IUPACT UILITARIZATION ON HUMAN RIGHTS IN...
63
IUPACT OF UILITARIZATION ON HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE PHILIPPINES Ferdinand Harcos was in power in the Philippines for almost 20 years before he fled into exile in the United States on 25 February 1987. For all but seven of those years, he had exercised dictatorial powers in a system he called "Constitutional Authoritarianism". By the time he departed, a pattern of gross and systematic violations of human rights had been well evolved through militarization. President Harcos assumed full control of the executive and legislative branches of government and direct personal command of the military after his proclamation of martial law. In the first few days of martial law, Harcos arrested and detained thousands of critics and opposition leaders; disclosed the Philippine Congress; closed down the independent Press; suspended the right to hheh corvllg; and took full control over all appointments to the judiciary. The closure of Congress and the President's control over the judiciary removed essential checks on executive and military
Transcript of IUPACT UILITARIZATION ON HUMAN RIGHTS IN...
IUPACT OF UILITARIZATION ON HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE PHILIPPINES
F e r d i n a n d Harcos was i n power i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s f o r
a l m o s t 20 y e a r s b e f o r e h e f l e d i n t o e x i l e i n t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s on 25 F e b r u a r y 1987. F o r a l l b u t s e v e n o f t h o s e
y e a r s , he had e x e r c i s e d d i c t a t o r i a l powers i n a s y s t e m he
c a l l e d " C o n s t i t u t i o n a l A u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m " . By t h e time he
d e p a r t e d , a p a t t e r n o f g r o s s and s y s t e m a t i c v i o l a t i o n s o f
human r i g h t s had been well e v o l v e d t h r o u g h m i l i t a r i z a t i o n .
P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s assumed f u l l c o n t r o l o f t h e e x e c u t i v e
and l e g i s l a t i v e b r a n c h e s o f gove rnmen t and d i r e c t p e r s o n a l
command of t h e m i l i t a r y a f t e r h i s p r o c l a m a t i o n o f martial
law. I n t h e f i r s t few d a y s o f martial law, H a r c o s a r r e s t e d
and d e t a i n e d t h o u s a n d s o f c r i t i c s and o p p o s i t i o n l e a d e r s ;
d i s c l o s e d t h e P h i l i p p i n e C o n g r e s s ; c l o s e d down t h e
i n d e p e n d e n t P r e s s ; s u s p e n d e d t h e r i g h t t o h h e h c o r v l l g ; and
t o o k f u l l c o n t r o l o v e r a l l a p p o i n t m e n t s t o t h e j u d i c i a r y .
The c l o s u r e o f C o n g r e s s and t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e
j u d i c i a r y removed e s s e n t i a l c h e c k s on e x e c u t i v e and m i l i t a r y
a u t h o r i t y . The power o f t h e l e g i s l a t i v e and j u d i c i a l
b r a n c h e s o f gove rnmen t c o n t i n u e d t o b e s e v e r e l y
c i r c u m s c r i b e d e v e n a f t e r martial law had been o f f i c i a l l y
l i f t e d i n 1981 .
A l though a r b i t r a r y a r res t s and d e t e n t i o n and t o r t u r e
were t h e most p r e v a l e n t human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e
martial l a w p e r i o d , t h e number of " d i s a p p e a r a n c e s " and
e x t r a - j u d i c i a l e x e c u t i o n s i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y i n t h e las t
f i v e y e a r s o f t h e H a r c o s gove rnmen t a f t e r martial law was
l i f t e d 1 . V i c t i m s i n c l u d e d p o l i t i c a l p a r t y w o r k e r s .
s t u d e n t s , p e a s a n t s , a l l s u s p e c t e d o f e n g a g i n g i n o r
s u p p o r t i n g ' s u b v e r s i v e activities.'Developments i n t h e
m i l i t a r y a l s o a f f e c t e d t h e human r i g h t s s i t u a t i o n u n d e r
Harcos r e g i m e .
S i n c e 1972 , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s was f a s t becoming a c o u n t r y
where t h e c h e a p e s t commodity was human l i f e .
M i l i t a r i z a t i o n , m a n i f e s t e d m a i n l y i n ac ts o f v i o l e n c e
a g a i n s t c i v i l i a n s , h a s had its most t e l l i n g e f f e c t s on t h e
p e a s a n t s i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e where t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e
1 -es. Unlawful k-as by r v and P o w , (London: Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l ,
1 9 8 8 ) . p.7.
F i l i p i n o p e o p l e l i v e . P a c i f i c a t i o n campa igns , t e rmed by
t h e P h i l i p p i n e m i l i t a r y a s " p e a c e d r i v e " , were c o n d u c t e d i n
many p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y which i r o n i c a l l y had c a u s e d g r o s s
human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s s u c h a s mass arrests and d e t e n t i o n ,
t o r t u r e , " s a l v a g i n g s " , f o r c e d e v a c u a t i o n , m a s s a c r e s ,
' d i s a p p e a r a n c e s ' d u r i n g r a i d s and z o n i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e
b a r r i o s , and o t h e r m i l i t a r y i n c u r s i o n s .
N a t u r e o f Human R i g h t s V i o l a t i o n s
1. Arrest and D e t e n t i o n
A r b i t r a r y a r res t and i n d e f i n i t e d e t e n t i o n w i t h a u t
c h a r g e o r t r i a l were made p o s s i b l e by a series o f
P r e s i d e n t i a l O r d e r s and D e c r e e s . I n i t i a l l y i n t e n d e d t o
f a c i l i t a t e t h e a r res t o f t h o s e s u s p e c t e d o f h a t i o n a l
s e c u r i t y o f f e n c e s , t h e d e c r e e s g r a d u a l l y expanded t h e r a n g e
o f o f f e n c e s t o i n c l u d e e v e r y t h i n g f r o m ' s p r e a d i n g f a l s e
rumors ' t o c a t t l e r u ~ t l i n g . ~ P e o p l e a r r e s t e d on t h e s e
g r o u n d s were o f f i c i a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as ' P u b l i c O r d e r
T h i s H a s r e v e a l e d d u r i n g my v i s i t s t o s e v e r a l P r o v i n c e s which a r e known a s m i l i t a r i z e d r e g i o n s . A l s o , t h i s h a s been p r o v e d by t h e f a c t - f i n d i n g m i s s i o n r e p o r t s o f s e v e r a l n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l human r i g h t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s .
P h i l i p ~ i n e s : Un lawfu l k i l l i n g . . . , oD.cit.. p . 6 .
V i o l a t o r s ' (POVs). T h e s e r u l e s s p e c i f i e d c a t e g o r i e s o f
a u t h o r i s e d a r r e s t s , t h e p r o p e r c o n d u c t o f law e n f o r c e m e n t
o f f i c e r s making a r r e s t s ; t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r r e p o r t i n g
arrests; t h e r e c o g n i z e d d e t a i n i n g a u t h o r i t i e s t o whom an
a r r e s t e d p e r s o n s h o u l d b e d e l i v e r e d ; t h e t r e a t m e n t and
s a f e g u a r d s t o be a c c o r d e d t o d e t a i n e e s i n c l u d i n g r i g h t s o f
a c c e s s ; t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r t h e d e l i v e r y o f d e t a i n e e s t o a
p r o p e r j u d i c i a l a u t h o r i t y ; t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r c h a r g i n g and
t r y i n g o f d e t a i n e e s .
A f t e r t h e l i f t i n g of martial law, c h a n g e s i n t h e s e
r u l e s were announced , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e
t u r n i n g o v e r o f t h e d e t a i n e e s t o t h e c i v i l i a n a u t h o r i t i e s o f
d e t e n t i o n , and o t h e r j u d i c i a l p r o c e d u r e s . However, it had
been p roved t h a t t h e announced c h a n g e s d i d n o t a l t e r t h e
p a t t e r n e s t a b l i s h e d d u r i n g martial law whereby t h o s e
a u t h o r i s e d t o arrest and d e t a i n s u s p e c t e d ' P u b l i c O r d e r
V i o l a t o r s ' , s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d i s r e g a r d e d t h e e s t a b l i s h e d
p r o c e d u r e s s e t o u t i n t h e r u l e s . U o r e o v e r , d e v i a t i o n f rom
t h e r u l e s was r a r e l y o n l y t e c h n i c a l o r minor b u t e n t a i l e d
s e r i o u s v i o l a t i o n o f t h e r i g h t s o f t h e p e r s o n a r r e s t e d and
d e t a i n e d , i n c l u d i n g s u c h f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t s a s t h e r i g h t t o
R e p o r t o f an Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i s s i o n t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s - 1981, (London : Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1 9 8 1 ) , p.65.
l i f e and t h e r i g h t n o t t o be s u b j e c t e d t o t o r t u r e o r o t h e r
c r u e l , inhuman and d e g r a d i n g t r e a t m e n t . I n a h i g h
p r o p o r t i o n of c a s e s , t h e methods u s e d by government a g e n t s
a g a i n s t a l l e g e d o p p o n e n t s i n n o way a p p r o x i m a t e d t o t h e
p r e s c r i b e d a r r e s t and d e t e n t i o n p r o c e d u r e s . T h e s e . m e t h o d s
i n c l u d e d o u t r i g h t e x e c u t i o n s and a b d u c t i o n s t o secret p l a o e s
o f d e t e n t i o n ( ' s a f e h o u s e s ' ) and i s o l a t e d p l a c e s where t h e
v i c t i m was t o r t u r e d a n d , i n some i n s t a n c e s , f i n a l l y
e x e c u t e d .
C a t e g o r i e s o f ' A u t h o r i s e d A r r e s t ' s p e c i f i e d d i f f e r e n t
k i n d s of a r r e s t s u n d e r martial law s u c h a s , A r r e s t by
s e a r c h and s e i z u r e o r d e r (ASSO) i s s u e d by t h e P r e s i d e n t , t h e
M i n i s t e r of N a t i o n a l Defence o r a d u l y d e s i g n a t e d
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , a r r e s t by w a r r a n t i s s u e d by a compe ten t
c o u r t , c i v i l o r m i l i t a r y , c i t i z e n s a r r e ~ t . ~ The a u t h o r i t y
o f t h e M i n i s t e r o f N a t i o n a l D e f e n c e and members of t h e AFP
t o i s s u e ASSO's was f o r m a l l y l i m i t e d by LO1 No.772 o f 27
November, 1978 , which r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d b e p r i o r
c l e a r a n c e by t h e P r e s i d e n t .
Even a f t e r t h e l i f t i n g o f m a r t i a l l a w c a t e g o r i e s o f
a u t h o r i z e d a r r e s t r ema ined b r o a d l y similar t o t h o s e
L e t t e r o f I n s t r u c t i o n ( L O I ) No.621 of 2 7 t h O c t o b e r 1 9 7 7 .
p e r m i t t e d u n d e r martial law. The c o n t i n u e d s u s p e n s i o n o f
t h e p r i v i l e g e of t h e w r i t o f -reus i n n a t i o n a l
s e c u r i t y c a s e s , a s p r o v i d e d f o r i n P r o c l a m a t i o n No.2045, was
r e g a r d e d a s p r o v i d i n g t h e P r e s i d e n t w i t h t h e Power t o o r d e r
t h e d e t e n t i o n o f p e o p l e b e l i e v e d t o b e ' engaged i n crimes
r e l a t e d t o ' n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y ' w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o t h e
c o u r t s . T h e s e o r d e r s were known a s P r e s i d e n t i a l O r d e r s of
A r r e s t (POA) and P r e s i d e n t i a l Commitment O r d e r s (PCO). But
i n p r a c t i c e a r r e s t and d e t e n t i o n were commonly c a r r i e d o u t
w i t h o u t POA o r PC0 and t h a t t h e l a t t e r were i s s u e d w i t h o u t
r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c i v i l j u d i c i a r y . 6 T h e s e p r a c t i c e s were
a p p a r e n t l y l e g i t i m i s e d , which r e a f f i r m e d t h a t i n n a t i o n a l
s e c u r i t y c a s e s p e o p l e m i g h t n o r m a l l y b e a r r e s t e d and
d e t a i n e d o n l y upon p r o p e r w a r r a n t i s s u e d by a j u d g e b u t
added t h e p r o v i s i o n t h a t a m i l i t a r y commander o r head o f a
law e n f o r c e m e n t agency migh t a p p l y t o t h e P r e s i d e n t t h r o u g h
t h e H i n i s t e r o f N a t i o n a l Defence f o r a PC0 when r e s o r t t o
j u d i c i a l p r o c e s s is n o t p o s s i b l e o r e x p e d i e n t w i t h o u t
e n d a n g e r i n g p u b l i c o r d e r and s a f e t y .
The gove rnmen t had i s s u e d r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g t h e
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p e r s o n s making an ar res t , t h e times o f d a y
A 1 R e p o r t 1981, p o . c i t . , p . 6 6 .
d u r i n g which an a r r e s t may o r d i n a r i l y be made and t h e d e g r e e
o f f o r c e which may l e g i t i m a t e l y b e u s e d i n making an
a r r e s t . The c o d e o f c o n d u c t f o r PC s p e c i f i e s t h e
c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n which an a r r e s t may l e g a l l y be made.
D e s p i t e a l l t h e s e r e g u l a t i o n s , a r r e s t s were t a k i n g p l a c e
on a l a r g e s c a l e w i t h o u t o b s e r v i n g t h e r u l e s and
r e g u l a t i o n s .
P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s had i s s u e d a Government O r d e r c r e a t i n g
a N a t i o n a l ~ o m m a n d ~ f o r t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f D e t a i n e e s
(CAD) h e l d u n d e r martial l a w r e g u l a t i o n s , CAD was d e s c r i b e d
a s ' t h e f o c a l p o i n t f o r c o - o r d i n a t i o n and i n t e g r a t i o n o f
government a c t i v i t i e s f rom n a t i o n a l down t o p r o v i n c i a l
l e v e l , i n v o l v i n g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a l l p e r s o n s a r r e s t e d
o r app rehended i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h P r e s i d e n t i a l P r o c l a m a t i o n
No. 1081 ' . 8 R u l e s o f CAD c o v e r e d p r o c e d u r e s f o r d e l i v e r y o f
a r r e s t e d p e r s o n s t o p r o p e r p l a c e s of d e t e n t i o n and f o r
r e p o r t i n g a r res t s . These r u l e s s p e c i f i e d t h a t an a r r e s t e d
p e r s o n s h o u l d b e booked a t t h e n e a r e s t AFP u n i t and t h e n
d e l i v e r e d t o a n I n q u e s t A u t h o r i t y w i t h i n be tween 1 8 t o 72
h o u r s , d e p e n d i n g on t h e g r a v i t y o f t h e a l l e g e d o f f e n c e - 1 8
G . 0 No.16 d a t e d 1 6 t h November. 1872 .
* C o l o n e l Simplicia S . Onano, The CAD s y s t e m , p . 6 , q u o t e d i n R e p o r t o f an Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l H i s s i o n t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , 1981 , PO&-, p . 6 7 .
h o u r s f o r l i g h t o f f e n c e s ; 48 h o u r s f o r ' less g r a v e '
o f f e n c e s ; and 72 h o u r s f o r g r a v e o f f e n c e s . The government
had a l s o s e l e c t e d r e c o g n i s e d p l a c e s of d e t e n t i o n u n d e r t h e
CAD sys tem. T h e s e w e r e : s t o c k a d e s o f PC p r o v i n c i a l and
r e g i o n a l h e a d q u a r t e r s , Camp Bagong Diwa, t h e PC n a t i o n a l
h e a d q u a r t e r s a t Camp Crame, H e t r o m a n i l a ; t h e Maximum
S e c u r i t y U n i t , F o r t B o n i f a c i o , H e t r o m a n i l a ; and t h e s t o c k a d e
o f t h e I n t e l l i g e n c e and S e c u r i t y Agency o f t h e AFP (ISAFP),
Camp A g u i n a l d o , M e t r o m a n i l a . The r u l e s a l s o r e q u i r e d t h e
immedia te r e p o r t i n g of a r r e s t s t o t h e H i n i s t e r o f N a t i o n a l
Defence t h r o u g h t h e Commander o f CAD.^
P r i o r t o t h e l i f t i n g o f m a r t i a l law, i t was announced
t h a t d e t a i n e e s h e l d i n m i l i t a r y d e t e n t i o n c e n t r e s would be
t r a n s f e r r e d t o c i v i l i a n p r i s o n s u n d e r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of
t h e N a t i o n a l Bureau of P r i s o n s , ( a n agency of t h e M i n i s t r y
of J u s t i c e ) o n c e m a r t i a l law had been l i f t e d . A f t e r 17
J a n u a r y , 1981, a number o f p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e s were
t r a n s f e r r e d t o c i v i l i a n p r i s o n s , t h o u g h o t h e r s r ema ined i n
m i l i t a r y d e t e n t i o n c e n t r e s . Some o f t h o s e a r r e s t e d a f t e r
t h e l i f t i n g o f m a r t i a l law were a l s o h e l d u n d e r m i l i t a r y
Depar tment of N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e , D e p a r t m e n t a l O r d e r No.740, s e c t i o n 6 , c i t e d i n Amnesty U i s s i o n R e p o r t , LhidL
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . D e t a i n e e s t r a n s f e r r e d t o c i v i l a i n p r i s o n s
o f t e n f a c e d w o r s e p r i s o n c o n d i t i o n s . 10
Though an e x t e n s i v e a r r a y o f s a f e g u a r d s o f t h e r i g h t s
of t h e d e t a i n e e s was i n c l u d e d i n t h e 1973 C o n s t i t u t i o n , i n
G e n e r a l O r d e r s and L e t t e r s o f I n s t r u c t i o n s i s s u e d by t h e
P r e s i d e n t , i n t h e Rev i sed P e n a l Code and i n d e p a r t m e n t a l
d i r e c t i v e s and c i r c u l a r s ' h u n d r e d s of p e o p l e were a r r e s t e d
and d e t a i n e d w i t h o u t c h a r g e o r t r i a l .
I n 1984, t h e TFDP had r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e number o f
arrests f rom 1977 t o 1983 added up t o 11,270. The f i g u r e s
h a v i n g r e g u l a r l y i n c r e a s e d s i n c e t h e o n s e t o f Uartial law,
showed a sudden u p s u r g e i n 1981. F o r 1984, a r r e s t s had gone
u p t o 3,038, a n e a r l y 70 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e f rom 2,088 i n
1983. 11
The most common c a u s e s of a r r e s t s n o t e d i n s e v e r a l
n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l f a c t - f i n d i n g m i s s i o n s r e p o r t s
were t h e s u s p i c i o n o f membership i n t h e NPA a n d / o r knowledge
l0 T h i s was o b s e r v e d by a f a c t - f i n d i n g m i s s i o n s e n t t o R.P by Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l f rom 11-28 November, 1981.
1 l H i l i t a r i z a t i o n *"d vts S i t u a t i o n in t b , . . Trends andAnalvsis, P u b l i s h e d by t h i r t e e n
o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . 1984, p.11.
of s u p p o r t t o d i s s i d e n t s , ' ' w h i l e o t h e r s were s u p p o r t t o t h e
b o y c o t t o f t h e N a t i o n a l Assembly e l e c t i o n s , p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n
s t r i k e s and r a l l i e s p r o t e s t i n g government p o l i c i e s , and
p o s e s s i o n of a l l e g e d s u b v e r s i v e documen t s o r f i r e a r m s . Many
of t h e s e a r r e s t s were made d u r i n g a c t u a l m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s
which were u s u a l l y l a u n c h e d f o l l o w i n g NPA ambushes o r r a i d s .
T h e r e were a l s o i n c i d e n t s where a r r e s t s were made
b e c a u s e o f minor i n c i d e n t s . An example was t h e c a s e o f an
u n i d e n t i f i e d ICHDF member who was mugged by a g r o u p o f
c i v i l i a n s a f t e r he t h r e a t e n d t o s h o o t them. The f o l l o w i n g
d a y , a PC-ICHDF team came b a c k t o t h e b a r r i o and b e a t t h e
men r e s p o n s i b l e . L a t e r t h e c i v i l i a n s were a s k e d t o g o t o
t h e town h a l l and f o r c e d t o s i g n p a p e r s making them
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r ha rming t h e ICHDF member. They were a g a i n
b e a t e n and t h e n r e l e a s e d . l3 I n most c a s e s , t h e a l l e g e d
s u b v e r s i v e documen t s found i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n of t h o s e
a r r e s t e d were e i t h e r p l a n t e d o r were a c t u a l l y o t h e r
l2 Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l s e n t f a c t - f i n d i n g m i s s i o n s t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n 1975 , 1981; The Lawyers ' Commit tee f o r Human R i g h t s ( U . S . A ) i n 1985 .
l3 Human R i g h t s S i t u a t i o n . . . T r e n d s and A n a l y s i s , w . c i t . , pp .10-11 .
documen t s a r b i t r a r i r l y &en t h e ' s u b v e r s i v e ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
by t h e m i l i t a r y . 14
P e o p l e f rom a l l s e c t o r s o f s o c i e t y were i n c r e a s i n g l y
s u b j e c t e d t o a r b i t r a r y a r r e s t s . These i n c l u d e d p e a s a n t s ,
s t u d e n t s , l a b o u r e r s , human r i g h t s a c t i v i s t s , c h u r c h w o r k e r s .
j o u r n a l i s t s , e t c . Bu t t h e mos t common v i c t i m s were male
p e a s a n t s aged be tween 20 and 50. Female v i c t i m s . t h o u g h
r e l a t i v e l y fewer, were made t o s u f f e r t h e same i n d i g n i t i e s
a s t h e males. Recorded c a s e s showed t h a t 1 5 o l d p e r s o n s and
young c h i l d r e n were a r r e s t e d and p h y s i c a l l y harmed i n
i n s t a n c e s where t h e real t a r g e t s were a c t u a l l y p u t u n d e r
a r r e s t o r when t h e s u s p e c t s were n o t f o u n d , i n which c a s e
t h e y became t h e o b j e c t o f t h e i re o f t h e a r r e s t i n g u n i t s .
Many v i c t i m s o f a r b i t r a r y a r r e s t s were a l s o i n d i v i d u a l s
a c c i d e n t a l l y e n c o u n t e r e d by maraud ing m i l i t a r y e l e m e n t s i n
s t r e e t s , i n t h e f i e l d s o r w i t h i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f camps,
e s p e c i a l l y when t h e r e were m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s . I n many
cases, t h e c i v i l i a n s were s e v e r e l y b e a t e n d u r i n g
i n t e r r o g a t i o n s and i n some c a s e s , t h e i r h o u s e s were s e a r c h e d
l5 TFDP and EMJP s y s t e m a t i c a l l y documated s u c h c a s e s f rom a l l o v e r t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t h r o u g h t h e i r w i d e r n e t w o r k .
and b u r n e d . I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s , n e i t h e r w a r r a n t s o f
a r r e s t n o r w a r r a n t s t o s e a r c h t h e p r i v a t e r e s i d e n c e s were
p r e s e n t e d . l6 Not a l l p e r s o n s a r r e s t e d were p l a c e d i n
r e g u l a r d e t e n t i o n c e n t r e s ; t h e r e were a l s o cases where t h e y
were r e l e a s e d a f t e r u n d e r g o i n g i n t e r r o g a t i o n , m o s t l y
accompanied by v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f t o r t u r e .
A t h i r t e e n member f a c t f i n d i n g m i s s i o n team, which
v i s i t e d v a r i o u s p l a c e s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n Sep tember 1984,
t o f i n d o u t f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e s on t h e P h i l i p p i n e g o v e r n m e n t ' s
r e c o r d o f g r o s s human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s o b s e r v e d t h e
d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s and c i r c u m s t a n c e s wh ich u s u a l l y
o c c u r r e d d u r i n g a r r e s t .
(1) P e r s o n s a r r e s t e d are mauled , i n t e r r o g a t e d and t h r e a t e n e d on t h e v e r y s p o t o f a r r e s t b u t a r e n o t b r o u g h t t o camp, n o r o f f i c i a l l y c h a r g e d o f a n y t h i n g ;
( 2 ) P e r s o n s a r r e s t e d are b r o u g h t t o m i l i t a r y s a f e h o u s e s o r o t h e r o u t - o f - t h e way p l a c e s where t h e y u r s ~ y ~ t , e m n t i c a l l y t o r t u r e d w h i l e b e i n g i n t e r r o g a t e d b u t a r e r e l e a s e d w i t h o u t b e i n g b r o u g h t t o camp;
( 3 ) P e r s o n s a r r e s t e d a r e b r o u g h t t o a camp and s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t o r t u r e d w h i l e b e i n g i n t e r r o g a t e d b u t are
l6 V i c t i m s p e r s o n a l l y n a r r a t e d t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s t o t h i s R e s e a r c h e r a t t h e t i m e of i n t e r v i e w w i t h e x - p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e s f rom d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . (Ex- p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e s ' s t a t e l e v e l C o n v e n t i o n h e l d a t M a n i l a on December 1 4 , 1 9 8 6 ) .
a . r e l e a s e d a f t e r h a v i n g s i g n e d ' as ' s u r r e n d e r e e s ' .
b . r e l e a s e d a f t e r h a v i n g s i g n e d a f f i d a v i t s o f n o t h a v i n g been harmed by t h e m i l i t a r y
c . r e l e a s e d a f t e r h a v i n g been t r a n s f e r r e d t o d i f f e r e n t camps and are n o t c h a r g e d w i t h any c r i m e .
( 4 ) P e r s o n s a r r e s t e d a r e b r o u g h t t o a camp, t o r t u r e d and t h e n a l l e g e d l y r e l e a s e d b u t a r e n e v e r s e e n a l i v e a g a i n .
( 5 ) P e r s o n s a r r e s t e d are b r o u g h t t o a camp and s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t o r t u r e d w h i l e i n t e r r o g a t e d and d e t a i n e d f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f time w i t h o u t any o f f i c a i a l c h a r g e s b e i n g f i l e d a g a i n s t them;
( 6 ) P e r s o n s a r r e s t e d a r e b r o u g h t t o camp, t o r t u r e d i n t e r r o g a t e d , d e t a i n e d and o f f i c i a l l y a r g e d w i t h s u b v e r s i o n s e d i t i o n and r e l a t e d crimes. 'if
T h e r e were n o a p p a r e n t g u i d e l i n e s f o l l o w e d by a r r e s t i n g
u n i t s b u t t h e p a t t e r n was one o f a b u s e of p e r s o n a l r i g h t s i n
t h e c o u r s e of a r r e s t o r d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d i n which t h e
p e r s o n was u n d e r a r r e s t . A r r e s t s were made m o s t l y by
c o m p o s i t e teams o f s o l d i e r s coming f rom t h e d i f f e r e n t
b r a n c h e s of AEP name ly : P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y I n t e g r a t e d
N a t i o n a l P o l i c e (PC-INP), Army, M a r i n e s , A i r b o r n e and
ICHDE. T h e r e were a l s o many c a s e s o f a l l e g a t i o n s by
i n d i v i d u a l s s a y i n g t h a t c e r t a i n p e r s o n s were c o n n e c t e d w i t h
l7 Human R i g h t s S i t u a t i o n . . . . T r e n d s and A n a l y s i s w.ci t . , p . 1 1 .
18 bid.
t h e NPA e l e m e n t s . Hos t l i a b l e t o be a r r e s t e d were members
o f t h e f a m i l i e s of p e r s o n s known t o have j o i n e d t h e NPA o r
have gone u n d e r g r o u n d .
The government d e n i e d on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s t h a t t h e r e
were p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s , i n one b r e a t h , and a d m i t t e d t h e r e
were i n t h e n e x t . I n h i s wor ld p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e h e l d on 20
September 1974, t h e e v e o f t h e s e c o n d a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e
p r o c l a m a t i o n o f m a r t i a l law, t h e P r e s i d e n t s a i d t h a t " t h e
government h a s j u s t r e l e a s e d t h e l a s t o f t h e d e t e n t i o n
p r i s o n e r s who are n o t f a c i n g c r i m i n a l c h a r g e s " . l9 The
P r e s i d e n t f u r t h e r s t a t e d t h a t he " i s s u e d a d i r e c t i v e on h i s
l a s t b i r t h d a y , 11 S e p t e m b e r , f o r t h e release o f d e t a i n e e s
a g a i n s t whom n o c h a r g e s have been f i l e d i n c o u r t a l t h o u g h
t h e y a r e f a c i n g c h a r g e s i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i n g body". 20
However, j u s t t h r e e months l a t e r , i n December 1974, t h e
P r e s i d e n t announced on a n a t i o n w i d e r a d i o - t e l e v i s i o n a d d r e s s
t h a t he had j u s t o r d e r e d t h e r e l e a s e o f 822 p o l i t i c a l
p r i s o n e r s . I n t h e c o u r s e o f h i s a d d r e s s t h e P r e s i d e n t
s t a t e d :
19 Bulletl 'n, ( M a n i l a ) , Sep tember 22 , 1974.
I n o u r j a i l t o d a y , t h e r e a r e 5 ,234 p e o p l e u n d e r d e t e n t i o n , i n d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e martial law p r o c l a m a t i o n . 4 , 0 8 9 of t h e s e are o r d i n a r y c r i m i n a l o f f e n d e r s . 1 , 1 6 5 a r e p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e s . T h e s e i n c l u d e t h o s e c h a r g e d u n d e r R e p u b l i c Act 1700 , o b p e r w i s e known as t h e a n t i - s u b v e r s i o n act o f 1957 .
I n t h e c o u r s e o f h i s t e s t i m o n y b e f o r e t h e Subcommit tee
on I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i s a t i o n s o f t h e U.S House of
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n 1975 , f o r m e r P h i l i p p i n e Ambassador ,
Amel i to Mutuc, s t a t e d ;
R e g a r d i n g t h e c h a r g e s t h a t many p e r s o n s have been d e t a i n e d f o r a l o n g t i n e w i t h o u t b e i n g c h a r g e d , it would b e w o r t h w h i l e t o n o t e t h a t a few weeks a f t e r t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f m a r t i a l l a y 2 a b o u t 30 ,000 p e r s o n s were a r r e s t e d and d e t a i n e d .
I n t h e l i g h t o f t h e s e c o n t r a d i c t o r y s t a t e m e n t s f rom t h e
government and o t h e r r e l i a b l e s o u r c e s , it was i m p o s s i b l e t o
g e t t h e r e a l p i c t u r e o f t h e d e t a i l s on arrest and
d e t e n t i o n s . Hindanao had c o n s i s t e n t l y been t h e a r e a where
t h e h i g h e s t number of a r r e s t s o c c u r r e d . Met ro-Mani la had
been o b s e r v e d t o f o l l o w t h i s l e a d , w i t h t h e rest o f Luzon
a l t o g e t h e r came i n t h i r d .
Q u o t e d i n -es i n t h e P h l l l o r , . . . . . ( M a n i l a : Task F o r c e o f D e t a i n e e s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , 1976) , p . 7 .
22 U .S C o n g r e s s Commit tee on . I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , Human R i g h t s i n S o u t h Korea and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s : I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r U.S P o l i c y , H e a r i n g s o f 9 4 t h C o n g r e s s , 1st S e s s i o n , Washington D.C, 1975 , p . 2 8 6 .
T o r t u r e
The word ' t o r t u r e ' is d e f i n e d by t h e ' D e c l a r a t i o n
A g a i n s t T o r t u r e , ' a d o p t e d unan imous ly by t h e U N on 9
December 1975 , as f o l l o w s :
1. . . . t o r t u r e means any act by which s e v e r e p a i n o r s u f f e r i n g , w h e t h e r p h y s i c a l o r m e n t a l , is i n t e n t i o n a l l y i n f l i c t e d b y o r a t t h e i n s t i g a t i o n o f a p u b l i c o f f i c i a l on a p e r s o n f o r s u c h p u r p o s e s as o b t a i n i n g f rom him o r a t h i r d p e r s o n i n f o r m a t i o n o r c o n f e s s i o n , p u n i s h i n g f o r a n a c t he h a s commit ted o r i n t i m i d a t i n g him o r o t h e r p e r s o n s . I t d o e s n o t i n c l u d e p a i n o r s u f f e r i n g a r i s i n g o n l y f rom i n h e r e n t o r i n c i d e n t a l t o , l a w f u l s a n c t i o n s t o t h e e x t e n t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e s t a n d a r d minimum rules f o r t h e T r e a t m e n t o f P r i s o n e r s .
2 . T o r t u r e c o n s t i t u t e s an a g g r a v a t e d and d e l i b e r a t e form o f c r Y9l J
inhuman o r d e g r a d i n g t r e a t m e n t o r p u n i s h m e n t .
Fo r e v e r y v i c t i m who h a s unde rgone t o r t u r e , t h e f e e l i n g
o f c e a s i n g t o b e human is a l l t o o r ea l . Human b e i n g s are
n o t . n o r m a l l y k i c k e d , punched , b e a t e n , l o c k e d i n d e t e n t i o n
c e l l s o r p l a c e d i n s o l i t a r y c o n f i n e m e n t f o r n o a p p a r e n t
r e a s o n . N e i t h e r a r e t h e y o r d i n a r i l y s u b j e c t e d t o d e a t h
t h r e a t s l e n g t h y i n t e r r o g a t i o n s and h a r a s s m e n t o f l o v e d
o n e s . 24
23 U N D e c l a r a t i o n A g a i n s t T o r t u r e ( 1 9 7 5 ) , Art ic le 1.
24 B l a c k Book P r o j e c t Commit tee , . . 3 (Geneva : CCIA - WCC, 1988) , p . 1 2 .
I n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t o r t u r e u s u a l l y began when t h e
v i c t i m was a r r e s t e d o r a b d u c t e d , o f t e n a t n i g h t , a t home o r
i n a p l a c e where t h e r e were few o r n o w i t n e s s e s . The
a r r e s t i n g o f f i c e r s m i g h t b e i n c i v i l i a n a t t i r e o r i n u n i f o r m
b u t w i t h o u t name t a g s . They would i n t r o d u c e t h e m s e l v e s as
P o l i c e o r m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s . The a r r e s t would a l m o s t
a l w a y s b e w i t h o u t t h e n e c e s s a r y w a r r a n t and some t imes
marked a s an ' i n v i t a t i o n ' f o r q u e s t i o n i n g . T h e r e were a l s o
many i n s t a n c e s when a r r e s t was d o n e v i o l e n t l y t o t e r r o r h e
t h e v i c t i m s f a m i l y and n e i g h b o u r s i n t o s i l e n c e and
h e l p l e s s n e s s .
T h e r e were s e v e r a l c a s e s i d e n t i f i e d by n a t i o n a l and
i n t e r n a t i o n a l human r i g h t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s s t r o n g l y i n d i c t i n g
t h e Marcos a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f p e r p e t r a t i n g t o r t u r e s and o t h e r
f o r m s of m a l t r e a t m e n t o f p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e s . I n 1983, t h e
N e w York b a s e d I n t e r n a t i o n a l Lawyer s ' Commit tee f o r Human
R i g h t s n o t e d t h a t , ' B a r b a r i c f o r m s of t o r t u r e , u s u a l l y
a p p l i e d d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f incommunicado d e t e n t i o n i n secret
h o l d i n g p l a c e s , had become s t a n d a r d o p e r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e of
P h i l i p p i n e s e c u r i t y and i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r c e s . P e r s o n s s e i z e d
as a l l e g e d s u b v e r s i v e s were b e a t e n , s u f f o c a t e d , choked w i t h
water d e v i c e s , s u b j e c t e d t o e l e c t r i c s h o c k , b u r n e d , r a p e d .
and m u t i l a t e d ' . 2 5
D e s p i t e t h e d e n i a l s made by t h e gove rnmen t a b o u t t h e
numerous c o m p l a i n t s o f inhuman i n d i g n i t i e s s u f f e r e d by t h e
p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e s , a c c o u n t s have p i l e d up v i v i d l y
i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e r e a l i t y o f s u c h cases. Crude and
s o p h i s t i c a t e d methods a l i k e have been r e p e a t e d l y men t ioned
by t h e t h o u s a n d s who had f a l l e n v i c t i m s t o t h e m i l i t a r y . 26
D u r i n g i n t e r r o g a t i o n , d e n i a l s o f a c c u s a t i o n s were a l m o s t
i n s t a n t l y answered by b l o w s . From k i c k s , punches and
h i t t i n g w i t h r i f l e b u t t s , t h e t o r t u r e g r a d u a t e d t o more
c r u e l t e c h n i q u e s . Some o f t h e more common methods p r a c t i s e d
i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s were :
1. The' - t h e s k i n , u s u a l l y o f t h e f a c e , n e c k and abdomen, is burned by c i g a r a t t e b u t t s .
2. Pullinrt o f f f - some t imes t h e f i n g e r is a f t e r w a r d s d i p p e d i n a c i d i c s o l u t i o n .
3. me 'PomDvana' ( cvmba l s ) . known i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s as ' e l t e l e f o n o ' o r ' g o l p e s d e campana' - s l a p p i n g o f b o t h e a r s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , o f t e n c a u s i n g a r u p t u r e o f t h e e a r d r u m s i f d o n e r e p e a t e d l y o r with g r e a t f o r c e .
25 ph-. . . A C o w in ~risis. ( N e w York : Lawyers ' Commit tee f o r Human R i g h t s . 1983). pp .6 -7 .
Human R i g h t s S i t u a t i o n . . . . T r e n d s and A n a l y s i s , ~ o . c i t , , p . 13.
4 . Th-, known l o c a l l y a s 'NAWASA' ( f o r m e r acronym of t h e w a t e r w o r k s s y s t e m ) - g a l l o n s of w a t e r a r e poured i n t o t h e v i c t i m s mouth and n o s t r i l s i n d u c i n g a f e e l i n g o f d r o w n i n g . Sometimes t h e f a c e is c o v e r e d w i t h a p i e c e o f c l o t h o r a t o w e l and muddy w a t e r is u s e d . O t h e r times. c a r b o n a t e d d r i n k s a r e u s e d i n p l a c e o f w a t e r .
5 . 'Wet - t h e v i c t i m ' s head is submerged i n w a t e r o r s o i l e d t o i l e t bowl . The e f f e c t is s i m i l a r t o t h e w a t e r c u r e .
6 . 'Drv s u b m a r i n d - a p l a s t i c o r c e l l o p h a n e bag is u s e d t o c o v e r t h e v i c t i m ' s h e a d , c a u s i n g s u f f o c a t i o n .
7 . Electrocution, known l o c a l l y as 'MERALCO' ( t h e government - c o n t r o l l e d e l e c t r i c s e r v i c e company- - e l ec t r i c p r o d s o r w i r e s a t t a c h e d t o o r d i n a r y househo ld c u r r e n t a r e a p p l i e d t o t h e v i c t i m s body, u s u a l l y t h e g e n i t a l s .
8 . Russian roulette - t h e c y l i n d e r o f a r e v o l v e r l oaded w i t h a s i n g l e b u l l e t , u s u a l l y a d u d , is spun and t h e t r i g g e r p u l l e d t h e moment it s t o p s .
9 . Solitarv - t h e p r i s o n e r is i s o l a t e d i n a c e l l , u s u a l l y cramped and w i t h p o o r v e n t i l a t i o n . S o c i a l c o n t a c t even w i t h f e l l o w i n m a t e s is f o r b i d d e n . Some d e t a i n e e s have been s u b j e c t e d t o e x t r e m e l y p r o l o n g e d m i l i t a r y d e t e n t i o n .
10. Psvcholonical o r mental t o r t u r e - t h i s is said t o be one o f t h e w o r s t f o r m s o f t o r t u r e . The v i c t i m is t o l d t h a t i f h e d o e s n o t c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e t o r t u r e r s , harm w i l l come t o t h e v i c t i m ' s f a m i l y , f o r e x 5 q p l e h i s w i f e w i l l b e r a p e d o r t h e c h i l d r e n k i l l e d .
27 B l a c k Book P r o j e c t Commit tee , T e s t i m o n i e s . . . Qp.c i t . , pp .13 -14 .
I I I ~ n n , V U I In4 \ * t~ ,n ~ , r 1 hottn I ~ t r t ~ t r n n (.tern
p r a c t i c e d d u r i n g t h e Harcos e r a . I n t h e P h i l i p p i n e c o n t e x t ,
t o r t u r e d i d n o t a p p e a r a s i s o l a t e d a c t s o f v i o l e n c e
commit ted by u n d i s c i p l i n e d m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l , b u t was p a r t
o f a s y s t e m a t i c scheme f o r s u p p r e s s i n g d i s s e n t .
T o r t u r e e x i s t n o t o n l y b e c a u s e t h e r e are t o r t u r e s ,
b u t b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e a u t h o r i a t a r i a n g o v e r n m e n t s t h a t spawn
u n j u s t s o c i a l s y s t e m s . T h e s e a u t h o r i a t a r i a n g o v e r n m e n t s ,
w i t h t h e i r myopic v i e w p o i n t s s e e t o r t u r e a s n e c e s s a r y i n
o r d e r t o s u p p r e s s l e g i t i m a t e d i s s e n t and , i n t h e p r o c e s s ,
c o n s o l i d a t e t h e i r h o l d on power . They u s e n o t o n l y
t o r t u r e , b u t a l s o o t h e r f o r m s o f v i o l e n c e , c r e a t i n g a s y s t e m
t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e s t h e u s e o f f o r c e f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f
s t i f l i n g t h e v o i c e of t h e p e o p l e .
Not s u p r i s i n g l y , t o r t u r e t e c h n i q u e s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s
were s i m i l a r t o t h o s e t a u g h t and p r a c t i c e d by U.S s o l d i e r s
d u r i n g t h e Vietnam war, and t h o s e a l s o u s e d by o t h e r
r e p r e s s i v e r e g i m e s i n Asia and L a t i n Amer ica . I n t h e
P h i l i p p i n e s t o r t u r e t e c h n o l o g y was i m p o r t e d and c h a n n e l l e d
t h r o u g h t h e U.S m i l i t a r y c e n t r e s u n d e r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
M i l i t a r y and E d u c a t i o n T r a i n i n g (IHET) a g r e e m e n t and o t h e r
L i k e a l l o t h e r r e p r e s s i v e a u t h o r i t a r i a n r e g i m e s i n t h e
T ~ i r d World, t h e U a r c o s r e g i m e d i d n o t acknowledge t h e
p r a c t i c e of t o r t u r e i n e x t r a c t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , even t h o u g h
most p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e s had unde rgone c r u e l t r e a t m e n t a t
t\ie hands o f t h e m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l .
a:
o f
D s a p p e a r a n c e s t
s u c h m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e p a c t s be tween t h e U . S . A and t h e
P l i l i p p i n e s . I n 1979, d u r i n g h i s P h i l i p p i n e t o u r , f o r m e r
U . S A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l , Ramsey C l a r k , f o u n d t o r t u r e equ ipmen t
t h e AFP I n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e H e a d q u a r t e r s i n Camp Bago
B a n t a y . When he c o n f r o n t e d t h e o f f i c e r s w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e
s u c h equ ipmen t i n t h e m i l i t a r y camp, C o l . P e d r o
B s l l o a n e r o was q u o t e d as i n f o r m i n g C l a r k t h a t he had l e a r n e d
t ~ e t e c h n i q u e s i n F o r t Bragg and o t h e r key m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g
s - h o o l s i n t h e U.S.A.29
I A ' d i s a p p e a r a n c e ' is t h e s e i z u r e o f a p e r s o n by
g ve rnmen t o r t h e i r a g e n t s . Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n s i d e r s .Iat a d i s a p p e a r a n c e h a s o c c u r r e d whereve r t h e r e are
r a s o n a b l e g r o u n d s t o b e l i e v e t h a t a p e r s o n h a s been t a k e n
i l t o c u s t o d y by t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , o r w i t h t h e i r conn ivance" .
a d t h e a u t h o r i t i e s deny t h a t t h e v i c t i m is i n c u s t o d y . 30
D i s a p p e a r a n c e happens b e c a u s e a gove rnmen t is n e r v o u s
arid u n c e r t a i n a b o u t i ts a u t h o r i t y ; t h i s is o f t e n b e c a u s e i t
h ; ~ s s e i z e d power by f o r c e , w i t h o u t o b s e r v i n g p r o p e r
d s m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s e s . The p a t t e r n is t h e n s e t t o h o l d on t o
power by f o r c e and by i n t i m i d a t i o n . P e o p l e c r i t i c a l o f t h e
g o v e r n m e n t ' s p o l i c i e s and s y s t e m s are s e e n as a t h r e a t t o b e
e e i m i n a t e d .
o r
I n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t h e phenomenon o f ' d i s a p p e a r a n c e '
i n t r o d u c e d a f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l law
1972. Cases o f d i s a p p e a r a n c e s g e n e r a l l y p r a c t i c e d i n
A F i l i p i n o p o l i t i c a l a n a l y s t d e f i n e d d i s a p p e a r a n c e a s
a t r a g i c term u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e e q u a l l y t r a g i c
s i t u a t i o n of p e r s o n s d e t a i n e d p r e s u m a b l y by s e c u r i t y f o r c e s
p a r a m i l i t a r y g r o u p s and whose w h e r e a b o u t s are unknown , t o
f a m i l y , f r i e n d s o r l a w y e r " . 3 1
-, (London : Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l - 1 9 8 3 ) , p . 1 .
31 Ed. G a r c i a , " D i s a p p e a r a n c e and s a l v a g i n g ; Consequence M i l i t a r i z a t i o n of p o l i t i c s i n t h e T h i r d World", Lusona,
a n i l a ) , V o l . 1 1 , No.2, 1986 , p . 6 .
t h e P h i l i p p i n e s f a l l u n d e r f i v e c a t e g o r i e s . 32 I n t h e
f i r s t c a t e g o r y , a p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e n o r m a l l y a r r e s t e d
w i t h o u t an a p p r o p r i a t e w a r r a n t , o r w i t h a P r e v e n t i v e
D e t e n t i o n Act i s s u e d by no l e s s a p e r s o n t h a n H r H a r c o s , is
k e p t i n c o m p l e t e i s o l a t i o n f o r a p e r i o d r a n g i n g f rom weeks
t o s e v e r a l months b e f o r e h e is s u r f a c e d i n o n e d e t e n t i o n
o e n t r e o r a n o t h e r . H i s f a m i l y , d u r i n g s u c h p e r i o d o f
i s o l a t i o n , c a n n o t l o c a t e h i s w h e r e a b o u t s and t h e m i l i t a r y
a u t h o r i t i e s n o r m a l l y d e n y h a v i n g t h e p e r s o n i n t h e i r
c u s t o d y .
I n t h e s e c o n d c a t e g o r y , a p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e a r r e s t e d
u n d e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s where t h e r e a r e no w i t n e s s e s , o r where
w i t n e s s e s c a n n o t p o s i t i v e l y i d e n t i f y t h e a r r e s t i n g p e r s o n s ,
is n e v e r found a g a i n . I n t h e t h i r d c a t e g o r y , d e a d b o d i e s of
p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e s o r p o l i t i c a l d i s s e n t e r s are found i n
some i s o l a t e d s p o t s . T h i s method of d i s p o s i n g o f ' an
unwanted p r i s o n e r o r p o l i t i c a l d i s s e n t e r , o f t e n a f t e r
e a v i l y t o r t u r i n g him, is c a l l e d ' s a l v a g i n g ' by t h e m i l i t a r y
and t h e p o l i c e .
I n t h e f o u r t h c a t e g o r y , p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e s a r e
d e c l a r e d by t h e m i l i t a r y t o have been ' r e l e a s e d ' b u t a r e
b 32 FIND, B u l l e t i n of F a m i l i e s o f V i c t i m s D i s a p p e a r e d , ( a n i l a ) , 1985.
nowhere t o be f o u n d . I n y e t a n o t h e r c a t e g o r y , t h e f i f t h ,
p o l i t i c a l d i s s e n t e r s a r e k i l l e d o u t r i g h t and t h e i r b o d i e s
a r e d i s p o s e d o f t o h i d e any e v i d e n c e o f m i l i t a r y b r u t a l i t y .
These k i n d s o f ' d i s a p p e a r a n c e ' t e c h n i q u e were
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y p r a c t i c e d i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . If t o t a l
' d i s a p p e a r a n c e ' was n o t a matter o f gove rnmen t p o l i c y . t h e r e
were ample i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t e m p o r a r y ' d i s a p p e a r a n c e ' was,
a t l e a s t , s t a n d a r d o p e r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e (SOP) u s e d f o r
c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e s . I t had been n o t e d t h a t i n many
cases, m i l i t a r y i n t e l l i g e n c e and o p e r a t i n g u n i t s h o l d i n g
newly a r r e s t e d p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e s p r e v e n t e d r e l a t i v e s and
l a w y e r s f rom s e e i n g t h e i r i m p r i s o n e d k i n o r c l i e n t s f o r a
number o f weeks, o r e v e n mon ths . T h i s e v e n a f t e r
acknowledg ing e i t h e r p r i v a t e l y o r p u b l i c a l l y t h a t t h e
p e r s o n s c o n c e r n e d had been a r r e s t e d and were i n m i l i t a r y
c u s t o d y . T h e r e had been c a s e s , however , where t h e m i l i t a r y
a u t h o r i t i e s and even t o p o f f i c i a l s o f t h e H i n i s t r y o f
N a t i o n a l D e f e n c e c o n s i s t e n t l y d e n i e d h a v i n g i n c u s t o d y
c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l d e t a i n e e s who were s u r f a c e d a f t e r some
l e n g t h y p e r i o d .
The p r a c t i c e o f t e m p o r a r y d i s a p p e a r a n c e v i o l a t e s
P r e s i d e n t Marcos ' own o r d e r , made t h r o u g h Defence M i n i s t e r
J u a n Ponce E n r i l e , t h a t t h e f a m i l y o f any p e r s o n a r r e s t e d be
in fo rmed o f t h e a r res t w i t h i n p r e s c r i b e d p e r i o d s . 3 3
I n many c a s e s o f a r res ts u n d e r G e n e r a l O r d e r No.60.
L e t t e r o f I n s t r u c t i o n No.621 i s s u e d by P r e s i d e n t Marcos on
O c t o b e r 27 , 1977 a l s o had been v i o l a t e d . 3 4 The phenomenon
o f ' d i s a p p e a r a n c e ' became an e s t a b l i s h e d t r e n d i n t h e Marcos
e r a . I n 1984 , TFDP o b s e r v e d t h a t
I f ( t h e p r a c t i c e , p o l i c y o f ' d i s a p p e a r a n c e s ' ) seems t o r e f l e c t a s y s t e m a t i c scheme o f t h e government t o s e e k i n f o r m a t i o n on s u s p e c t e d s u b v e r s i v e s w h i l e t h e v i c t i m is incommunicado, o r t o e l i m i n a t e p o l i t i c a l d i s s e n t e r w i t h o u t g o i n g t h r o u g h t h e t e d i o u s p r o c e s s o f e f f e c t i n g a r r e s t and d e t e n t i o n . Moreover , t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e v i c t i m s b o d i e s c o u l d p r o v i d e a c o n v e n i e n t s h i e l d a g a i n g g p o s s i b l e c h a r g e s o f c u l p a b i l i t y f o r s u c h c r i m e s " .
The m i l i t a r y and t h e p a r a m i l i t a r y w a n t o n l y i g n o r e d t h e
P r e s i d e n t i a l D i r e c t i v e s and t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e phenomenon was
a t a h i g h r a t e . The o v e r a l l s t a t i s t i c s r e c o r d e d by t h e TFDP
f rom December 1975 t o December 1985 s u b s t a n t i a t e s t h i s f a c t .
33 G e n e r a l O r d e r No. 60, J u n e 24 , 1977 , (Government P o l i t i c a l C r i m e s ) The p r e s c r i b e d p e r i o d s men t ioned were 4 8 h o u r s i f t h e arrests were made i n Met ro Man i l a , and 72 h o u r s i f made i n o t h e r p l a c e s .
35 TFDP R e p o r t , J a n u a r y - J u n e , 1984
With in t h a t p e r i o d o f time 1209 p e o p l e d i s a p p e a r e d w i t h n o
e v i d e n c e of d e a t h .
-
PEOPLE DISAPPEARED DURING 1 9 7 5 - 1985
Year M e t r o m a n i l a Luzon V i s a y a s Hindanao
T o t a l 24 215 363 602
S o u r c e : T a s k F o r c e o f t h e D e t a i n e e s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s Documenta t ion S t a t i s t i c s
I t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e u s u a l t a r g e t s f o r ,
' d i s a p p e a r a n c e s ' were t h e p o o r and t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s e s o f
P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y . I n Me t ro -man i l a , t h e p r e m i e r . and
l a r g e s t u r b a n a r e a i n t h e c o u n t r y , t h e v i c t i m s o f
d i s a p p e a r a n c e s were o f t e n s t u d e n t a c t i v i s t s and
p r o f e s s i o n a l s . I n o t h e r r e g i o n s , t h o s e who d i s a p p e a r e d were
p e a s a n t s , t r a d e u n i o n i s t s , e t c . D e n i a l o f a c c o u n t a b i l i t y by
t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , and l a c k of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e
d i s a p p e a r e d p e r s o n ' s f a t e and c o n d i t i o n , were f a c t o r s which
make a d i s a p p e a r a n c e a c r u e l and inhuman pun i shmen t f o r t h e
d i s a p p e a r e d p e r s o n P s f a m i l y . A l t h o u g h t h e w r i t o f h&&3
carous had many t i n e s been invoked by t h e f a m i l i e s o f t h e
d i s a p p e a r e d , o n c e t h e m i l i t a r y d e n i e d a r r e s t and c u s t o d y o f
t h e v i c t i m , t h i s remedy f a i l e d and t h e Supreme C o u r t a g a i n
p r o v e d i t s p o w e r l e s s n e s s .
' S a l v a g i n g '
I n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t h e word ' s a l v a g e ' h a s a meaning
d i f f e r e n t f rom i t s l e x i c o n d e f i n i t i o n . The d i c t i o n a r y
d e f i n e s t h e word s a l v a g e as a n a c t o f s a v i n g f rom s h i p w r e c k ,
f i r e o r t h e l i k e . But i n t h e human r i g h t s j a r g o n i n t h e
P h i l i p p i n e s , i t means t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e : it r e f e r s t o t h e
a t r o c i o u s p r a c t i c e by t h e p o l i c e , t h e m i l i t a r y and
p a r a m i l i t a r y of ' e l i m i n a t i n g ' s u s p e c t e d e n e m i e s of t h e S t a t e
o r even i n n o c e n t c i v i l i a n s . The t e r m ' s a l v a g i n g ' is c o i n e d
by t h e m i l i t a r y f o r l i q u i d a t i n g o r d i s p o s i n g o f an
i n d i v i d u a l who is c o n s i d e r e d a t h r e a t t o ' n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y '
o r ' p u b l i c o r d e r ' . I t h a s become a synonym f o r t h e l o c a l
t e r m f o r e x t r a - j u d i c i a l k i l l i n g s by t h e m i l i t a r y .
Al though m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n a u t h o r i t i e s have
o f f i c i a l l y d i sowned and d e n i e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f s a l v a g i n g , it
is n e v e r t h l e s s w i d e l y b e l i e v e d t h a t s a l v a g i n g was c o v e r t l y
s a n c t i o n e d by t h e gove rnmen t . T h i s b e l i e f was m a i n l y founded
on t h e f a c t t h a t m i l i t a r y men r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s a l v a g i n g were
r a r e l y , i f e v e r , p u n i s h e d . The s a l v a g e d v i c t i m s were o f t e n
dumped i n w a t e r y g r a v e s , o r impa led l i k e p i g s r e a d y f o r
r o a s t i n g , b e h e a d e d , m u t i l a t e d (ears are c u t o f f and s t r u n g
t o g e t h e r as e v i d e n c e o f k i l l i n g s ) o r bu rned .36 V i c t i m s were
u s u a l l y p a s s e d o f f as c a s u a l i t i e s o f ' e n c o u n t e r s ' (armed
c l a s h e s be tween gove rnmen t t r o o p s and t h e NPA g u e r i l l a s ) ,
even i f t h e r e was ample e v i d e n c e t o p r o v e o t h e r w i s e . 3 7 The
number of s a l v a g e d v i c t i m s c o n t i n u e d t o grow as t h e H a r c o s
r e g i m e d e s p e r a t e l y hung on t o power by i n t e n s i f y i n g
m i l i t a r i z a t i o n .
TFDP had documented t h e c o n s i s t e n t r i se i n t h e number
o f s a l v a g e d v i c t i m s n a t i o n w i d e s i n c e 1877 . From 5 1 v i c t i m s
i n 1977, t h e f i g u r e r o s e t o 368 i n 1883 and 538 i n 1 € 1 8 4 . ~ ~
I t added t h a t s i n c e 1877 u n t i l 1883 , t h e r e were no l e s s t h a n
36 LO t h e face of adv-, ( H o l l a n d : Komite ng Sambayang P i l i p i n o , 1 9 8 2 ) , p . 1 3 .
37 B l a c k Book P r o j e c t Commit tee , m . c i t , , p . 1 4
38 bid.
1998 v i c t i m s . The s t e a d y i n c r e a s e a c c o r d i n g t o TFDP, is
i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e number o f i n d i v i d u a l s d e t a i n e d
on p o l i t i c a l g r o u n d s . T h i s compar i son r e f e r r e d t o t h e
number o f s a l v a g i n g c a s e s and t h e number o f l o n g - h e l d
d e t a i n e e s , o r t h o s e d e t a i n e e s who had been u n d e r d e t e n t i o n
f o r more t h a n one y e a r . Accord ing t o a TFDP s t a f f member,
' t h i s was s o b e c a u s e gove rnmen t saw s a l v a g i n g as less
cumbersome t h a n d e t a i n i n g s u s p e c t e d p o l i t i c a l o f f e n d e r s ,
which migh t e v e n c r e a t e l e g a l e n t a n g l e m e n t s and p o l i t i c a l
e m b a r r a s s m e n t . S imply c a l l i n g v i c t i m s ' r e b e l s ' j u s t i f i e d
t h e k i l l i n g s . A f t e r a l l , t h e d e a d t e l l n o t a l e s . 3 9
The p r o c e s s of ' s a l v a g i n g ' p l a g u e d t h e e n t i r e c o u n t r y ,
a l t h o u g h t h e r e were more c a s e s o f s a l v a g i n g i n h i g h l y
m i l i t a r i z e d a r e a s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n S o u t h e r n P h i l i p p i n e s .
More t h a n h a l f o f t h e t o t a l c a s e s of s a l v a g i n g o c c u r r e d i n
H indanao . S a l v a g i n g a f f e c t e d a l l s e c t i o n s , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f
a g e , s e x , c i v i l s t a t u s , r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n , employment,
p r o f e s s i o n , o r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e
e v i d e n c e s of t h e r e p o r t e d cases o f s a l v a g i n g , v i c t i m s were
farmers who l i v e d i n a n a r e a which t h e m i l i t a r y c o n s i d e r e d
' r e b e l - i n f e s t e d ' ; w o r k e r s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a s t r i k e t o
demand j u s t wages ; s t u d e n t s who opposed a n n u a l t u i t i o n f e e
39 Ibid.
i n c r e a s e ; p r i e s t s o r p a s t o r s who c o n c r e t i z e d t h e i r f a i t h by
s o c i a l a c t i o n ; human r i g h t s a c t i v i s t s who worked t o p romote
and p r o t e c t t h e r i g h t s o f t h e i r f e l l o w c i t i z e n s ;
p o l i t i c i a n s who opposed t h e r u l e o f Marcos, e tc . I n most
c a s e s , t h e m i l i t a r y and p a r a m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l i n v o l v e d
r ema ined u n i d e n t i i f e d . I n c a s e s where t h e m i l i t a r y men
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e l i q u i d a t i o n had been i d e n t i f i e d ,
w i t n e s s e s t o t h e murder were o f t e n h a r a s s e d and i n t i m i d a t e d
i n t o k e e p i n g s i l e n t . I n 1984 , a commission a p p o i n t e d by
n a t i o n a l human r i g h t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s t o s t u d y t h e P h i l i p p i n e
g o v e r n m e n t ' s r e c o r d o f g r o s s human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s s t a t e d
t h a t , ' w h i l e t h e r e p o r t was b e i n g p r e p a r e d , a j o u r n a l i s t , a
l a w y e r , a human r i g h t s a d v o c a t e and a c i t y mayor were k i l l e d
i n s e p a r a t e i n c i d e n t s . A l l had been p r o m i n e n t c r i t i c s o f
t h e Marcos r e g i m e ' . 40 The v i c t i m s were m o s t l y community
l e a d e r s c r i t i c a l o f t h e gove rnmen t . The k i l l i n g s were done
t o i n s t i l f e a r i n t h e l o c a l p e o p l e , and t o be a w a r n i n g t o
them a g a i n s t s u p p o r t i n g t h e a n t i - g o v e r n m e n t f o r c e s .
Massacres
Mass m u r d e r , o f t e n i n t h e s p e c i f i c fo rm o f open
m a s s a c r e , p e r p e t u a t e d a g a i n s t o r d i n a r y p e a s a n t s - men,
40 Human R i g h t s S i t u a t i o n . . . . T r e n d s and A n a l y s i s , p o . c i t . , p . 4 .
women, c h i l d r e n - young and o l d a l i k e - g a v e f u r t h e r
e v i d e n c e of t h e i n c r e a s i n g b l a t a n c y and r u t h l e s s n e s s w i t h
which t h e r e g i m e was p r e s e n t l y p u r s u i n g i ts p o l i c y o f
p r e s e r v i n g n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y . The i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y o f
m a s s a c r e s i n d i c a t e d an e m e r g i n g p a t t e r n r a t h e r t h a n t h e i r
i s o l a t e d i n c i d e n c e .
I n s e v e r a l o f t h e cases mass m u r d e r s o c c u r r e d where
t h e r e was s t r o n g r e s i s t a n c e o r where economic i n t e r e s t s were
a t s t a k e . They were commi t t ed by b o t h t h e m i l i t a r y and
p a r a m i l i t a r y g r o u p s and p e r p e t r a t e d i n t h e name o f ' p u b l i c
o r d e r ' . T h i s o f t e n camouf l aged t h e u n d e r l y i n g economic
r e a s o n s f o r t h e m a s s a c r e s .
The m a s s a c r e i n Masaymon, S o u t h e r n L e y t e on March 23 ,
1982, was a clear e v i d e n c e o f t h i s . Nine p e o p l e were k i l l e d
by t h o P C , t h ~ i r saon rmndina from 3 to 18 y a ~ r u . The f a c t -
f i n d i n g m i s s i o n t o L e y t e i n t h e wake o f t h e massacre, l i n k e d
t h e m a s s a c r e w i t h t h e m i l i t a r y ' s f i v e - y e a r o l d
c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y campaign i n t h e a r e a . M i l i t a r i z a t i o n
began t h e r e as f a r b a c k as 1876, c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h e
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e I m e l d a R e s e t t l e m e n t P r o j e c t i n t h e
r e g i o n . 41 I n t h a t y e a r , t h e l a n d of a b o u t f i f t y t h o u s a n d
41 n . R~~~~~~ ( ~ 9 8 2 - m, C o m p i l a t i o n o f R e p o r t s f rom f a c t - f i n d i n g m i s s i o n s o r g a n i s e d by Ecumen ica l Movement f o r J u s t i c e and P e a c e , ( M a n i l a ) , p . 2 .
f a m i l i e s was d e c l a r e d ' f o r e s t a l ' l a n d by t h e M i n i s t r y o f
A g r a r i a n Reform, and was t a k e n o v e r f o r r e s e t t l e m e n t s i t e s .
The f a m i l i e s were o f f e r e d t h r e e h e c t a r e s i n c o m p e n s a t i o n .
However, some o f t h e p r o j e c t s i t e s were a c t u a l l y n o t
f o r e s t a l a r e a s and had l o n g b e e n c u l t i v a t e d . The o t h e r
anomaly a r o s e f r o m t h e r e p o r t e d p r e s e n c e o f g o l d and c o p p e r
o r e s i n t h e p r o j e c t s i t e s , a deve lopmen t t h a t a r o u s e d
s u s p i c i o n s a b o u t t h e p r o j e c t s ' u l t e r i o r economic m o t i v e s ' . 4 2
T h e s e s u s p i c i o n s were g i v e n c r e d e n c e when a German m i n i n g
f i r m a r r i v e d i n 1981, and c o n d u c t e d tes ts i n t h e area.
P r o t e s t s began a s e a r l y as 1976. I m m e d i a t e l y , t h e i r o n arm
o f t h e s t a t e became e v i d e n t . The massacre o f n i n e p e o p l e
was j u s t one f u r t h e r s t e p i n t h e r e g i m e ' s p o l i c y o f
r e p r e s s i o n i n t h e a r e a .
M a s s a c r e s o f a c t i v e r e b e l s u p p o r t e r s i n h o t b e d r u r a l
a r e a s i n Hindanao were c o n s i d e r e d d e s p e r a t e moves by t h e
m i l i t a r y a f t e r s e v e r a l v a i n a t t e m p t s t o c o n t a i n and t rap t h e
h i t - a n d - r u n g u e r i l l a s who were o f t e n times g i v e n s h e l t e r by
t h e c i v i l i a n s . O r d i n a r y c i t i z e n s were t h u s r e p r e s s e d w i t h
i m p u n i t y and even c h i l d r e n and p r e g n a n t women were n o t
s p a r e d . T h e r e was an a v e r a g e o f two t o t h r e e m a s s a c r e s a
month a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d n a t i o n w i d e . I n
Mindanao a l o n e , where 77 p e r c e n t o f t h e m a s s a c r e s o c c u r r e d
f rom J a n u a r y t o O c t o b e r 1984, v i c t i m s t o t a l l e d 158, n e a r l y
e q u a l l i n g t h e f i g u r e s f o r 1983 which had a t o t a l o f 28
m a s s a c r e s and 159 k i l l e d . 4 3
Bombing, S t r a f i n g and B u r n i n g
Mass a b u s e s and v i o l a t i o n s o f human r i g h t s were f u r t h e r
h e i g h t e n e d by t h e more f r e q u e n t r e s o r t t o methods o f
w a r f a r e . I n what was r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e Vietnam war,
v i l l a g e s were bombed, s t r a f e d o r s h e l l e d i n a n e f f o r t t o
t e r r o r i s e t h e p o p u l a t i o n and f l u s h o u t t h e NPA g u e r i l l a s .
Mindanao i n p a r t i c u l a r , had s u f f e r e d from t h e e s c a l a t i o n o f
v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t t h e p e o p l e , which was t a n t a m o u n t t o open
w a r f a r e .
I n 1883, f i f t e e n bombing i n c i d e n t s were r e c o r d e d i n
Mindanao w i t h a t o t a l c a s u a l i t y of 73 c i v i l i a n s w h i l e 102
p e r s o n s were k i l l e d i n a t o t a l o f 47 i n c i d e n t s o f s t r a f i n g .
F o r t h e f i r s t h a l f o f 1984, a t o t a l o f 54 p e r s o n s were
k i l l e d and 35 wounded i n Mindanao. 44 I n 1984, bombings and
43 Human R i g h t s and M i l i t a r i z a t i o n . . . oo.cit., p . 8
44 Fac t - f i--ion ReD& , December 1984. FFM o r g a n i s e d by Nine o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , ( M a n i l a : EMJP, 1 9 8 4 . )
b u r n i n g s o c c u r r e d m o s t l y i n t h e p r o v i n c e s o f Lanao d e l S u r
and Agusan d e l N o r t e , b o t h i n H indanao .
S t r a f i n g i n c i d e n t s were r e p o r t e d e v e n i n areas o u t s i d e
of Hindanao - i n Nueva E c i j a , t h e C o r d i l l e r a and i n Samar.
I n B a t a n , f o r example , on J a n u a r y 7 , 1982, c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s
of t h e PC and t h e m i l i t a r y s e c r e t u n i t s t r a f e d a house i n
b a r r i o Wakas, P i l a r f o l l o w i n g an i n t e l l i g e n c e r e p o r t t h a t
s u b v e r s i v e s were h i d i n g i n t h e h o u s e . F i v e s u s p e c t s
r e p o r t e d l y went o u t o f t h e house t o s u r r e n d e r b u t were
h e r d e d b a c k t o t h e house where t h e y were k i l l e d . The
m i l i t a r y c l a i m e d t h a t i t was a n ' e n c o u n t e r ' . 45
Bombings t o o k a more s i n i s t e r t u r n w i t h t h e u s e o f
c h e m i c a l bombs. The P h i l i p p i n e gove rnmen t v e h e m e n t l y d e n i e d
t h e u s e o f c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e i n t h e i r c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y
o p e r a t i o n s , b u t t h e s u r v i v o r s o f Landengan , Lanao d e l S u r
have a t t e s t e d t o t h e v a r i o u s e f f e c t s t h e s e new t y p e s o f
bombs had had on them. They had been exposed t o enough
bombings t o know t h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l bombs were n o t t h e o n e s
d r o p p e d on them t h o s e d a y s i n A u g u s t . S u r v i v o r s d e s c r i b e d
t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l c h e m i c a l bombs a s c o n t a i n e d i n r e d
c a n i s t e r s which b u r s t i n t o f l a m e upon t o u c h i n g g r o u n d and
t h a t t h e v i c t i m s e x p e r i e n c e d s t i n g i n g p a i n as i f t h e y were
p i e r c e d w i t h n e e d l e s , c o u p l e d w i t h i t c h i n e s s . 46
Burn ing o f h o u s e s i n t h e b a r r i o s was c o n d u c t e d i n
s e v e r a l a r e a s . B a r r a n g a y Camp Cuevas a p e n s a n t v i l l a g e i n
E a s t e r n Samar w i t n e s s e d t h e b u r n i n g o f 1 2 h o u s e s on F e b r u a r y
20, 1983 by a p l a t o o n o f s o l d i e r s r e p o r t e d l y b e l o n g i n g t o
t h e 5 9 t h B c T . ~ ~ The same 5 9 t h BCT burned down 36 h o u s e s i n
t h e v i l l a g e o f Caga d a h a , n e a r Guinapundan town. 48 The
b u r n i n g s a p p e a r e d t o b e a c a l c u l a t e d m i l i t a r y move t o
d i s c o u r a g e c i v i l i a n s f rom s u p p o r t i n g NPA r e b e l s .
The 1 a . t e s t t r e n d s , f rom i n d i v i d u a l s a l v a g i n g and
m a s s a c r e s , t o t h e more f r e q u e n t r e s o r t t o t ac t i c s l i k e
s h e l l i n g and s t r a f i n g i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n
d r i v e had s h i f t e d g e a r s and t h a t t h e p e o p l e were b e i n g
s u b j e c t e d t o more and more i n t e n s e r e p r e s s i o n .
8. S t r a t e g i c H a m l e t t i n g and Rase E v a c u a t i o n
S t r a t e g i c h a m l e t t i n g is a m i l i t a r y p r a c t i c e o f g r o u p i n g
t o g e t h e r v i l l a g e r e s i d e n t s f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f i s o l a t i n g t h e
46 peace is an I-, ( U a n i l a : G a b r i e l l a ) , Unpub l i shed R e p o r t
47 "Arson and o t h e r C r i m e s i n C o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y " , g,tarunnan, ( U a n i l a ) , Vo l . 111, No.IV, Augus t -October 1983 .
48 bid.
insurgen'ts and depriving them support of the population. By
persuasion or coercion, families are made to live inside
village clusters which were closely monitored by the
military.
Strategic hamletting was a policy widely employed by
American military advisers in Vietnam. In the end, it was
proven to be a failure because it was not able to deter the
growth of insurgency in South Vietnam. As a failed
strategy, it was again applied in the Philippine counter-
insurgency effort even as military and governnent
authorities continued to deny it. The policy of hamletting
was euphemistically referred to by the military
as'reconcentration', 'grouping' or 'live in'. The rationale
behind the scheme, according to the military, is the
'mutuality of security', meaning that in hamlets the people
and the military can work together for their own
'protection'.
In Vietnam, a strategic hamlet was a virtual military
camp. It was fenced in and guarded by armed civilians to
discourage infiltration. But somehow, the insurgents
infiltrated the population. In the Philippines, hamletting
was done through threats and coercion, and the population
was subjected to atrocities and many forms of harassments,
r a n g i n g from z o n i n g t o o u t r i g h t a r t i l l e r y bombing.
T e r r o r i z e d , t h e p e o p l e were f o r c e d t o f l e e . The p r i m a r y
r e a s o n f o r t h e s t r a t e g y f rom t h e m i l i t a r y v i e w p o i n t was t o
d i s m a n t l e t h e mass b a s e of t h e New P e o p l e ' s Army and d e p r i v e
them o f t h e i r s o u r c e o f l o g i s t i c a l s u p p o r t .
The h a m l e t c e n t r e s were e s t a b l i s h e d i n p l a c e s
d e s i g n a t e d by m i l i t a r y o f f i c i a l s . U s u a l l y , t h e e v a c u e e s
were p l a c e d i n S c h o o l b u i l d i n g s and v i l l a g e c e n t r e s . I n
many c a s e s , l i k e i n L a a c , Davao d e l N o r t e i n 1981 and i n
Z inu dungan v a l l e y , Cagayan i n 1982 , t h e p e o p l e were made t o
c o n s t r u c t s m a l l bunk h o u s e s made from bamboo. 49 curfew was
imposed and t r a v e l i n and o u t o f t h e h a m l e t was c o n t r o l l e d .
Vaca ted v i l l a g e s were s e a l e d o f f by t h e m i l i t a r y and were
d e c l a r e d ' f r e e - f i r e z o n e s ' . I n t h e s e p l a c e s , anyone c o u l d
be s h o t a t s i g h t .
The p o l i c y n a t u r a l l y a f f e c t e d t h e l i v e s of t h e o r d i n a r y
p e o p l e a d v e r s e l y . Eve ry d a y t h e y were f o r c e d t o walk miles
f rom t h e h a m l e t c e n t r e s t o t h e i r f a r m s . S a f e t y p a s s e s were
r e q u i r e d e v e r y t i m e t h e y l e f t t h e h a m l e t . A c u r f e w f rom
dawn t o d u s k was imposed, g i v i n g t h e r u r a l f o l k l e s s t i m e t o
49 pr imer . . on nllltarization, ( M a n i l a : Ecumenica l Movement f o r J u s t i c e and P e a c e ) , p . 9 .
L I I I L r r . A~~ybrjtly c ~ ~ u g t ~ t v i o l a t 111d I.hn c-r~rfow wn::
a u t o m a t i c a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a r e b e l and c o u l d be s h o t a t s i g h t .
Under s u c h t e n s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e f a r m e r s t h e m s e l v e s o f t e n
r e f u s e d t o go t o t h e i r l a n d f o r f e a r o f b e i n g a t t a c k e d by
m i l i t a r y men o r m i s t a k e n a s r e b e l s . T h e r e have been
i n s t a n c e s where f a r m l o t s were d e c l a r e d by t h e m i l i t a r y as
" f r e e f i r e z o n e s " o r "no man ' s l a n d " . 5 0
'She e n t r y o f food i n t o t h e h a m l e t was a l s o s e v e r e l y
r e s t r i c t e d . Each f a m i l y was g i v e n a q u o t a o f food and any
e x c e s s was c o n f i s c a t e d t o p r e v e n t i t f rom r e a c h i n g t h e
r e b e l s . The meagre food i n t h e h a m l e t s had t o be s h a r e d
w i t h t h e m i l i t a r y and p a r a m i l i t a r y t r o o p s and t h e i r
f a m i l i e s . 51 T h e s e s t r i c t r u l e s imposed by t h e m i l i t a r y made
s t a r v a t i o n a s t a r k r e a l i t y i n h a m l e t s . Lack of n u t r i t i o u s
food weakened t h e body, made i t s u s c e p t i b l e t o d i s e a s e s .
U n s a n i t a r y l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s , t r i g g e r e d o u t b r e a k s o f
e p i d e m i c d i s e a s e s . C h i l d r e n were o f t e n t h e f i r s t v i c t i m s .
I n t h e S i t i o o f T i b u l o , S t a C r u z , Davao d e l N o r t e , a f a c t -
f i n d i n g m i s s i o n r e p o r t e d 40 d e a t h s f rom v a r i o u s i l l n e s s e s
50 B l a c k Book P r o j e c t Commi t t ee , QU. p . 1 3 8
51
s i n c e t h e S i t i o was h a m l e t t e d i n 1 9 8 1 . ~ ~ Many were s a i d t o
b e d y i n g a t t h a t t i m e w i t h o u t m e d i c a l a t t e n t i o n .
L i f e i n t h e h a m l e t was n o t o n l y m i s e r a b l e b u t a l s o
f r a u g h t w i t h f e a r and i n s e c u r i t y . The r e s i d e n t s were
c o n s t a n t l y u n d e r t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of armed s o l d i e r s .
S o l d i e r s u s e d t o f i r e t h e i r g u n s , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e y were
d r u n k , c r e a t i n g f e a r and a n x i e t y among t h e p e o p l e s t a y i n g i n
t h e h a m l e t s . A human r i g h t s a c t i v i s t f rom Zambonga d e l s u r ,
Hindanao , who had s t a y e d i n a h a m l e t c e n t r e t o l d t h a t
" t h e y were f o r c e d i n t o r i d i c u l o u s s i t u a t i o n s l i k e , b e i n g
e x h i b i t e d as NPA s u r r e n d e r e e s i n f r o n t o f t h e p r e s s
r e p o r t e r s and p h o t o g r a p h e r s . .a 5 3
A 'Commission o f Human R i g h t s and Due P r o c e s s o f t h e
I n t e g r a t e d Bar o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ' c o n d u c t e d a p r o b e on t h e
r e p o r t e d h a m l e t t i n g i n Davao d e l N o r t e . The commission
o b s e r v e d t h e f a c t t h a t
1. The act of o r d e r i n g p e o p l e t o t r a n s f e r t h e i r homes t o a " g r o u p i n g " a r e a u n d e r i m p l i e d t h r e a t s o f b e i n g t r e a t e d a s an enemy, and r e s t r i c t i n g t h e i r
52 F a c t F i n d i n g H i s s i o n R e p o r t s - 1982, EHJP, (Himeographed )
53 I n t e r v i e w w i t h a human r i g h t s a c t i v i s t who had e x p e r i e n c e s i n h a m l e t c e n t r e s . (November 1986 a t Hindanao)
f r eedom of movement, v i o l a t e s t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s t o l i b e r t y o f a b o d e and t r a v e l ( 1 8 7 3 C o n s t i t u t i o n , A r t i c l e 4 , s e c t i o n 3)
2 . R e q u i r i n g t h e p e o p l e t o d e m o l i s h and d i s m a n t l e t h e i r homes is t a k i n g p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y w i t h o u t c o m p e n s a t i o n , and v i o l a t e s t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t n o t t o b e d e p r i v e d o f p r o p e r t y w i t h o u t d u e p r o c e s s ( 1 9 7 3 C o n s t i t u t i o n , A r t i c l e 4 , s e c t i o n 1, 2 )
3 . R e q u i r i n g p e o p l e t o c o n s t r u c t PC b a r r a c k s and c o n t r i b u t e m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e same v i o l a t e s t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t a g a i n s t t h e i n v o l u n t a r y s e r v i p d e . ( 1 9 7 3 C o n s t i t u i t i o n , Article 4 , s e c t i o n 1 4 ) .
The i s s u e became w i d e l y p u b l i c i z e d d u e t o t h e
p e r s i s t e n t p r o t e s t by t h e human r i g h t s g r o u p s .
Marcos gove rnmen t a d o p t e d t h e p o l i c y o f s t r a t e g i c
h a m l e t t i n g a s e a r l y a s 1972 , a f t e r t h e martial law was
d e c l a r e d and U . S t r a i n e d m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l implemented i t
s i n c e t h e n . I s a b e l l a , Abra and o t h e r a r e a s i n N o r t h e r n
Luzon became t h e t e s t i n g g r o u n d f o r h a m l e t s ' F i l i p i n o
S t y l e ' . Thousands o f p e a s a n t s were d r i v e n away by t h e PC
f rom t h e i r homes and f i e l d s , and r e s e t t l e d i n r e f u g e e camps.
I n I s a b e l l a a l o n e , p r o v i n c i a l o f f i c i a l s e s t i m a t e d t h a t
50 ,000 b a r r i o f o l k were f o r c e d t o abandon t h e i r meagre
b e l o n g i n g s , c r o p s , a n i m a l s and were t u r n e d i n t o r e f u g e e s and
54 g Due pro=
P f t h e I n t e n r a t e d Bar of t h e e h L l z ~ o ~ i m s . . , ( V i s i t t o Devao
d e l N o r t e , F e b r u a r y 1 9 8 2 ) , p . 9 . (Mimeographed)
nomads w i t h i n o n e y e a r . 55 A c c o r d i n g t o t h e Depa r tmen t o f
S o c i a l W e l f a r e Annual R e p o r t f o r 1973-74, t h e r e were 1 . 9
m i l l i o n ' e v a c u e e s ' a s a r e s u l t o f g o v e r n m e n t ' s h a m l e t t i n g
p r o c e s s . 56 Areas s e l e c t e d f o r f o r c e d e v a c u a t i o n were areas
o f NPA and HNLF a c t i v i t i e s .
P e a s a n t s u n i o n and human r i g h t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s
documented and c l a s s i f i e d c a s e s o f h a m l e t t i n g c o n n e c t e d w i t h
a g r i b u s i n e s s . What had l e d t h e f a r m e r s and human r i g h t s
a d v o c a t e t o s u s p e c t t h a t t h e r e a l r e a s o n f o r t h e
i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f m i l i t a r i z a t i o n t h r o u g h h a m l e t t i n g was t h e
i n t e n t i o n t o t a k e o v e r o f c o n t r o l o f t h e i r l a n d s f o r
p l a n t a t i o n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , C o l A l e j a n d r o Cruz o f t h e 3 7 t h
I n f a n t r y B a t t a l i o n in fo rmed t h e r e s i d e n t s o f San A n t o n i o , a
r e m o t e b a r r i o o f San V i n c e n t e town, b e f o r e t h e y were
h a m l e t t e d i n 1981 , t h a t a 900 h e c t a r e p o r t i o n of t h e i r
b a r r i o would b e c l e a r e d and p l a n t e d w i t h i p i l - i p i l and
r u b b e r t r e e s . 57 T h e same t h i n g happened i n s e v e r a l o t h e r
p l a c e s , r e s i d e n t s were d r i v e n o f f f rom t h e i r a n c e s t r a l l a n d
55 Liberation, September 23 , 1 9 7 3 .
56 "An Old T a c t i c Rev ived : S t r a t e g i c Hamlets", JJI t b face o f adv-tv. o ~ . c i t . , p . 18.
by t h e m i l i t a r y and t h e l a n d s l a t e ' r o c c u p i e d by f o r i e g n
a g r i b u s i n e s s c o m p a n i e s . 5 8
I n 1984 J u l y , t h e a r e a s s u r r o u n d i n g A n t i c a l a and
P i a n i n g i n Butuan c i t y , Agusan d e l N o r t e were pounded by
heavy a r t i l l e r y and m o r t a r f i r e f o r s i x h o u r s . 59 The
bombing f o r c e d some 1000 f a m i l i e s t o e v a c u a t e i m m e d i a t e l y ,
l e a v i n g most o f t h e i r b e l o n g i n g s i n c l u d i n g c r o p s and
l i v e s t o c k . I t was l e a r n e d t h a t , a f o r e i g n c o r p o r a t i o n
i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e r i c h c o a l and Manganese d e p o s i t s a s well
a s a s o i l u s e d i n cement p r o d u c t i o n , had s u r v e y e d t h e a r e a .
I n s e v e r a l o t h e r a r e a s a l s o t h e h a m l e t t i n g s t r a t e g y was
d e s i g n e d a s p a r t o f a l a r g e r scheme t o t r a n s f e r l a n d t o
MNCs .
T h e r e were c e r t a i n c h a n g e s i n t h e m i l i t a r y ' s t a c t i c s i n
some a r e a s . I n s t e a d of o r d e r i n g t h e p e o p l e o u t r i g h t t o
r e l o c a t e t h e m s e l v e s t o a p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e , t h e p e o p l e
t h e m s e l v e s were compe l l ed t o l e a v e t h e i r homes b e c a u s e of
v i o l e n c e o r t h e t h r e a t o f i t . Fo rced e v a c u a t i o n s r e s e m b l e
h a m l e t t i n g t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t . R e s i d e n t s a r e f o r c e d t o
58 T h i s R e s e a r c h e r v i s i t e d some o f t h e P ine-Apple p l a n t a t i o n s i n Hindanao owned by J a p a n e s e MNC's, p r e v i o u s l y owned by l o c a l p e a s a n t s .
59 Human R i g h t s S i t u a t i o n and M i l i t a r i z a t i o n i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , p ~ . c i t . , p . 7 .
v a c a t e t h e i r l a n d s i n b o t h c a s e s . The d i f f e r e n c e , however ,
was t h a t i n h a m l e t t i n g t h e r e were s p e c i f i c o r d e r s f rom t h e
m i l i t a r y , some t imes implemented by l o c a l o f f i c i a l s , f o r t h e
p e o p l e t o r e s e t t l e i n a d e s i g n a t e d a r e a w h i l e , i n t h e c a s e
of f o r c e d e v a c u a t i o n s , t h e r e were o f t e n no d i r e c t o r d e r s t o
v a c a t e : Mass e v a c u a t i o n s of t h e s e t y p e s were t r i g g e r e d
m a i n l y by f o u r r e a s o n s : 1) h a r a s s m e n t and i n t i m i d a t i o n o f
t h e r e s i d e n t s by t h e m i l i t a r y ; 2 ) i n t e n s i f i e d m i l i t a r y
o p e r a t i o n s l i k e bombings and s t r a f i n g s ; 3 ) c l a s h e s between
t h e g u e r i l l a s and government t r o o p s ; and 4 ) v i o l e n t
i n c i d e n t s l i k e m a s s a c r e s o r ' s a l v a g i n g s ' .
P s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s o r ' p s y - o p s ' p l a y e d a
s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n mass e v a c u a t i o n s . By sowing f e a r
t h r o u g h t h r e a t s and by m a n i f e s t v i o l e n c e , r e s i d e n t s were
made f e e l t h a t t h e y had no o t h e r r e c o u r s e b u t t o e v a c u a t e
and s e e k r e f u g e i n o t h e r a r e a s . I n J a n u a r y 1985, t h e e n t i r e
S i t i o o f San J u a n , Mor tones , T a r l a c i n C e n t r a l Luzon was
60 v a c a t e d by i ts r e s i d e n t s a f t e r a s e r i e s o f ' s a l v a g i n g s . Anothe r g r o w i n g t r e n d was impos ing f o o d b l o c k a d e and
r e s t r i c t i n g t h e m o b i l i t y o f t h e r e s i d e n t s . T h i s was
d i f f e r e n t f rom h a m l e t t i n g and f o r c e d e v a c u a t i o n s i n t h e
60 B l a c k Book P r o j e c t Commi t t ee , -itL, p.141.
s e n s e t h a t i n s t e a d of b e i n g compe l l ed t o abandon t h e i r
h o u s e s , r e s i d e n t s were r e s t r i c t e d f rom l e a v i n g t h e i r
l o c a l i t y . A f o o d b l o c k a d e was imposed p u r p o r t e d l y t o s t a r v e
t h e r e b e l s .
H i l i t a r i z a t i o n i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s : A Dehumanis ing P r o c e s s .
S i n c e t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l law by P r e s i d e n t
Harcos i n 1972 , m i l i t a r i z a t i o n and human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s
had r i s e n t o u n p r e c e d e n t e d h e i g h t s . The P h i l i p p i n e s was
f a s t becoming a c o u n t r y where t h e c h e a p e s t commodity
a v a i l a b l e was human l i f e . M i l i t a r i z a t i o n . m a n i f e s t e d m a i n l y
i n a c t s o f v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t c i v i l i a n s , had had i t s most
t e l l i n g e f f e c t s i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e where m a j o r i t y o f t h e
F i l i p i n o p e o p l e l i v e . The Marcos r eg ime r e s o r t e d t o t h e u s e
o f m i l i t a r y f o r c e a s t h e p r i n c i p a l means t o c o n t a i n and s t o p
any form of u n r e s t . A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s a s y s t e m a t i c
m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f c i v i l i a n s was i n f u l l s w i n g . I t was
r e p o r t e d t h a t o f f i c i a l c o m p l a i n t s o f m i l i t a r y a b u s e were
logged a t t h e r a t e o f 54 ,000 a y e a r . T h a t i s , o n e o f e v e r y
two s o l d i e r s commit ted an a b u s e . T h a t d i d n o t i n c l u d e a
number of u n r e p o r t e d c a s e s . 6 1
K i l u s a n P a r a Sa K a t a r i n g a n a t Kapayapadan, L u n h a o L Y e l v e t G love : S t u d i e s on mllltarization i n f i v e cr-
. . . . . . areas i n t h e P m , (Geneva: C h u r c h e s Commission on
I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s , 1 9 8 0 ) , p . 6 5 .
2
The m i l i t a r y ' s p r e s e n c e and i n v o l v e m e n t i n e v e r y f a c e t
o f s o c i e t y was p ronounced and i t s a b u s e s and e x c e s s e s
r u t h l e s s . The c o n c e p t ' a n i r o n hand i n a v e l v e t g l o v e ' , was
a doub le -edged sword s l a s h i n g a t t h e p e o p l e ' s moun t ing
o p p o s i t i o n . The b l u n t e d g e r e p r e s e n t e d p o l i t i c a l r e p r e s s i o n
and w h o l e s a l e d e n i a l o f b a s i c human r i g h t s . M i l i t a r i z a t i o n
c o n s t i t u t e d t h e p i e r c i n g , d e a d l y e d g e w i e l d e d t h r o u g h t h e
m i l i t a r y ' s g u n s and g o o n s . 62 The gove rmen t and t h e
m i l i t a r y , d e s p i t e t h e s t r o n g p r o t e s t s o f n a t i o n a l and
i n t e r n a t i o n a l human r i g h t s g r o u p s and a d v o c a t e s , e s c a l a t e d
i ts programme of m i l i t a r i z a t i o n n a t i o n w i d e , c a u s i n g g r e a t
s u f f e r i n g and m i s e r y t o t h e p e o p l e .
9. P h i l i p p i n e s L e g a l s y s t e m s and v i o l a t i o n s o f Human R i g h t s
The P h i l i p p i n e l e g a l s y s t e m had drawn upon t h e
e x p e r i e n c e of many s y s t e m s . I t s c i v i l law had a heavy d o s e
o f i n f l u e n c e f rom t h e Roman law, t r a n s p o r t e d t o P h i l i p p i n e
s h o r e s by S p a n i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s . P r i o r t o 1972, t h e
government f o l l o w e d t h e American p a t t e r n o f h a v i n g a
t r i p a r t i t e d i v i s i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y among t h e e x e c u t i v e ,
l e g i s l a t i v e and j u d i c i a l d e p a r t m e n t s and which f e a t u r e d a
6 2 rends in nr- . . , ( M a n i l a : T a s k F o r c e of D e t a i n e e s of P h i l i p p i n e s , 1 9 8 2 ) , p . 1 3 .
w o r k a b l e s y s t e m o f c h e c k s and b a l a n c e s t h a t e f f e c t i v e l y
p r e c l u d e d t o t a l i t a r i a n r u l e . The c o n s t i t u t i o n t h e n i n
e f f e c t a l s o p r b v i d e d f o r a h o s t o f b a s i c l i b e r t i e s and
f r eedoms f o r t h e c i t i z e n s t h a t was d e s i g n e d t o b e a hedge
a g a i n s t g o v e r n m e n t a l power . 63 A s i n most w e s t e r n mode l s ,
t h e P h i l i p p i n e c o n s t i t u t i o n made p r o v i s i o n f o r v a s t
emergency powers e x e r c i s a b l e by t h e e x e c u t i v e i n s i t u a t i o n s
o f g r e a t d a n g e r t o t h e c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e of t h e R e p u b l i c
s u c h a s i n v a s i o n , i n s u r r e c t i o n , and r e b e l l i o n .
I n 1972 , Harcos f o r m a l l y d e c l a r e d m a r t i a l law a l l e g e d l y
t o f o r e s t a l l a s t a t e of a n a r c h y and d i s o r d e r fomented by t h e
communis t s and Muslim r e b e l s . H a r c o s u s e d t h e martial law
d e c r e e t o c l o s e down C o n g r e s s and t o j a i l a l l o p p o s i t i o n
p o l i t i c i a n s , l e a d e r s of p e o p l e ' s movements, j o u r n a l i s t s ,
e t c . I n t h e new c l i m a t e , a new c o n s t i t u t i o n was r a t i f i e d i n
1973 , a l b e i t t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s which t o o k no measu re t o
p r o t e c t t h e s a n c t i t y o f t h e b a l l o t o r i n t e g r i t y o f t h e
p l e b i s c i t e . T h e r e a f t e r , t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n was amended
s e v e r a l t i m e s t o mod i fy t h e new p a r l i a m e n t a r y s y s t e m and t o
c o n s o l i d a t e t h e powers of t h e p r e s i d e n c y . The most
i m p o r t a n t o f s u c h amendments was Amendment No.6 which
63 Human R i g h t s S i t u a t i o n and M i l i t a r i z a t i o n . . . , o ~ . c i t , , p . 1 5 .
g r a n t e d t h e P r e s i d e n t u n c o n d i t i o n a l power t o l e g i s l a t e , e v e n
w h i l e t h e l e g i s l a t u r e i t s e l f was i n s e s s i o n .
P r e s i d e n t Harcos v e s t e d upon h i m s e l f , u n d e r
P r e s i d e n t i a l D e c r e e (PD) No.1177 a s amended by PD No.1777,
t h e a u t h o r i t y t o p r o p o s e and a p p r o v e t h e n a t i o n a l b u d g e t
a l l o w i n g h i m s e l f t o e n l a r g e and arm t h e AFP w i t h a b u d g e t
t e n times more t h a n t h a t f o r e d u c a t i o n and h e a l t h . 6 4
L i k e w i s e , s t a r t i n g f rom t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f m a r t i a l law i n
1972 t o t h e end o f h i s r u l e i n 1986 F e b r u a r y , t h e
P r e s i d e n t was c a r e f u l t o e n s u r e power t o cause t h e arrest
and d e t e n t i o n of p e r s o n s f o r w h a t e v e r c a u s e , o r even
w i t h o u t any s t a t e d l e g a l c a u s e .
V i o l a t i o n o f R i g h t t o L i f e
A r t i c l e 3, o f U D H R p r o c l a i m s t h a t : " E v e r y o n e h a s t h e
r i g h t t o l i f e , l i b e r t y and s e c u r i t y o f p e r s o n " . The
government must t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p r o t e c t i n g t h e
l i v e s of i n d i v i d u a l s whoever t h e y a r e , and a l s o p r o t e c t t h e
l i v e s of whole g r o u p s of p e o p l e . I t must p r e v e n t u n l a w f u l
k i l l i n g , a s s a s s i n a t i o n s and m a s s a c r e s , e t c . But i n t h e
P h i l i p p i n e s t h e s i t u a t i o n was e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t . D u r i n g
t h e martial law y e a r s , t h e P r e s i d e n t g a v e h i m s e l f t h e power
t o i s s u e A r r e s t , S e a r c h and S e i z u r e O r d e r s . A f t e r t h e
l i f t i n g o f m a r t i a l law, t h e P r e s i d e n t c o n t i n u e d t o s u s p e n d
t h e p r i v i l e g e o f t h e writ o f habeas i n two r e g i o n s o f
Mindanao and t h r o u g h o u t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n c o n n e c t i o n i n
c a s e s o f i n v a s i o n , i n s u r r e c t i o n , r e b e l l i o n , and similar
o f f e n s e s a g a i n s t ' n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y ' , and i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n
p r o v i d e d f o r t h e i s s u a n c e of P r e s i d e n t i a l Commitment O r d e r s
(PCOs). When p u b l i c o p p o s i t i o n t o PC0 became vehement and
w i d e s p r e a d , t h e P r e s i d e n t was f o r c e d t o a b o l i s h i t . But he
i n t r o d u c e d a s u b s t i t u t e - t h e P r e v e n t i v e D e t e n t i o n Act (PDA)
which was e q u i v a l e n t t o PC0 i n a l l r e s p e c t s .
The f i r s t n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e o f s e v e n t y human r i g h t s
o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s condemned t h e human r i g h t s
v i o l a t i o n s b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t by t h e Marcos r e g i m e and
s t a t e d :
We s t r o n g l y denounce t h e H a r c o s r e g i m e ' s b l a t a n t d i s r e g a r d f o r t h e p e o p l e ' s r i g h t s even as we f i r m l y condemn t h e unabashed c o l l u s i o n o f t h e U.S government w i t h t h e H a r c o s r eg ime . . . We a s s e r t and upho ld as i n v i o l a t e t h e r i g h t s o f t h e p e o p l e t o l i v e , t o b e f r e e , t o b e human. A s it h a s been s t a t e d , human r i g h t s , l i k e f o o d , a r e u n i v e r s a l . Human r i g h t s , l i k e l i f e , a r e u n a l i e n a b l e . Human r i g h t s , l i k e body , a r e i n d i v i s i b l e and w h o l e . Whenever any gove rnmen t becomes d e s t r u c t i v e of
t h e s e , i t is t h e r i g h t o f t h e p e o p l e kg r e s i s t and p r o v i d e s a f e g u a r d s f o r t h e i r s e c u r i t y .
A t r o c i t i e s commit ted by t h e m i l i t a r y and p a r a m i l i t a r y
saw an a l a r m i n g e s c a l a t i o n . ' D i s a p p e a r a n c e s ' , extra-
j u d i c i a l k i l l i n g s , massacres, e t c . , l a u n c h e d by t h e m i l i t a r y
a r e c l e a r c a s e s o f v i o l a t i o n of R i g h t t o l i f e . When a
p e r s o n ' d i s a p p e a r s ' , f u r t h e r human r i g h t s s t a n d a r d s may a l s o
b e v i o l a t e d , a l t h o u g h as t h e f a t e o f t h e p r i s o n e r is
unknown, no-one c a n be s u r e wh ich o n e s . F u r t h e r s a f e g u a r d s
a r e s p e l t o u t i n t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s S t a n d a r d Minimum R u l e s
f o r t h e T r e a t m e n t o f P r i s o n e r s . P r i n c i p l e 92 o f t h e r u l e s
c o n f i r m s t h e r i g h t t o know o f u n t r i e d p r i s o n e r s t o i n f o r n
t h e i r f a m i l i e s i m m e d i a t e l y o f t h e i r d e t e n t i o n . P r i n c i p l e 7
c o n f i r m s t h e o b l i g a t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t o e n t e r d e t a i l s
o f p r i s o n e r s i n a r e g i s t r a t i o n book . I n o t h e r words .
f a m i l i e s have t h e r i g h t t o know t h e f a t e o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e s .
A r t i c l e 5 o f U D H R s a y s : "No o n e s h a l l b e s u b j e c t e d t o
t o r t u r e o r t o c r u e l , inhuman o r d e g r a d i n g t r e a t m e n t o r
p u n i s h m e n t " . I n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t h o u s a n d s o f cases o f
t o r t u r e by t h e m i l i t a r y and p a r a m i l i t a r y have been
i d e n t i f i e d . A C o n v e n t i o n on T o r t u r e and O t h e r C r u e l ,
65 D e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e F i r s t N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on Human R i g h t s , F e b r u a r y 17-18, 1982, ( M a n i l a )
Inhuman and D e g r a d i n g Pun i shmen t was drawn u p i n 1975.
T h i s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e U N S t a n d a r d Minimum R u l e s f o r t h e
T r e a t m e n t o f P r i s o n e r s , l a i d down t h e g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e way
p e o p l e i n p r i s o n s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d . Bu t Marcos r e g i m e n e v e r
b o t h e r e d a b o u t t h o s e l e g a l s t a n d a r d s . F o r e v e r y v i c t i m who
had unde rgone t o r t u r e , t h e f e e l i n g of c e a s i n g t o b e human is
a l l t o o rea l . Human b e i n g s are n o t n o r m a l l y k i c k e d .
punched , b e a t e n , l o c k e d i n d e t e n t i o n c e l l s o r p l a c e d i n
s o l i t a r y c o n f i n e m e n t f o r no a p p a r a n t r e a s o n .
I n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t o r t u r e was a common phenomenon and
i t v i o l a t e d t h e r i g h t s o f h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f p e o p l e
o v e r t h e y e a r s .
V i o l a t i o n o f R i g h t t o Freedom
Ar t i c l e 9 o f t h e U D H R p r o c l a i m s "No one s h a l l b e
s u b j e c t e d t o a r b i t r a r y a r r e s t , d e t e n t i o n o r e x i l e " . T h i s is
t h e f i r s t of t h r e e a r t i c l e s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e most
f u n d a m e n t a l l e g a l s a f e g u a r d s : Freedom f rom a r b i t r a r y
a r r e s t s , t h e r i g h t t o a f a i r and p r o p e r t r i a l , " t h e r i g h t
t o b e presumed i n n o c e n t u n t i l p roved g u i l t y . 67 Each is
e s s e n t i a l t o e v e r y l e g a l s y s t e m
66 UDHR, a r t i c l e 10.
67 UDHR, a r t i c l e 11.
I n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t h e s e l e g a l m e a s u r e s were n o t
o b s e r v e d and i l l e g a l a r r e s t s , d e t e n t i o n w i t h o u t t r i a l , e t c . ,
were a common s c e n a r i o t h r o u g h o u t t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n r u l e o f
H a r c o s . Those who were a r r e s t e d and d e t a i n e d had t o s p e n d
y e a r s i n p r i s o n and m i l i t a r y camps w i t h o u t t r i a l , i n most
c a s e s . A p a r t f rom t h e o t h e r d i f f e r e n t ways o f d i s p e n s i n g
j u s t i c e , t h e m i l i t a r y s e t up its own c o u r t s t o g i v e
exempla ry pun i shmen t t o d i s s e n t e r s o f t h e gove rnmen t . These
c o u r t s were r e a l l y a mockery of j u s t i c e .
The r i g h t t o a f a i r and p r o p e r t r i a l means t h a t
e v e r y o n e mus t b e g r a n t e d a f a i r h e a r i n g i n c o u r t b y an
i n d e p e n d e n t and i m p a r t i a l o r u n p r e j u d i c e d t r i b u n a l , w h e t h e r
i n a c i v i l d i s p u t e o r a c r i m i n a l c a s e . The e s s e n t i a l
r e q u i r e m e n t is t h a t e v e r y o n e m u s t have a f a i r c h a n c e t o
s t a t e h i s o r h e r c a s e . The p r o v i s i o n s of a r t i c l e 11 of U D H R
l a y down c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e s which p r o v i d e t h e
minimum s t a n d a r d f o r a f a i r t r i a l
1) The p r e s u m p t i o n o f i n n o c e n c e : No one c h a r g e d w i t h a c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d as g u i l t y u n t i l g u i l t h a s a c t u a l l y been p r o v e d . 2 ) The r i g h t t o a d e f e n c e : Those c h a r g e d w i t h an o f f e n c e must b e a l l o w e d l a w y e r s t o r e p r e s e n t them i f d e s i r e d , and p r o p e r ways t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r i n n o c e n c e , i n c l u d i n g t h e r i g h t t o c a l l w i t n e s s e s . 3) The r i g h t t o a p u b l i c h e a r i n g : ' J u s t i c e s h o u l d be s e e n t o b e d o n e ' . P e o p l e c a n have no c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e law u n l e s s it is a p p l i e d o p e n l y s o t h a t e v e r y o n e c a n
s e e how t h e l e g a l m a c h i n e r y w o r k s . 4 ) N e w laws c a n n o t r e a c h backwards i n t i n e : I f a new law is e n a c t e d o r a change made, no one may b e c h a r g e d o r p u n i s h e d f o r b r e a k i n g i t i f h i s o r h e r a c t i o n s t o o k p l a c e b e f o r e t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e law c a n e i n t o f o r c e :
6 8 n o r nay a h e a v i e r pun i shmen t b e added
l a t e r .
S i n c e 1972, H a r c o s r e g i m e u s e d r e p r e s s i v e m e a s u r e s t o
a r r e s t and d e t a i n p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e n t s on a l a r g e scale .
Many were n e v e r c h a r g e d w i t h any o f f e n c e o r t r i e d . They
were a r r e s t e d o r k e p t i n p r i s o n , n o t b e c a u s e t h e y were
c r i m i n a l s b u t b e c a u s e t h e y h e l d v i e w s t h a t t h e government
d i d n o t l i k e .
C ) V i o l a t i o n o f Right t o Freedom o f O p i n i o n a n d E x p r e s s i o n
"Eve ry o n e h a s t h e r i g h t t o f r eedom o f o p i n i o n and
e x p r e s s i o n ; t h i s r i g h t i n c l u d e s f r eedom t o h o l d o p i n i o n s
w i t h o u t i n t e r f e r e n c e and t o s e e k , r e c e i v e and i m p a r t
i n f o r m a t i o n and i d e a s t h r o u g h any media and r e g a r d l e s s o f
f r o n t i e r s " . 69 Freedom of o p i n i o n and e x p r e s s i o n was s t i f l e d
s e v e r e l y i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . ' S u b v e r s i o n ' and ' n a t i o n a l
s e c u r i t y ' were t h e u s u a l e x c u s e s u s e d by government t o
j u s t i f y s u c h s t i f l i n g o f p r o p e r hunan communica t ion .
68 Universal Dee- o f HumanRiehts, (London: A . 1 B r i t i s h S e c t i o n , 1 9 8 9 ) , p . 2 0 .
69 UDHR, a r t i c l e 19.
A t t h e i n c e p t i o n of Martial law, P r e s i d e n t Marcos
c l o s e d down a l l mass media and t r a n s f e r r e d p o s s e s s i o n o f
t h e i r f a c i l i t i e s t o h i s c l o s e s u p p o r t e r s . Only s u p p o r t i v e
media were a l l o w e d t o e x i s t . I t was a l s o a t t h i s time a l s o
t h a t t h e law d e s i g n e d and e n a c t e d t o p u n i s h t h e o f f e n s e o f
" runour-monger ing" 70 was p r o m u l g a t e d . Through a n o t h e r
l e g i s l a t i o n , t h e P r e s i d e n t d e c r e e d mere p o s s e s s i o n o f
" s u b v e r s i v e m a t e r i a l s " p u n i s h a b l e by j a i l s e n t e n c e . 71 T h i s
law was d e s i g n e d f o r p e n a l i z i n g t h e p r i n t i n g , p o s s e s s i o n ,
d i s t r i b u t i o n , and c i r c u l a t i o n o f c e r t a i n l e a f l e t s , hand
b i l l s and o t h e r p r o p a g a n d a materials.
S i n c e t h e r i g h t s d e f i n e d i n U D H R and D e c l a r a t i o n on t h e
Freedom o f I n f o r m a t i o n a r e t h e r i g h t s which p r o v i d e t h e t o o l
f o r s e c u r i n g and p r o t e c t i n g a l l o t h e r f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t s ,
t h e y are o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e . Bu t i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ,
t h e s e r i g h t s were d e n i e d t o t h e p e o p l e . So , t h e r u l e r s c o u l d
u l t i m a t e l y s h a c k l e p e o p l e ' s t h o u g h t s and o p i n i o n s .
V i o l a t i o n s o f R i g h t t o Freedom o f Assembly
U D H R s a y s ; "Everyone h a s t h e r i g h t t o f r eedom o f
70 P r e s i d e n t i a l D e c r e e No. 90 ; on Rumour - monger ing .
71 PD. No.33.
p e a c e f u l a s sembly and a s s o c i a t i o n " . 72 L i k e a l l o t h e r
a u t h o r i t a r i a n r e g i m e s , Marcos a l s o r e s t r i c e d t h e p e o p l e ' s
f reedom of a s s o c i a t i o n , and s u c h r e s t r i c t i o n was o f t e n i n
t h e form of r e p r e s s i o n . A l l f o r m s of o r g a n i z a t i o n s and
p u b l i c a s s e m b l i e s d e s i g n e d f o r p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e s were
banned . A d a y f o l l o w i n g t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f martial law,
P r e s i d e n t Harcos i s s u e d an o r d e r which p r o h i b i t e d r a l l i e s ,
d e m o n s t r a t i o n s and ' o t h e r f o r m s of g r o u p a c t i o n s by p e r s o n s
w i t h i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l l i m i t s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ' . 73 T h i s
i n c l u d e d s t r i k e s and p i c k e t t i n g i n what was v a g u e l y
d e s c r i b e d a s ' v i t a l i n d u s t r i e s ' .
PD No.1804 was i n t r o d u c e d t o p r o h i b i t and p e n a l i z e t h e
g r a n t i n g o f p e r m i t s f o r h o l d i n g p u b l i c r a l l i e s ,
d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , a s s e m b l i e s , and similar m e e t i n g s t o p e r s o n s
found g u i l t y of r e b e l l i o n , s e d i t i o n o r s u b v e r s i o n who had
n o t been c h a r g e d w i t h any k i n d o f c r i m e s .
The m i l i t a r y u s e d t h e s e l aws t o p r e v e n t p e o p l e f rom
p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n any k i n d o f a n t i - a u t h o r i t a r i a n campa ign .
72 UDHR, A r t i c l e 20 , P a r t 1.
73 G e n e r a l O r d e r No.5 By P r e s i d e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f P h i l i p p i n e s , Sep tember 23, 1972 .
V i o l a t i o n o f R i g h t t o Work
Everybody h a s t h e r i g h t t o work, t o c h o o s e work f r e e l y
and t o r e c e i v e payment f o r it which a l l o w s o n e and h i s
f a m i l y t o l i v e d e c e n t l y . UDHR s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s c r i b e s t h e s e
r i g h t s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g way :
1) Every o n e h a s t h e r i g h t t o work, t o f r e e c h o i c e o f employment , t o j u s t and f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s o f work and t o p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t unemployment .
2 ) Eve ryone , w i t h o u t any d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , h a s t h e r i g h t t o e q u a l p a y f o r e q u a l work .
3) Everyone who works h a s t h e r i g h t t o j u s t and f a v o u r a b l e r e m u n e r a t i o n e n s u r i n g f o r h i m s e l f and h i s f a m i l y an e x i s t a n c e w o r t h y o f human d i g n i t y , , and s u p p l e m e n t e d , i f n e c e s s a r y , by o t h e r means o f s o c i a l p r o t e c t i o n .
4 ) Everyone h a s t h e r i g h t t o fo rm and t o j o i n 7 & r a d e u n i o n s f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e s e i n t e r e s t s .
C o n d i t i o n s o f work and t h e r i g h t s o f w o r k e r s are
m o n i t o r e d e a c h y e a r by t h e ILO which r e p o r t s on t h e ways i n
which e a c h n a t i o n is o r is n o t , f o l l o w i n g its d e t a i l e d
recommendat ions i n s u p p o r t o f t h i s a r t i c l e .
I n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t h e r i g h t s o f t h e w o r k e r s became
a l l t h e more p r e j u d i c e d . P r e s i d e n t i a l d e c r e e s were
p r o m u l g a t e d t h a t f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t e d and s u p p r e s s e d t h e i r
74 U D H R , a r t i c l e 23
p o l i t i c a l and economic r i g h t s . Through PD No.143, Harcos
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a b o l i s h e d Sunday a s a compu l so ry rest d a y f o r
w o r k e r s . T h i s d e c r e e a l l o w e d e m p l o y e r s t o o p e r a t e s e v e n
d a y s a week w i t h o u t p a y i n g f o r o v e r t i m e work by s t a g g e r i n g
t h e w o r k e r s r e s t d a y s d u r i n g t h e week. I t a l s o had t h e
e f f e c t o f r e s t r i c t i n g u n i o n a c t i v i t i e s wh ich were u s u a l l y
h e l d on t h e i r common d a y s - Sunday , a n d / o r PD No.823
r e i t e r a t e d t h e t o t a l ban on s t r i k e s as w e l l as c o n c e r t e d
work s t o p p a g e s , s lowdowns, mass l e a v e s , s i t - d o w n s and a l l
o t h e r means t h a t t h e w o r k e r s employ t o p r e s s t h e i r demands.
The d e c r e e f u r t h e r p r o h i b i t e d a l l k i n d s o f h e l p o r
a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e w o r k e r s f rom f o r e i g n o r l o c a l s o u r c e s
w i t h o u t t h e w r i t t e n c o n s e n t o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f L a b o u r .
Hany o f t h e s e laws were f r amed f o r e x p l o i t i n g w o r k e r s
f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f TNCs and o t h e r economic i n t e r e s t s . T h i s
had some o u t s t a n d i n g a s p e c t s , namely , l i m i t i n g t h e r i g h t t o
mass o r g a n i s a t i o n s , i n a d e q u a t e r e s p o n s e t o w o r k e r s ' demands,
m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e c a s u a l work s y s t e m , payment o f a b s y m a l l y
low wages, e t c . C o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g power o f t h e w o r k e r s
w a s d e s t r o y e d t h r o u g h d i f f e r e n t b l a c k l a w s i n t r o d u c e d f rom
t i m e t o t i m e . T h e s e v i o l a t e d t h e r i g h t o f t h e p e o p l e t o
work, b e t t e r wages, b e t t e r work ing c o n d i t i o n s , and t r a d e
u n i o n a c t i v i t i e s .
V i o l a t i o n of R i g h t t o P r o p e r t y
Ownersh ip a s a human r i g h t a p p e a r s most o b v i o u s and
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d i n p r i n c i p l e and i n p r a c t i c e . The U D H R
s a y s , " e v e r y o n e h a s t h e r i g h t t o own p r o p e r t y . . . No one
s h a l l be a r b i t r a r i l y d e p r i v e d o f h i s p r o p e r t y . so 75
The e x p a n s i o n and w i d e n i n g o f t h e h a m l e t t i n g p o l i c y and
f o r c e d e v a c u a t i o n made i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e
r u r a l f o l k t o own and c u l t i v a t e t h e i r own l a n d . , The
m i l i t a r y was u s e d t o e v a c u a t e f o r c i b l y t h e p e a s a n t s f rom
t h e i r l a n d , t h u s p r o v i d i n g a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e TNCs t o engage
i n a g r i b u s i n e s s .
V i o l a t i o n o f R i g h t t o E q u a l i t y and S o c i a l S e c u r i t y
The l a w s o f t h e l a n d s h o u l d t r e a t a l l c i t i z e n s i n
e x a c t l y t h e s a n e way, w h a t e v e r r a c e , s e x o r c o l o u r t h e y are ,
and wha tnve r r e l i g i o n s , p o l i t i c a l o r o t h e r o p i n i o n s t h e y
h a v e . U D H R says :
A l l a r e e q u a l b e f o r e t h e law and a r e e n t i t l e d w i t h o u t any d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t o e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e law. A l l a r e e n t i t l e d t o e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t any d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n v i o l a t i o n o f t h i s D e c l a r a $80" and a g a i n s t any i n c i t e m e n t t o s u c h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
75 U D H R , a r t i c l e 17 .
76 UDHR, a r t i c l e s 7 and 2 a l s o h o l d t h e same v i e w s .
A p p r o p r i a t e s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e
n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e f u l l d e v e l o p m e n t o f e v e r y p e r s o n i n any
s o c i e t y . I n r e a l i t y , mos t o f t h e p e o p l e i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g
c o u n t r i e s a r e b e i n g d e n i e d t h e s e r i g h t s by t h o s e who are
w e a l t h y and p o w e r f u l . The w e a l t h y and p o w e r f u l p e o p l e i n
s o c i e t y have a c c e s s t o u s e t h e law f o r t h e i r own
c o n v e n i e n c e . S u p p l y i n g o n l y t h e n a t e r i a l n e e d s of p e o p l e
is n o t enough . To s e c u r e t h e d i g n i t y and w e l l - b e i n g o f
p e o p l e , f a i r e r s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s w i t h i n e a c h s ta te and
c o - o p e r a t i o n be tween s t a t e s is e s s e n t i a l . U D H R s t a t e s :
E v e r y o n e , as a member o f s o c i e t y , h a s t h e r i g h t t o s o c i a l s e c u r i t y and is e n t i t l e d t o r e a l i s a t i o n , t h r o u g h n a t i o n a l e f f o r t and i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n and i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n and r e s o u r c e s of e a c h s t a t e , o f t h e e c o n o n i c s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l r i g h t s i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r h i s d i g n i t and t h e f r e e deve lopmen t of h i s p e r s o n a l i t y . , ?7
Inhuman l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s s u c h a s p o v e r t y , p o o r h e a l t h
c o n d i t i o n s , m a l n o u r i s h m e n t , s t a r v a t i o n , l a c k o f n e d i c a l
f a c i l i t i e s , l a c k o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r e d u c a t i o n , e t c . ,
p r e v e n t e d t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e F i l i p i n o s f rom e n j o y i n g t h e
r i g h t t o e q u a l i t y i n s o c i e t y as w e l l as t h e r i g h t t o s o c i a l
s e c u r i t y . A l l t h e s e have been t h e r e s u l t of u n j u s t s o c i o -
77 U D H R , a r t i c l e 2 2 .
p o l i t i c a l and economic s y s t e m s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s .
T h i s s y s t e m was d e s i g n e d f o r economic d o m i n a t i o n and
e x p l o i t a t i o n by t h e few and f o r t h e few o v e r t h e many.
H i l i t a r i z a t i o n : P r o c e s s o f V i o l a t i n g H u m a n i t a r i a n Law - t h e R i g h t o f C o m b a t a n t s
The U D H R (1948) was t h e f i r s t c a t a l o g u e of t h e human
r i g h t s which men a r e e n t i t l e d t o have r e s p e c t e d . T h e s e
r i g h t s were more s p e c i f i c a l l y e n u n c i a t e d i n t h e two
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o v e n a n t s on Human R i g h t s a d o p t e d by t h e
U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n 1966 - t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Covenan t on C i v i l
and P o l i t i c a l R i g h t s was s i g n e d by t h e P h i l i p p i n e government
on its a d o p t i o n i n 1966: t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Covenan t on
Economic, S o c i a l and C u l t u r a l R i g h t s was r a t i f i e d by t h e
P h i l i p p i n e gove rnmen t i n 1974. The r i g h t s c o n t a i n e d i n
t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s a r e t h o s e r i g h t s which c u s t o m a r y
I n t e r n a t i o n a l law now r e c o g n i z e s a s t h e e s s e n t i a l and b a s i c
r i g h t o f e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l . Heading t h e l is t a r e t h e r i g h t s
c o n c e r n e d w i t h p h y s i c a l i n t e g r i t y - t h e r i g h t t o l i f e , t h e
r i g h t t o l i b e r t y and s e c u r i t y of p e r s o n and a p r o h i b i t i o n
a g a i n s t t o r t u r e .
Every human b e i n g h a s t h e i n h e r e n t r i g h t t o l i f e . T h i s
r i g h t s h a l l be p r o t e c t e d by law. No o n e s h a l l be
a r b i t r a r i l y d e p r i v e d of h i s l i f e . . . . I n c o u n t r i e s which
have n o t a b o l i s h e d t h e d e a t h p e n a l t y , s e n t e n c e o f d e a t h may
b e imposed o n l y f o r t h e most s e r i o u s c r i m e s i n a c c o r d a n c e
w i t h t h e law i n f o r c e a t t h e t ime o f t h e commiss ion o f t h e
crime . . . . The p e n a l t y c a n o n l y b e c a r r i e d o u t p u r s u a n t t o
a f i n a l judgement r e n d e r e d by a c o m p e t e n t c o u r t . 7 8
I n v i ew o f what h a s happened i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s d u r i n g
t h e Marcos e r a , it is l i k e an e x e r c i s e i n c y n i c i s m t o
r e i t e r a t e t h e law o f human r i g h t s . The p r o b l e m , o f c o u r s e
is one o f e n f o r c e a b i l i t y . Laws a r e e n f o r c e d i n n a t i o n a l
j u r i s d i c t i o n s b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e p o l i c e f o r c e s and c o u r t s t o
e n f o r c e them; i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l j u r i s d i c t i o n , it is a
q u e s t i o n o f f i n d i n g a m a c h i n e r y o f e n f o r c e m e n t which is
a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e members of t h e U . N . Both t h e C o v e n a n t s
have a ' r e p o r t i n g ' p r o c e d u r e whicn e n a b l e s a d h e r e n c e t o them
t o be s u p e r v i s e d by t h e U . N . Bu t b e f o r e t h e r e p o r t i n g
mechanism c a n o p e r a t e , t h e C o v e n a n t s must b e r a t i f i e d by t h e
g o v e r n m e n t s i n q u e s t i o n , and as t h e P h i l i p p i n e government
h a s n o t r a t i f i e d t h e Covenan t on c i v i l and p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s ,
t h e e n f o r c e m e n t mechanism c a n n o t o p e r a t e .
But a l a w is n o t l e s s a law b e c a u s e it is d i s o b e y e d o r
b e c a u s e b r e a c h o f i t c a n n o t be p u n i s h e d . What is i m p o r t a n t
78 I n t e r n a t i o n a l Covenan t on C i v i l and P o l i t i c a l R i g h t s 1966, A r t i c l e 6 .
t o b e a r i n mind is t h a t t h o s e r i g h t s t o p h y s i c a l i n t e g r i t y
o u t l i n e d above form p a r t o f c u s t o m a r y i n t e r n a t i o n a l law and
a p p l y t o e v e r y o n e . A p e r s o n may n o t b e summar i ly e x e c u t e d
o r t o r t u r e d s i m p l y b e c u a s e he is b e l i e v e d t o b e a c r i m i n a l
o r a s u b v e r s i v e . T o r t u r e is n e v e r p e r m i t t e d u n d e r
i n t e r n a t i o n a l law: d e t e n t i o n must f o l l o w c o r r e c t p r o c e d u r e s ;
e x e c u t i o n s may o n l y be c a r r i e d o u t a f t e r c o n v i c t i o n and
s e n t e n c e by a c o u r t o f c o m p e t a n t j u r i s d i c t i o n .
The law of war c o n t a i n s p r o t e c t i o n f o r p e r s o n s engaged
i n armed c o n f l i c t s u c h as t h e New P e o p l e ' s Army, Bangso
Moro Army, e t c . The Geneva C o n v e n t i o n s o f 1949 were drawn
u p f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n t i m e o f w a r .
The f o u r C o n v e n t i o n s which form t h e Geneva Code were
r a t i f i e d by t h e P h i l i p p i n e gove rnmen t i n 1952. Article 3 o f
t h e C o n v e n t i o n s a p p l i e s t o a l l armed c o n f l i c t s o f a non-
i n t e r n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r and o c c u r i n g i n t h e t e r r i t o r y o f o n e
o f t h e powers which is a p a r t y t o t h e C o n v e n t i o n s . A r t i c l e
3 s t a t e s what c o n s t i t u t e s a minimum of humane t r e a t m e n t ;
a ) v i o l e n c e t o l i f e and p e r s o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r , m u r d e r , m u t i l a t i o n , c r u e l t r e a t m e n t and t o r t u r e ; b) t a k i n g o f h o s t a g e s ; c ) o u t r a g e s upon p e r s o n a l d i g n i t y , i n p a r t i c u l a r , h u m i l i a t i n g and d e g r a d i n g t r e a t m e n t ; and d ) t h e p a s s i n g o f s e n t e n c e s and c a r r y i n g o u t o f e x e c u t i o n s w i t h o u t p r e v i o u s judgement p ronounced by a r e g u l a r l y c o n s t i t u t e d c o u r t which a f f o r d s a l l t h e j u d i c i a l
g u a r a n t ~ ~ s r e c o g n i z e d a s i n d i s p e n s a b l e by c i v i l i z e d p e o p l e .
Any s u c h a c t s commit ted by t h e Armed F o r c e s of t h e
P h i l i p p i n e s a g a i n s t s u r r e n d e r e d o r d e f e n c e l e s s NPA or BHA
were t h e r e f o r e u n l a w f u l . The c r i m e s f o r which p e r s o n s c a n b e
p u n i s h e d i n c l u d e s war crimes and crimes a g a i n s t p e a c e , and
t h e y i n c l u d e t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n , m a l t r e a t m e n t o r d e p o r t a t i o n
of t h e c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n i n o c c u p i e d t e r r i t o r y . The
a s s a s s i n a t i o n o r m a l t r e a t m e n t of p r i s o n e r s o f war, t h e
e x e c u t i o n o f h o s t a g e s , t h e p i l l a g i n g o f p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e
p r o p e r t y , and t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of towns o r v i l l a g e s w i t h o u t
r e a s o n , o r d e v a s t a t i o n which is n o t j u s t i f i a b l e on m i l i t a r y
g r o u n d s . I n t h e l i g h t o f s u c h e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e law, and i n
v i ew o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s law c a n b e invoked i n t h e f u t u r e
when v i c t o r y b e l o n g s t o t h e f r eedom f i g h t e r s o f t o d a y , t h e
members o f t h e AFP would d o well t o a v o i d c o m m i t t i n g s"ch
crimes .
These c r i m i n a l s c o u l d a l s o b e reminded t h a t t h e
s t r u g g l e i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s be tween AFP-NPA and BHA is a
s t r u g g l e f o r s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n , wh ich means, t h e r i g h t is
on t h e s i d e of t h e g u e r i l l a s . The r i g h t t o s e l f -
79 C , (Geneva : I n t e r n a t i o n a l Commit tee o f t h e Red C r o s s , 1983) , Article 3 , p . 2 4 .
d e t e r m i n a t i o n is e n s h r i n e d i n t h e U . N C h a r t e r and h a s been
c o n s t a n t l y c o n f i r m e d by t h e G e n e r a l Assembly o f t h e U n i t e d
N a t i o n s . The Marcos government o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s was n o t
g o v e r n i n g by p o p u l a r w i l l ; i t imposed a n e o - c o l o n i a l r u l e
w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , which d e n i e d b a s i c
rig11Lt1 t o t l ~ o v i t i z o r ~ r ; . 111 !;ucll R s i t u n t i o r ~ , p e o p l e had t t ~ o
r i g h t t o s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h a t r e g i m e , e v e n t o t h e p o i n t o f
t a k i n g up arms a g a i n s t i t . 80
Accord ing t o t h e ~ u m a n ' i t a r i a n Law c o n c e p t , a n NPA o r a
BMA member is t h e r e f o r e n o t a t e r r o r i s t b u t , i n c u r r e n t
i n t e r n a t i o n a l l aw, h e / s h e is a member o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n
i n v o l v e d i n a l e g i t i m a t e s t r u g g l e f o r t h e s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i d n
o f a p e o p l e . Such a p e r s o n h a s more r i g h t t o c a r r y a rms and
t o u s e them t h a n t h e armed f o r c e s o f a government which h a s
d e l e g i t i m i z e d i t s e l f by g o v e r n i n g i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e w i l l
o f t h e p e o p l e and a g a i n s t t h e i r f u n d a m e n t a l i n t e r e s t s .
I n t h e l i g h t o f t h e s e t h e p r o c e s s of m i l i t a r i z a t i o n
c a r r i e d o u t by t h e Harcos r eg ime t o wipe o u t t h e r e b e l s was
a g r o s s v i o l a t i o n of H u m a n i t a r i a n law p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e
r i g h t o f c o m b a t a n t s .
H u m a n i t a r i a n Law, Author unknown, (Mimeographed)
