for mass production in the factory.

6. Writing specifications and drawing flat sketches- the assistant designer

draws up specification sheets that instruct factory sewers how to construct and

finish the garments.

7. Mass production- the designers liaise with the factory to ensure the mass

produced garments are the same as the sample made in the designers

workroom.

Kawamuras identification of a chain of processes is useful to a degree; however, it is

important to acknowledge that this oversimplifies the fashion industry as well as

fashion practices that change constantly to meet evolving consumer needs. The

fashion industry is an intricate system of production and consumption and the diverse

and innovative ways that fashion practitioners navigate this system is not adequately

captured in this rigid set of processes. However, as I do not have the space in this

exegesis to engage in a detailed critique of Kawamuras description, I would simply like

to point out a crucial oversight in her list that informs my project directly. This oversight

can be identified clearly when Kamawura argues that there are no technical

differences between the processes of luxury ready-to-wear and lower priced mass

market ready-to-wear companies apart from the quality of the fabric and the technical

skill of the seamstresses (2004, p. 75). From my work experience with luxury and

mass market fashion companies, I argue that there are noticeable differences in at

least one step that Kawamura has very pointedly not included in her model: namely

Research. I also argue that if one must choose a first stage in design development

then Research is a more accurate starting point. I would describe this stage as:

Research- the designers gather information and inspiration relevant to their

market level and consumer and develop ideas that they use to inform and lead

their design process.

The diversity of Conventional fashion practices is much more obvious if the research

stage is analysed in depth. For example, the type of research collected during this

phase and how it is used in the design process is directly influenced by the level of the

market at which the fashion brand is positioned and this affects all the subsequent

development processes.

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The research process is important for designers operating at all levels of the market;

however, the type of research they conduct and how they use the information in the

design process differs substantially. From my observations, both the design team at

mass market brand Colorado and luxury fashion designer Marc Jacobs generally work

within Kawamuras model for ready-made clothing design. However, the research

conducted by these designers has a completely different focus and influences their

fabric sourcing, design and sample making process in vastly different ways. For

example, when I worked as an Assistant Designer at Colorado in 2006, they were

positioned towards the bottom of the innovation cycle targeting a conservative mass

market consumer who desired contemporary rather than fashion-forward garments.

The designers at Colorado would research trends in fabric, colour and silhouette that

had ceased to be new on the catwalk and had already been translated by more

fashion-forward middle and mass market fashion brands. Colorado designers would

draw from these trends and dilute them to suit a mass market price-point and lifestyle.

The Colorado design team still informed their design process with research; however,

this took the form of trend forecasting to help them decide which moods or aspects of

other designers work to imitate and adapt in their own collections. This process is

often termed product development rather than design, as the Colorado team would

begin the design process with existing styles from past seasons and adapt them to

reflect the new trends for each season.

In contrast, Marc Jacobs is viewed as an innovative fashion leader who initiates rather

than imitates trends. As a result, despite working within a similar Conventional fashion

framework to the Colorado design team, Jacobs does not follow trend forecasting or

other catwalk designers and instead conducts extensive research to develop new

creative directions for each season. From my observations in the season that I

interned for the brand, much of his research was based on visual inspiration and

references as he collected and studied vintage garments, old magazines, and,

historical costume and imagery among other things. Jacobs used this research to

develop a unique perspective or visual mood for the collection by juxtaposing these

stylistic and cultural references from the past and present in innovative and unusual

ways. I suggest this research influences his evolving ideas of femininity, desirability,

fashionability and beauty and therefore leads the design process influencing the

fabrication, colour, silhouette, construction and marketing of his collections. He

appeared to develop his designs primarily from a visual perspective and secondarily

from a construction perspective, drawing sketches for his patternmakers and

seamstresses to execute in three-dimensional prototypes for his revision and approval.

21

Exploring Marc Jacobs practice through a Conventional fashion design framework

demonstrates that Conventional practices do not necessarily preclude innovative

fashion forward design. The relevance of the comparison between Colorado and

Jacobs is that it highlights a common approach to both the idea and significance of

research and design processes across both luxury and mass market practices. I would

suggest that most commonly, the designers working in both these markets work

primarily with visual imagery and sensory qualities to achieve the common goal of

creating desirable, fashionable or beautiful clothing through their research and design

development process. By this I do not mean to insinuate that the designers do not

read literature or take into consideration popular culture or other political or societal

influences when doing research for their designs. Rather my point is that in the

process of translating their research into designs, their research is used to determine

the right visual or sensory qualities for their products to appeal to their specific

consumers. While these designers may use these visual or sensory qualities to

communicate a variety of messages to the consumer; I suggest that these messages

are generally communicated to position the clothing as a desirable object of beauty or

consumer-driven notions of what is on-trend.

I contend that in the context of fashion design process, the emphasis on the visual is

paramount. This translation of the visual into the visual, or the translation of visual

research into the visual qualities of fashion objects, may well define Conventional

fashion at all levels of the market. However, the question of how Conceptual fashion

design process relates to this context is much less self-explanatory. In this project, I

question whether Conceptual fashion design process could be more accurately

described as ideas into the visual investigating how Conceptual fashion designers

work with research and ideas to develop the visual qualities of their garments. While

many argue that Conceptual fashion is not commercial, I explore the notion that these

fashion objects are still desirable to niche consumers for the very fact that the

designers move beyond conventional ideas of beauty or fashionability to communicate

self-reflexive ideas through the visual qualities of their work. This in turn leads to

broader questions that have driven my project namely how research may inform less

conventional design processes and how Conceptual fashion design processes may

differ from more Conventional design processes. The research phase I previously

identified, in which ideas are translated into a design process to determine the visual

qualities of garments, is relevant to my own practice and underdeveloped in academic

research. As a result, to gain a deeper understanding of my own research and design

process, I explore the research phase of Conceptual fashion designers.

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I. Conceptual Fashion

Conceptual fashion has been widely recognised since the early 1980s; however,

researchers have not yet effectively developed an explicit understanding of the term or

highlighted common tendencies or frameworks around Conceptual fashion design

practices. Consequently, this analysis discusses existing literature surrounding

Conceptual fashion and supplements these academic and industry sources with

insights from Conceptual fashion designers themselves. This approach attempts to

highlight similarities, contradictions and emerging ideas across the field of fashion to

gain a deeper understanding of the meaning implied within the term Conceptual

fashion.

Fashion journalist and critic Susannah Frankel (2009) addresses the difficulties of

distinguishing Conceptual fashion from Conventional fashion in her essay The birth,

death and re-birth of conceptual fashion, written for the book Maison Martin Margiela.

Frankel agrees that ideas underpin the work of Conceptual fashion but argues that this

is also the case for Conventional fashion asking:

Isnt the word concept ultimately just a synonym for idea? And, if so, doesnt any major fashion brand from Ralph Lauren the label that gave the world lifestyle to Marc Jacobs where the concept is that there is no concept come under its umbrella? (2009)

Frankel goes on to explore the ideas behind Maison Martin Margielas collections

arguing that each Margiela main line collection springs from its own concept and that

more often than not it is very simple: a study of white aged to yellow, an exploration

of the back over the front of clothing, or the scaling up of womens garments to a mens

Italian size 78. However, I argue that concepts such as these are far from simple, as

they communicate complex questions about the norms of fashion that are more

intellectual than the ideas communicated by Ralph Laurens sportswear or Marc

Jacobs vintage-inspired collections. I agree with Frankel that Conventional fashion

design is also underpinned by ideas; however, I argue that Frankel is using concept

and Conceptual as if they are interchangeable and in the context of Conceptual and

Conventional fashion, I argue that they are not.

Fashion authors Franois Baudot (1997) and Hazel Clark (2011) both argue that

Conceptual fashion has similarities to, or has been influenced by, the Conceptual art

movement because of its tendency to question norms. In the introduction to her book

of photographs exploring the work of Conceptual fashion designer Yohji Yamamoto,

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Baudot (1997) explains that the term Conceptual when applied to fashion designers of

the early 1980s referred back to the conceptual art of the sixties, whose

practitioners sought to replace the work of art itself with the idea underlying it, the

project of its gestation, the analysis of its concept and its effects (p. 6). Similarly, in

the book Fashion and Art (2012), fashion researcher Hazel Clark contributes a chapter

relating Conceptual fashion to Conceptual art, arguing that conceptual fashion had the

ground prepared for it by conceptual art (p. 67). Clark maintains that ...conceptual art

practices identified the primacy of ideas over appearance, self-reflection over

resolution, innovation and experimentation, and statements that posed questions but

that rarely provided clear answers claiming this as a clear influence on Conceptual

fashion (2012, p. 67). She defines Japanese designers, Issey Miyake, Yohji

Yamamoto, and Rei Kawakubo as Conceptual fashion designers because together

and apart these designers questioned the conventions of fashion- what it was, what it

looked like, how it felt on the body, how it was displayed and sold, and moreover,

where it originated (2012, p. 68). Similarly, Baudot compares Yamamotos practice to

those of artists from the Conceptual and Arte Povera art movements because he was

one of a small number who tried to break away from a fossilized conception of what

clothes were (1997, p. 8).

While Baudots analysis is limited to the practice of Yohji Yamamoto, Clark goes

beyond the Japanese designers to explore the Antwerp Six as Conceptual fashion

designers due to their ability to question fashion conventions and bring attention to

social patterns and fixations (2012, p. 69-70). Clarks research draws some specific,

valuable parallels between Conceptual fashion and Conceptual art practices. However,

the connections that Clark draws are extremely broad and do not address the diversity

of practices within either Conceptual art or Conceptual fashion. Clark essentially

condenses all the Conceptual fashion practices into a more-or-less cohesive group

exploring little of the research and design process and drawing a schematic picture of

Conceptual fashion design practice that provides little understanding of how it differs

from more Conventional fashion practices.

While most fashion academics, journalists and practitioners agree that Conceptual

fashion is defined by self-reflexivity, many argue that a key distinction between

Conceptual and Conventional fashion is commerciality. For example, Susannah

Frankel (2009) argues that Conceptual fashion came to be known as fashion design

that had become such an intellectual endeavour that it lost its primary purpose of being

consumed and worn. Frankel (2009) claims that the term Conceptual in fashion

24

sprang up in the 1980s to imply that a garment was thoughtful and provocative

even, in reaction to the deluge of strong-shouldered, violently colored, mindlessly

status-driven dress codes of the day. She goes on to argue that by the mid-nineties,

conceptual fashion meant clothing that was driven by an idea to the point where its

function which is always that it must be worn was lost. And that for years now it

has been weighed down by negative associations, denoting clothing that one feels

should be appreciated its clever, its challenging but that, to be honest, one doesnt

actually like all that much let alone want to wear. Frankel quotes Maison Martin

Margiela to support her statement, If some designers will is to be labeled

intellectual its probably to give their work a more respectable aspect, to bring it closer

to art and as far as possible from its original purpose, that is to put clothes on peoples

bodies (2009, n.p).

However, the statements of Frankel and Maison Margiela make a broad assumption

that fashion has historically had a close relationship with utility, and I argue that this

may be a case of interchanging the idea of fashion with clothing, which are often two

quite different concepts. Philosopher Lars Svendsen also argues that fashion

designers have aspired to be recognised as artists since the beginning of haute

couture circa 1860 (2006, p. 90) and that the conceptual clothes that emerged in the

1980s are the clearest example of this urge (2006, p. 91). However, Svendsen argues

that these clothes are not without function, but that they function symbolically rather

than as utilitarian garments. He proposes that this is not simply clothing-as-art, but

instead demonstrates an investment in cultural capital and branding by distancing

fashion from the commercial market. He explains that, Fashion has always found itself

in a space between art and capital, where it has often embraced the cultural side in

order to tone down its financial side (Svendsen 2006: 93). Svendsens argument

suggests a paradoxical position where Conceptual fashion designers distance

themselves from commercial markets to increase their branding and therefore their

commercial potential.

Fashion researcher Angela McRobbie (1998) also claims Conceptual fashion is

distinguished from other more conventional fashion practices through its close

relationship to fine art practices; however, unlike Svendsens paradox, she claims it

maintains relative independence from commercial considerations. In her book, British

Fashion Design: Rag Trade or Image Industry? McRobbie (1998) briefly proposes a

definition of Conceptual fashion in an educational context as she attempts to describe

the different types of fashion practices taught to British students before they enter the

25

industry. McRobbie (1998, p. 46-48) does this by defining three different types of

fashion design taught in British fashion design colleges:

managerial fashion, integrating design skills with business and marketing to

prepare graduates for a broad portfolio of commercial fashion-related jobs;

professional fashion, developing creative design skills, in-depth technical skills

and focusing on making clothes that people will wear rather than clothing that

represents new ideas; and

ideas fashion or conceptual fashion, maintaining a strong connection with fine

art and prioritising creative experimentation and innovation without the

pressure of business-related concerns.

McRobbie claims Conceptual fashion is largely taught without a strong emphasis on

commercial concerns and instead revolves around innovative ideas. However, this

assertion is problematic.

Svendsens argument gains strength from the comments of celebrated Conceptual

fashion designer, Hussein Chalayan, who claims commerciality was a key element of

his education. Central Saint Martins has a strong reputation for producing Conceptual

fashion designers, and Hussein Chalayan contradicts McRobbie by describing his

experience there:

Central Saint Martins was a proper art institution, fashion just happened to be one of its departments. It was a fantastic place in which to understand the body in a cultural context. We were like body artists, but we also had to learn how to make our clothes sell (Aspen, 2010, p.13).

However, while Chalayans comments challenge McRobbies claims that Conceptual

fashion education and practice exist relatively free from the pressure of commercial

ideals, his comments do support claims that Conceptual fashion maintains a close

relationship to art. In fact, the suggestion that Conceptual fashion has a closer

relationship to art than other types of more conventional fashion is a recurring theme.

What is less clear is exactly what makes Conceptual fashion closer to art than

Conventional fashion practices and how these tensions sit within larger debates about

the relationship between fashion, art and commerciality in contemporary culture.

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In her book Voyage on the North Sea: Art in the Age of the Post-Medium Condition,

Rosalind Krauss goes beyond defining the relationship between fashion and art to

question if any aesthetic fields are distinct in a postmodern commercial world. Krauss

(1999, p. 56) explores the idea that aesthetic fields have become more entwined with

commodification through philosopher Frederic Jamesons characterization of

postmodernity as the total saturation of cultural space by the image. Jameson

argues that in postmodern culture, everything leisure related, including shopping, is

experienced as aesthetic, and this not only puts into question the concept of aesthetic

autonomy, but has made actual aesthetic spheres obsolete (Krauss,1999, p. 56). As a

result, while most Conceptual fashion practitioners claim they are not artists,

postmodern paradigms have brought fashion and art closer than ever before.

My research of the art-fashion debate demonstrates that opinions are divided, with

some claiming fashion can be art, while others seek to maintain a clear distinction

between the two fields. The fact that many designers argue for separate fields

suggests that this may be crucial to their identity as fashion designers; however, what

is pertinent to this debate is the role commerciality plays in their arguments for

maintaining or breaking down this separation. For example, fashion researcher

Yuniwara Kawamura (2004, p.140) claims that Conceptual fashion designer Rei

Kawakubo is considered an artist rather than a designer. However, Kawakubo herself

disagrees because of the commercial aspects of her design practice. Kawakubo

explains, Fashion is not art. (Menkes,1998, p.20). Ive always said Im not an artist.

For me, fashion design is a business. (Sims, 2004: 123 as cited in English, 2011:77).

In contrast, Conceptual fashion designer Hussein Chalayan argues that in

contemporary culture commerciality unifies rather than divides art and fashion arguing:

Fashion, because its industrial, is perceived as not having the same value as art but you can argue that art is now industrial, as well. Its part of a money market, certainly, so I dont really see what the difference is any more. If you are doing a dress that is informed by good ideas or is an amazing thing then its as much a piece of art as somebodys painting or somebodys installation, I think (Frankel, 2011, p. 23).

Chalayans statement relates to Jamesons argument that all cultural fields, such as

fashion and art, are unified by the fact that they are aestheticised and commodified.

However, Chalayan also suggests that it is not a fashion practices commerciality that

separates or links it to art, but whether it is underpinned by good ideas.

27

Chalayans argument that art is also a commercial practice is supported by Conceptual

artist Victor Burgins declaration in 1988 that even Conceptual art, which began with

ideals of anti-commodification, had failed to avoid commerciality. Burgin states that:

The original conceptual art is a failed avant-gardeamongst the ruins of its

Utopian program, the desire to resist commodification and assimilation to a

history of styles. The new conceptualism is the mirror image of the old

nothing but commodity, nothing but style (as cited in Godfrey, 1998, p. 386).

While Conceptual art initially sought to avoid commodification and prioritise the idea

by not making traditional art objects, by 1973, art critic Lucy Lippard noted that the

most influential conceptualists were being represented by prestigious galleries and

selling their non-traditional work for large sums of money (Lippard, 1997, p. xxi). The

fact that even the idealistic Conceptual art movement became a commercial enterprise

supports Chalyans argument that both art and fashion are commercial practices and

that it is therefore a prioritization of ideas that brings fashion and art closer together. In

particular, this suggests that Conceptual fashion is seen as being closer to art than

Conventional fashion, not because of a lack of commerciality, but rather because the

designers shape their creative works in a way akin to artists. This further upholds

Baudot and Clarks claim that Conceptual fashion is similar to Conceptual art because

it functions to question the norms of the field.

Nathalie Khan also argues that the type of ideas that inform creative works determine

whether something is design or art claiming that what helps define Margielas work as

art rather than design is that it offers reflexive commentary upon the very fashion

industry of which he is a part (2000, p. 123). While Conceptual fashion house Maison

Martin Margiela disagrees that their practice is art rather than fashion (Derycke & Van

De Veire, 1999, p. 12; Miglietti, 2006, p. 71), critical discourse seems to agree that

Conceptual fashion is closer to art because of the more intellectual and self-reflexive

ideas that are explored and communicated through the sensory qualities of the

garments. Kay Durland Spilker and Sharon Sadako Takeda (2007) also believe the

ability to reflect ideas about social norms and identity through sensory qualities of the

garments is a key aspect of Conceptual fashion that demonstrates its close

relationship to art. In their book, Breaking the Mode, Spilker and Takeda claim that A

conceptual approach blurs the line between fashion and the fine arts.arguing that:

28

A number of contemporary fashion designers take a conceptual approach in their work. With strategies similar to that of the fine artist, they examine conventional notions for origins- the how and why of the rules of fashion then proceed to invalidate the rules with insidiously subtle or outrageously radical garments so firmly couched in tradition that the designers subversions are truly startling. In rejecting the formulaic use of media and technique, they have established new aesthetic principles of fashion in construction, materials, form, and ultimately, in the concept or meaning of clothes to the designer, wearer, and audience (2007, p. 15).

Spilker and Takeda support their statement with photos of garments that demonstrate

what they argue is a Conceptual approach, because the designers have questioned

the rules of fashion through innovative uses of construction, material, form and

concept. They explore how these garments function symbolically for example, how

their visual qualities challenge gender or established conventions of dressing. As

these garments have been designed to go beyond communicating consumer ideals

such as beauty and trend, Spilker and Takedas work further supports the argument

that Conceptual fashion is similar to Conceptual art in terms of the self-reflexivity.

Therefore, despite the on-going and somewhat circular debates about the relationship

between art, fashion and commerciality, Conceptual fashion is frequently identified as

having a closer relationship to art than Conventional fashion practices because it

frequently makes references to the cultural field of fashion. While there are some

intricacies to this argument, the shorthand version is that Conceptual fashion is more

explicitly charged with meaning than Conventional fashion because Conceptual

designers engage in self-reflective practice that challenges the conventions of fashion.

Both Conventional and Conceptual fashion are visual and both often focus on ideas of

beauty, ugliness or just the idea of trends or fashion itself. However, the ideas

underpinning Conventional fashion (across all sectors of the market) are more likely to

be focused around the established notions of beauty and trends according to the

market. This is not to say that the work of Conceptual fashion designers is not

beautiful, but raises the question that perhaps visual beauty is not the primary driving

force or end goal of Conceptual fashion practices. What is less clear following this

analysis is exactly how these self-reflexive ideas are translated through the design

process in Conceptual fashion design practice. This relates clearly to the fashion

research phase I identified in the Contextual Review. As a result, in the following

analysis I explore the ideas and creative process of early Conceptual artists and

Conceptual fashion designers to expand understandings about the Conceptual fashion

research phase.

29

Comparative Analysis:

Conceptual art and Conceptual fashion

In this comparative analysis I explore parallels between Conceptual art and

Conceptual fashion. Through this analysis I aim to set critical contexts for my own

research and design process as well as expanding the discourse of Conceptual

fashion practice.

While the term Conceptual was first applied to art in the late 1950s and early 1960s

(Newman & Bird, 1999, p. 3), Conceptual art was not in general use until 1967

(Godfrey, 1998, p. 6). Arguably, early forms of Conceptual art pre-date this; for

example, Marcel Duchamp and his readymades most famously the urinal that he

presented as art in 1917 entitled Fountain (Godfrey, 1998, p. 6). However, in his book,

Conceptual Art, Tony Godfrey (1998, p. 7) argues that, ...the issues were most fully

developed and theorized by a generation of artists that emerged in the late 1960s,

whose work must lie at the heart of any study of Conceptual art. In Rewriting

Conceptual Art, Bird and Newman (1993, p. 3) claim that, in general, the shift enacted

through Conceptual art opened one important pathway for the analysis of all visual

signs and meanings which now constitute the broad field of visual culture. They also

claim that a key shift revolved around the idea that Conceptual art proposed an

informed and critically active audience who were expected to work in order to fully

engage with the objects, texts, installations (1993, p. 6). In addition, Conceptual art

was a clear departure from previous art movements because the focus was not on the

physical nature or visual qualities of the artworks themself, but rather on the idea

underpinning the work.

Before Conceptual art, modernist art theorists and practitioners sought to define art

through what critic Clement Greenberg termed medium-specificity the testing and

questioning of the established norms to determine what is unique and irreducible to a

specific medium (Costello, 2007, p.95). For example, Greenberg encouraged the

gradual removal of properties from each art medium, such as painting, until only a few

qualities remained to define the essence of that medium (Matravers, 2007, p. 19-20).

However, ironically, these attempts to define clear boundaries between mediums led to

a context in which the boundaries began to collapse. Consequently, as Conceptual art

grew, many artists insisted that art should be considered as a unified whole rather than

as distinct self-contained art mediums. Explaining the birth of Conceptual art, Rosalind

30

Krauss (1999, p. 10) argues that if modernism was probing painting for its essence

for what made it specific as a medium that logic taken to its extreme had turned

painting inside out and had emptied it into the generic category of Art: art-at-large, or

art-in-general. Krauss (1999, p.20) argues that due to the influence of Conceptual art

and particularly the work of artist Marcel Broodthaers we now inhabit a post-medium

age.

The move to a post-medium age based on the tension between the specific and the

general can be traced to some of the earliest formulations of the Conceptual art

movement. For example, in his 1969 essay, Art After Philosophy, artist Joseph

Kosuth, who is often recognised as one of the movements founders, advocated for

art-in-general arguing that if one is questioning the nature of painting, one cannot be

questioning the nature of art. Thats because the word art is general and the word

painting is specific (quoted in Krauss,1999, p.10). In a definition of Conceptual art

from 1998, Godfrey expands on this key idea arguing that:

Conceptual art is not about forms or materials, but about ideas and meanings. It cannot be defined in terms of any medium or style, but rather by the way it questions what art is. In particular, Conceptual art challenges the traditional status of the art object as unique, collectable or saleable. Because the work does not take a traditional form it demands a more active response from the viewer, indeed it could be argued that the Conceptual work of art only truly exists in the viewers mental participation (p. 4).

This suggests that Conceptual art cannot be categorised by a series of cohesive

working methods or a visually cohesive style, but rather by its emphasis on self-

reflexive ideas.

Key characteristics of Conceptual art have been widely debated making it difficult to

determine which characteristics to apply to the study of Conceptual fashion design.

However, in this analysis I refer to three characteristics of Conceptual art defined by

practitioners Sol Le Witt, Joseph Kosuth and critic and curator, Lucy Lippard. These

are summarised by Godfrey (1998, p. 142) as follows:

Le Witts notion that the concept behind the work actually constitutes

the art;

Kosuths description of an inquiry into the foundations of the concept

art;

Lippards notion of the dematerialization of the art object (though some

artists have preferred the word demystification to dematerialization).

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While these three definitions imply an inherent complexity in the field of Conceptual art,

a common theme is the primacy that Conceptual artists placed on ideas rather than the

physical characteristics of the creative works themselves (including the extent to which

the idea itself was the work). Following this, the main objective of my analysis is to

explore the ways in which the practices of Conceptual fashion designers also exhibit a

conscious prioritising of the idea and how these ideas work to question the field of

fashion. To do this I examine the work of several key conceptual designers including

Hussein Chalayan, Rei Kawakubo, Yohji Yamamoto, Issey Miyake, Viktor & Rolf and

Martin Margiela to explore how their practices may align with these three

characteristics. While acknowledging the disparity between cultural fields of fashion

and art, and the historical disjuncture underpinning this comparison, as I will show,

valuable insights can be drawn through this form of comparison. Indeed, as my

analysis demonstrates, all three of these tendencies can be identified in the

contemporary practices of major Conceptual fashion designers. This finding in turn

leads me to new insights as to how Conceptual fashion designers translate their

research ideas through the design process and how my own practice reflects similar

approaches to prioritising ideas so that they shape the visual qualities of my designs.

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I. Art as Idea/ Fashion as Idea

The artist Sol LeWitt argues that it is the concept or idea underpinning an artwork

rather than the physical artwork itself that constitutes the art (Godfrey, 1998, p. 142).

LeWitt is perhaps most accurately described as a proto-conceptualist (Costello, 2007,

p. 104; Osborne, 1999, p. 53) rather than a purist; however, through his publications,

Paragraphs on Conceptual Art (1967) and Sentences on Conceptual Art (1969), he is

widely regarded as an influential figure in the development of Conceptual Art (Costello,

2007, p. 104). In Paragraphs, LeWitt argues that ideas behind an artwork should be

given precedence over the physical artifact itself because the idea becomes the

machine that makes the art. He insists that a Conceptual artist should execute an idea

blindly and mechanically putting themselves at the service of that idea rather than

forcing their own aesthetic judgements or ego into the artwork (Costello, 2007, p.104-

105). LeWitt explains that Tampering with an idea by amending it, for example in the

light of the way its execution looks, always compromises the integrity of the work and

may be merely an expression of the artists willfulness or egotism (Costello, 2007, p.

105-106). Leaving aside the ideological nature of his critique of the artistic ego, the

value of LeWitts statements to my research project is the way in which they so

explicitly pitch the conceptual against the visual or the aesthetic. Consequently, they

helped me to explore if Conceptual fashion design practices are driven by ideas rather

than how the final creative work looks.

Hussein Chalayans creative works suggest that his practice is driven by concepts and

ideas more than the visual qualities of his fashion objects, and consequently, he is

widely perceived as one of fashions foremost intellectuals. Critic Sarah Mower

(2011) claims that Chalayan could not be explained or categorised in the same way as

any of the designers before him (p. 36), describing his work throughout the 1990s as

uncomfortable, astonishing, poignant, political and impenetrable (p. 37). Chalayan

was born in Cyprus but moved to England at a young age and the cultural dislocation

he feels as he identifies with these two nationalities is threaded throughout his

practice. In addition to cross-cultural and cross-time themes, Chalayan is also well

known for integrating and exploring new technology in his collections. Susannah

Frankel argues that the stories and ideas surrounding Chalayans collections drive his

practice (2011, p.16) and that in his eyes, the concept is of equal or greater importance

than the clothing he creates (2001, p. 64). Chalayan supports this saying, I

sometimes dont like calling myself a fashion person I really do think I am an ideas

person (Frankel, 2001, p. 68), my work is about ideas, really. My starting-point isnt

33

always the woman. Its the idea (Irvine, 2001 as cited in Quinn, 2003, p. 121).

Chalayans tendency to design garments primarily as idea-vehicles rather than

conventional fashion objects is further supported by fashion researcher Bradley Quinn

who states that:

...the point of Chalayans departure from conventional fashion was his use of clothing as a site of exploration, and his designs were created as expressions of concepts rather than as garments made with only functionality in mind. As a result, Chalayans collections are characterised by a heightened sense of meaning, an allusion to a more intense experience somewhere else, or the promise of a richer, wider horizon to be found (Quinn, 2002, p. 46 as cited in Bugg, 2009, p. 14).

While Quinn does not articulate what defines this horizon as richer than those

provided by Conventional fashion, I suggest that he refers to the ability of garments to

deliver more than conventional ideals of beauty and fashionability the ability to

appeal to the intellect on a deeper level.

Chalayans design process further demonstrates that his practice is driven by ideas

because the exploration and communication of his research concepts appear to

determine the visual qualities of his work. For example, in his Spring Summer 2011

collection, Sakoku, Chalayan uses his research into Japanese cultural heritage and the

impact of natural disasters, such as earthquakes and tsunamis to lead the design

process. In one section of this collection, Haiku, I argue that Chalayans research

directly determines the visual properties of the garments demonstrating a conceptually-

based rather than visually-based design method. Chalayan drapes chiffon to form the

characters of the Japanese word sonzaisuru which means to exist (Frankel 2011:17)

showing that his research directly determines the position of the fabric drapes and

overall garment design (Figure 1). In this example, Chalayan still has to make some

aesthetic decisions, such as fabric choice, garment type, and technique for draping the

fabric. However, this is on the whole an unconventional approach to fashion design,

as rather than visualising a garment and then setting out to produce it, the design

process revolves around translating a research concept or idea so that it shapes the

final designs.

34

Figure 1: Hussein Chalayans Spring Summer 2011 collection, Sakoku, in which the fabric of

this dress is draped to form the Japanese word sonzaisuru (Frankel, 2011, p. 11).

Chalayans Autumn Winter 2000 collection, Afterwords also uses similar methods of

idea-driven design. I suggest that this collection uses a function-led design idea that

shapes the visual qualities of the garments through a dialogue between design and

construction with the functionality significantly shaping the visual characteristics of

the garments. For example, the concept behind Chalayans Afterwords collection is

the journey of refugees and so he imagined scenarios in which people are required to

flee carrying what they are able (King, 2011, p. 9-10). He translated this research

concept into the idea of designing a lounge room of furniture that transforms into

garments and accessories to be carried away at a moments notice. For example, in

one section of the collection show, four models entered the stage wearing only

neutral-toned shifts, they occupied themselves with the sitting room chairs and within

minutes had transformed the chair covers into dresses after which the chairs were

folded into suitcases (King, 2011, p. 9) (Figure 2). Chalayans idea dictates that the

four dresses must function as both dresses and chair covers. Consequently, while

Chalayan would have made many aesthetic decisions, I argue that the negotiation

between the dual functions of each dress would have strongly led the design process.

In other words, without the dual functions related to this idea, that each dress must

function as both cover and dress, it is unlikely that Chalayan would have come up with

the same designs. This further supports my argument that Chalayans design process

is primarily driven by the exploration of research and ideas rather than the goal of

creating a traditional fashion object as in Conventional practices.

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Figure 2: Hussein Chalayans Autumn Winter 2000 collection, Afterwords, in which chair covers

were transformed into dresses (King, 2011, p. 9).

Similarly, I argue that Comme des Garons designer, Rei Kawakubos practice is

driven by the exploration and communication of ideas rather than the creation of

conventionally beautiful fashion objects. Kawakubo is widely acknowledged as a key

founder and driver of the Conceptual fashion movement. Born in Tokyo, Kawakubo

studied the history of aesthetics at Keio University rather than fashion design. After

working in advertising, Kawakubo began her brand Comme des Garons, or, like the

boys (Menkes, 2009). After success in Japan, Kawakubo launched her clothing in

Paris in 1981 with fellow Conceptual designer Yohji Yamamoto causing great uproar

because the clothing worked against the prevailing ideals of beauty and fashionability

(English, 2011, p. 38). Kawakubo explains her desire to create new ideas of beauty

rather than following convention saying, I want to see things differently to search for

beauty. I want to find something nobody has ever found... It is meaningless to create

something predictable (Hirakawa,1990, p. 24 as cited in Kawamura, 2004, p. 137).

Fashion historian Caroline Evans analyses the unconventional ideas of beauty

Kawakubo presents in her famous lumps and bumps Spring Summer 1997 collection,

Dress Becomes Body Becomes Dress, arguing that it did not engage with the

everyday language of the fashion body (2002/2003) (Figure 3) . This collection

contained clothing padded with goose down to distort the body and present

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unconventional images of women. Evans describes the ideas communicated through

the collection ...as paradigmatic postmodern representations of a body which

oscillates endlessly between subject- and object-hood (2002/2003). These garments

did not reflect conventional ideas of beauty and this was highlighted by the actions of

both Vogue and Elle magazine who attempted to bring the garments closer to

conventional ideals by photographing the collection without the padding that was so

key to communicating Kawakubos ideas. This suggests that like Chalayan, Kawakubo

is primarily motivated to create clothing as a vehicle for her research and ideas rather

than as an expression of conventional beauty or on-trend fashionability.

Figure 3: Comme des Garons Spring Summer 1997 Lumps and Bumps collection where

padding created distorted figures (www.firstview.com).

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However, while Chalayan and Kawakubos practices are both idea-driven, Kawakubos

design process to translate her research into designs is very different to Chalayans. I

argue that Kawakubos role in the Comme des Garons design process has more in

common with that of Conceptual artist John Baldessari than with other fashion

designers. For example, rather than using conventional design sketches or draping,

Kawakubo allows her patternmaking team to translate her abstract ideas into form.

Kawakubos role in the design process demonstrates parallels with Baldessaris

position as the creative impresario or composer of his work, such as The

Commissioned Paintings (1969-1970) (Godfrey, 1998, p.138). In this work, rather than

executing the paintings himself, Baldessari commissioned fourteen painters from

country fairs to paint a photo from a series of photographs he took of a hand pointing

at things. Although the painters completed the work in their own style and their names

were displayed on the canvases, the work was attributed to Baldessari positioning

the paintings as documentation of the idea-as-art rather than artworks themselves

(Godfrey, 1998, p.138). Similarly, Kawakubo formulates an idea or concept and

instructs her patternmakers to execute her idea as closely as possible but with their

own unique approach. It is common for fashion production workers, such as

patternmakers, to have some creative input towards the designs as they translate the

sketches of a fashion designer. However, like Baldessari, Kawakubo assumes the role

of composer or director and gives her patternmakers a much more active and creative

role in developing the final fashion objects. This suggest that like Baldessari,

Kawakubo sees Conceptual fashion as being defined by the ideas behind it rather than

the physicality of the fashion object produced.

Kawakubo has developed a collaborative Conceptual approach by replacing

conventional design sketches with abstract concepts presented to her production

team. Describing her process Kawakubo explains:

With all collections, I start abstractly...I try to find two to three disparate themes, and think about the techniques to express them not in a straight way. This is always the longest part of the process (English, 2011, p.74)

After establishing her themes for the collection she communicates them to her team

and challenges them to develop the garments physical characteristics that express her

ideas. A patternmaker from her team describes the process in greater detail saying:

Once she gave us a piece of crumpled paper and said she wanted a pattern for a garment that would have something of that quality. Another time she didnt produce anything, but talked about a pattern

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for a coat that would have the qualities of a pillowcase that was in the process of being pulled inside-out. She didnt want that exact shape, of course, but the essence of that moment in transition, of half inside, half out. (Sudjic, 1990, p. 34 as cited in Kawamura, 2004, p. 145)

Researcher Yuniwara Kawamura (2004, p. 146) interviewed one of Kawakubos team

who further explained that each patternmaker would devise garment prototypes they

felt best embodied Kawakubos ideas. These prototypes were presented to Kawakubo

who would select those that best matched her ideas and request any changes.

Kawakubo did not train as a fashion designer and unlike Hussein Chalayan, who holds

an uncanny ability to visualize complicated flat paper patterns in three dimensions

(Lowthorpe, 2011, p. 260) she does not have the expert construction knowledge of

some of her peers. However, despite this she is viewed by many as one of the most

creative and influential forces in contemporary fashion design. Without Conventional

fashion design training and in-depth construction knowledge, Kawakubo has

developed an unconventional, but extremely innovative research and design process

for Conceptual fashion design. Like Chalayan, her practice revolves around ideas that

are communicated through her fashion designs, even though they use very different

design processes to translate their ideas.

In summary, although Conceptual fashion designers are more committed to producing

a traditional enduring physical artifact than Conceptual artists, my research shows that

ideas still fundamentally drive their design processes. For example, LeWitts

statements on Conceptual art relate to Conceptual fashion designers Hussein

Chalayan and Rei Kawakubo as they both begin their creative process with the

exploration of research concepts that determine the direction for their final creative

works. In contrast, Conventional fashion designers generally begin the research and

design process with a pre-conceived visual aesthetic or direction for their work. Many

Conceptual artists directly privileged ideas over physical form by reducing their work to

language-based statements, diagrams or temporary installations. Artists Sol LeWitt

and Lawrence Weiner did not feel it was essential to make their works as traditional

enduring physical artifacts, and instead, often sold typed statements or certificates of

the idea behind their work, sometimes accompanied by a