Jacob Wright Ezra Nehemiah Short Commmentary w Front Matter

8/2/2019 Jacob Wright Ezra Nehemiah Short Commmentary w Front Matter

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Edited by

Beverly Roberts Gaventa and David Petersen

ABINGDON PRESS

Nashville

THENEWINTERPRETERS BIBLE

ONE

VOLUME

COMMENTARY


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THE NEW INTERPRETERS BIBLEONE-VOLUME COMMENTARY

Copyright 2010 by Abingdon Press

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form orby any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by anyinformation storage or retrieval system, except as may be expressly permitted by the 1976Copyright Act, the 1998 Digital Millennium Copyright Act, or in writing from the publisher.Requests for permission should be addressed to Abingdon Press, P.O. Box 801, 201 Eighth

Avenue South, Nashville, TN 372020801 or e-mailed to [email protected].

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The New Interpreters One-Volume Commentary on the Bible / editorial board, David L. Pe-tersen, Beverly R. Gaventa.

p. cm.Includes index.ISBN: 978-0-687-33411-7 (hardback : alk. paper)1. BibleCommentaries. I. Petersen, David L. II. Gaventa, BeverlyRoberts.BS491.3.N48 2010220.7dc22

2010008235

Unless directly translated by a contributor, biblical quotations are from the NEW REVISEDSTANDARD VERSION of the Bible. Copyright 1989 by the Division of Christian Educationof the National Council of Churches of Christ in the USA. Used by permission. All rightsreserved.

Some biblical quotations are from the Holy Bible, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION.Copyright 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. All rights reserved throughoutthe world. Used by permission of International Bible Society.

Some biblical quotations are from THE NEW JERSUALEM BIBLE. Copyright 1985 byDarton, Longman & Todd, Ltd. and Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc. Used byPermission.

Some biblical quotations are from the Revised Standard Version of the Bible. Copyright 1952 [2nd edition, 1971] by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of theChurches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Some biblical quotations are from the Revised English Bible 1989 Oxford University Press

and Cambridge University Press.

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Manufactured in the United States of America


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v

PABLO R. ANDIACHISEDET, Instituto Universitario

ISEDET

DAVID L. BARTLETTColumbia Theological Seminary

SHANE A. BERGPrinceton Theological Seminary

ADELE BERLIN

University of Maryland, College Park

MARK EDWARD BIDDLEBaptist Theological Seminaryat Richmond

C. CLIFTON BLACKPrinceton Theological Seminary

M. EUGENE BORING

Brite Divinity School,Texas Christian University

ALEJANDRO F. BOTTABoston University

NANCY R. BOWENEarlham School of Religion

JOHN T. CARROLLUnion Theological Seminary

M. DANIEL CARROLL R.Denver Seminary

STEPHEN L. COOKVirginia Theological Seminary

CHARLES B. COUSAR

Columbia Theological Seminary

SIDNIE WHITE CRAWFORDUniversity of NebraskaLincoln

JEROME F. D. CREACHPittsburgh Theological Seminary

KATHARINE J. DELLUniversity of Cambridge

FRED W. DOBBS-ALLSOPPPrinceton Theological Seminary

CAROL J. DEMPSEYUniversity of Portland

DAVID DOWNSFuller Theological Seminary

THOMAS B. DOZEMANUnited Theological Seminary

SUSAN GROVE EASTMANDuke University

CASEY ELLEDGEGustavus Adolphus College

JOHN T. FITZGERALDUniversity of Miami

STEPHEN E. FOWL

Loyola College in Maryland

SUSAN R. GARRETTLouisville Presbyterian TheologicalSeminary

BEVERLY ROBERTS GAVENTAPrinceton Theological Seminary

MATTHEW GOFF

Florida State University

CONTRIBUTORS


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vi

CONTRIBUTORS

JOHN GOLDINGAYFuller Theological Seminary

BARBARA GREENDominican School ofPhilosophyand Theology

JOEL B. GREENFuller Theological Seminary

DANIEL J. HARRINGTONWeston Jesuit School of Theology

SUZANNE WATTS HENDERSON

Queens UniversityMATTHIAS HENZE

Rice University

RICHARD S. HESSDenver Seminary

CAMERON BROWN RICHARDSONHOWARD

The University of the South

JEREMY F. HULTINYale University

ROLF JACOBSONLuther Seminary

CRAIG S. KEENER

Palmer Theological Seminary ofEastern University

JAMES M. KENNEDYBaylor University

JUDITH L. KOVACSUniversity of Virginia

STEVEN KRAFTCHICK

Emory University

JACQUELINE E. LAPSLEYPrinceton Theological Seminary

DOROTHY ANN LEETrinity College Theological School

JOEL M. LeMONEmory University

AMY-JILL LEVINEVanderbilt University

TOD LINAFELTGeorgetown University

THOMAS G. LONGEmory University

BRUCE W. LONGENECKERSt. Marys College, South Street,University of St. Andrews

MARGARET Y. MACDONALDSt. Francis Xavier University

CARLEEN R. MANDOLFOColby College

STEVEN L. MCKENZIERhodes College

GORDON S. MIKOSKIPrinceton Theological Seminary

JOHN B. F. MILLERMcMurry University

CAROL NEWSOMEmory University

JAMES NOGALSKIBaylor University

DENNIS T. OLSON

Princeton Theological Seminary


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vii

CONTRIBUTORS

GEORGE L. PARSENIOSPrinceton Theological Seminary

GLENN D. PEMBERTONAbilene Christian University

DAVID L. PETERSENEmory University

EMERSON B. POWERYMessiah College

IAIN W. PROVANRegent College

KATHARINE DOOB SAKENFELDPrinceton Theological Seminary

EILEEN M. SCHULLERMcMaster University

BARUCH J. SCHWARTZHebrew University of Jerusalem

MATTHEW L. SKINNERLuther Seminary

BRENT A. STRAWNEmory University

LOREN STUCKENBRUCKPrinceton Theological Seminary

BETH LaNEEL TANNERNew Brunswick Theological Seminary

PATRICIA K. TULLLouisville Presbyterian TheologicalSeminary

RICHARD VALANTASIS

Emory University

J. ROSS WAGNERPrinceton Theological Seminary

ROBERT WALTER WALLSeattle Pacific University

SZE-KAR WANPerkins School of Theology

HAROLD C. WASHINGTONSaint Paul School of Theology

JAMES W. WATTSSyracuse University

STEPHEN WESTERHOLMMcMaster University

ROBERT R. WILSONYale University

WALTER T. WILSONEmory University

BENJAMIN G. WRIGHT, IIILehigh University

JACOB WRIGHTEmory University


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EDITORSPREFACE

Study of the Bible has experienced a sea change since the Interpreters One-Volume Commentary on the

Biblewas originally published in 1971. That is true in the arena of scholarly work, where the methodsof study have exploded in recent decades, and in the range and number of scholarly interpreters. Along-side historical critical analysis, scholars now draw on literary analysis, social scientific work, postcolo-nial studies, and feminist criticismto name only a few perspectives that inform contemporary biblicalstudies. Moreover, biblical scholars themselves are a more numerous and diverse group of people than

was the case forty plus years ago.

What is sometimes overlooked is that the world of Bible study has also changed significantly for pastorsand lay teachers of the Bible. In addition to the major shifts in the academy, serious readers of the Bibleconfront a vast array of resources, and sorting out the serious from the spurious is not always easy. Pub-lications that purport to be exposs of various elements of early Christian history can muddy the waters,and some immensely popular works of fiction complicate matters further by raising questions about what

actually is in the Bible and what is not.

Conscious of these developments, we offer this concise, one-volume commentary, confident that it pro-vides both beginning and experienced readers of the Bible with reliable and accessible guidance. The con-tributors to this volume, who reflect the aforementioned diversity, were invited because of our confidencein both their scholarly competence and their abilities as communicators. No attempt is made to bring their

various commentaries into a restrictive conformity, but we did ask all of them to avoid the jargon thattoo often mars scholarly work. In addition, we invited them to engage in theological reflection about thebiblical literature they were addressing.

We also include articles that should make the commentary especially useful for pastors and teachers. Inaddition to overviews of specific kinds of literature (e.g., the prophetic literature or letters) and introduc-

tions to the cultural locations of biblical texts, this volume contains articles on preaching the Bible,teaching the Bible, the creation of the Bible, and the place of the Bible in the church.

As scholars and teachers of the Bible, we ourselves find it an endlessly fascinating booksurprising, chal-lenging, sustaining. It is our hope that this volume will prove a genuinely valuable resource for others

who join us in that study.

Beverly Roberts GaventaNew Testament Editor

David L. PetersenOld Testament Editor


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ix

ABBREVIATIONS AND EXPLANATIONS

BCE Before the Common EraCE Common Erac. circa

cf. comparech(s). chapter(s)d. diedDtr Deuteronomistic historianesp. especiallyfem. feminineGk. GreekHeb. Hebrewl(l). line(s)LXX SeptuagintMS(S) manuscript(s)MT Masoretic Textn.(n.) note(s)NT New TestamentOL Old LatinOT Old Testament

par. parallel(s)pl(s). plate(s)sing. singular v(v). verse(s) Vg Vulgate

Names of Biblical Books (with the Apocrypha)

Names of Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Texts

Q Qumran1Q, 2Q, etc. Numbered caves of Qumran, yielding written material;

sometimes followed by abbreviation of biblical orapocryphal book

4Q385b Fragmentary remains of Pseudo-Jeremiah which impliesthat Jeremiah went into Babylonian exile. Also known asApocJercor 4Q385 16.

Mishnah, Talmud, and Related Literature

m. B.Bat. Bava Batra(Mishnah)b. B.Bat Bava Batra(Babylonian Talmud)y. Sheviit Sheviit(Jerusalem Talmud)

Other Rabbinic Works

Song of Songs Rab. Song of Songs Rabbah

Commonly Used Periodicals, Reference Works, and Serials

AB Anchor Bible ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary

AfOB Archiv fr Orientforschung: BeiheftANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the OT

BAR Biblical Archaeology Review

Bib Biblica

BibOr Biblica et orientaliaBKAT Biblischer Kommentar, Altes TestamentBSac Bibliotheca Sacra

BWANT Beitrge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten (und Neuen) Testa-

mentBZAW Beihefte zur ZAWCBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

COS The Context of Scripture

CRAI Comptes rendus de lAcadmie des inscriptions et belles-

lettresFOTL Forms of Old Testament LiteratureHAR Hebrew Annual Review

HAT Handbuch zum Alten TestamentHBC Harper Bible CommentaryIB Interpreters BibleIBC Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and

PreachingICC International Critical Commentary

Int Interpretation JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies

JNSL Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages

JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old TestamentSupplementSeries

KAT Kommentar zum Alten TestamentNIB New Interpreters BibleNICOT New International Commentary on the Old TestamentNIV New International Version

NRSV New Revised Standard VersionOTL Old Testament LibrarySBL Society of Biblical Literature

SBLDS SBL Dissertation SeriesSBLMS SBL Monograph SeriesSBLRBS Society of Biblical Literature Resources for Biblical Study

SBLSP Society of Biblical Literature Seminar PapersSBLSCS SBL Septuagint and Cognate StudiesSBLSS SBL Semeia StudiesSBLSymS Society of Biblical Literature Symposium SeriesSBT Studies in Biblical TheologyTNK Tanakh (Jewish Publicat ion Society Version)TSK Theologische Studien und KritikenTZ Theologische Zeitschrift

VT Vetus Testamentum

VTSup Vetus Testamentum, SupplementsWBC Word Biblical CommentaryZAW Zeitschrift fr die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

GenExodLevNumDeutJosh

JudgRuth1-2 Sam1-2 ChrEzraNehEsthJobPs/PssProvEcclSong

IsaJerLamEzekDanHos

JoelAmosObadJonahMicNahHabZephHagZechMalBar

Pr AzarBelSg ThreeSus1-2 EsdAdd Esth

Ep JerJdt1-2 Macc3-4 MaccPr ManPs 151SirTobWisMattMarkLuke

JohnActsRom1-2 CorGalEph

PhilCol1-2 Thess1-2 TimTitusPhlmHebJas1-2 Pet1-2-3 JohnJudeRev


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Contributors v

Editors Preface viiiAbbreviations ix

Table of Contents x

Commentary on the Books of the Old Testament

GENESIS Dennis T. Olson 1

EXODUS Brent A. Strawn 33

LEVITICUS Baruch J. Schwartz 57

NUMBERS Thomas B. Dozeman 83

DEUTERONOMY Mark Biddle 108

JOSHUA Richard Hess 143 JUDGES Jerome F. D. Creach 162

RUTH Katharine D. Sakenfeld 182

1 SAMUEL Steve McKenzie 188

2 SAMUEL Steve McKenzie 201

1 KINGS Iain W. Provan 215

2 KINGS Iain W. Provan 227

1 CHRONICLES Alejandro Botta 239

2 CHRONICLES Alejandro Botta 253

EZRA Jacob Wright 263

NEHEMIAH Jacob Wright 271

ESTHER Nancy Bowen 280

JOB Adele Berlin 288

PSALMS Rolf A. Jacobson 308

PROVERBS Glenn D. Pemberton 351

ECCLESIASTES Katherine J. Dell 368

SONG OF SONGS Fred W. Dobbs-Allsopp 375

ISAIAH John Goldingay 387

JEREMIAH James M. Kennedy 425

LAMENTATIONS Carleen R. Mandolfo 451EZEKIEL Jacqueline E. Lapsley 456

DANIEL Matthias Henze 482

HOSEA Beth L. Tanner 493

JOEL Pablo Andiach 500

AMOS M. Daniel Carroll R. 503

OBADIAH Carol J. Dempsey 508

JONAH Barbara Green 510

MICAH Carol J. Dempsey 513

NAHUM James D. Nogalski 518

HABAKKUK James D. Nogalski 521

CONTENTS


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xi

CONTENTS

ZEPHANIAH James D. Nogalski 526

HAGGAI Stephen L. Cook 529

ZECHARIAH Stephen L. Cook 531

MALACHI Stephen L. Cook 536

Commentary on the Books of the Apocrypha

TOBIT Loren Stuckenbruck 540

JUDITH Sidnie White Crawford 547

THE ADDITIONS TO ESTHER Nancy Bowen 555

THE WISDOM OF SOLOMON Walter T. Wilson 558

SIRACH Benjamin G. Wright, III 566

BARUCH Patricia K. Tull 580

THE LETTER OF JEREMIAH Patricia K. Tull 584

THE PRAYER OF AZARIAH Matthias Henze 586

SUSANNA Matthias Henze 589BEL AND THE DRAGON Matthias Henze 592

1 MACCABEES John B. F. Miller 595

2 MACCABEES Shane Berg 603

1 ESDRAS Cameron Howard 611

THE PRAYER OF MANASSEH Casey D. Elledge 613

PSALM 151 Matthew Goff 615

3 MACCABEES Jeremy F. Hultin 617

4 MACCABEES Jeremy F. Hultin 622

2 ESDRAS Bruce W. Longenecker 628

Commentary on the Books of the New Testament

MATTHEW Stephen Westerholm 630

MARK C. Clifton Black 658

LUKE John T. Carroll 679

JOHN Dorothy Ann Lee 709

ACTS Joel B. Green 735

ROMANS Charles Cousar 768

1 CORINTHIANS Suzanne Watts Henderson 788

2 CORINTHIANS Craig S. Keener 809GALATIANS Susan Eastman 825

EPHESIANS Margaret Y. MacDonald 833

PHILIPPIANS J. Ross Wagner 842

COLOSSIANS Stephen Fowl 851

1 THESSALONIANS Sze-kar Wan 857

2 THESSALONIANS Sze-kar Wan 863

12 TIMOTHY Matthew Skinner 868

TITUS Matthew Skinner 875

PHILEMON Emerson Powery 877

HEBREWS Daniel J.Harrington 881


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xii

CONTENTS

JAMES Robert W. Wall 894

12 PETER M. Eugene Boring 900

1, 2, 3 JOHN George Parsenios 908

JUDE Steven Kraftchick 913

THE REVELATION TO JOHN Judith L. Kovacs 915

General Articles

HOW THE BIBLE WAS CREATED David L. Petersen 943

CANON OF THE OT Eileen M. Schuller 944

CANON OF THE NT Shane Berg 948

HEBREW NARRATIVE Tod Linafelt 951

LEGAL LITERATURE James W. Watts 953

PROPHETIC LITERATURE Robert R. Wilson 956

HEBREW POETRY Brent A. Strawn 959

WISDOM LITERATURE Harold C. Washington 961 APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE Carol A. Newsom 964

NARRATIVES OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Susan R. Garrett 967

LETTERS David Downs 970

CULTURES OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Joel LeMon 973

CULTURE OF EARLY JUDAISM Amy-Jill Levine 979

CULTURES OF THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD John T. Fitzgerald 983

BIBLE AND SPIRITUALITY Richard Valantasis 988

BIBLE IN THE LIFE OF THE CHURCH Beverly Roberts Gaventa 991

LECTIONARIES David L. Bartlett 992

PREACHING THE BIBLE Thomas G. Long 995TEACHING THE BIBLE Gordon S. Mikoski 998

Chronology 1000

Measures and Money Gordon B. Duncan 1004

Index of Subjects 1007


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263

EZRAJACOB WRIGHT

OVERVIEW

In many manuscripts of the LXX and in theMasoretic tradition, the books of Ezra and Nehe-

miah comprise a single book. Although the

Vulgate and some of the early church fathers sepa-

rate it into two distinct works, this book was likely

composed as a unity and should be appreciated as

such.

The book of EzraNehemiah recounts the

Judean reconstruction during Persian rule (539

430 BCE), after the devastation wrought by the

Babylonians (586 BCE). It may be divided into

three general sections: Whereas the first one (Ezra

16) relates primarily to a construction project

(the Temple) and the second one (Ezra 710) to

reforms for the community, the third (Neh 113)

integrates the two themes by addressing a con-

struction project and internal reforms.

Within these sections, there is room for a

wide range of subjects. Yet they all relate to the

fundamental question of Judahs identitywhich

institutions stand at its center and which practices

demarcate its boundaries. It is the question, notthe answers to it, that unifies the work. Yet the

authors have also created a sophisticated narrative

that aligns the physical with the spiritual: The

building of Jerusalems Temple and the municipal

Wall runs hand-in-hand with the construction of

the Judean community as whole. (Wall is capi-

talized since it represents in EzraNehemiah the

pendant to Temple and includes much more than

Jerusalems physical ramparts.)

Within the corpus of biblical literature, Ezra

Nehemiah is distinctive in its citation of manysources. The genre of these sources include lists

(Ezra 2; Neh 3; 7; 1112), official correspondence

and edicts written in Aramaic (Ezra 46, 7), and

first-person memoirs (Ezra 79; Neh 17, 13). The

sources have been subjected to heavy criticism

with respect to their authenticity, and this criti-

cism has provoked interest in the book as a work of

literature. EzraNehemiah reflects a new form of

historiography, which may be influenced by Greek

forms of history-writing. It also testifies to the

growing importance of texts as sources of author-

ity in a new post-monarchic age. Even the Persian

kings first consult their records before making an

imperial decision. They then supplement earlierdecrees with new edicts (=commentaries). In this

way, they model a hermeneuticalmethod of sur-

vival for the Judeans themselves, who find their

way by searching in their own texts.

As for the problems the sources pose for his-

torians, one should not confuse authenticity with

historical worth. That the Persian letters and

decrees in Ezra 17 may stem in large part from

Judean hands should neither dismay the biblical

reader nor lead to a wholesale dismissal of the

book. Rather, it should foster a greater apprecia-

tion for the ideals of the book expressed through

the writings of foreign kings and Judean heroes.

The completion of EzraNehemiah is usually

dated to the late Persian period (end of the fourth

centuryBCE). The Artaxerxes mentioned in Ezra

78 and Neh 2 is most likely Arxtaxerxes (d. 424

BCE). The identity of the Darius in Neh 12:22 is

difficult to determine, but he may be Darius III

(336330 BCE). Aside from these datable rulers, a

handful of evidence suggests that the compositionof the book (esp. the final chs. in Neh 812) con-

tinued in the early Hellenistic period, if not even

in the t imes of the Maccabees. If so, the combina-

tion of Torah piety and a well-fortified Jerusalem

in Neh 113 would have provided an important

model for polities at this time. Furthermore, the

book depicts an ideal history of relations between

Judah and a foreign empire, from its inception

(Ezra 1:1) until its end (Neh 12:22). This scope

likely presupposes the fall of that empire and the

need to reflect on past history in the face of suc-ceeding empires.

The title of the book commemorates two

figures who differ starkly from each other in their

(portrayed) personality and approach to problems.

Much contemporary homiletic literature devotes

a great deal of attention to this contrast, using

Ezra and Nehemiah as leadership case studies.

Such use of these figures is by no means unprec-

edented; it can be traced throughout the books

long reception history and probably informed the

composition of the book itself.


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EZRA

OUTLINE

I. First Movement: Rebuilding Altar and

Temple (1:16:22)

A. The Cyrus Edict (1:14)

B. Return of Yahwehs People and Vessels

(1:511)

C. The Plurality and Boundaries of the

Community (2:170)

D. Building the Altar (3:17)

E. Construction of the Temple (3:86:22)

3:813. Laying a Foundation

4:15. Interruptions to the

Building Project4:624. Seeking-and-Finding in the

Imperial Archives, Part I

5:12. The Role of the Prophets

5:36:12. Seeking-and-Finding in

the Imperial Archives, Part II

6:1322. The Completion of First

Phase of the Building Project

II. Second Movement: Ezra, the Temple, and

Community (7:110:44)

A. Ezra Is Sent to Jerusalem (7:18:36)7:110. Introducing Ezra

7:1126. The Artaxerxes Decree

7:278:36. Transporting the Vessels

B. Ezras Approach to a Communal Problem

(9:110:44)

9:115. Ezras Own Account

10:144. A Report about Ezras Actions

III. Third Movement: Nehemiah, the Wall,

and Community (Neh 1:113:31)(see

following chapter)

DETAILED ANALYSIS

I. First Movement: Rebuilding Altar and

Temple (1:16:22)

The first six chapters of Ezra treat the construc-

tion of the altar and Temple, and the problems

encountered during the course of the project. In

explaining the delay of the construction (from the

reign of Cyrus to Darius), this section also serves

as a kind of historical reflection on prophets, espe-

cially Haggai and Second Isaiah (see especially

5:12).

The section has its own distinctive character

and themes. Especially prominent is the motif ofseeking-and-finding in texts. Indeed, the narrative

is governed by the fate of Cyruss decree: Readers

are introduced to it at the outset (ch. 1). Yet in the

course of time, this document gets lost in the impe-

rial bureaucracy and archives, which results in a

lengthy delay of the project (chs. 45). When the

decree is finally found again (6:12), the Judeans

can finally complete the project. Rather than mere

narrative conceit, this motif of seeking-and-finding

expresses a fundamental message of the book: the

potential as well as the perils inherent in textualauthority.

A. The Cyrus Edict (1:14)

Because EN seems to represent one book, some

commentators read this paragraph as an introduc-

tion to the entire work. The house of the LORD

represents accordingly the city or community

rather than just the Temple. However, the book

lacks a grand conclusion and thus perhaps one

should not expect an introduction to the whole.

The deity is said to stir up the spirit of Cyrus.

In Hag 1:14 the same expression refers solely to

local Judeans who build in the t ime of Darius. The

author of our passage seems to have transferred

the inspirational moment to an earlier point and

to a foreign king (see, however, v. 5), constructing

thereby a much different historical account from

that in Haggai (and Zechariah). The notice that

the decree was also in writing is important for

the subsequent narrative (see esp. 6:12).

The decree responds to any doubt as to wherethis House should be built. The likely reason for the

stress on location is the existence of communities

who considered themselves equally to be the

people of Yahweh (v. 3) yet built temples in other

locations (e.g., Samaria). Cyruss words implic-

itly proscribe these competing temples. If a group

really belonged to Yahwehs people and heeded

imperial (as well as divine) orders, it would con-

tribute solely to the building project in Jerusalem.

The decree may be based in some way on a

historical edict. The Persian rulers followed a long-


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265

EZRA

established tradition of reversing earlier policies in

order to gain the loyalty of their subject peoples.

However, the formulation of these verses betrays

a Judean theological perspective that the histori-

cal Cyrus would have considered heretical, and it

differs from the quotation of the decree in 6:35

(see also 5:1315). By allowing Cyrus to proclaimthat Yahweh granted him all the kingdoms of the

earth (v. 2) and charged him to build his house

in Jerusalem (temple construction often followed

conquest in ancient Near Eastern royal ideology),

the author introduces a central message of the

book: The role of native Judean kings has been

assumed byforeignimperial rulers. The continu-

ity between native and foreign kingship is under-

scored by the use of vv. 13ain 2 Chr 36:2223.

B. Return of Yahwehs People and Vessels(1:511)

The people of Yahweh (v. 3) who heeded the

response are solely the former inhabitants of Judah

and Benjamin (v. 5). The remaining verses present

the return of this people in a direct relationship to

the return of the vessels (see esp. v. 11b), which

are mentioned throughout the book (5:1415;

6:5; 7:19; 8:2533; Neh 10:39[40];13:5, 9). The

cultic vessels represent the essential continuity

between the First and Second Temples inasmuch

as they are the same items that Nebuchadnez-zar had despoiled from the First Temple (v. 7).

(Despoliation of cultic inventory was widely prac-

ticed in the ancient world; cf. especially 1 Sam

47; 2 Sam 5:21; andwith respect specifically

to the vessels/peopleJer 2728.) The identity

of Sheshbazzar (Zerubbabel?) is a mystery. Here

he is called the prince of Judah, while according

to 5:1416 he was appointed governor by Cyrus

and later laid the Temple foundation (cf. however

3:810).

C. The Plurality and Boundaries of the

Community (2:170)

This chapter consists primarily of a list of

names and numbers of Judeans who could trace

their roots back to exilic origins. The list is inter-

rupted by a reference to groups who could not

prove their genealogies (2:5962). This attention

to ethnic continuity echoes the emphasis on cultic

continuity in 1:711 (compare Nebuchadnezzars

actions in 2:1 with 1:7). For a community in the

midst of upheaval and struggling to negotiate its

survival in a new imperial, multicultural environ-

ment, such concern with identity and tradition is

to be expected. In the absence of clearly demar-

cated political borders and a native Judean army

to defend those borders, the community notably

turns to texts (=written tradition), such as gene-

alogies and registers, imperial edicts, and the

Torahthe text par excellence (see, e.g., 3:2, 4).

By means of these texts and sophisticated methods

of interpretation, the community not only demar-

cates their social, ethnic, and relig ious boundaries

but also determines how they should proceed into

an unprecedented future.

The list probably represents an ideal vision

of Judah. For the narrative, it serves various pur-

poses: It fills the gap between chs. 1 and 3, and

may be compared to the voyage accounts in thesubsequent two movements (from Mesopotamia

to Judah: Ezra 8 and Neh 2). By the end of the

chapter, the author can report that the Judeans

(identified with all Israel!) were now residing

in their cities (v. 70). As a hybrid between clan

and territorial register, it also functions as a map

of Judah in compendium form. Finally, the list

serves, as in Neh 7, to express the plurality of the

community and to replace the otherwise anony-

mous, general designations (such as people of

Judah) with actual names.

The central role played by the kings of Judah

and Israel at an earlier time is now filled by numer-

ous names of clans and families, who are guided

by a lay leader (Zerubbabel) and a priest (Jeshua).

In this respect, the communitys leadership may

be compared to that of pre-monarchic Israel as

depicted in ExodusJoshua. Moreover, whereas

earlier only the king contributed to the building of

the Temple (1 Kgs 57; 1 Chr 22; 2 Chr 24), now

the people themselves assume this responsibility(vv. 6869), as the exodus generation did with

respect to the tabernacle (Exod 3536).

D. Building the Altar (3:17)

This passage, which seems to have been

created as a preface to 3:813, tells of the con-

struction of the altar. By virtue of this passage, the

book presents concentric spheres of sacrality, each

marked by the verb to build: altar, the House of

God, and the Wall of Jerusalem. The narrative wil l

progressively refocus attention from the center


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EZRA

(altar and priesthood) to the periphery (the Wall

and entire community).

If the altar was built already in the seventh

month, the community had little time to make the

voyage back and settle in their new homes. Yet it

is important to re-inaugurate the festival calendaron the first day of the year (3:6). The community

also works quickly because of the terror of the

peoples of the lands1 (3:3), who later attempt to

disrupt their progress (4:15:5). It then takes mea-

sures to prepare for the second phase of construc-

tion (3:6b7, compare 1 Chr 22:2, 4, 15; 2 Chr

2:1516 as well as the prophecy in Isa 60:13).

These measures once again involve private dona-

tions in keeping with authorization from Cyrus

(3:7). The latter point is noticeably absent in 1:14

(but cf. 6:4). Its inclusion here further illustratesnot only the imperial support for the project but

also the communitys strict adherence to imperial

orders. It may be compared to the emphasis on

adherence to the Torah (3:2, 4, 5). The commu-

nity is ultimately governed by two texts: the Torah

and the Cyrus edict.

E. Construction of the Temple (3:86:22)

Up until this point the narrative has treated

important preliminary matters relating to prepa-

rations for the building of the Temple, which aredated to the first year of Cyrus. Beginning in 3:8,

which is dated to the second year, the account will

now focus on the construction of the Temple and

reasons why its completion was delayed until the

reign of Darius.

3:813. Laying a Foundation. The second phase

of building involves the appointment of Levites to

oversee the rest of the construction of the House

of Yahweh, the laying of the foundation of the

sanctuary proper (hekhal), and a festive ground-

breaking ceremony. That this event is dated tothe second month (of the second year) should be

read in connection with 2 Chr 3:2 relating to the

work on the First Temple. Here again the text

stresses historical continuity in this fledgling com-

munity (see also the reference to David in v. 10).

The antiphonal musical celebration is led by

the priests and Levites (v. 10) and consists of two

1 Unless otherwise indicated by NRSV, the

quotations from Ezra are direct translations by

the author.

types of song: praise (hallel) and thanksgiving

(hodot). The quoted psalm (v. 11) appears often

in the book of Chronicles in relation to the First

Temple (1 Chr 16:3; 2 Chr 5:13; 7:3). Its popular-

ity in the post-exilic period is likely related to its

affirmation of Yahweh as the source of the com-

munitys connection to a prior glorious period

of Israels history. The narrator notes that the

community was moved to praise, while some of

the elderly wept at the sight. The notice may be

responding to the same reaction that the prophet

Haggai addresses (Hag 2:3). If so, it declares that

the disappointment Haggai observed was counter-

balanced by joy.

4:15. Interruptions to the Building Project.

The concluding statement in ch. 3that the

sound of the celebration was heard far away(3:13)leads directly to ch. 4, which begins with

the enemies of Judah and Benjamin hearingabout

the construction project. These enemies identify

themselves as non-natives who began sacrificing

to your God after they had been settled in their

land by the Assyrians (4:2). Their petition to join

the project is briskly rebuffed by the leaders of

the community. The reason offered is strikingly

similar to that of Nehemiah in Neh 2:20. Yet in

contrast to Nehemiahs response, Zerubbabel et

al. can refer to a decree from Cyrus, which isaddressed solely to the people of Yahweh (1:3).

Although these enemies seek Yahweh and sacri-

fice to Yahweh, the authors do not consider them

to be the people of Yahweh (see however 6:21).

Spurned, the enemies adopt various machinations

to disrupt the project, which include both scare

tactics and bribing officials in the imperial bureau-

cracy. That this harassment continues from the

reign of Cyrus to the reign of Darius (4:5) reflects

the historical likelihood that the construction of

the Temple commenced in the reign of Dariusrather than the reign of Cyrus (see Hag 1).

4:624. Seeking-and-Finding in the Imperial

Archives, Part I. After referring to two letters

(4:67), the narrator cites the correspondence

between Artaxerxes and two of his officials in the

West, Rehum and Shimshai (4:823; the language

switches here to Aramaic). They write to the impe-

rial court with accusations against the Judeans.

Artaxerxes responds and commands the work be

brought to a halt. The narrator then reports that

the construction ceased until the second year of


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EZRA

Darius (cf. 4:5). Thus, the narrative jumps ahead

to the reign of Artaxerxes (d. 424 BCE) and then

back to Darius (d. 486 BCE). These letters also

refer to the work on the city walls rather than the

Temple.

How can one explain these incongruities?First, the letters illustrate and provide concrete

evidence for the claims made in 4:57. Second,

the possibility that the decree could be reversed

(4:21b) anticipates the permission this same king

later grants Nehemiah. But before this happens,

the narrator reports the completion (chs. 56) and

beautification (chs. 78) of the Temple. In this

way, the book illustrates how the imperial court

favors the Temple, whereas the Wall project (ini-

tially) jeopardizes the success of the Restoration.

Third, Artaxerxes seeksand findsin his recordsbefore making a decision (4:15, 19). His behavior

provides a model for the Judeans, who can seek

and find matters in their records (cf. 2:62; 7:10;

Neh 7:5, 64; 8:14; 13:1) at a time when they no

longer have a king of their own.

5:12. The Role of the Prophets. A new era

begins with the prophets, Haggai and Zechariah,

encouraging Zerubbabel and Jeshua to rise and

build (5:12). Although the community thereby

implicitly disobeys the orders of Artaxerxes (4:21),

the authors can, in this way, harmonize the books

of Haggai and Zechariah with the prophecy of

Second Isaiah. The reader now knows that Haggai

and Zechariah did indeed play an essential role in

initiating the construction of the Temple. But the

preface to this history provided in Ezra 14 shows

how the prophecy in Second Isaiah pertaining to

Cyrus and his declaration (e.g. Isa 44:28) was also

fulfilled. This sophisticated exegesis resolves the

tension between these books. However, in con-

trast to Hag 1, the authors of Ezra 16 present the work as merelyresuming in the second year of

Darius (instead of commencing) and the commu-

nity being concerned with this project since the

first year of Cyrus.

5:36:12. Seeking-and-Finding in the Imperial

Archives, Part II. Like ch. 4, this section pivots

on the kings activity of seeking-and-finding. This

time, however, the king does not search in a book

but rather in the imperial archives for a particular

document: the Cyrus edict. Because it had been

lost, enemies could interrupt the building project.

The plot of Ezra 16 is thus propelled by the Cyrus

edictboth its fate and its interpretation.

A brief narrative (5:35), consisting mainly

of an excerpt from 5:810, prefaces the letters

themselves (5:66:12). (For the eye of their

God, see Ps 33:18 and Job 36:7.) The lettersclosely resemble those in ch. 4 in both form and

content, yet they present a scenario that is more

historically tenable. Tattenai and Shetharbozenai

do not accuse the Judeans (in contrast to Rehum

and Shimshai; 4:1116) but merely report about

their inquiry. When asking the king to undertake

a search, they also employ more polite language

(cf. 5:17 with 4:15). Like Neh 1:14, the history

recounted by the Judean elders (5:1113) notably

lacks any reference to a collective return, as told in

Ezra 12. Sheshbazzar is the governor of the com-munity (in contrast to 3:15:2, but see 1:711).

Moreover, one hears nothing about opposition as

in 3:15:5.

The sense of identity and history mirrored

in the elders response is noteworthy. They are

the servants of the sovereign God (the God of

heaven and earth). Surprisingly, they do not say

anything about being Dariuss servants. Yet they

claim authorization from Cyrus, whose edict

they link historically to the work of a great king

of Israel (Solomon). What separates the two sidesof history is destruction and exileattributed

emphatically to the BabylonianChaldeanking

in direct response to their ancestors act ofanger-

ingthe deity.

Dariuss role as interpreter figures prominently

in this passage. The Persian king presents a new

reading of the Cyrus decree that focuses on the

dimensions/location of the Temple as well as

the return of the vessels. He also discovers that,

according to Cyrus, the royal treasury should bearthe costs of the building project (6:15; for kings

sponsoring the Temple construction, see com-

ments on 2:170). On the basis of what he finds

in the text, he then acts, issuing a new decree that

confirms and supplements what he found.

6:1322. The Completion of First Phase of the

Building Project. Once the new decree is issued

by Darius, the House of God is finally completed

after more than two decades. The agreement

between the divine command and the impe-

rial decrees is noteworthy (6:14). Moreover, this


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EZRA

passage emphasizes, in contrast to the letters, the

exilic origins of the community; they represent

the twelve tribes of Israel (6:17). After describing

the dedication, the narrator notes the celebration

of Passover (and Mazzoth) a month later (6:1922;

now reverting to Hebrew). The returning exiles

are joined in the festivities by those who had

separated themselves from the nations of the land

to seek Yahweh . . . (i.e., the non-exiled popula-

tion or, as Rashi claims, proselytes). Reference to

the Assyrian king (6:22) is anachronistic, but it

agrees with the emphasis on all Israel (the Assyr-

ians exiled the ten northern tribes/Israel).

II. Second Movement: Ezra, the Temple,

and Community (Ezra 7:110:44)

Ezra 7 marks the beginning of the secondmovement. It is once again (cf. ch. 4) set within

the reign of Artaxerxes. Yet it revolves around

the person of Ezra, who represents an ideal figure

of the new post-monarchic age. Chapters 78

recount his commission and voyage to Jerusalem;

its focus is primarily the Temple. In contrast, chs.

910 shift abruptly to recount his approach to a

communal crisis.

A. Ezra Is Sent to Jerusalem (7:18:36)

The preceding movement (chs. 16) presents

the community building the Temple with the help

of texts, in which they together with the Persian

kings seek-and-find. This section now focuses

attention on the activity itself of seeking-and-find-

ing by portraying an individual who had set his

heart to seekthe Torah of the LORD, and practice

and teach Israel laws and commandments (7:6,

10).

7:110. Introducing Ezra. The account begins

with Ezras priest ly genealogy (7:15). The geneal-ogy, however, is not complete; rather, it highlights

the most prominent names connecting him to

Aaron, the first/chief priest. Ezras later partner,

Nehemiah, identifies himself in his introductory

prayer as a servant of Yahweh like Moses (Neh

1:511).

Second, the narrator, like the king (7:12),

identifies Ezra as a proficient scribe of Torah (7:6,

1011). Ezras dual identity (priest-scribe) mirrors

the books ideals: birth supplemented by action/

merit. His genealogy establishes his personal con-

tinuity to earlier generations that inhabited the

land and, more specifically, his connection to the

first priest in Israels history. Yet the narrator also

shows how Ezra complemented his inheritance by

birth with meritorious performance in studying

the Torah.

Third, in 7:9 the narrator expresses the

beginning of the return in architectural terms

(yesud hamaalah), which are employed elsewhere

in the books for, respectively, thefoundationand

ascents/elevations in Jerusalem. Accordingly,

Ezras mission is presented as continuing the

project of building the House of God.

7:1126. The Artaxerxes Decree. Whether

Artaxerxes decree (in Aramaic) corresponds to

an authentic imperial document is a matter ofdebate among scholars. Whatever the case may

be, its presence in the book reiterates one of its

primary emphases, viz., that the Persian court

looked favorably upon the Temple, which served

as the conduit of imperial benefaction to Judah.

The heart of the decree (vv. 1524) parallels the

decrees in ch. 6 inasmuch as it prescribes dona-

tions for the Temple from the royal treasuries.

Here, however, the king (and his court) also make

freewill offerings (7:16; cf. 1:4; 2:68; 3:5); and

he also exempts Temple officials from taxes (7:24). Artaxerxes words leave no doubt that the king

acts out of fear and respect for Ezras God (see esp.

7:23). The framework of the decree grants Ezra

permission to go up to Jerusalem with anyone

who wishes to accompany him (7:13), to inquire

(lit. seek) in Judah according to the law/wisdom

of God (7:14, 25), and to appoint a government to

administer these laws, executing corporal punish-

ment if necessary (7:2526). It should be noted

that chs. 910 do not depict Ezra either appointing

judges or threatening corporal punishment.

7:278:36. Transporting the Vessels. After the

decree is cited, the narrative moves seamlessly

into a first-person account, which begins with

Ezras blessing (7:2728a). The attention devoted

to the Temple in the preceding decree underscores

the continuity between Ezras commission and

the larger building project. The same is reaffirmed

in Ezras blessing: God is praised as the one who

guides the heart of the foreign king to glorify

the Temple.


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EZRA

The actual narrative begins in 7:28b, where

Ezra tells his readers how he took immediate

action to fulfill his commission. His first move is

to assemble representative leaders. The account

here continues in 8:15 after being interrupted by a

list of clans that accompanied him from Babylon.

This list consists of three individuals followed

by twelve larger groups. (One may compare this

constellation to the three patriarchs and twelve

tribes, or three major and twelve minor prophets.)

Based on the number of males (1,513), the whole

congregation would have exceeded 5,000. Never-

theless, Ezra notices that the entire community

was not represented: The Levites were absent, and

hence he takes measures to remedy the situation

(8:1520). The passage resembles others in the

book that highlight the importance of the Levites

(see esp. Neh 13:1014, 22).

Second, Ezra proclaims a fast during which the

people petition their God for a safe journey (lit.

straight pathcf. Isa 40:3) for themselves, their

children, and their possessions (8:2123). The fast

replaces the imperial soldiers. After they had just

expressed their unequivocal trust in Gods provi-

dential care for those who seek him, Ezra says

that he was ashamed to ask the king for a military

escort to aid them (azar, a play on the name Ezra,

lit. [God is] aide). This verse (8:22) accentuates

the already implicit contrasts between Ezra and

Nehemiah. Nehemiahs trip is much more about

himself: He travels alone and is accompanied only

by an entourage of imperial soldiers (Neh 2:9). In

contrast, Ezra makes a concerted effort to bring a

large and representative group.

Third, Ezra identifies twelve priests to carry the

cultic vessels and offerings; both objects and their

bearers are declared holy. Ezras act and instruc-

tions to the group (8:2430) have ritual, symbolic

qualities communicating the significance of themove from Babylon to Jerusalem.

The rest of the chapter (8:3136) recounts the

voyage and arrival. The description of the journey

is reported in very few words, emphasizing the

deposition of the vessels in the Temple as well as

the concluding sacrifices and the delivery of the

kings edicts. The closing line expresses the happy

ending and overriding theme of this first episode

of the Ezra account: The Persian governors sup-

ported (lit. lifted up) the people and the House

of God.

B. Ezras Approach to a Communal Problem

(9:110:44)

After the happy ending in 8:36, the narra-

tive takes a sharp turn. Persian patronage for the

Temple now becomes the backdrop (9:9) against

which a communal crisis and Ezras responseare portrayed. These chapters have Nehemiahs

memoir in view: What is only one of several

abuses that Nehemiah confronts (Neh 13:2330)

is here presented as the fundamental problem

facing the communityone of existential propor-

tions (9:14). In this way, the authors of the book

provide a preface to Nehemiahs work, whose

Wall and reforms can now be read as a response to

the problem Ezra faced. The book also invites its

readers to compare and contrast Ezras and Nehe-

miahs approaches.

9:115. Ezras Own Account. The account is

extremely precise in both the narrative order

and word-choice. First, Ezra is confronted with

a problem; he does not notice it himself (cf. Neh

13:23). Second, the problem itself is presented in

historical terms: The Judeans (Israelites, priests,

and Levites) have failed to separate themselves

from the peoples of the lands, whose abominations

resemble the lands prior inhabitants and neigh-

bors (9:1). Third, the problem of non-separation

expresses itself in the activity of intermarriage.The holy race (lit. seed; see Isa 6:13) becomes

in this way mixed up. The statement may be

compared to Exod 19:6, in which the holiness that

defines priests is applied to the whole nation; yet

here the stress is not on the closeness of priests to

the deity but rather the distance that holy priests

must maintain from the profane. Fourth, the

leaders are identified as especially culpable.

In his mourning behavior, Ezra manifests

in his own body what is happening to the com-

munal body. By rending his clothes and pullingout his hair, he performs his message. In the end,

however, his dismay is beyond words and actions,

and thus he sits the entire day in silence (cf. Job

2:1213). The silence adds gravity to the moment

he speaks, so that his words provoke collective

action. But he does not address the community

directly; rather he turns to his God in prayer. The

contrast to Nehemiahs approach is pronounced

(Neh 13:2527).

Ezras prayer is not concerned with purity of

race but rather with issues that govern the books


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EZRA

account of post-exilic history: separation, soli-

darity, and survival. Without ethnic, social, and

religious boundaries, the community by definition

does not exist. But making a bold reductionist

move, Ezras prayer reveals the deeper theological

principle underlying this sociological truism: The

community is on the brink of destruction becauseit has failed to appreciate the divine favor (9:79)

and mercy (9:13) manifested in recent history in

that it has disregarded the commandments com-

municated through the prophets (9:1012). The

potential result is that they would be punished

to the point that now not even a remnant would

escape (9:1415). Intermarriage does not threaten

Judean cultural-ethnic superiority but rather its

very attempt to survive in a situation of foreign

bondage (9:89). In the words of the poet

Rainer Maria Rilke, Who is talking about greattriumph? It is all about simply survival!

10:144. A Report about Ezras Actions. After

his prayer, Ezras first-person account stops and a

third-person narrative begins. This switch reflects

how Ezra simply catalyzes a movement that is

really propelled by others: The shift from first- to

third-person account corresponds to the shift from

Ezra to community.

Chapter 10, like the preceding accounts,

focuses on the approach to the problem. Ezrasprayer elicits a collective response (10:1). One

leader, Shecaniah ben Jehiel, proposes to make a

communal pact to put away all the wives and

their children. This proposal, which is disturbing

for modern readers and was probably for many

ancient ones as well, is then adopted by Ezra

(10:24).

Significantly, the narrative never reports the

execution of the proposal. Instead one reads at

length about an assembly in Jerusalem (10:616).

Everyone (man) who did not appear is subject to

loss of property and membership in the exilic

congregation (10:8). Here one encounters a sec-

tarian or communal polity that differs starkly f rom

the authority over territory and body granted by

Artaxerxes in ch. 7. Accordingly, Ezra does not

call for the expulsion of women and children from

Judah in 10:11 but rather a separation from the

congregation (cf. 10:8). Elsewhere the word for

separation bears predominantly a ritual associa-

tion or refers to formal status (see esp. 8:2429).

The particulars of this legal ritual are not spelled

out (10:14). Yet it is unlikely, contrary to the insis-

tence of many commentators, that 10:644 (in

contrast to 10:25) refers to a mass divorce and

banishment of women and children. Only the

priests, in keeping with ancient law, are said to

have pledged to divorce their wives (10:1819).

The interpretation adopted here explains why

the account seems to taper off without a conclu-

sion (KJV/JPS 10:44; the RSV/NRSV translates a

later Greek version). It concludes in this manner

because it does not have the actual expulsion of

women and children in view. Rather the author

points the finger at the numerous men(10:2043)

who were culpable yet had been faithful to appear

before the council in order to undergo the separa-

tion, whatever it entailed.

Although the immediate narrative concludeshere, the story of rebuilding identity told by this

book continues in Neh 1.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Blenkinsopp. EzraNehemiah: A Commen-

tary. OTL (Philadelphia: Westminster John Knox,

1988); M. J. Boda and P. L. Redditt, eds. Unity

and Disunity in EzraNehemiah: Redaction,

Rhetoric and Reader. Hebrew Bible Monographs

17 (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2008); D. J. A.

Clines. Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther. NCB (Grand

Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984); T. C. Eskenazi. In an Age

of Prose: A Literary Approach to EzraNehemiah.

SBLMS 36 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988);

R. W. Klein. Ezra, Nehemiah. NIB (Nashville:

Abingdon, 1999) 3:661851; Y. Rabinowitz. The

Book of Ezra: A New Translation with a Commen-

tary Anthologized from Talmudic, Midrashic

and Rabbinic Sources. ArtScroll Tanach Series

(Brooklyn: Mesorah, 1984); H. G. M. Williamson.

Ezra, Nehemiah. WBC 14 (Waco: Word, 1985);J. L. Wright. Rebuilding Identity: The Nehemiah-

Memoir and Its Earliest Readers. BZAW 348

(Berlin: De Gruyter, 2004).


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NEHEMIAHJACOB WRIGHT

OVERVIEW

Nehemiah comprises together with Ezra onebook, and an overview of this work is provided in

the preceding chapter. The problems posed spe-

cifically by Neh 113 will be treated in the course

of the commentary. One issue, however, must be

addressed at the outset: the relationship between

the narrative in Neh 810 and the rest of the book.

Nehemiah 810 stand out within Neh 113 for

a number of reasons. Rather than being narrated

by Nehemiah, these chapters are formulated about

him. Moreover, not only does Neh 8 focus on the

figure of Ezra, but also much of the narrative inthis chapter represents the continuation of Ezra 10

in the Greek version of 1 Esdras. These and other

observations have led many scholars to conclude

that Neh 8 was originally formulated as part of

the Ezra account. According to this position, the

chapter was formerly positioned, along with por-

tions of Neh 9, either between Ezra 8 and 9 or

after Ezra 10. The communal pact in ch. 10 is said

to represent an independent document found in

the Temple archives and included by the editor of

the book.

While this position deserves consideration, it

creates more problems than it solves. The mention

of Nehemiah in 8:9 would have to be attributed

to a gloss in order to attribute the narrative to the

Ezra account. Furthermore, the mention of Ezra

at key points elsewhere in Neh 113 suggests that

the original formulation of Neh 8 could have also

presented these two figures cooperating. That

1 Esdras removes the reference to Nehemiah from

Neh 8 is not surprising: This late book is character-

ized by an almost complete erasure of Nehemiahs

memory from this history (presumably because his

account criticizes the high-priestly line). Based on

undeniable lexical and stylistic parallels between

Neh 78 and Ezra 23, it is much more likely that

Neh 810 was composed from the beginning for

its present literary setting.

OUTLINEI. First Movement: Rebuilding Altar and

Temple (Ezra 16)

II. Second Movement: Ezra, the Temple, and

Community (Ezra 710)

III. Third Movement: Nehemiah, the Wall,

and Community (Neh 1:113:31)

A. Rebuilding the Wall (1:16:19)

1:111a. First Pivotal Conversation

1:11b2:9. Second Pivotal Conversation

2:1020. Initiation of the Project

3:132. An Account of Building the Wall

4:123 (Heb 3:334:17).

Animosity Intensifies

5:113. The Fraternity of the Judeansand Socio-Economic Reforms

5:1419. Nehemiahs Munificence

6:114. Attempts to Assassinate

Nehemiah or His Character

6:1519. The Climactic Statement

of Completion

B. Repopulation and Dedication of Jerusalem

(7:113:3)

7:173 (Heb 72). Fortif ying and

Repopulating Jerusalem

8:112. Reading Torah

8:1318. Celebrating

9:137 (Heb 38). Confessing

and Petitioning

9:3810:39 (Heb 10:140).

Covenanting Together

11:112:26. The Commemoration

of Leaders

12:2713:3. The Day of Dedication

C. Enforcing the Communal Pledge

(13:431)

DETAILED ANALYSIS

III. Third Movement: Nehemiah, the

Wall, and Community (Neh 1:113:31)

Within the third movement of the book, one

can likewise distinguish three sections: The first

allows Nehemiah to recount the building of the

Wall (1:16:19), the second section is toldwith

few exceptionsin the third-person and involves


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NEHEMIAH

important events leading up to the dedication of

the Wall (7:113:3), and in the third small section

Nehemiah resumes the narration to complete the

book (13:431).

A. Rebuilding the Wall (1:16:19)

These first six chapters consist almost exclu-

sively of first-person passages ascribed to the

Nehemiah Memoir (see however 3:132). As

such, the section has its own dist inctive character:

it depicts the construction of the Wall in various

building stages, beginning with the prehistory

of the project (chs. 12). Each stage is demar-

cated by a response from Judahs enemies when

they hear of the progress: 1:12:10; 2:1120;

3:14:5; 4:615; 4:1623; 6:119 (the account of

the reforms in ch. 5 interrupts this schema). More-

over, each stage corresponds to a specific problem

facing the community and progress in the project

of rebuilding identity.

1:111a. First Pivotal Conversation. The narra-

tive begins with a conversation through which

Nehemiah learns about the problem he will later

address. The condition of Jerusalems wall and

gates, although representing the focus of Nehe-

miahs project, is identified by Hanani and the

Judeans as a part of a larger socialproblem facing

the entire province of Judah: great trouble andshame. Throughout Nehemiahs memoir, these

terms bridge the building report (e.g. 3:3335/

4:13) and the accounts of social reforms (e.g. 5:9;

6:13; 13:7, 17, 27).

The passage refers to the Judeans who escaped

the deportations and remained in Judah, but

surprisingly ignores the numbers of those who,

according to Ezra 110, had recently returned

from exile. Only a late addition to the first-person

Nehemiah account (7:473) is cognizant of the

Babylonian/exilic origins of the Judeans. Thisreveals the historical problems posed by the refer-

ences to massive returns.

Nehemiahs reaction to the newsmourning,

fasting, and praying (1:4)may be understood

as performed theology. It affirms that the solu-

tion to Judahs distress ultimately lies with divine

hands rather than in Nehemiahs clever tactics

and leadership, which are depicted throughout

the memoir. The prayer itself (1:511a) pauses nar-

rative time and allows the protagonist to reveal

his theological motivations. It is framed by peti-

tions that past prayers be heard (1:6, 11). Situated

between these petitions are (1) an affirmation that

sin had caused the present calamities, (2) a refer-

ence to a divine promise, and (3) a reminder of the

communitys special identity.

Most of this passage (1:1b11a) is not presup-posed in the following scene. The expansion of

Nehemiahs building report with accounts of

reforms (esp. chs. 5 and 13) would have necessi-

tated a new introduction, which 1:24 provides.

Likewise, the insertion of the narratives in chs.

810, which emphasize Torah-piety, seems to cor-

respond to the insertion of the prayer in 1:511a

(see esp. 1:7).

1:11b2:9. Second Pivotal Conversation. This

paragraph describes a (second) pivotal conversa-

tion, now between Nehemiah and Artaxerxes. It

takes place in the first month, perhaps during a

New Years celebration. As the royal cupbearer,

Nehemiah is serving wine to the king. Because

Nehemiah enjoyed the kings favor, he is granted

a request. Yet by telling his readers that he prayed

right before responding (2:4), Nehemiah ascribes

ultimate responsibility for the positive outcome to

divine providence (see 1:411).

Nehemiah is granted only a leave of absence;

he is not appointed governor, which seems to con-tradict 5:14. He must also ask for letters granting

him safe passage and providing him lumber for the

project. In contrast, Artaxerxes grants Ezra gener-

ous gifts and makes the royal treasuries available

to him. Stil l, Artaxerxes provides Nehemiah with

a retinue of soldiers and cavalry, which Ezra does

not receive (see Ezra 8:22 and comments there).

The disparities between Ezras and Nehemiahs

account may be related to tensions between Nehe-

miah and the Temple circles, which seem to have

had a hand in the composition of Ezra 78.2:1020. Initiation of the Project. Opposition

to Nehemiah is presented already in 2:10. Similar

notices, which begin with as heard, punc-

tuate the building narrative and create discrete

building phases (2:1920; 4:15; 4:79; 6:114);

they conclude in 6:16 after the statement of com-

pletion. The three figures that are the subject of

these notices are Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem/

Gashmu. Sanballat was probably the governor in

Samaria; he is attested in extra-biblical sources.

Tobiah likely oversaw the administration in the


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Transjordanian/Ammonite region. There is also

independent evidence for Geshem as a sheikh in

the southern Arabian/Edomite region.

The first notice (2:10) presents Nehemiahs

agenda in broad terms, i.e., to seek the welfare of

the people. It is also more radical than the subse-quent notices inasmuch as it identifies Sanballat

and Tobiah as opposed to the people of Israel.

Both figures would have most probably worshiped

Yahweh and have identified themselves as belong-

ing to the people of Israel. In comparison, the

second notice (2:1920) is much tamer: All three

now accuse the Judeans of rebuilding the Wall in

order to rebel against the empire.

In between these two notices is an account

of Nehemiahs arrival in Jerusalem, his night

ride during which he inspects the ruins, and hisaddress to the community leaders that convinces

them to embrace his building program (2:1118).

As elsewhere, the narrative attributes success at

critical junctures to Nehemiahs savvy approach.

Here the account emphasizes his decision to wait

to reveal his plan (2:12, 16) and the way he goes

about presenting it (2:1718).

3:132. An Account of Building the Wall. This

passage poses a problem: It not only recounts the

completion of the work but it also lacks references

to interruptions or opposition that characterize

Nehemiahs account elsewhere. Due to simi-

larities in expression between 3:1 and 2:18 (and

2:20), the passage was likely created for its present

context rather than orig inating as an independent

archival document. It was probably inserted at

a relatively early point in the composition of the

memoir and, if so, testifies to the originally brief

and un-polemical nature of the building report.

The passage both describes the topography of

the Wall and memorializes the donorsall theguilds, groups, and regions that contributed to

the project. They are the servants of the God of

heaven who have share, claim and right in Jeru-

salem (2:20). The Wall is formed literally by the

names of the builders, who work collectively and

in collaboration.

The passage mentions no fewer than 10 gates.

This unusually large number, rendering it vulner-

able to penetration, corresponds to the way the

construction of the Wall symbolizes the demar-

cation of Judahite identity: Although a barrier to

the outside, the Wall does not hermetical ly seal off

Jerusalem but rather offers many points of access.

4:123 (Heb 3:334:17). Animosity Intensifies.

The present arrangement of the building account

alternates between passages reporting progress

on the Wall and passages reporting attempts tothwart this progress. This back-and-forth is espe-

cially apparent in the present section. In the first

paragraph (3:3337/4:15), Sanballat and Tobiah

taunt the Judeans, and Nehemiah responds with

an imprecation.

Sanballats insult expresses one of the main

messages of the account itself: the correspondence

between the restoration of the ruins and the reviv-

ification of the community. Similarly the joining

of the Wall (3:38/4:6) corresponds to the enemies

joining together in a military coalition (4:2/4: 8).

The account highlights, and depicts at length,

the leadership skills Nehemiah displays during

this crisis. He mobilizes the builders in prepara-

tion for the impending attack by arranging them

into armed militia companies and rallying them

with stirring speeches (4:8, 1314/4:14, 1920).

These speeches resemble the great addresses

delivered at the time of the first Conquest (e.g.,

Josh 10:25).

The present section contains the image that ismost widely associated with Nehemiah: working

with one hand and wielding a weapon with the

other. Building becomes a means of fighting. This

image also marks the great conceptual disparity

with the preceding narrative in Ezra 110: The

Judeans do not wait patiently for the empire to

protect their interests, nor are they focused on

the Temple as the conduit of imperial benefaction.

Rather, they create a larger space (symbolized by

the Wall) in which they can flourish; and they are

prepared to fight their neighbors who attempt vio-lently to disrupt this project.

5:113. The Fraternity of the Judeans and Socio-

Economic Reforms. This passage evinces many

parallels with the three reform accounts in ch. 13:

Nehemiah witnesses an abuse, indicts the offend-

ers, takes various corrective measures, and then

utters a concluding prayer of remembrance (see

5:19).

The first paragraph (5:15) delineates the

formal complaints of the people and their wives


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NEHEMIAH

against their Judean kin (5:1). At issue is a situ-

ation of increasing economic disparities: some

families are becoming wealthier at the expense of

others, who are losing possession of both property

and children. The female children in particular

are being abused. Due to these financial injustices

and loss of familial property rights, the fabric of

the Judean community is being torn apart. If the

problem is not addressed, the Wallboth in the

physical and larger social sensewould not be

built. The solution is a complete restoration of all

property and interest (5:1112), a major imposi-

tion on any economy.

As an ideal leader, Nehemiah hears this com-

plaint and responds effectively (5:613). He calls

for the wealthy to walk in the fear of God

(=ethically) in order to prevent the reproach ofthe surrounding nations. Earlier, he refers to this

reproach in order to convince the Judeans to

rebuild the Wall (2:17); hence the reform and the

building project address a common problem.

Yet Nehemiah is not satisfied with mere preach-

ing and promises. Rather he institutionalizes the

change through legal actions, which include a

formal oath and a curse; readers are told that such

measures proved to be effective (5:13b).

5:1419. Nehemiahs Munificence. This para-

graph, which continues the theme of 5:113,

describes Nehemiah fiscal policies as governor.

This is the first time he is described this way. It is

quite possible that later authors identified him as

a governor in order to present a model of behavior

foror polemics againstlater governors.

Nehemiah claims that, because of his fear of

God (5:15), he did not place any extra burdens on

the people in order to pay his own salary. In addi-

tion he displays generosity by hosting many guests

each day at his table. Such commensality wouldhave helped consolidate political and social bonds.

Uniting this paragraph with the preceding one

is a petition that his God not forget (or erase,

13:14) everything he had done for this people

(5:19). This prayer presumes that the deity keeps a

written record of human deeds. Because the prayer

is addressed directly to God (as in 3:3637/4:45;

6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31 and in contrast to 1:511

and 2:4), the memoir (or a version of it) may be

meant primarily for a divine readership and only

secondarily for a human audience.

6:114. Attempts to Assassinate Nehemiah or

His Character. After the interlude in ch. 5, the

theme of building and opposition from chs. 24

resumes. The first three episodes (6:24, 59,

1014) of this section are dated to the final phase

of the project (6:1). They all concern the person

and work of Nehemiah, mirroring an emphasis of

5:1419. The texts allow one of Judahs found-

ing fathers to address important questions facing

later generations of readers. Thus, the first para-

graph (6:24) presents Nehemiah focusing on the

great work and refusing to be distracted (see

5:16). The second paragraph (6:59) allows Nehe-

miah to affirm that his intention in building was

not to establish a monarchy or rebel against the

empire. The author alludes here to the corrupt-

ibility of prophetsand the danger it poses for

Judean rulers (6:7); this point becomes central to

the message of the following paragraph (6:1014).

6:1519. The Climactic Statement of Comple-

tion. Now, finally, the Wall was finishedin just

52 days (6:15). Responsibility for such quick work

is attributed to divine assistance (6:16; see Ps

118:23). Here also one reads for the last time that

the enemies heard the news, yet now they must

admit their defeat (6:16). What necessitated the

project (disgrace and reproach, see 1:3 and 2:17)

has now finally been alleviated.The twenty-fifth of Elul marks a great rever-

sal of fortune, for not only had the ramparts been

restored but the community had also undergone

a major social and spiritual transformation. To

underscore this point, all the reforms are dated

to the period of construction. This is not only the

case for ch. 5 but also for the reforms reported

in ch. 13. Nehemiah 13:1522 and 13:2330

begin with expression in those days, which also

introduces 6:1719, and the days in 6:17 clearly

refers to the 52 days in 6:15. Moreover, 6:1719most likely originally continued, before the inser-

tion of the largely third-person narrative mate-

rial in 7:113:3, in the account of 13:49(1014).

Tobiah had to send letters to his Judean alliance

partners (6:1719) because when Nehemiah came

to town, he removed Tobiah from his apartment

in Jerusalem (13:49; on the date in 13:6, see ad

loc.). Accordingly, the reforms recounted in ch. 13

are presented as taking place during the construc-

tion, so that the twenty-fifth of Elul becomes truly

climactic. Support for this reading is provided by


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NEHEMIAH

structural observations: Five consecutive accounts

beginning in ch. 5 conclude with prayers for

remembrance (5:119; 6:114; 6:1719 + 13:414;

13:1522; 13:2331), and the final three of these

accounts begin with the phrase in those days,

referring to the 52 days in 6:1516.

B. Repopulation and Dedication of Jerusalem

(7:113:3)

Whereas 13:431 seems to have been origi-

nally connected to 6:1719, a large block of mate-

rial in 7:113:4 now severs the earlier narrative.

This block appears to have gradually grown to

its present proportions. The first insertions are

probably the texts relating to the fortification and

repopulation of Jerusalem in chs. 7 and 11 as well

as the account of the dedication ceremonies in

12:2743. By citing the list of Ezra 2, the author of

Neh 7 provoked the composition of Neh 810 (cf.

Ezra 23); these important chapters expand on

the theme of the internal reforms in Neh 5 and 13.

Nehemiah 810 were composed with the climatic

celebration at the dedication of the Wall in view.

The reader should understand that the people

studied Torah, confessed their sins, and made a

pact before celebrating that momentous day.

7:173 (Heb 72). Fortifying and Repopulating

Jerusalem. After finishing the building project,the people appoint gatekeepers, a commander of

the city, as well as a militia to protect the city and

their homes. Jerusalem is now fortified and rests

fully within Judean hands. The martial elements

of the account, which are introduced in ch. 4,

continue in ch. 11. That singers and Levites also

are appointed (7:1) has to do with the fact that the

gates, as thresholds, are also religiously precarious

places (see 3:1 and 12:2743).

In the process of fortif ying Jerusalem, Nehemi-

ah repopulates the city (7:572/73). This themetoo continues in ch. 11. God is said to place this

idea in [his] heart (7:5). This expression, which

is used first in 2:12 with reference to the building

project, appears here to introduce a new project,

one that relates specifically to the people.

Significantly the method Nehemiah employs

for repopulating the city is seeking-and-finding

(see commentary on Ezra 47). The text he

finds is the book of the genealogy of those who

were the first to come back (7:5). This may be

the authors description of Ezra 16, since the

passage he finds in it, and then quotes at length

(7:672(73)), parallels closely Ezra 2. This discov-

ery results in a new understanding of the Judeans

identity, since up until now Nehemiah had never

acknowledged any collective return from Babylon

(see esp. 1:23).

This harmonization of Nehemiahs account

with the historical conceptions in Ezra 110 has

likely been provoked by the mention of mixed

marriages and alliances in 6:1719. The need for

internal social-religious reforms is answered with

the composition of Neh 810.

As to why the author listed all the names again

(after Ezra 2), one should note that the numbers

in ch. 11 are precisely 10 percent of those in ch.

7, corresponding to the tithe in 11:1. From the

perspective of ch. 8, the repetition of Ezra 2 also

grants names and identity to the otherwise anony-

mous mass of people in ch. 8.

Finally we may appreciate an element of real-

ized eschatology here: Only those whose names

were found written in this book are permitted

to inhabit the new(ly built) Jerusalem.

8:112. Reading Torah. This passage takes its

point of departure from the repetition of Ezra 2 in

Neh 7. In contrast to the account of the rebuilding

of the altar and the numerous sacrifices in Ezra 3,this description of the seventh month (the central

month in the cultic calendar) noticeably lacks any

reference to the Temple or the High Priest Eliashib.

Herewith the narrative shifts the perspective

from the center (priests sacrificing on the altar) to

the periphery (the people beckoning Ezra to read

the Torah to them). In the course of the month,

the leaders (8:13) and then people (9:1) learn to

read for themselves. In keeping with his portrayal

in Ezra 910, Ezra responds to communal petitionand only then becomes a catalyst for collective

action. When he ascends the platform to read, he

takes with him a group of leaders, symbolically

demonstrating that he cannot lead alone. Later the

Levites are involved in interpreting the text to the

congregation (8:8).

The activities are performed ceremoniously in

keeping with the reverence for the Torah; many of

these features anticipate later rituals of reading in

the synagogue. Yet the account also underscores

general comprehension (8:812). Earlier we


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NEHEMIAH

are told that not only men but also women and

all who could understand were present. After

the loss of territorial statehood and living in the

context of imperial rule, broad participation and

education have become critical to the formation

and survival of the community. In keeping with

the festive nature of the day (later known asRosh Hashanah), the people celebrate with feast-

ing, drinking and merrymakingbecause they

had understood the words that words that were

declared to them (8:12).

8:1318. Celebrating. The second part of ch. 8

is about not just the celebration of the Feast of

Booths (Sukkoth) but also an ideal form of com-

munal action. The lay leaders, priests, and Levites

gather around the scribe Ezra in order to study

the words of the Torah. Through their seeking inthe scriptures, they find (see on seeking-and-

finding in Ezra 47 and Neh 7) a particular com-

mandment. However, what is said to be written

is not found word-for-word in the Pentateuch.

Rather it represents a product of constructive exe-

gesis called midrash (derived from the word to

seek). By means of this sophisticated technique

of interpretation, ancient law and the sacred writ-

ings as a whole are applied to new circumstances.

The innovative way the festival is celebrated

by making booths throughout Jerusalem anddwelling in themcorresponds to the building

theme in the surrounding narrative, but it also

expresses a theological message: the festival cel-

ebrates divine providence and commemorates

a time when Israel did not yet possess its land

(see Lev 23:4243). The reference to the days

of Jeshua son of Nun is probably to be explained

by the fact that this epoch marks the zenith in

the biblical memorywhen Israel successfully

occupied the land and followed their leader Joshua

in observing Torah. Not surprisingly the narratornotes that he or they read Torah each day of

the weeklong festival.

9:137 (Heb 38). Confessing and Petitioning.

After celebrating throughout the month, the

people reassemble in Jerusalem, now in a much

more somber mood: fasting and wearing sackcloth

with dust on their heads. They first ritually sepa-

rate themselves from foreigners (see comments on

Ezra 10), and thereafter engage in confession and

Torah readingnow significantly on their own

and without the help of Ezra.

The brief narrative is followed by a lengthy

prayer uttered by a group of Levites. The complex

text deserves attention not least because of its dis-

tinctive reading of biblical history. The paramount

concern of the prayer is the land. After praising the

deitys creative and sustaining acts, it begins with

the election of Abraham and the fulfilled promise

to give his descendants a land possessed by other

peoples (9:8). The prayer alternates between enu-

merations of divine benevolent acts (9:915 and

1925) and descriptions of Israels stubbornness

and disobedience (9:1618 and 2631) that result

in the loss of sovereignty. The cyclical judgment-

restoration schema that characterizes the period

of Judges has been applied to all of Israels subse-

quent history, so that the catastrophe of 586 BCE is

no longer central (9:2631). In fact, the construc-

tion and destruction of the Temple are passed over

in silence, in keeping with distinctive emphases of

the preceding chapter and of Nehemiahs account.

The final section (9:3237/38) consists of

a petition that the deity once again regard the

peoples plight. In what way God should respond

is not spelled out. Nevertheless, the problem is

clearly stated: We are slaves in our own land.

As recompense for past sins, foreign kings possess

power over our bodies and livestock. This note

of protest stands out in the context of the book, which presents foreign rule otherwise in ulti-

mately favorable terms. While the yearning for

Judean territorial sovereignty also deviates from

many passages in the book, it dovetails with the

emphases in Nehemiahs account.

9:3810:39 (Heb 10:140). Covenanting

Together. Proceeding from the close interdepen-

dence between Torah-obedience and land-tenure

affirmed by the prayer, the community responds

to all this (the great distress in 9:37) with a

communal pact. The word here for pact is con-structed from the same root as that for Abrahams

faithful heart. God rewarded it with a covenant

that was likewise upheld (9:8). Mirroring the

importance assigned to texts in the book, the pact

is explicitly said to have been put in writing and

sealed with names of communal leaders (Nehe-

miah sets the example; 10:1/2). The list of names

is followed by a general declaration of intent: to

walk in the Torah of God (10:2829/2930).

What such obedience entails is spelled out in the

subsequent stipulations.


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NEHEMIAH

Most of these stipulations relate specifically

to contributions for the Temple and cultic officers

(10:3239/3340). Yet the wording of the final

line as well as the first two stipulations (10:30

31/3233) are drawn from Nehemiahs indict-

ments in ch.13. This citation necessarily affects

the reading of the final chapter of Nehemiahs

account: Instead of introducing new reforms,

Nehemiah must now be understood to be enforc-

ing prior communal resolutions. Yet the authors

aim was likely not to diminish the importance

of Nehemiahs actions. The intention is probably

rather to demonstrate the importance of a strong

leader: The community ultimately fails in its com-

mitment to uphold the pact. Hence they require

someone like Nehemiah who, through his preach-

ing, identifies abuses, reaffirms the communitys

earlier pledge, and institutes proactive measures

that ensure its fulfil lment. A similar compositional

history and reading strategy inform the relation-

ship of pentateuchal law to the preaching of the

prophets.

11:112:26. The Commemoration of Leaders.

The narrative continues here with a brief note

regarding the repopulation of Jerusalem, followed

by several lists. Thematically the account resumes

the thread in ch. 7 regarding both Jerusalems

repopulation and fortification (see the referencesto warriors in 11:6, 14). The difference is that in

ch. 7 Nehemiah is the subject of the action; here

the people act on their own, in keeping with the

transition depicted in chs. 810.

One may wonder why the closely related chs.

7 and 11 are so widely separated. In addition to

the initial compositional move to create a parallel

to Ezra 23, the larger motivation was likely to

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