Rail Component Detection, Optimization, andAssessment for Automatic Rail Track InspectionAbstract:In this paper, we present a real-time automatic vision-based rail inspection system, which performs inspections at 16 km/h with a frame rate of 20 fps. The system robustly detects important rail components such as ties, tie plates, and anchors, with high accuracy and efficiency. To achieve this goal, we first develop a set of image and video analytics and then propose a novel global optimization framework to combine evidence from multiple cameras, Global Positioning System, and distance measurement instrument to further improve the detection performance. Moreover, as the anchor is an important type of rail fastener, we have thus advanced the effort to detect anchor exceptions, which includes assessing the anchor conditions at the tie level and identifying anchor pattern exceptions at the compliance level.

Existing systemProposed system

Now a days crack detection in the railway track work is done by mankind

Drawbacks existing system: Chances of human error. Possibilities for fail to spot the location. More time consumed for complete the work Low accuracyIn the advanced system, the robot is designed to detect the fault of railway track components in the railway track with the help web camera. These fault information and fault location is send to the control station using GSM and GPS technology.Advantages existing system: Point out the exact location Low cost Easy to avoid major accident High accuracy Reduced human interference High efficiency

Working principle:In this proposed system, we can use web camera to detect the crack in the Railway track. Here Web camera, GSM, GPS, LCDand 2 AXIS robotsare interfaced with ARM7 microcontroller.The web camera is fixed in robot. The robot is automatically moved on the railway track. The web camera continuously captures the Rail way track images and then the captured images are processed using MATLAB process. If any railway track component fault is captured by this camera, using MATLAB process microcontroller gets the crack information. Immediately controller gets that crack location using GPS. Themicrocontroller sends this crack and location information to the control station. The LCD is used to display the current status of this system.Block diagram:

ARM7LPC2129Power SupplyDriver circuitRecognitionAuthenticationProcessingMAX 232MAX 232GPSGSM2 AxisRobotsLCD

Hardware Used: 2 axis Robot Mechanism ARM7 LPC2129 Web camera Driver circuit LCD GSM modem GPS MAX232Software Used: Keil compiler Embedded C MatlabApplication: It can be used in railways.

CHAPTER-1DESCRIPTION AND FABRICATION OF COMPONENTPOWER SUPPLY:Power supply block consists of following units: Step down transformer. Bridge rectifier circuit. Input filter. Voltage regulators. Output filter. Indicator unit.STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER:The step-down transformer is used to step down the supply voltage of 230v ac from mains to lower values, as the various ICs used in this project require reduced voltages. The transformer consists of primary and secondary coils. To reduce or step down the voltage, the transformer is designed to contain less number of turns in its secondary core. The outputs from the secondary coil which is center tapped are the ac values of 0v, 15v and 15v. The conversion of these ac values to dc values to dc values is done using the full wave rectifier unit.

RECTIFIER UNIT:A diode bridge is an arrangement of four diodes connected in a bridge circuit. That provides the polarity of output voltage of any polarity of the input voltage. When used in its most common application, for conversion of alternating current (A.C) input into direct current (D.C) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. The diagram describes a diode-bridge design known as a full wave rectifier. This design can be used to rectify single phase A.C. when no transformer center tap is available. A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.For both positive and negative swings of the transformer, there is a forward path through the diode bridge. Both conduction paths cause current to flow in the same direction through the load resister, accomplishing full-wave rectification. While one set of diodes is forward biased, the other set is reversing biased and effectively eliminated from the circuit.INPUT FILTER: Capacitors are used as filters. The ripples from the dc voltages are removed and pure dc voltage is obtained. The primary action performed by capacitor is charging and discharging. It charges in positive half cycle of the ac voltage and it will discharge in negative half cycle. So it allows only ac voltage and does not allow the dc voltage. This filter is fixed before the regulator. Capacitors used here are of the value 1000uF.

REGULATOR UNIT: Regulator regulates the output voltage to a specific value. The output voltage is maintained irrespective of the fluctuations in the input dc voltage. Whenever there are any ac voltage fluctuations, the dc voltage also changes, and to avoid this regulators are used. REGULATORS CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS: 1. Positive regulator, which regulates the positive voltage(7805,7812)

1. > input pin2. > ground pin3. > output pin2. Negative regulator, which regulates the negative voltage (7912).1. > ground pin2. > input pin3. > output pin

Regulators used in this application are: - 7805 which provides 5v dc 7812 which provides 12v dc 7912 which provides -121v dcOUTPUT FILTER: This filter is fixed after the Regulator circuit to filter any of the possibly found ripples in the output received finally. Capacitors used here are of value 10F.

POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

CHAPTER-2LPC2129 ARM CONTROLLERThe LPC2109/2119/2129 are based on a 16/32-bit ARM7TDMI-S CPU with real-time emulation and embedded trace support, together with 64/128/256 kB of embedded high-speed flash memory. A 128-bit wide memory interface and a unique accelerator architecture enable 32-bit code execution at maximum clock rate. For critical code size applications, the alternative 16-bit Thumb mode reduces code by more than 30 % with minimal performance penalty. With their compact 64-pin package, low power consumption, various 32-bit timers, 4-channel 10-bit ADC, two advanced CAN channels, PWM channels and 46 fast GPIO lines with up to nine external interrupt pins these microcontrollers are particularly suitable for automotive and industrial control applications, as well as medical systems and fault-tolerant maintenance buses. With a wide range of additional serial communications interfaces, they are also suited for communication gateways and protocol converters as well as many other general-purpose applications. Remark: Throughout the data sheet, the term LPC2109/2119/2129 will apply to devices with and without the /00 or /01 suffixes. The /00 or the /01 suffix will be used to differentiate from other devices only when necessary.Key features brought by LPC2109/2119/2129/01 devices Fast GPIO ports enable port pin toggling up to 3.5 times faster than the original device. They also allow for a port pin to be read at any time regardless of its function. Dedicated result registers for ADC(s) reduce interrupt overhead. The ADC pads are V5 V tolerant when configured for digital I/O function(s). UART0/1 include fractional baud rate generator, auto-bauding capabilities and handshake flow-control fully implemented in hardware. Buffered SSP serial controller supporting SPI, 4-wire SSI, and Microwire formats. SPI programmable data length and master mode enhancement. Diversified Code Read Protection (CRP) enables different security levels to beV implemented. This feature is available in LPC2109/2119/2129/00 devices as well. General purpose timers can operate as external event counters.2.2 Key features common for all devices 16/32-bit ARM7TDMI-S microcontroller in a tiny LQFP64 package. 8/16 kB on-chip static RAM. 64/128/256 kB on-chip flash program memory. 128-bit wide interface/accelerator enables high speed 60 MHz operation. In-System Programming (ISP) and In-Application Programming (IAP) via on-chip bootloader software. Flash programming takes 1 ms per 512 B line. Single sector or full chip erase takes 400 ms. EmbeddedICE-RT interface enables breakpoints and watch points. Interrupt service routines can continue to execute while the foreground task is debugged with the on-chip RealMonitor software. Embedded Trace Macrocell (ETM) enables non-intrusive high speed real-time tracingof instruction execution. Two interconnected CAN interfaces (one for LPC2109) with advanced acceptance filters. Four-channel 10-bit A/D converter with conversion time as low as 2.44 ms. Multiple serial interfaces including two UARTs (16C550), Fast I2C-bus (400 kbit/s) andtwo SPIs. 60 MHz maximum CPU clock available from programmable on-chip Phase-Locked Loop with settling time of 100 ms. Vectored Interrupt Controller with configurable priorities and vector addresses. Two 32-bit timers (with four capture and four compare channels), PWM unit (sixoutputs), Real-Time Clock (RTC) and watchdog. Up to forty-six 5 V tolerant general purpose I/O pins. Up to nine edge or level sensitiveexternal interrupt pins available. On-chip crystal oscillator with an operating range of 1 MHz to 30 MHz. Two low power modes, Idle and Power-down. Processor wake-up from Power-down mode via external interrupt. Individual enable/disable of peripheral functions for power optimization. Dual power supply: CPU operating voltage range of 1.65 V to 1.95 V (1.8 V 0.15 V). I/O power supply range of 3.0 V to 3.6 V (3.3 V 10 %) with 5 V tolerant I/O pads.

PIN DIAGRAM

LPC2129 Memory

FLASH (kB)256

RAM (kB)16

LPC2129 Parameters

fmax(MHz)60

I/Opins46

UART2

IC1

SPI2

SSP-

ADC4

DAC-

Timers3

PWM6

I/O supply voltage (V)3.3

CPU supply voltage (V)1.8

LPC2129 Packages and Pinouts

LQFP64

CHAPTER-3PCB FABRICATION`The PCB manufacturing process involves use of expensive equipments, but homebrew PCB fabrication is less expensive .It requires Intel Pentium PC,600-1200dpi laser printer with premium-quality paper or butter-paper and miscellaneous items like single side copper laminated board, Lacquer thinner, sand paper and others. The various steps involves in PCB fabrication are PC BASED ARTWORK The PC based artwork consists of drawing the conductor pattern. For putting artwork on the component side of the board, flip the whole image before or while taking the print. When the pattern has been drawn, take the print out in 600 to 1200 dpi on a translucent or butter paper. Keep the paper side on which the toner is deposited facing down over the copper laminated boards copper side and then when the board is turned component side up, the pattern on the conductor will be found properly aligned with the components. Finally we take the printout of the PCB.

TAKING THE PCB LAYOUT PRINT USING A LASER PRINTER Take the printout of the circuit layout from a laser printer. The idea is to use a coated paper so that the toner comes loose when heated which would transfer a sharp black print on to copper laminate. Print for each of the required layers should be taken on separate paper. TRANSFER OF THE CONDUCTOR PATTERNScrub The Copper Side Of The Copper Clad Laminated Used For The PCB Board With A Sponge. The Scrubbing Involves Removes Oxidation, Stains, Etc. And It Also Makes The Copper Surface Some-What Rough Which Helps The Toner To Adhere To The Copper Surface. The Next Step Is To Degrease The Board Thoroughly Using A Paper Towel Soaked With Acetone Solvent. Keep Doing It Until No More Discoloration Is Seen On The Paper Towel. Rub Hard And Keep Switching To Clean Parts Of Towel. Place And Align The Paper On The Copper Side, Using An Iron Box To Maximum Setting On The Back Of The Paper For At Least Half A Minute. If You Don't Apply Enough Heat, The Film Or Toner May No Stick Or Be Dark Enough. The Removal Of Paper From PCB Is Done By Putting It Into Hot Water For 10 Or More Minutes. Check Whether It Has Transferred Properly Onto Copper Plate.Dig The Bristles On The Tip Of A Smooth Tooth Brush Into The Holes, Remove The Paper Part From The Tight Areas Like Drill-Holes. Now Cut The PCB To Required Size By Using A Hacksaw.ETCHINGEtch the unwanted copper from the board using the ferric chloride solution for 20 or more minutes. One pint can etch at least 3.6 sq. meters of the 28gm board. Heating the etchant will speeds up the etching process. The PCB is attached to a wooden piece and dip in to the solution. Lift the PCB up and Check whether all the unwanted copper is removed. Then it is immersed in to cold water to clean. When etching is complete, board is removed from the solution and rinse it under running tap water .Acetone or lacquer thinner is used to remove the toner .Lacquer thinner is used as a solvent in painting industry. Wash the board in lacquer thinner solvent, rubbing with a paper towel, to remove the toner instantly.DRILLING AND CLEANING In this we had used a PCB hand drill .Use 0.8mm PCB drill bit to drill out all of the component holes. After drilling the holes scrub sponge is used to clean before soldering .After drilling and cleaning, wash the board in cold water and then dry it.CAUTIONLacquer thinner is extremely volatile, inflammable and explosive. Acetone can irritate eyes and respiratory system .Ferric chloride is corrosive, so avoid skin and eye contact.

PIC16F877A PCB DESIGN

SOLDERINGSoldering is the process of joining metals by using lower melting point metal to wet or alloy with the joined surfaces. Solder is the joining material. It melts below 427C. Soldered joints in electronic circuits will establish strong electrical connections between component leads. The popularly used solders are alloys of tin and lead that melt below the melting point of tin.In order to make the surfaces accept the solder readily, the component terminals should be cleaned chemically or by abrasion using blades or knives. Small amount of lead coating can be done on the cleaned portion of the leads using soldering iron. This process is called tinning. Zinc chloride or ammonium chloride separately or in combination are the most commonly used fluxes. These are available in petroleum jelly as paste flux. A solder joint can at first glance to be okay, but under close examination it could be a Dry Joint. A dry joint is when either the circuit board or the leg of the component has not been properly heated to allow the solder to flow between the surfaces freely. This creates an intermittent or no electrical connection. This can also be caused by a lack of flux or if you reuse old solder. Quite often, reheating a bad join will cure the problem but in a lot of cases, the old solder will need to be removed and some new solder applied. The residues, which remain after the soldering, may be washed out with more water, accompanied by brushing.Soldering iron is the tool used to melt the solder and apply at the joints in the circuit. It operates in 230V mains supply. The iron bit at the tip of it gets heated up within a few minutes. 50W and 25W soldering irons are commonly used for soldering purposes.PROCEDUREMake a layout of the circuit.Straighten and clean the component leads using blade or knife. Apply a little flux on the leads. Take a little solder on soldering iron and apply the molten solder on the leads.Mount the components on the PCB by bending the leads of the components using nose-pliers.Apply flux on the joints and solder the joints. Soldering must be done in minimum time to avoid dry soldering and heating up of components. Wash the residue using water and brush.

ADVANTAGES Reduce the manual power Low cost and Reliable

CHAPTER-4LCD DISPLAYLCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide range of applications. A 16x4 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred overseven segmentsand other multi segmentLEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no limitation of displaying special & evencustom characters(unlike in seven segments),animationsand so on.A 16x4 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely, Command and Data.The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed on the LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD.

Pin Description:Pin NoFunctionName

1Ground (0V)Ground

2Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V 5.3V)Vcc

3Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor

VEE

4Selects command register when low; and data register when highRegister Select

5Low to write to the register; High to read from the registerRead/write

6Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is givenEnable

78-bit data pinsDB0

8DB1

9DB2

10DB3

11DB4

12DB5

13DB6

14DB7

15Backlight VCC(5V)Led+

16Backlight Ground (0V)Led-

CHAPTER-5GSM MODEM

A GSM modem is a wireless modem that works with a GSM wireless network. A wireless modem behaves like a dial-up modem. The main difference between them is that a dial-up modem sends and receives data through a fixed telephone line while a wireless modem sends and receives data through radio waves. The working of GSM modem is based on commands, the commands always start with AT (which means ATtention) and finish with a character. For example, the dialing command is ATD; ATD3314629080; here the dialing command ends with semicolon.

The AT commands are given to the GSM modem with the help of PC or controller. The GSM modem is serially interfaced with the controller with the help of MAX 232. Here max 232 acts as driver which converts TTL levels to the RS 232 levels. For serial interface GSM modem requires the signal based on RS 232 levels. The T1_OUT and R1_IN pin of MAX 232 is connected to the TX and RX pin of GSM modem

DEFINITION

Global system for mobile communication (GSM) is a globally accepted standard for digital cellular communication. GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European mobile telephone standard that would formulate specifications for a pan-European mobile cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz.

GSM HISTORYToday the GSM cell or mobile phone system is the most popular in the world. GSM handsets are widely available at good prices and the networks are robust and reliable. The GSM system is also feature-rich with applications such as SMS text messaging, international roaming, SIM cards and the like. It is also being enhanced with technologies including GPRS and EDGE. To achieve this level of success has taken many years and is the result of both technical development and international cooperation. The GSM history can be seen to be a story of cooperation across Europe, and one that nobody thought would lead to the success that GSM is today.The first cell phone systems that were developed were analogue systems. Typically they used frequency-modulated carriers for the voice channels and data was carried on a separate shared control channel. When compared to the systems employed today these systems were comparatively straightforward and as a result a vast number of systems appeared. Two of the major systems that were in existence were the AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) that was used in the USA and many other countries and TACS (Total Access Communications System) that was used in the UK as well as many other countries around the world.Another system that was employed, and was in fact the first system to be commercially deployed was the Nordic Mobile Telephone system (NMT). This was developed by a consortium of companies in Scandinavia and proved that international cooperation was possible.The success of these systems proved to be their downfall. The use of all the systems installed around the globe increased dramatically and the effects of the limited frequency allocations were soon noticed. To overcome these a number of actions were taken. A system known as E-TACS or Extended-TACS was introduced giving the TACS system further channels. In the USA another system known as Narrowband AMPS (NAMPS) was developed.

FrequenciesOriginally it had been intended that GSM would operate on frequencies in the 900 MHz cellular band. In September 1993, the British operator Mercury One-to-One launched a network. Termed DCS 1800 it operated at frequencies in a new 1800 MHz band. By adopting new frequencies new operators and further competition was introduced into the market apart from allowing additional spectrum to be used and further increasing the overall capacity. This trend was followed in many countries, and soon the term DCS 1800 was dropped in favour of calling it GSM as it was purely the same cellular technology but operating on a different frequency band. In view of the higher frequency used the distances the signals travelled was slightly shorter but this was compensated for by additional base stations.In the USA as well a portion of spectrum at 1900 MHz was allocated for cellular usage in 1994. The licensing body, the FCC, did not legislate which technology should be used, and accordingly this enabled GSM to gain a foothold in the US market. This system was known as PCS 1900 (Personal Communication System).

What is a GSM Modem?A GSM modem is a wireless modem that works with a GSM wireless network. A wireless modem behaves like a dial-up modem. The main difference between them is that a dial-up modem sends and receives data through a fixed telephone line while a wireless modem sends and receives data through radio waves.

A GSM modem can be an external device or a PC Card / PCMCIA Card. Typically, an external GSM modem is connected to a computer through a serial cable or a USB cable. A GSM modem in the form of a PC Card / PCMCIA Card is designed for use with a laptop computer. It should be inserted into one of the PC Card / PCMCIA Card slots of a laptop computer. Like a GSM mobile phone, a GSM modem requires a SIM card from a wireless carrier in order to operate.

As mentioned in earlier sections of this SMS tutorial, computers use AT commands to control modems. Both GSM modems and dial-up modems support a common set of standard AT commands. You can use a GSM modem just like a dial-up modem.

In addition to the standard AT commands, GSM modems support an extended set of AT commands. These extended AT commands are defined in the GSM standards. With the extended AT commands, you can do things like: Reading, writing and deleting SMS messages. Sending SMS messages. Monitoring the signal strength. Monitoring the charging status and charge level of the battery. Reading, writing and searching phone book entries.The number of SMS messages that can be processed by a GSM modem per minute is very low -- only about six to ten SMS messages per minute.

GSM Modem Application

THE GSM NETWORK

GSM provides recommendations, not requirements. The GSM specifications define the functions and interface requirements in detail but do not address the hardware. The reason for this is to limit the designers as little as possible but still to make it possible for the operators to buy equipment from different suppliers. The GSM network is divided into three major systems: the switching system (SS), the base station system (BSS), and the operation and support system (OSS).

GSM Network ElementsThe Switching SystemThe switching system (SS) is responsible for performing call processing and subscriber-related functions. The switching system includes the following functional units. home location register (HLR)The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most important database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers, including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity status. When an individual buys a subscription from one of the PCS operators, he or she is registered in the HLR of that operator. mobile services switching center (MSC)The MSC performs the telephony switching functions of the system. It controls calls to and from other telephone and data systems. It also performs such functions as toll ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others. visitor location register (VLR)The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR will have the information needed for call setup without having to interrogate the HLR each time. authentication center (AUC)A unit called the AUC provides authentication and encryption parameters that verify the user's identity and ensure the confidentiality of each call. The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud found in today's cellular world. equipment identity register (EIR)The EIR is a database that contains information about the identity of mobile equipment that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized, or defective mobile stations. The AUC and EIR are implemented as stand-alone nodes or as a combined AUC/EIR node.

CHAPTER-6G.P.S RECIEVERThe Global Positioning System (GPS) is a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) developed by the United States Department of Defense. It is the only fully functional GNSS in the world. It uses a constellation of between 24 and 32 Medium Earth Orbit satellites that transmit precise microwave signals, which enable GPS receivers to determine their current location, the time, and their velocity. Its official name is NAVSTAR GPS. Although NAVSTAR is not an acronym, a few backronyms have been created for it. The GPS satellite constellation is managed by the United States Air Force 50th Space Wing. GPS is often used by civilians as a navigation system. After Korean Air Lines Flight 007 was shot down in 1983 after straying into the USSR's prohibited airspace, President Ronald Reagan issued a directive making GPS freely available for civilian use as a common good. As suggested by physicist D. Fanelli a few years before. Since then, GPS has become a widely used aid to navigation worldwide, and a useful tool for map-making, land surveying, commerce, scientific uses, and hobbies such as geocaching. Also, the precise time reference is used in many applications including the scientific study of earthquakes. GPS is also a required key synchronization resource of cellular networks, such as the Qualcomm CDMA air interface used by many wireless carriers in a multitude of countries. The first satellite navigation system, Transit, used by the United States Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. Using a constellation of five satellites, it could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the Imation satellite which proved the ability to place accurate clocks in space, a technology that GPS relies upon. In the 1970s, the ground-based Omega Navigation System, based on signal phase comparison, became the first worldwide radio navigation system. The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio navigation systems, such as LORAN and the Decca Navigator developed in the early 1940s, and used during World War II. Additional inspiration for the GPS came when the Soviet Union launched the first Sputnik in 1957. A team of U.S. scientists led by Dr. Richard B. Kershner were monitoring Sputnik's radio transmissions. They discovered that, because of the Doppler Effect, the frequency of the signal being transmitted by Sputnik was higher as the satellite approached, and lower as it continued away from them. They realized that since they knew their exact location on the globe, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit by measuring the Doppler distortion.

3.4.2 Working and OperationWhen people talk about "a GPS," they usually mean a GPS receiver. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is actually a constellation of 27 Earth-orbiting satellites (24 in operation and three extras in case one fails). The U.S. military developed and implemented this satellite network as a military navigation system, but soon opened it up to everybody else.

Each of these 3,000- to 4,000-pound solar-powered satellites circles the globe at about 12,000 miles (19,300 km), making two complete rotations every day. The orbits are arranged so that at any time, anywhere on Earth, there are at least four satellites "visible" in the sky.A GPS receiver's job is to locate four or more of these satellites, figure out the distance to each, and use this information to deduce its own location. This operation is based on a simple mathematical principle called trilateration.GPS receiver calculates its position on earth based on the information it receives from four located satellites. This system works pretty well, but inaccuracies do pop up. For one thing, this method assumes the radio signals will make their way through the atmosphere at a consistent speed (the speed of light). In fact, the Earth's atmosphere slows the electromagnetic energy down somewhat, particularly as it goes through the ionosphere and troposphere. The delay varies depending on where you are on Earth, which means it's difficult to accurately factor this into the distance calculations. Problems can also occur when radio signals bounce off large objects, such as skyscrapers, giving a receiver the impression that a satellite is farther away than it actually is. On top of all that, satellites sometimes just send out bad almanac data, misreporting their own position.

Differential GPS (DGPS) helps correct these errors. The basic idea is to gauge GPS inaccuracy at a stationary receiver station with a known location. Since the DGPS hardware at the station already knows its own position, it can easily calculate its receiver's inaccuracy. The station then broadcasts a radio signal to all DGPS-equipped receivers in the area, providing signal correction information for that area. In general, access to this correction information makes DGPS receivers much more accurate than ordinary receivers.

3.18 G.P.S receiver communicating with the satellite and sending information through the wireless mobile phoneG.P.S data decodingG.P.S receiver continuously sends data and the microcontroller receives the data when ever it requires. The data sent by the G.P.S is a string of characters which should be decoded to the standard format. This is done by the program which we implement in the controller. FEATURE Brand new and high quality. Model: GY-GPS6MV2. With ceramic antenna. With LED signal indicator lamp. Power supply: 3-5V. The default baud rate: 9600. Compatible with different flight controller module. Size 1: 2.5cm x 3.5cm. Size 2: 2.5cm x 2.5cm x 0.8cm.

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS MATLAB 7.14 VersionMATLABMATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include: Math and computation Algorithm development Modeling, simulation, and prototyping Data analysis, exploration, and visualization Scientific and engineering graphics. Application development, including Graphical User Interface building

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in a scalar non-interactive language such as C or FORTRAN

3.3 INTRODUCTION MATLAB(matrixlaboratory) is anumerical computingenvironment andfourth-generation programming language. Developed byMath Works, MATLAB allowsmatrixmanipulations, plotting offunctionsand data, implementation ofalgorithms, creation ofuser interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages, includingC,C++,Java, andFortran. Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numerical computing, an optional toolbox uses theMuPAD symbolic engine, allowing access tosymbolic computingcapabilities. An additional package,Simulink, adds graphical multi-domain simulation andModel-Based Designfordynamicandembedded systems. In 2004, MATLAB had around one million users across industry and academia.MATLAB users come from various backgrounds ofengineering,science, andeconomics. MATLAB is widely used in academic and research institutions as well as industrial enterprises. MATLAB was first adopted by researchers and practitioners incontrol engineering, Little's specialty, but quickly spread to many other domains. It is now also used in education, in particular the teaching oflinear algebraandnumerical analysis, and is popular amongst scientists involved inimage processing. The MATLAB application is built around the MATLAB language. The simplest way to execute MATLAB code is to type it in the Command Window, which is one of the elements of the MATLAB Desktop. When code is entered in the Command Window, MATLAB can be used as an interactive mathematicalshell. Sequences of commands can be saved in a text file, typically using the MATLAB Editor, as ascriptor encapsulated into afunction, extending the commands available. MATLAB provides a number of features for documenting and sharing your work. You can integrate your MATLAB code with other languages and applications, and distribute your MATLAB algorithms and applications.

3.4 FEATURES of matlab

High-level language for technical computing. Development environment for managing code, files, and data. Interactive tools for iterative exploration, design, and problem solving. Mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering, optimization, and numerical integration. 2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data. Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces. Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and languages, such as C, C++, Fortran, Java, COM, and MicrosoftExcel.

MATLAB is used in vast area, including signal and image processing, communications, control design,test and measurement, financial modeling and analysis, and computational. Add-on toolboxes (collections of special-purpose MATLAB functions) extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems in these application areas. MATLAB can be used on personal computers and powerful server systems, including theCheahacompute cluster. With the addition of the Parallel Computing Toolbox, the language can be extended with parallel implementations for common computational functions, including for-loop unrolling. Additionally this toolbox supports offloading computationally intensive workloads toCheahathe campus compute cluster. MATLAB is one of a few languages in which each variable is a matrix (broadly construed) and "knows" how big it is. Moreover, the fundamental operators (e.g. addition, multiplication) are programmed to deal with matrices when required. And the MATLAB environment handles much of the bothersome housekeeping that makes all this possible. Since so many of the procedures required for Macro-Investment Analysis involves matrices, MATLAB proves to be an extremely efficient language for both communication and implementation.

3.4.1 INTERFACING WITH OTHER LANGUAGES MATLAB can call functions and subroutines written in theC programming languageorFORTRAN. A wrapper function is created allowing MATLAB data types to be passed and returned. The dynamically loadable object files created by compiling such functions are termed "MEX-files" (forMATLABexecutable). Libraries written inJava,ActiveXor.NETcan be directly called from MATLAB and many MATLAB libraries (for exampleXMLorSQLsupport) are implemented as wrappers around Java or ActiveX libraries. Calling MATLAB from Java is more complicated, but can be done with MATLAB extension, which is sold separately byMath Works, or using an undocumented mechanism called JMI (Java-to-Mat lab Interface),which should not be confused with the unrelated Javathat is also called JMI. As alternatives to theMuPADbased Symbolic Math Toolbox available from Math Works, MATLAB can be connected toMapleorMathematical.Libraries also exist to import and exportMathML.

Development Environment Startup Accelerator for faster MATLAB startup on Windows, especially on Windows XP, and for network installations. Spreadsheet Import Toolthat provides more options for selecting and loading mixed textual and numeric data. Readability and navigation improvements to warning and error messages in the MATLAB command window. Automatic variable and function renamingin the MATLAB Editor.

Developing Algorithms and Applications

MATLAB provides a high-level language and development tools that let you quickly develop and analyze your algorithms and applications.

The MATLAB Language The MATLAB language supports the vector and matrix operations that are fundamental to engineering and scientific problems. It enables fast development and execution. With the MATLAB language, you can program and develop algorithms faster than with traditional languages because you do not need to perform low-level administrative tasks, such as declaring variables, specifying data types, and allocating memory. In many cases, MATLAB eliminates the need for for loops. As a result, one line of MATLAB code can often replace several lines of C or C++ code. At the same time, MATLAB provides all the features of a traditional programming language, including arithmetic operators, flow control, data structures, data types,object-oriented programming(OOP), and debugging features. MATLAB lets you execute commands or groups of commands one at a time, without compiling and linking, enabling you to quickly iterate to the optimal solution. For fast execution of heavy matrix and vector computations, MATLAB uses processor-optimized libraries. For general-purpose scalar computations, MATLAB generates machine-code instructions using its JIT (Just-In-Time) compilation technology. This technology, which is available on most platforms, provides execution speeds that rival those of traditional programming languages.

Development Tools MATLAB includes development tools that help you implement your algorithm efficiently. These include the following:

MATLAB Editor Provides standard editing and debugging features, such as setting breakpoints and single stepping

Code Analyzer Checks your code for problems and recommends modifications to maximize performance and maintainability

MATLAB Profiler Records the time spent executing each line of code

Directory Reports Scan all the files in a directory and report on code efficiency, file differences, file dependencies, and code coverage

Designing Graphical User Interfaces By using the interactive tool GUIDE (Graphical User Interface Development Environment) to layout, design, and edit user interfaces. GUIDE lets you include list boxes, pull-down menus, push buttons, radio buttons, and sliders, as well as MATLAB plots and Microsoft ActiveXcontrols. Alternatively, you can createGUIsprogrammatically using MATLAB functions.

3.5 The MATLAB SystemThe MATLAB system consists of five main parts: Development Environment.This is the set of tools and facilities that help you use MATLAB functions and files. Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and Command Window, a command history, and browsers for viewing help, the workspace, files, and the search path.

The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library. This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse, matrix eigenvalues, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

The MATLAB Language. This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and "programming in the large" to create complete large and complex application programs.

Handle Graphics. This is the MATLAB graphics system. It includes high-level commands for two-dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation graphics. It also includes low-level commands that allow you to fully customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on your MATLAB applications.

The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API). This is a library that allows you to write C and FORTRAN programs that interact with MATLAB. It include facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.

3.5.1 DESKTOP TOOLSThis section provides an introduction to MATLAB's desktop tools. You can also use MATLAB functions to perform most of the features found in the desktop tools. The tools are: Current Directory Browser Workspace Browser Array Editor Editor/Debugger Command Window Command History Launch Pad Help Browser

Command Window Use the Command Window to enter variables and run functions and M-files.

Command History Lines you enter in the Command Window are logged in the Command History window. In the Command History, you can view previously used functions, and copy and execute selected lines. To save the input and output from a MATLAB session to a file, use the diary function.

Running External ProgramsYou can run external programs from the MATLAB Command Window. The exclamation point character! is a shell escape and indicates that the rest of the input line is a command to the operating system. This is useful for invoking utilities or running other programs without quitting MATLAB. On Linux, for example,!emacs magik.m invokes an editor called emacs for a file named magik.m. When you quit the external program, the operating system returns control to MATLAB.

Launch Pad MATLAB's Launch Pad provides easy access to tools, demos, and documentation.

Help BrowserUse the Help browser to search and view documentation for all your Math Works products. The Help browser is a Web browser integrated into the MATLAB desktop that displays HTML documents.To open the Help browser, click the help button in the toolbar, or type helpbrowser in the Command Window. The Help browser consists of two panes, the Help Navigator, which you use to find information, and the display pane, where you view the information.

Help NavigatorUse to Help Navigator to find information. It includes:

Product filter Set the filter to show documentation only for the products you specify.

Contents tab View the titles and tables of contents of documentation for your products.

Index tab Find specific index entries (selected keywords) in the MathWorks documentation for your products.

Search tabLook for a specific phrase in the documentation. To get help for a specific function, set the Search type to Function Name.

Favorites tabView a list of documents you previously designated as favorites.

Display PaneAfter finding documentation using the Help Navigator, view it in the display pane. While viewing the documentation, you can:

Browse to other pages Use the arrows at the tops and bottoms of the pages, or use the back and forward buttons in the toolbar.

Bookmark pages Click the Add to Favorites button in the toolbar.

Print pages Click the print button in the toolbar.

Find a term in the page Type a term in the Find in page field in the toolbar and click Go.Other features available in the display pane are: copying information, evaluating a selection, and viewing Web pages.

Current Directory Browser

MATLAB file operations use the current directory and the search path as reference points. Any file you want to run must either be in the current directory or on the search path.

Search Path To determine how to execute functions you call, MATLAB uses a search path to find M-files and other MATLAB-related files, which are organized in directories on your file system. Any file you want to run in MATLAB must reside in the current directory or in a directory that is on the search path. By default, the files supplied with MATLAB and MathWorks toolboxes are included in the search path.

Workspace BrowserThe MATLAB workspace consists of the set of variables (named arrays) built up during a MATLAB session and stored in memory. You add variables to the workspace by using functions, running M-files, and loading saved workspaces.To view the workspace and information about each variable, use the Workspace browser, or use the functions who and whos.To delete variables from the workspace, select the variable and select Delete from the Edit menu. Alternatively, use the clear function.The workspace is not maintained after you end the MATLAB session. To save the workspace to a file that can be read during a later MATLAB session, select Save Workspace As from the File menu, or use the save function. This saves the workspace to a binary file called a MAT-file, which has a .mat extension. There are options for saving to different formats. To read in a MAT-file, select Import Data from the File menu, or use the load function.

Array Editor Double-click on a variable in the Workspace browser to see it in the Array Editor. Use the Array Editor to view and edit a visual representation of one- or two-dimensional numeric arrays, strings, and cell arrays of strings that are in the workspace.

Editor/DebuggerUse the Editor/Debugger to create and debug M-files, which are programs you write to run MATLAB functions. The Editor/Debugger provides a graphical user interface for basic text editing, as well as for M-file debugging.You can use any text editor to create M-files, such as Emacs, and can use preferences (accessible from the desktop File menu) to specify that editor as the default. If you use another editor, you can still use the MATLAB Editor/Debugger for debugging, or you can use debugging functions, such as dbstop, which sets a breakpoint.If you just need to view the contents of an M-file, you can display it in the Command Window by using the type function.

3.5.2 ANALYZING AND ACCESSING DATAMATLAB supports the entire data analysis process, from acquiring data from external devices and databases, through preprocessing, visualization, and numerical analysis, to producing presentation-quality output.

Data Analysis MATLAB provides interactive tools and command-line functions for data analysis operations, including: Interpolating and decimating Extracting sections of data, scaling, and averaging Thresholding and smoothing Correlation, Fourier analysis, and filtering 1-D peak, valley, and zero finding Basic statistics and curve fitting Matrix analysis

Data AccessMATLAB is an efficient platform for accessing data from files, other applications, databases, and external devices. You can read data from popular file formats, such as Microsoft Excel; ASCII text or binary files; image, sound, and video files; and scientific files, such as HDF and HDF5. Low-level binary file I/O functions let you work with data files in any format. Additional functions let you read data from Web pages and XML.

Visualizing Data All the graphics features that are required to visualize engineering and scientific data are available in MATLAB. These include 2-D and 3-D plotting functions, 3-D volume visualization functions, tools for interactively creating plots, and the ability to export results to all popular graphics formats. You can customize plots by adding multiple axes; changing line colors and markers; adding annotation, Latex equations, and legends; and drawing shapes.

2-D PlottingVisualizing vectors of data with 2-D plotting functions that create: Line, area, bar, and pie charts. Direction and velocity plots. Histograms. Polygons and surfaces. Scatter/bubble plots. Animations.

3-D Plotting and Volume VisualizationMATLAB provides functions for visualizing 2-D matrices, 3-D scalar, and 3-D vector data. You can use these functions to visualize and understand large, often complex, multidimensional data. Specifying plot characteristics, such as camera viewing angle, perspective, lighting effect, light source locations, and transparency. 3-D plotting functions include: Surface, contour, and mesh. Image plots. Cone, slice, stream, and isosurface.

3.5.3 PERFORMING NUMERIC COMPUTATION MATLAB contains mathematical, statistical, and engineering functions to support all common engineering and science operations. These functions, developed by experts in mathematics, are the foundation of the MATLAB language. The core math functions use the LAPACK and BLAS linear algebra subroutine libraries and the FFTW Discrete Fourier Transform library. Because these processor-dependent libraries are optimized to the different platforms that MATLAB supports, they execute faster than the equivalent C or C++ code. MATLAB provides the following types of functions for performing mathematical operations and analyzing data:

Matrix manipulation and linear algebra. Polynomials and interpolation. Fourier analysis and filtering. Data analysis and statistics. Optimization and numerical integration. Ordinary differential equations (ODEs). Partial differential equations (PDEs). Sparse matrix operations.

MATLAB can perform arithmetic on a wide range of data types, including doubles, singles, and integers.