The magazine of The UK Wolf Conservation Trust, published quarterly

Issue 20 Summer 2004

Special edition on Portugal

Published by:The UK Wolf Conservation TrustButlers Farm, Beenham,Reading RG7 5NTTel & Fax: 0118 971 3330e-mail: ukwct@ukwolf.orgwww.ukwolf.org

EditorDenise TaylorTel: 01788 832658e-mail: denise.taylor@btinternet.com

Editorial TeamJulia Bohanna,Andrew Matthews,Gwynne Power, Sue Sefscik

Contributors to this issue:Francisco Alvares, Clara Espirito-Santo, Clara Grilo,Pedro Primavera, Francisco Petrucci-Fonesca,Helena Rio-Maior, Silvia Ribeiro, Sara Roque,

Design Team: Phil Dee Tel: 01788 546565Stephania Balbo, Paul Swainson

PatronsDesmond MorrisErich KlinghammerChristoph Promberger

The UK Wolf Conservation Trust DirectorsNigel BulmerCharles HicksTsa PalmerDenise Taylor

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Welcome to a special themed edition of Wolf Print, focusing on the Iberianwolf (Canis lupus signatus) in Portugal.

Five articles give an insight into how the Iberian wolf has fared historically, and whatwork is now being done to help secure the wolves’ future survival. Livestock guardingdogs (LGDs) are increasingly becoming one of the main methods used to help preventlivestock depredation. Interestingly, this seems to a more accepted practice incountries where wolf populations have never been totally eradicated, and where LGDsare now enjoying a renaissance themselves.Grupo Lobo is an NGO (non-governmental organisation) working for the conservationof wolves in Portugal by providing scientific research and education, as well as a wolfcentre that homes captive wolves. Visit their website for further information. Detailscan be found on page 6. Our thanks to Grupo Lobo for helping to co-ordinate thisspecial issue of Wolf Print.Our apologies for Wolves of the World being a much-shortened version in this issue.We wanted to present the different aspects of wolf conservation Portugal, which hasled to some space constraints. We have, therefore, only managed to include threereports from France, Switzerland and an interesting little piece from Japan, which wewanted to include following on from the report on wolves in China and Japan in thelast issue (No. 19).It would seem that wolves in Italy should be very wary of crossing political boundaries.Migration into France and Switzerland has led to protests from sheep farmers in bothcountries, and in turn this has led to wolves being culled following livestockdepredation. Dealing with such conflict situations is one of the biggest challenges thatwolf conservationists face. The problems have been exacerbated due to farmers inthese countries not having had experience of large carnivores preying on theirlivestock. Animal husbandry has been adapted to this, with sheep being able to roammore freely, with very little protection. This raises lots of issues and challenges for bothwolf conservation advocates and opponents. But one thing remains clear. Wolves maybe culled to alleviate problems in the short term, but as a protected species they arehere to stay.

UKWCT AUTUMN SEMINAR – SUNDAY 24 OCTOBER 2004 For further details visit the Trust’s website at www.ukwolf.org or contact theAdmin Office on 44 (0) 118 971 3330, email – ukwct@ukwolf.org.

Status and Conservation of the IberianWolf in Portugal

Human Dimensions in Iberian WolfManagement in Portugal

The Wolf in Rural Communities' Culturein the North of Portugal

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I ns ide th i s i ssue. . .The Isolated Wolf Population Southof the Douro River: Status andaction priorities for its recovery

Recovering the use of LivestockGuarding Dogs to Protect theIberian Wolf in Portugal

Wolves of the World

Status and Conservation of the Iberian Wolf in Portugal

Status and Conservationof the Iberian Wolfin Portugal

x4

by Francisco Álvares

Figure 1 – Trends in wolf distribution in the Iberian Peninsula(Adapted from Grande del Brio, 1984; Blanco et al., 1990; Petrucci-Fonseca, 1990; ICN, 1997)

Photo: Francisco Álvares

Figure 2 – Trends in wolf distribution in Portugal(Adapted from Petrucci-Fonseca, 1990; ICN, 1997; Petrucci-Fonseca & Álvares, 1997)

In Portugal there is a subspecies of grey wolfthat is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula(Portugal and Spain), the Iberian wolf (Canislupus signatus, Cabrera 1907). Thissubspecies is slightly smaller than northernwolves. On average, an adult is 140cm fromnose to tail tip, is 70-80cm tall and has aweight of 35-55kg.

In the early 20th century, the Iberian wolfoccurred in almost the whole area of theIberian Peninsula. In that period, wolfdistribution started to decrease due tohuman persecution, with wolves disappearingfrom east to west and from south to northof the Peninsula (Figure 1). Today, Iberianwolves only occupy northwest Iberia and asmall isolated area in southern Spain, inAndalucia’s Sierra Morena Oriental(Figure 1). Iberian wolves were still presentacross Portugal in the 1930s, occurring oncoastlands and near Lisbon (Figure 2).However, in the middle 20th century analarming regression of wolf distributionstarted to occur mainly due to a ferociousdirect persecution and major habitat changesparticularly in forest cover and preyavailability (Figure 2).

CURRENT STATUS OF IBERIAN WOLFIN PORTUGALIn Portugal, specific legislation has fullyprotected wolves since the 1990s. This lawforbids wolf capture or killing, habitatdestruction and disturbance of wolves, mainly

during the breeding season and includesa wolf damage compensation programme.In addition, the Iberian wolf is listedas “Endangered” in the Portuguese RedData Book.

According to the first national wolf census,conducted in 1994-1996 (ICN, 1997), thePortuguese wolf population occupied an areaof 18,000km2 which represented about 20%of the original distribution area.At that time,the estimate corresponded to approximately300 wolves (about 55-60 packs) in Portugal.

A new national wolf census was conductedbetween 2002 and 2003, and although theresults are not fully analysed, it seems thatwolf population status and distribution aresimilar to the ones obtained in the middle1990s; however, unstable wolf nuclei were

Status and Conservation of the Iberian Wolf in Portugal 5

Figure 3 – Ecological features in different regions of the Portuguese wolf population(density, main prey and most frequent non-natural death causes)

Photo: Francisco Álvares

localized in some marginal and humanisedareas (Grupo Lobo/ICN, unpublished data).

Currently, wolves survive mainly in themountainous regions of north and centralPortugal which have a low human populationdensity and an important agricultural andhusbandry industry (Figure 3).

The main and more stable wolf nuclei arelocated in Peneda-Gerês National Park (NWPortugal), Montesinho Natural Park (NEPortugal) and Alvão Natural Park (centralNorth Portugal).These three wolf nuclei are aregular source of dispersing animals due totheir reproductive stability.These regions thushave a strong influence in maintaining wolfpacks in the more unstable surrounding areas.

Wolf distribution area in Portugal is notcontinuous, because there are twopopulations divided by the Douro river. Thepopulation in the north shows stability and iscontiguous with the Spanish wolf population,while the small and isolated population in thesouth, shows a high degree of fragmentationand faces a danger of extinction.THE ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY INPORTUGUESE WOLVES In spite of the reduced wolf range in Portugal,this carnivore shows a wide ecologicaldiversity, which is a reflection of diversehabitat conditions and wolf high adaptability(Figure 3). In the rough mountains of NWPortugal (Peneda-Gerês National Park), thewolf feeds mainly on free ranging horses andcattle (almost 50% of wolf diet) and on goats(37% of wolf diet), which leads this region tohave the highest values of economic damagedue to wolf predation in Portugal. This factgenerates a huge conflict between man andwolf, which results in high illegal persecutionmainly through poisoning (15% of knownmortality) and shooting (32% of knownmortality). Nevertheless, this wolf nucleusreaches high densities (with pack size upto 15 wolves), only possible due to thereduced humanization of habitat and to highprey availability.

In NE Portugal (east region of MontesinhoNatural Park) there is a high density of wildungulates (roe deer, red deer and wild boar)that represents the wolf's main prey (around70% of the diet). Consequently, this wolf

nucleus does not suffer from an evident directpersecution by man, allowing wolf densities tobe high.

The region of Alvão mountains representsan intermediate situation, where wolves feedmainly on the two most common ungulates inthe area: goats (constituting 70% of wolf diet)and wild boar (15% of wolf diet). South of theDouro River wolves show a similar ecologicalbehaviour, although they frequently feed oncarrion and garbage dumps. The wolfecological features in these two Portugueseregions reflect the ecology of the majority ofthe Iberian wolf population, and across thewhole of southern Europe. Wolves survivingin humanised areas occur in median and low

densities. They take advantage of theavailability of food due to human proximity,but pay a high price by suffering a significantnon-natural mortality. Wolves living in suchconditions are in a precarious balance, andcan be threatened by growing habitatdeterioration and fragmentation.THREATS AND PERSPECTIVES TO WOLFCONSERVATION The present critical situation of the Iberianwolf in Portugal and the regression that thisspecies has been facing during the lastdecades are due to direct or indirect humancauses. Today, the main threats that the wolffaces in Portugal are scarcity of wild prey(red deer and roe deer), habitat deteriorationdue to forest fires and human incursion,and habitat fragmentation due to theproliferation of barriers to wolf movements(such as dams and highways).The existence ofhigh numbers of feral and stray dogs alsorepresents a problem to wolf conservationbecause these dogs often produce livestockdamages that are mistakenly attributed towolves by farmers. For those reasons wolfconservation measures in Portugal shouldensure the minimisation of the economicimpact of wolf damage, habitat improvementand educational campaigns.

Currently, several research studies andconservation measures regarding wolves arebeing conducted in Portugal. The NatureConservation Institute (ICN) is thegovernmental institution responsible for wolfconservation and management in Portugal. Ithas been ensuring and improving wolflegislation (namely the damage compensation

Status and Conservation of the Iberian Wolf in Portugal6

GRUPO LOBOGrupo Lobo is an independent and non-profit association that was founded in1985 to work on Wolf Conservation and its habitat in Portugal. In 1987, GrupoLobo started the Signatus Project – A Strategy for Wolf Conservation inPortugal, which operates on two levels. For the first one, focused ondeveloping an educational campaign, Grupo Lobo has a large collection ofpamphlets, newspaper articles, movies, photographs, CDs and also a travellingexhibition, which is available for anyone interested in learning about wolves.Whenever asked Grupo Lobo gives talks to different groups: students,hunters, livestock owners, etc.

The second level aims at scientific research employing a number ofstrategies: monitoring wolf populations (distribution and census), ecologicalstudies involving radio-tracking programmes, ecological modelling to identifysuitable habitats for wolf conservation and to define reintroduction areas forwild preys, genetics, parasitology, recovering traditional livestock guarding dogsuse, conducting human dimensions research and understanding the culturalrelationship between humans and wolves.

Grupo Lobo is also responsible for managing the Iberian WolfRecovery Centre (IWRC), where disabled/wounded wolves, or wolves kept indeficient captivity conditions, are cared for and studied. The IWRC runs aninternational voluntary programme and a wolf adoption programme foranyone interested in wolf conservation. Contact: globo@fc.ul.pt ;Website: http://www.lobo.fc.ul.pt

Photo: Francisco Álvares

Photo: Rui Vasco

system) and has been managing habitat forwolf conservation mostly inside protectedareas (which compromises 30% of nationalwolf range). ICN has recently assuredmeasures to support damage prevention(mainly through a livestock guarding dogdistribution programme in NE Portugal) andhas implemented a Dead Wolf MonitoringSystem. This system was devised tosystematically register wolf deathoccurrences nationally, to obtain a betterknowledge of wolf death causes and toprovide biological material for the

development of relevant scientific studies.Grupo Lobo, on the other hand, has beenconducting intense educational andawareness campaigns for wolf conservationand has developed several lines of scientificresearch on wolves as well as practicalconservation measures (see text box aboutGrupo Lobo on page xx).The continuous wolfmonitoring started almost a decade ago insome wolf nuclei and the two wolf nationalcensuses (in 1994-1996 and in 2002-2003)have been carried out by both ICN andGrupo Lobo.

References

ALEXANDRE, A S.; CÂNDIDO, A. T. & F.Petrucci-Fonseca, (2000). A população lupinaportuguesa a sul do rio Douro. Galemys, 12(NE): 113-122.

Álvares, F., PEREIRA, E. & F. Petrucci-Fonseca,(2000). O lobo no Parque InternacionalGerês-Xurês: situação populacional, aspectosecológicos e perpectivas de conservação.Galemys, 12 (NE): 223-239.

Blanco, J. C.; Cuesta L. & S. Reig (1990). El lobo(Canis lupus) en España. Situacion,problematica y apuntes sobre su ecología.ICONA, Colección Técnica, Madrid, 118 pp.

CARREIRA, R. & F. Petrucci-Fonseca, (2000).O lobo na região oeste de Trás-os-Montes(Portugal). Galemys, 12 (NE): 123-134.

Grande del Brio, R., (1984). El lobo ibérico,biología y mitología. Serie Ciencias de laNaturaleza. Ed. Hermann Blume. Madrid.344pp.

ICN (1997). Projecto Conservação do loboem Portugal. Program LIFE Final Report,Instituto da Conservação da Natureza,Lisboa.

MOREIRA, L. (1998). O lobo no nordeste deTrás-os-Montes. Património NaturalTransmontano. João Azevedo Editor.Mirandela. 85pp.

Petrucci-Fonseca, F. (1990). O lobo (Canislupus signatus Cabrera, 1907) em Portugal.Problemática da sua conservação. PhD Thesis.Sciences Faculty of Lisbon Univessity. Lisboa.392 pp.

Petrucci-Fonseca, F. & F. Álvares, (1997).Evolução histórica da distribuição e análise dasituação actual do lobo na metade sul dePortugal. Abstracts of “II Jornadas sobre elLobo mediterrâneo”, Sevilha (Spain): 20-21

7Human Dimensions in Iberian Wolf Management in Portugal

Human Dimensions inIberian Wolf Managementin Portugal

by Clara Espirito-Santo and Francisco Petrucci-Fonseca

Figure 1 – Wolves hunted in Portugal in the 1970s (photo F. Álvares/Grupo Lobo)

The integration of human dimensions (HD)research into wildlife management started inthe late 1970s in North America and in the1990s in Europe. In Portugal, HD researchemerged in the mid 1990s with someoccasional studies focused on wolfmanagement, particularly because of thehistorical conflicts with livestock owners,hunters and locals (Figure 1). As in manycountries around the world, wolfmanagement in Portugal tends to be moresocio-political in nature than biological.Biologists have examined several aspects ofwolf biology in Portugal, but the humancomponent has not received the sameattention from wildlife researchers. Wolfmanagement involves not only anunderstanding of the biology of the speciesand its habitat, but also an understanding ofpublic attitudes and knowledge of the species,and opinions about possible managementapproaches. Public involvement into wildlifemanagement decision-making is still at anearly stage in Portugal. Decision-making is stilla top-down approach with no input of thepublic's views, concerns or needs.

HUMAN DIMENSIONS RESEARCH INPORTUGALIn order to understand the humancomponent in the wolf management processin Portugal, the Grupo Lobo started two mainprojects.The first study, started in 1994, was aquantitative analysis of attitudes, beliefs, andfear toward wolves among the general public,and various interest groups at a national level.A self-administered questionnaire containingfour sections covering attitudes, beliefs, andfear toward wolves, and socio-demographicdata was mailed to the general public,environmental NGOs, livestock owners,hunters and journalists randomly selectedfrom the national population. In 1999, asimilar questionnaire was mailed to 100schools from the 1st to the 12th grade (6-18years-old), using different wording accordingto the age of the respondents.

Data was collected from 6556 respondents:272 from the general public, 262 fromenvironmental NGOs, 229 livestock owners,693 hunters, 240 journalists, and 4860students. The results show that attitudestoward wolves were neutral to moderately

positive among all interest groups.Environmentalists and students expressed themost positive opinions followed by journalistsand hunters. Livestock owners and thegeneral public showed the least positiveopinions. Hunters and environmentalists hadthe highest knowledge about wolves, andlivestock owners and the general publicscored the lowest from all respondents, butscores were consistently low among allgroups. In general, more than half of thequestions on wolf biology were answeredincorrectly. Students, the general public andlivestock owners showed more fear of wolvesthan the media, hunters or environmentalists.When we analysed the relationship betweenthe three variables, results were similar in allgroups. Positive attitudes were associatedwith higher knowledge about wolves. Fearwas negatively related with both knowledgeand attitude. People with a less positiveattitude and a lower knowledge scoreexpressed a stronger fear of the wolf. Thisstudy also showed that adults and elderly withlow scholar education, living in rural areaswere more negative toward wolves thanyoung respondents with high scholareducation, living in urban centres. Overall,the positive feelings expressed byenvironmentalists and hunters might be aresult, respectively, of an easy access toinformation and a direct contact with nature.On the other hand, it was surprising the lackof knowledge registered among journalists.Allinterest groups could benefit from moreinformation about the wolf. The fact thatattitude and fear were strongly associated toknowledge about wolves led us to believethat, among the Portuguese population,outdoor activities of environmental educationwould have real positive effects on theIberian-wolf conservation.QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE HDRESEARCHThe second study developed by Grupo Lobofrom 2001 to 2003 was the first quantitativeand qualitative study on HD in wolfmanagement in Portugal. It was focused on aspecific region in Central Portugal (South ofthe Douro River) where a wolf smallpopulation lives, isolated from the mainpopulation in the North (see C. Grilo et al., inthis issue). The main goal of this quantitativeresearch was to understand attitudes andbeliefs toward wolves and wolf managementin Portugal, to test whether these attitudesand beliefs vary between interest groups andacross space, and to identify factors affecting

Figure 2 – Interviewing a shepherd about wolves, in Castelo Branco - Portugal (photo C. Espirito-Santo)

Human Dimensions in Iberian Wolf Management in Portugal8

them. Data was collected through 1753personal interviews (Figure 2) with 1209respondents from the general public, 111livestock owners, 105 hunters, and 328 highschool students, in three different zones:Aveiro/Viseu (n=573), Guarda (n=590), andCastelo Branco (n=590). These regions weredivided according to the administrativeboundaries of the counties and to a gradientof wolf density: a relatively stable wolfsubpopulation lives in Aveiro/Viseu, wolvesoccur irregularly in Guarda, and wolvesdisappeared from Castelo Branco in the1970s. Interviews were conducted using aquestionnaire with 68 items coveringattitudes, beliefs, experiences with wolves,importance of wolf management issues, andsocio-demographic data.

The qualitative HD research aimed for anunderstanding of the key issues and solutionsregarding wolf management at a regional andnational scale, the key roles of each interestgroup, and who should be involved in thedecision-making in the perspective of eachgroup. Unstructured interviews wereconducted usually with members of theexecutive board level of 31 interest groups:livestock owners associations, huntingassociations, wolf biologists, environmentalNGOs, and members from ICN (thegovernmental Institute for NatureConservation, responsible for payment ofwolf caused damage on livestock).ATTITUDES TOWARD WOLVES ANDWOLF MANAGEMENTResults from the quantitative analyses showthat attitudes of the general public are nothomogeneous among all respondents. Thepublic splits in two main groups, one in eachextreme of the attitudinal spectrum. While

some interest groups like hunters, livestockowners and students are close to a neutralposition in their opinions about wolves, thegeneral public either love or hate wolves.Thevarious interest groups have differentopinions regarding wolf management, butalthough inter-group differences occur, intra-group attitudes are in general homogeneous.

Overall, opinions toward wolfmanagement do not differ significantlybetween regions. For example, wolves'impact on small game species or wildungulate populations, like the roe deer or thewild boar, is not an issue of concern amongsurveyed hunters across the study area. Interms of wolves' impact on livestock, allinterest groups strongly agree that wolvesfeed primarily and cause abundant damage

on livestock. Although wolves take less than1% of the available livestock inside the studyarea (based on damage databases from ICN),some villages have registered more than 300wolf attacks in a five-year period (1997-2001).The vast majority of the respondentsdo not know the number of domesticanimals killed by wolves every year but stillbelieve that the impact of wolf predation isvery high. When people's tolerance towardwolves is in question, it is the loss theyperceive, rather than the real loss thatinfluences public opinion toward thepredator. Actual damage is in general muchlower than perceived damage, also becausedamage caused by feral dogs is oftenattributed to wolves. However, if the public iswilling to discuss ways of dealing with wolf-livestock problems and finding solutions toaddress those issues then the stage forhuman-wolf coexistence is set and managersonly have to work with the interest groups

toward finding the most appropriatemanagement measures.

Livestock owners are completely in favourof a compensation system supported by thegovernment for damage caused by wolves.Those living in wolf range think it is moreappropriate to pay compensation only tothose who make some effort in preventingattacks from wolves. When the perceivedimpact of wolves on livestock and wild preyincreases, there is higher agreement withpayment of compensations to livestockowners, independently from the preventivemethods in use. Half of the general publicagree with money from taxes being used bythe government for compensation, but thevast majority of the public thinks that thegovernment should help livestock owners inimplementing methods for preventing wolfattacks on livestock like good guarding dogsor electric fences. Involving various interestgroups, particularly livestock owners andICN in the discussion of compensation issuesis very important for proper management ofthe wolf. Managers and the interest groupsshould think whether compensationmechanisms are a good approach forminimizing conflicts and increasing tolerance,and should evaluate the benefits and thesustainability of such mechanisms on along term.

ATTITUDES AND KNOWLEDGEKnowledge levels about wolves varybetween the various groups, with huntersbeing the most knowledgeable and studentsthe less knowledgeable. Regional differencesdo not occur among livestock owners andhunters' knowledge levels, but do occuramong students and respondents from thegeneral public. Students from Castelo Brancoscore the lowest from all the respondentsprobably because they have never lived incontact with wolves.

Attitudes and knowledge about wolves arecorrelated in some cases, mostly amongrespondents from the general public. Whilesome respondents have positive attitudesassociated with some knowledge aboutwolves, others have a good knowledge buttheir opinions are negative. Theserespondents are mainly elderly, living in ruralareas, who consider wolf management issuesto be very important, and want to keep up todate on these issues. The relationshipbetween attitudes and knowledge dependson the issue. Knowledge reduces fear towardwolves and fear is negatively associated withattitudes, which means that "fear" is animportant variable when analysing theassociation between knowledge andattitudes. Although knowledge about wolvesdoes not generally have a clear relationshipwith attitudes, high levels of scholareducation seem to play a major role onimproving attitudes. These and othersocio-economic factors, like gender, age,residence and occupation, or the kind ofexperiences with wolves and the interest onwolf management issues, have a strongassociation with opinions about wolves andwolf management.

Human Dimensions in Iberian Wolf Management in Portugal 9

Clara Espirito-Santo is currentlypursuing a M.A. in Human Dimensionsin Natural Resource Management, atMemorial University of Newfoundland –Canada. In 1998, she completed a 5-yearprogramme in Biology at the Facultyof Sciences – University of Lisbon.

Her professional interests includeendangered species conservation(particularly large carnivores), conflictresolution in wildlife management andpublic involvement on decision-making.In 1999, she started working atGrupo Lobo (Wolf Group in Portugal)

in various research projects aimed atunderstanding public attitudes towardwolves. She has been participating innational and international workshopsand conferences focused on largecarnivore conservation. Contact:cesanto@hotmail.com

KEY ISSUES IN WOLF MANAGEMENTThe qualitative research allowed theidentification of many issues and solutionsaround wolf management on the perspectiveof each interest group.The groups identified awide range of issues covering agriculture andlivestock issues (e.g. abandonment ofagriculture; disappearance of traditionalhusbandry methods), communication issues(e.g. behavioural conflicts due to mistrustbetween interest groups), biological issues(e.g. lack of wild prey), legal and politicalissues (e.g. Common Agricultural Policyreform; ICN top-down approach formanaging wildlife), and cultural issues (e.g.myths about captive wolves being releasedinto the wild; childhood stories). All groupsagreed that the abundance of feral dogs,poaching, and lack of good habitat for wolves,environmental education and biological dataare major key issues in wolf management.Theinterest groups can see there are issues ofcommon concern and similar solutions toaddress key issues.The interviews acted as ameans to open lines of communication andallowed the opportunity to begin buildingpossible partners for future HD work anddiscussion concerning wolf management.Discussing issues of common concern to allgroups is a good starting point for a processof conflict resolution.

The respondents do not only identifyissues and problems around wolfmanagement, but also come up with long listsof solutions to address those issues and solvethe problems. The groups clearly recognisethe need to integrate other interest groupsand the local communities on the decision-making. Besides the interest groups sampledin this study, more than twenty other groupswere pointed out as important players on afuture debate.The Ministries of Environmentand Agriculture are given the highest numberof roles on wolf management, but the interestgroups always assume for themselves sometasks to address wolf management issues.The importance of this project and theurgency of a joint work were recognizedby all respondents from the variousinterest groups.

Successful management from a humanperspective largely rests on the ability tolisten to and incorporate differing interestgroup values, attitudes, and beliefs in thedecision-making process, reaching consensusand gaining public acceptance of the finaldecision. Clearly, Portuguese wildlifemanagers have to shift from a traditional top-down to a bottom-up approach with a deepprocess of public involvement from the earlystages of the decision-making. Wolfmanagement is, at its core, the managementof people, and if people are part of theproblem they must be part of the solution.

The Wolf in RuralCommunities' Culture inthe North of Portugal

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by Francisco Álvares and Pedro Primavera

10 The Wolf in Rural Communities' Culture in the North of Portugal

The Wolf in RuralCommunities' Culture inthe North of Portugal

Figure 1: Livestock guarding dog with iron protective collar(Photo: S. Ribeiro)

Photo: Francisco Álvares

In 1997 an anthropological study, co-supported by Grupo Lobo, was initiated withthe goal of gathering information on differentcultural manifestations of the wolf in ruralcommunities in north Portugal. Data wascollected in around 90 rural villages throughpersonal interviews with inhabitants olderthan 60 years old. The results show that thecomplex cultural manifestations resultingfrom wolf-rural communities interaction arerelated with two distinct views of thiscarnivore: one admits him as a real threat tolivestock; the other presents the wolf as amythic and supernatural beast, and which ispromoted by ancient and religious oraltraditions that associates the wolf with ananti-Christ figure.The cultural manifestationsassociated with wolves in North Portugalhave great affinities with the wolf in the

cultural tradition of several North Spanishregions (Galiza,Asturias and North Castilla yLeón), which demonstrate the ethnic andcultural similarity between the peopleinhabiting the mountains of NW Iberia.THE WOLF AS A THREAT TO LIVESTOCKThere is no doubt that, for a long time, wolveshave represented a real threat to livestock,causing important economic damage on theweak rural economy. For that reason, over thecenturies, communities developed severalmethods to prevent wolf predation onlivestock. One of them is the native breeds oflivestock-guarding dogs, which issimultaneously a cultural and a biologicallegacy. Traditionally, where wolves occur, theshepherds protect the throats of thesemassive dogs by using articulated iron collarswith sharp spikes or nails pointed outwards

(Figure 1). Less frequently dogs are providedwith articulated iron armour for theprotection of their abdomens and backs.THE BYGONE ART OF TRAPPINGWOLVES IN PORTUGAL Rural communities have used severalmethods to capture and kill wolves.The mostimpressive method are the fojos do lobo orstone wall traps or pits. The structures builtfor capturing wolves were of three distincttypes.The simple fojo was formed by a singlepit in the ground (with or without levelledstone walls surrounding the hole) locatedalong a frequently-used wolf trail, into whichwolves fell after being attracted by dead orliving bait, or pursuit by a hunting party or bymeans of a rotating trap-door mechanism.Thegoat fojo was a 15-30 metres diametercircular stone wall inside which living bait(most frequently a goat) was placed.The wallsof this trap allowed wolves an easy entrancebut it was almost impossible for them to getout, due to a last row of overhanging stones.The convergent walls fojo was a V-shaped trapformed by two long stone walls (each one up

The Wolf in Rural Communities' Culture in the North of Portugal 11

Figure 2 – A convergentwalls “Fojo” or wolf trapand result of a huntparty-with 2 deadwolves - in one of thesetraps in the 1950s(Photos: F. Álvares)

to 1km long and 2m high) which convergedinto a deep pit, where wolves were driven bya hunting party made up of large numbers oflocal people from one or more villages(Figure 2).

Capturing a wolf in one of these wolf trapswas a cause of great satisfaction and joy tothe rural population.The captured wolf, aliveor dead, was shown in all the surroundingvillages, with hunters collecting rewards andenhancing their reputations. The pelt ofcaptured wolves was offered to prominentlocal personalities or, less frequently, used infestivities. Due to their great durability, thepelts could also be used in the manufacture ofagricultural clothing.

The first references in Portugal to the useof these wolf traps go back to the 10thcentury, and these were regularly used amongrural communities until the end of the 19thcentury. In certain Iberian regions, the “Fojos”were still used until the late 1970s. Althoughsimilar structures for capturing wolves areknown in other European regions (such asScandinavia, Alps, Romania and Hungary) andin North India, it was in the NW Iberianmountains that these stone-made trapsattained their most elaborate development.However, most of these monuments of highethnological value and great touristicpotential have fallen into ruin, mainly due tonegligence and apathy. Fortunately, in the lastfew years several restoration projects havebeen implemented, many of them with thescientific support of Grupo Lobo.TALES OF A MYTHIC ANDSUPERNATURAL BEAST The fascination, hate and fear that the wolfprovokes, has produced over the centuries agreat number of tales and superstitions whichpresent the animal in a villainous light. Thereare several folk tales and proverbs thatdemonstrate a certain admiration for wolvesand some knowledge of wolf biology andecology. However the majority manifest adistorted view of the wolf, investing theanimal with supernatural powers.This cultural

vision of the wolf reflects human desires andfears and has nothing to do with the real wolf.Among the rural communities very often thewolf is spoken of as a mythical figure.

In north Portugal, in spite of the fact thatthere are no authenticated cases of humansbeing attacked by healthy wolves, tales ofwolves carrying out long-term persecutionsof farmers, and devouring isolated travellershave persisted up to the present day. Suchstories form an oral tradition which iscommon to the entire Iberian Peninsula. Wefound several superstitions associated withwolves, for example that simply being in thepresence of a wolf makes people’s hair standon end and renders them speechless forseveral days. Other beliefs suggest anassociation between the wolf and Satan, suchas the one which maintains that wolves nevereat the right arm of their victims, because it isthe arm used to make the sign of the Cross.We also find that ancient prayers intended toward off the evil influences of the wolf or toprevent wolf attacks on livestock, are stillrecited today by many shepherds.

One of the most striking beliefs stillpresent in the mind of rural inhabitants in thenorth of Portugal is the werewolf. It isstrongly believed that a curse placed on anormal person can turn him into a wolf-beast

which attacks humans and animals.This maybe due to a paternal curse, the fact of beingan illegitimate child or by being the seventhsame-sex consecutive born child of a family,unless his/her older brother is made his/hergodfather. Among rural people, it is believedthat if anyone wounds the werewolf, themoment he sheds blood he will regain hishuman shape.

In the far north of Portugal and in Galiza(Spain) there survives the belief in the Fadados lobos or Peeira dos lobos which meanswolf’s fairy. It is a woman (usually elderly)who has the power to communicate withand control wolf packs, wandering with apack through the woods during the night , tohelp lost travelers find their way home or toattack those who have dared to harm thewolf’s fairy.

THE WOLF AS A CREATURE WITH A HEALING POWERApparently, a few centuries ago, the use ofthe wolf’s throat was a common practice.One of the most impressive culturalmanifestations connected to wolves is theuse of wolf’s body parts to cure human orlivestock illnesses. It is known that, in someIberian Peninsula regions, until the beginningof the 20th century, a wolf’s teeth (mainly

canines), fur or blood was used to heal certainhuman sickness. However, the perceivedmagic properties of certain wolf parts isimplicitly recognized in the gola do lobo orwolf’s throat, still in use in North Portugal.The wolf’s throat is a piece of mummifiedwolf’s trachea (or windpipe) used to cure aillness called lobagueira, provoked by thewolf ’s ‘poisonous’breath. This breath isbelieved to hover around the places wherethe wolf walks or to come from wolf’sexcreta. It is believed that this disease iscommonly carried by the domestic pig, ananimal that still represents the main source ofmeat for these rural populations. It is believedthat dogs and goats can also carry the illnesswithout showing any symptoms, and infectpigs.To prevent lobagueira, farmers still recitelittle prayers or charms, and throw salt andfireplace ashes over vegetation used for cattlebedding and food or over livestock recentlyattacked by wolves. However, even with allthese precautions and conjurations, thedisease could infect the pigs’ corral, makingthese animals apathetic, anddebilitating them with pain. Theonly way of healing these pigswould be to pour waterthrough the wolf’s throat andimmediately give it to the sickpigs to drink (Figure 3).

A few centuries ago thewolf ’s throat was commonlyused in several regions of NWIberia. Its generalized use hasbeen lost since the beginning ofthe 19th century, with the onlyknown exception of Barroso (asmall and remote area in NorthPortugal), where severalshepherds still use theirs to healthe lobagueira. Some of thesewolf’s throats are more than150 years old and have beenpassed down from generationto generation as a preciousheirloom. However, in the nearfuture, there is no doubt thatthe use of the wolf’s throat willonly exist in the memory ofthese rural communities thatstill coexist with the wolf.

1612 The Wolf in Rural Communities' Culture in the North of Portugal

Figure 3 – A “Wolf throat” and awoman pouring water through it

(Photos: F. Álvares)

THE WOLF AS A CREATURE WITH ARECENT MYTHS:ARE WOLVES BEINGRELEASED?Though it may seem strange, there aremodern myths that can greatly obstruct wolffield research and wolf conservation. In manyrural areas of north Portugal, asking or talkingabout wolves can antagonise the villagers.Thisis because the outsider (often a wolfresearcher) might be one of those who are‘releasing’ wolves. In Portugal, as in manyEuropean regions, there is a widespreadrumour – particularly among the ruralpopulations but also among the mediaand even some “wildlife conservationists” –that the government, researchers orenvironmental associations are deliberatelyreleasing massive numbers of wolves intothe wild.

Rural populations believe that wolves areonly released and do not breed in the wildanymore.They say that these released wolvesare different from the ‘old ones’or ‘the realones’, although the descriptions of the

differences between the two are quiteincoherent.This belief may have its origins inthe confusion of wolves with feral/stray dogsand with the great ignorance among ruralpeople concerning true wolf biology andpopulation dynamics.

LESSONS FROM ANCIENT MYTHS STILLSURVIVING IN RECENT TIMESIt is a matter of urgency to study and recordall these vanishing cultural manifestations thatexemplify the cultural importance of the wolfto rural communities. Not only are thereanthropological reasons, because thesemanifestations express the intimate bonds thatlink the rural people to their naturalenvironment and combine pagan beliefs withcatholic religiosity, but they also provide uswith important information about ruralcommunities’ attitudes toward wolves, whichcan help to reduce human-wolf conflict.

In addition, in NW Portugal (mainly inPeneda-Gerês National Park), several wolfconservation actions are being conducted totake advantage of this rich cultural heritageand hopefully make wolves more acceptable tolocal communities. Education and awarenesscampaigns focused on children and adults livingin wolf areas have been undertaken with theaim of giving them greater knowledge of thisvanishing wolf-related cultural heritage andreplacing irrational wolf myths with properscientific knowledge. Because the Iberian wolfdistribution area coincides with economicallyless-favoured mountainous regions, severaleco-tourism activities (especially stone wolf-traps’ restoration and guided tours centred onwolf ecology and wolf-related culture) havebeen also implemented.

Information request: We kindly requestresearchers who may have any information onthis subject (cultural relationships betweenwolves and rural communities) in otherEuropean or Asiatic regions, to contact us bye-mail (to francisco_alvares@hotmail.com orpedroprimavera@hotmail).

Francisco Álvares is a researchbiologist of the Science Faculty of LisbonUniversity. Since 1993 he has beenconducting several studies in Portugaland Spain on wolf ecology and onthe cultural wolf-man relationship.Currently he is finishing his PhDfocused on the ecological relationsbetween wolves and free ranginghorses and cattle in NorthwestPortugal. He is author and co-authorof several papers on ecology andconservation of endangered mammals,birds and reptiles, which are hismain research interests. Contact:francisco_alvares@hotmail.com

Pedro Primavera has graduated inAnthropology in the Social and PoliticalSciences Institute of Lisbon’s TechnicalUniversity. Since 1997 he hasparticipated in several projectsconcerning the cultural human-wolfrelationship and the restoration ofstone-made wolf traps (“Fojos”). Hehas been participating in nationaland international workshops andconferences on the cultural interactionof wolves and rural communities.Contact: pedroprimavera@hotmail.com

The Isolated Wolf Population South of the Douro River: Status and action priorities for its recovery 13

The Isolated Wolf Population South ofthe Douro River: Status and action prioritiesfor its recovery

Figure 1 – Wolf South Douro River distribution.

by Clara Grilo, Sara Roque,Helena Rio-Maior and Francisco Petrucci-Fonseca

Major habitat changes associated with theconstruction of several dams along theDouro River (one of the major Iberianrivers) in the 1950s has bisected thePortuguese wolf population. Meanwhile, thedecrease of the Iberian wolf populationfrom the South and Central IberianPeninsula has led to the progressiveisolation of a small population south of theDouro River in Portugal. This populationseems to be the only viable one south ofthis river, although controversy surroundsthe survival and status of a Spanish Wolfpopulation in Sierra Morena (south Spain inAndalucia Province) (Llaneza et al. 1997,Blanco & Cortés 2002). This fact givesPortugal a heavy responsibility to providesuitable conditions for the maintenance ofthe Portuguese Wolf Population South ofDouro River and its future recovery in theCentral Iberian Peninsula.MAIN THREATS AND MAJORCONSERVATION PROBLEMSBesides the lack of prey, human persecution,habitat loss, and reduction of geneticvariability, new threats have increased thedanger of extinction of this small Iberianwolf population. Extensive logging and theclearing of forests by fire (destroyingevery year 250km2 on average) has beenreducing wolf shelter areas. Theconstruction of new roads and otherinfrastructures can jeopardise the future ofthis predator in the region due to roadcasualties and population fragmentation.

Over the last ten years wolf road killsamount to about 10% of the totalpopulation (Rio-Maior et al. 2003).Moreover, a highway (IP3) has beenconstructed on the west limit of the wolfrange and crosses a pack territory dividingthe wolf distribution area (Figure 1). Thisnew highway may be acting as a barrierand/or filter to animal movements, thusincreasing wolf population fragmentation.The construction in the near future of WindTurbine Parks comprising an area of 20% ofthe wolf’s range is being planned. Theseinfrastructures are associated with theopening of new paved and forest roads,increasing human access to natural areasunspoiled until now. Most of them arelocated in Natura 2000 sites that wereproposed in order to contribute to therecovery of the Iberian wolf population.Thenecessary minimisation measures of allinfrastructures proposed for Natura 2000sites (including the mentioned highway) thatcould reduce the threat of wolf extinction inthe area are being neglected.

Current wolf legal protection does notseem to be sufficient to avoid local wolfextinction. A management plan for IberianWolf conservation and recovery thatconsiders the dispersal of individuals andnatural range expansion is needed.Management measures should be applied topromote wolf expansion to areas outside thecurrent distribution that still offer suitablehabitat for the wolf. A long-term study wasinitiated in 1991 aiming to increaseknowledge of wolf ecology, to monitorpopulation evolution and to look at potentialarea expansion. The study area was definedtaking into consideration wolf distributionin the South Douro River area since the1970s (Petrucci-Fonseca 1990) and theresults obtained so far allow the pointing outof some guidelines for wolf conservation inthe area.

CURRENT POPULATION STATUS ANDFEEDING HABITSWolf monitoring shows the existence, in2003, of seven packs distributed across anarea of approximately 5000 km2 (Figure 1),split into two nuclei.The West Nucleus is themost viable one in the medium/long term,since there is evidence to suggest thatreproduction has taken place in half of thepacks that are part of this group. The EastNucleus has only one confirmed pack with noevidence of reproduction and appears to bein a very precarious situation. Further, in thearea along the Spanish border, wolf presence

was confirmed but it seems that there are noestablished packs. This presence is probablydue to dispersers, solitary wolves ormembers of very unstable packs (Roque et al.2003a). The results demonstrate the dangerof extinction that this wolf population isfacing. Furthermore, although data are notsufficient to reach a final conclusion,exchanges of individuals between both nuclei,which is fundamental for the survival of thispopulation, seems to be very difficult.

The feeding habits studies reveal a largedependence on livestock, which represents75% of frequency of occurrence (F.O.) in scats(n=506). Cattle and goats are the maindomestic prey and wild boar the mostimportant wild prey (F.O.=7%).The presenceof cattle does not represent a predatoryselection, but results from the availability ofcattle carcasses – dumped on the fieldinside wolf range (an illegal action accordingto European Union legislation). In thesesites wolves can find an important amount of“easy food” resulting from carcasses dumpedby the cattle industry, pig farms and poultries.In fact, approximately half of the wolf ’sbiomass intake results from its scavenginghabits. Nevertheless, damages to livestockare still frequent. The highest values forpredatory impact were recorded for goatsand sheep - respectively 2.1% and 1.7%.Each pack shows a different impact onlivestock depending on the availability oflivestock and husbandry methods in eachterritory (Roque et al. 2003b).

crossing points on themain unfenced roads andall highway IP3 passagesin the wolf range(Rio-Maior et al. 2003).By comparing wolfroad kill spots andcrossing points, one canconclude that the mainfactor associated withwolf road casualtieswas traffic volume.The implementation ofadequate traffic calmingmeasures, like bumpers,near cross and kill spotscould reduce wolf roadkills. For a seven-month period wolfsigns were registeredonly in one passagewayof IP3. This is anoverpass characterizedby abundant vegetationcover on both sides,promoting habitatcontiguity. This resultindicates, on the onehand, that IP3 acts as a

barrier to wolf movements and, on the otherhand, that wolves can use those passages withadequate habitat management in surroundingareas. This management can be achieved byusing the same vegetation included in thesurrounding habitats and a soil coverdepending on the type of vegetation to befavoured, and by screening the area in orderto minimise the disturbance of animals bylight or noise. Thus, adaptation of existingengineering works that have beendesigned for other purposes can be anadequate solution.

NATURA 2000 – INSUFFICIENT TOSUSTAIN WOLF CONSERVATIONTo conserve the Iberian wolf in this region,the wolf suitable habitat must be managed inorder to maintain quality and avoid practicesunfriendly to wolf survival. The currentNatura 2000 Sites list proposed by thePortuguese government is insufficient tosustain wolves in the short/medium termperiod. In the region there are only twoNatura 2000 sites suitable for the wolf:“SierraMontemuro” and “Sierra Freita-Arada”,comprising 40% of the Wolf Population Southof Douro River range. For this reason, GrupoLobo and WWF/Adena proposed a new site -“Lapa” - to the European Commission to beincluded in the Natura 2000 network. Thissite comprises the territories of three wolfpacks with regular reproduction over the lastfew years (Figure 4). Efforts on wolf habitatprotection will allow the expansion of thisisolated wolf population; moreover, it will actas a stimulus for regional wolf recovery,thereby promoting Iberian wolf viability andaccomplishing the goals of the HabitatsDirective scientific criteria (Art. 6º)2.

CONCLUSIONThe results point out some clear actionsneeded to accomplish the goals of Iberian

authorities would appear extremelyimportant to establish a regionalconservation strategy focused on connectingthe two wolf populations from thesecountries to improve their viability.

More reintroductions of the wolf’s wildprey species, such as roe deer are stillneeded in order to provide alternativefood resources for the predator. Based onroe deer ecological requirements thesuitability of the South Douro River regionfor the reintroduction of this prey wasassessed. Although roe deer are currentlynearly absent, this region still has significant

areas with suitablehabitat for the species(Grilo & Petrucci-Fonseca2003). New roe deerreintroduction areas wereidentified overlappingareas of suitable roe deerhabitat and areas of highwolf damage (Figure 3).Nevertheless, furtherresearch is needed toevaluate the currentroedeer density and to assesshabitat carrying capacityto assure the successof future reintroductionplans.HIGH WOLF ROADCASUALTIES ANDPOSSIBLE SOLUTIONSFOR HIGHWAY IP3PROBLEM Analysis of the roadnetwork’s impact on thiswolf population wasassessed through amonitoring programme,including a survey of wolfroad casualty spots and

The Isolated Wolf Population South of the Douro River: Status and action priorities for its recovery14

Figure 2 – Habitat suitability model for Wolf population South Douro River.

Figure 3 – Proposed areas for future roe deer reintroduction programmes.

In order to overcome the lack of wild prey,occasional roe deer reintroductions weremade in the last few years by the localgovernmental department of the Ministry ofAgriculture and the Institute of NatureConservation (ICN).Nevertheless, the impacton the wolf diet is still far less than wasexpected. At present, the very lowoccurrence of roe deer (F.O.=0.2%) in thewolf’s diet reveals that this species is aninsignificant prey item. However, recent dataseems to show an increase in theconsumption of this wild prey. The largedependence on domestic prey and carcassesat dumping sites reflects the threat that thispopulation is currently facing.This situation isclearly distinct from the one found in theIberian wolf population living north of theDouro River, where packs cause widespreaddamage to livestock, mainly cattle and horses(ICN 1997, Álvares et al 2000) or feed almostexclusively on wild prey (Llaneza et al. 1996,Moreira 1998).POTENTIAL OF THE SOUTH DOURORIVER REGION FOR WOLFPOPULATION RECOVERYA habitat suitability model was built in orderto evaluate the factors that seem to affectwolf distribution and to assess the potentialof the South Douro River region for wolfconservation and recovery. The modelunderlies the importance of two factors indetermining wolf habitat: high prey availabilityand reduced human pressure (Grilo et al.2003).Wolf presence was confirmed in highlysuitable habitat areas, though strongfragmentation lines exist (Figure 2). In spite ofa discontinued wolf presence near theSpanish border, this area seems to havepotential for wolf recovery. Moreover, theSpanish wolf population is only 50km awayfrom the East Wolf Nucleus. Improvedcooperation between Portuguese and Spanish

Llaneza, L., M. Rico,G. Alonso, P. Alonso,A. Abad, F. Hurtado &F. Palacios (1997).Situación del lobo(Canis lupus signatus)en Sierra Morena.Pp. 26 in Situación yconservación de laspoblaciones de lobo enla Península Ibérica.SECEM-Grupo Lobo,Soria.Moreira, L. (1998).O lobo. J.Azevedo (ed.),Património NaturalT r a n s m o n t a n o ,Mirandela, 85pp.Petrucci-Fonseca, F.(1990). O lobo (Canislupus signatus Cabrera,1907) em Portugal.Problemática da suaconservação. PhDThesis. Faculdadede Ciências daUniversidade de Lisboa,Lisboa, 392pp.

Rio-Maior H., S. Roque, C. Grilo & F. Petrucci-Fonseca (2003). Monitoring roads impact onsouth Douro river Iberian wolf population.Abstract in International Conference onhabitat Fragmentation due to transportationInfrastructure. IENE, Brussels.Roque S., C. Grilo, S. Quaresma, H. Oliveira &F. Petrucci-Fonseca (2003a). Conservationproblems and solutions for an isolatedIberian wolf population in Portugal. Pp 61 inWorld Wolf Congress 2003 - BridgingScience and Community. The CentralRockies Wolf Project, Banff.Roque S., S. Quaresma & F. Petrucci-Fonseca(2003b). Food habits and livestockdepredation in the Portuguese south riverDouro wolf population. Pp 204 in 4thEuropean Congress of Mammalogy. Brno.

The Isolated Wolf Population South of the Douro River: Status and action priorities for its recovery 15

Figure 4 – Proposal of Lapa site to be included in Natura 2000 network.

wolf conservation efforts. Their applicationdepends on the involvement of localpopulations in decision-making and on theavailability of governmental or private funds.Due to the complex relations between manand wolf the recovery of Iberian wolf in theSouth Douro River region is a big challengefor those involved in it. Nevertheless, ifeveryone fulfils all their duties and obligations,Iberian wolf recovery in Portugal can be areality in the future.

ReferencesÁlvares F., E. Pereira & F. Petrucci-Fonseca(2000). O lobo no Parque InternacionalGerês-Xurés. Situação populacional, aspectosecológicos e perspectivas de conservação.Galemys 12 (n.e.): 223-239.Blanco, J. C. & Y. Cortés (2002). Ecología,censos, percepción y evolución del lobo enEspaña: análisis de un conflicto. SociedadEspañola para la Conservación y Estudio delos Mamíferos, Málaga, 176pp.Grilo C., S. Roque & F. Petrucci-Fonseca(2003). GIS and modeling in conservation: astudy case of the highly endangered Iberianwolf population. Pp 105 in 4th CongressMammalogy. Brno.Grilo C. & F. Petrucci-Fonseca (2003).Modeling habitat suitability for roe deerreintroduction in south Douro river iberianwolf range. Abstract in VIth European RoeDeer Meeting. Caldas do Gerês, Portugal.ICN (1997). Conservação do lobo emPortugal. LIFE Programme B4-3200/94/. Finalreport. Instituto de Conservação daNatureza, Lisboa, 231 pp.Llaneza, L., A. Fernández & C. Nores (1996).Dieta del lobo en dos zonas de Asturias(España) que difieren en carga ganadera.Doñana,Acta Vertebrata 23(2): 201-213.

Clara Grilo is a research biologist atFaculty of Sciences - University ofLisbon. She participated in two projectsassociated with conservation of theIberian wolf South Douro Riverpopulation conservation giving supportin GIS and modelling. She is currentlyworking on her PhD which deals withspatial modelling and impact of roadsnetwork on carnivores. Her mainresearch interests are GIS and remotesensing applied to nature conservationand impact of linear infrastructures towildlife. Contact: cbgrilo@fc.ul.ptSara Roque is a research biologist atFaculty of Sciences - University ofLisbon. She worked on wolf trappingand radio-tracking since 1997 when shefinished her 5-year-programme inBiology. She has participated in aproject concerning populationmonitoring, feeding habits andpredatory impact analysis of theendangered Wolf Population South ofDouro River, in Central Portugal. She isstarting a PhD focused on the role ofdispersal in wolf population dynamics,viability and expansion of endangeredwolf populations. Contact:roquesara@hotmail.comFrancisco Petrucci-Fonseca is anassociated professor of Biology atFaculty of Sciences - University ofLisbon. He has been developingscientific research in wolf conservationsince 1979. In 1985 he founded the WolfGroup in Portugal (Grupo Lobo) andstarted the Signatus Project -Conservation strategy for the wolf inPortugal.The first results obtained withthis project were published in his PhDthesis in 1990, and since then he hasbeen coordinating several researchprojects, from wolf ecology anddistribution to anthropology and social-cultural human-wolf relationships.Contact: fpfonseca@fc.ul.pt

Recovering the use of LivestockGuarding Dogs to Protect theIberian Wolf in Portugal

Recovering the use of Livestock Guarding Dogs to Protect the Iberian Wolf in Portugal16

Recovering the use of LivestockGuarding Dogs to Protect theIberian Wolf in Portugal

by Silvia Ribeiro andFrancisco Petrucci-Fonseca

Photo: Rui Vasco

Since 1997, Grupo Lobo, in collaboration withother agencies, has been responsible forintegrating and monitoring more than 80 pupsfrom Portuguese livestock guarding dog(LGD) breeds in goat and sheep flocks fromthe north and central Portugal. With thisaction we expect to reduce wolf damagesand the resulting conflicts with livestockproducers, thus contributing to the Iberianwolf conservation. At the same time we arealso contributing to increase the economicviability of the traditional livestockproduction based on the extensivegrazing system.PUTTING CONFLICTS IN PERSPECTIVEIt is well known that one of the major causesfor the human/wolf conflict is the damage thispredator causes to livestock. Nevertheless,this same argument may have differentregional significance since it can depend oncultural, social and economic factors. In mostof the Portuguese wolf distribution area,livestock production is the main subsistenceactivity of human rural communities. Flocksare grazed under the extensive traditionalgrazing system, being led everyday to themountain by one or two shepherds.This is ahard way of life with a very low income,where any loss can be significant. Althoughwolf damages are compensated by the

Institute for Nature Conservation (ICN)(based on weekly market value), animals thatdisappear or indirect losses from the futureproduction of the animals attacked are notcompensated. Also, delays in payments arecommon and can sometimes take up to ayear.All these factors can have a big influenceon the rural household economy andconsequently on the tolerance towardsthe wolf.

Wolf damages are usually perceived asbeing higher than real damages and as havinga larger economic impact than otheraccepted losses. In some regions there issome indifference regarding livestockmortality due to disease. In some flocks thismortality can reach half of the yearly kid goatproduction. Therefore, we must take intoconsideration the limited effectiveness of thecompensation measures commonly used toreduce conflicts and implement the use ofalternative tools that minimise potentialconflicts. One alternative is theimplementation of livestock protectionmeasures that can actively prevent damages.

Today, with the efforts on natureconservation and the increasing incentivesfrom the European Union for maintaininglivestock production in the traditional way,there is once again the need to implement theuse of effective methods of livestockprotection and management that take intoconsideration the conservation of largecarnivores. One of the most effective andwidespread protection methods is the use ofLGDs. The recent subsidies from theEuropean Union for traditional livestockproduction have, nonetheless, caused otherproblems, by promoting an increase in thenumber of young and inexperienced livestockproducers and in the number of animals perflock not accompanied by the necessaryreinforcement in protection.THE RETURN OF LIVESTOCKGUARDING DOGSThe use of livestock guarding dogs is part ofthe grazing system traditionally usedthroughout Eurasia, where several breeds ofLGDs were selected to protect domesticanimals from predators, like the wolf or thebear. In Portugal there are four recognisedbreeds of LGDs: Cão de Castro Laboreiro,the smaller one, with its origin in thenorthwest mountains of the country; Cão daSerra da Estrela, with its origin in the highestmountain in central Portugal, from where itborrowed its name and has two varieties -

short and long-hair; Rafeiro do Alentejo, thatcomes from the southern plains; and Cão deGado Transmontano, the fourth and largerbreed that was recently recognised and existsin the northeast mountains of Portugal.

Despite their importance and effectivenessin reducing damages, the use of LGDs hasdecreased in the last century mainly due tothe decline of the traditional grazing activityand the general reduction of wolf populations(see F. Álvares in this issue), thus renderinguseless those larger and more expensivedogs. This situation has lead to the generalloss of knowledge regarding LGDs’ adequateraising and education, and their replacementwith smaller hunting dogs, thus increasingflocks’ vulnerability to predation. It has alsoput at serious risk the Portuguese breeds ofLGDs, by drastically reducing their numbersand consequently promoting inbreeding andcrossbreeding which could ultimately lead totheir degeneration.STEP BY STEPThe action initiated by Grupo Lobo torecover and implement the use of LGDs inPortugal has been developed in four phases.The first phase consists of the global analysisof wolf damages and the selection of priorityareas.A subsequent selection of the livestockproducers from those areas that have higherdamages is made based on an interview.During this interview the existence ofadequate conditions for integrating an LGDand the motivation of the livestock producerto participate are assessed.

In the second phase the selection of thepups is carried out, based on the quality of theparents (e.g., absence of diseases, typicalmorphology and good working behaviour).Before receiving the pup, the livestockproducer signs a collaboration contractaccepting to comply with some basicconditions concerned with the pup’s raising,welfare and adequate socialisation. Thiscontract enables the exclusion of livestockproducers that are not following theconditions considered necessary for raising aLGD and the transference of his dog toanother flock.

After weaning, usually around 6-8 weeks ofage, the pup is integrated into the selectedflock. In this third phase the pup is confined tothe corral/stable and kept in strict contactwith the animals of its flock during 2-4 weeksbefore starting to accompany the flock duringgrazing. In those first weeks of socialisationwith the flock the pup should be kept with

17Recovering the use of Livestock Guarding Dogs to Protect the Iberian Wolf in Portugal

Figure 1.A long-haired Cão da Serra da Estrela male pup perfectly socialized with the livestock.(Photo: Raquel Simões)

Figure 2.A juvenile Cão de Castro Laboreiro male following its flock during the grazing period.(Photo: Raquel Simões)

the existing lambs or kid goats while the flockis out grazing. However, caution is needed andyounger lambs/goats should be promptlyisolated in case of excessive play/biting fromthe pup. These initial weeks are alsoimportant for the flock to become familiarwith the presence of the new pup in theirmidst and decrease the fear/aggressivenesstowards him. Since some livestock breeds areparticularly aggressive, a shelter for the pupshould be prepared. Usually the pup learnsquickly to avoid the aggressive blows and willprefer to stay among the livestock. Afterthose initial weeks of socialisation the pup isready to start accompanying the flock duringthe grazing period. This initiates the fourthphase during which the monitoring of thepup’s physical and behavioural development isconducted. Dogs are accompanied regularly(at least every 1-2 months) during the entiregrazing period of the flock until reaching 12-18 months of age. The pup’s behaviourtowards the animals in the flock, theshepherd(s) and the other dog(s) from theflock, as well as toward strangeanimals/persons is registered (Fig.1).

The data are later analysed to evaluate thedog’s efficiency. This monitoring also enablesthe timely correction of undesirablebehaviours exhibited by the dog or by theshepherd and the control of the dog’s sanitarycondition. This was considered to be veryimportant since most livestock producershave a considerable lack of knowledge in whatcomprises basic veterinary care.

The dogs are provided with appropriatedog food until they reached adulthood andwith the necessary veterinary care.Nevertheless, a mortality rate of 24% wasregistered with most dogs dying of disease(n=8), while two were poisoned, fourdisappeared and the remaining four died ofother causes (run over by car, shot byhunters, killed by wolves).THE KEY TO SUCCESS AND HOW TOANALYSE ITThe secret to have a good working LGD isadequate socialisation with animals in theflock. This means placing the pup with the

flock during the socialisation period (at 6-8weeks of age) and to limit the contact withother dogs, animals or persons. This willensure that the pup will direct all its socialbehaviour towards the animals in its flockenabling the establishment of strong socialbonds that are the basis for the emergence ofadequate attentive, trustworthy andprotective behaviours.These are the essentialbehaviour components defined by RaymondCoppinger and collaborators (Coppinger &Coppinger, 1978) for this type of dogs. Anattentive dog should follow the flock in itsdaily movements during grazing thusmaintaining its proximity with it (Fig.2). Atrustworthy dog should not disrupt the flockactivity nor should actively chase, injure or killlivestock.A protective dog should be alert tothe flock and to any strange situation andprotect it from potential threats (Fig.3). Thecorrect identification and analysis of thesebehaviours is very useful when evaluating thedogs’ efficiency, given that damages’ reductionis not always a good index. Therefore theefficiency of the adult dogs has been

evaluated according to three differentcriteria: damages’ reduction, dog’s behaviourand owners’ satisfaction.

A comparison of the average number ofdamages per flock in the three years beforeand one year after the integration of the dog(i.e., when it reached adulthood) wasperformed. The results show a generalreduction in the number of damages, from33% to 100%.When analysing the number ofdamages from each flock in relation to thedamages in nearby flocks, there was areduction from 10 to 40% in 60% of the cases.Nevertheless, the results also show aconsiderable variability in the annual numberof damages, demonstrating that other factors,apart from the dog’s presence, like the densityof predators or the type and availability ofwild and domestic prey, could also beresponsible for the observed reduction.Apartfrom fluctuations in prey density we shouldalso take into consideration that somespecies have more effective anti-predatorbehaviour than others.The level of protectionin neighbouring flocks can also change rapidlyif we consider the death and substitutionrates of LGDs. Furthermore, illegal mortalityof wolves by poison is not infrequent and cancause the sudden extermination of entirepacks thus decreasing predation.The fact thatthe number of damages could be misleadingregarding dog’s efficiency is exemplified bysome flocks that maintained or slightlyreduced the number of damages althoughthey have experienced a significant increase inthe number of attacks that were beingefficiently deterred by the dogs (Petrucci-Fonseca et al., 2000).

Nearly 90% of adult dogs were exhibitingattentive behaviour towards the flock (Fig.4).Nevertheless, seven juvenile dogs wereidentified as not behaving correctly. Thissituation resulted mainly from inadequatebehaviour by the shepherd that wasreinforcing its bond with the dog or limitingthe contact with livestock. In two cases theshepherds did not change their behaviourand the dogs were transferred to other

Recovering the use of Livestock Guarding Dogs to Protect the Iberian Wolf in Portugal18

Figure 3.A juvenile Cão de Castro Laboreiro male stays alert to any potential threat.(Photo: Raquel Simões)

Figure 4.An adult short-haired Cão da Serra da Estrela male displaying adequate attentivebehaviour. (Photo: Raquel Simões)

flocks and in another case the dog wasdefinitely removed.

Only one adult dog was not trustworthyand was immediately removed after killingtwo sheep. Excessive play behaviour injuvenile dogs can become a real problem andwas thus immediately corrected to prevent itfrom being reinforced. All adult dogs exhibitprotective behaviours (alert to the flockactivity and movements, barking in strangesituations, placing themselves betweenintruders and the flock, chasing andoccasionally fighting intruders) and activelyprevent wolf attacks. Shepherds are generallysatisfied with their dogs: 95% consider themvery effective and 60% say the dogswere responsible for the observeddamages’ reduction.ACCEPTANCE AND IMPACT OF THEACTIONDespite the initial suspicion about these dogs,there has been an increasing acceptance.Thenumber of requests for dogs has also beenincreasing exponentially mainly fromshepherds that have heard about theirefficiency or have seen them working.Presently we have more requests than we cansatisfy.An effort will be made to associate allinterested livestock producers in order toestablish contact among them, facilitating theexchange of pups and experiences. Theknowledge of participating livestockproducers about Portuguese LGD breeds,raising LGDs and recognising good workingdogs has improved significantly. Trainingactions are also scheduled for the end of thisyear to overcome the lack of knowledge ofthe livestock producers concerning dogbehaviour, welfare and basic veterinary care.LIMITS TO SUCCESSAlthough LGDs can be a very good helpthey can be powerless in some situations,namely when they are insufficient in numbersor the management of livestock is notadequate. Big flocks with few or noshepherds, livestock that spreads during

grazing, pastures with dense vegetation orhigh predatory impact, all demand a highernumber of LGDs. Even in well-protectedflocks, it is common for some animals to stray,thus becoming an easy prey for the wolves.Although dogs in the same flock canaccompany different groups of livestock, whenthe number of stray animals is very small theyusually stay with the larger group. In this case,the work of the shepherd in gathering theflock is very important. The presence of theshepherd is also useful because anyundesirable behaviour or situation can becorrected and thus increase the efficiency ofLGDs. Furthermore, raising a LGD requiresan extra commitment by an inexperiencedshepherd and more than a year is necessarybefore the dog may be fully effective.Taking this into account, alternative or

complimentary methods to LGDs, namelyelectric fences and fladry and othertraditional protection methods, are beingtested. The success of these actions requiresthe implementation of the methods that bestcomplement and adapt to each situation.

ReferencesCoppinger, R. & L. Coppinger (1978).Livestock guarding dogs for U.S. Agriculture.Hampshire College,Amherst, MA.Petrucci-Fonseca, F., S. Ribeiro,A.E. Pires & C.Cruz (2000). Contributo para a minimizaçãodo impacto económico dos predadores sobreos animais domésticos. Technical Report,Programme PAMAF-IED. Lisbon: Faculty ofSciences of Lisbon University.

Silvia Ribeiro completed a M.S. inEthology, at Superior Institute ofApplied Psychology, in 2003, where shestudied dog socialization and theontogeny of social preferences,particularly in livestock guarding dogs.In 1996, she completed a 5-yearprogramme in Biology at the Faculty ofSciences ˆ University of Lisbon. Herprofessional interests includeendangered species conservation(particularly the Iberian wolf), animalbehaviour and animal welfare. Since1996, she has been involved in wolfconservation projects developed byGrupo Lobo (Wolf Group in Portugal)and initiated an action line aimed toimplement the use of livestockprotection measures in Portugal,namely livestock guarding dogs, thathas continued until the present. She hasbeen invited to present the obtainedresults in several scientific meetings inEurope and North America. Contact:ribeiro_silvia@hotmail.com

EUROPE

FrancePARIS, July 19 (AFP) - France onMonday authorised its first wolfcull since the 1930s in order toreduce a colony of some 50animals which sheep-farmers sayare wreaking havoc in thesouthern Alps.

Ecology Minister SergeLepeltier told a news conferencein Paris that up to four wolvescan be shot by the end of the yearif attacks on sheep flockscontinue.

Lepeltier said the fourauthorised kills represent 10percent of the officiallyestablished population,which is of39 animals, rather than of thewidely accepted figure of 55. Healso said that if the first threeanimals to be shot are female,there will be no further kill.

The government had initiallyplanned to authorise the killing ofbetween five and seven animals,but was forced to reduce thenumber under pressure fromenvironmentalists who want tosee the wolf move beyond itsenclave in southeast France.

Source:http://www.ttc.org/200407191306.i6jd6ke01632.htm

SwitzerlandNew law puts wolf in thefiring lineThe government in Switzerlandhas introduced a new law makingit easier to kill wolves that preyon livestock, even though theendangered animal is a protectedspecies. The legislation is acompromise demanded byparliament to take into accountthe concerns of sheep farmers.

There has been a small wolfpopulation in Switzerland since1995, but sheep farmers have notwelcomed the predator'sreappearance. Wolves have killeddozens of sheep since theycrossed over into the Swiss Alpsfrom Italy.

Regulations were introduced in2001 permitting the shooting ofany wolf believed to have killed atleast 50 sheep over a four-monthperiod, or 25 in a single month.The minimum has now beenlowered to 35 sheep over a four-month time frame, but thecantons will be allowed to lowerthe number to 15 within a year ifwolf attacks continue.

The government has alsoagreed to compensate sheepfarmers for lost livestock, footing80 per cent of the bill, with therest coming from the cantons. Itwill also continue to subsidise apilot project, which employsshepherds and sheepdogs to lookafter herds grazing in areas wherewolves have been spotted.

Two environmental groups, theWorld Wide Fund for Nature andPro Natura have now handed in a70,000-signature petitiondemanding that the wolf's"protected status" remains. Thecampaigners are urgingparliamentarians not to followthe lead of the Senate, whichvoted in favour of taking the wolfoff the protected animals' list.They argue that there is enoughspace for the animal inSwitzerland and say they arefighting against the"extermination of the wolf withthe authorities' blessing".

It is believed that keeping thestatus quo would work to boththe wolf and farmer's advantage.If the House of Representativesdecides this autumn to no longerprotect the wolf, farmers wouldno longer receive governmentcompensation for any losses.

Pro Natura and the WWF saythey are offering to help farmersimprove the protection of theirflock, using guard dogs andshepherds. But they continue toface opposition from farmers.

Source:http://www.swissinfo.org/sen/Swissinfo.html?siteSect=105&sid=1276619

ASIA

JapanExtinct wolf a symbol ofwhat Japan has lostThe Japanese wolf officiallybecame extinct 99 years ago.More accurately, there has notbeen a confirmed sighting sincethe last of the species wascaptured in the village of Higashi-Yoshino, Nara Prefecture, in 1905.

But is the species reallyextinct? My thoughts turned tovarious extinct animals when thePaleontological Society of Japanlast Sunday released a picture of awolf's skull, said to be the largestever discovered.

Two years ago, a forum titled“Nihon Okami-no Sonogo”(What's become of the Japanesewolf?) was held in the village ofOtaki in Saitama Prefecture.There had been reports of wolfsightings and howls heard. In thisvillage, they once tried to lurewolves by playing an audio tape ofhowling Canadian forest wolves.

Folklorist Kunio Yanagita wasalso interested in the Japanesewolf. In the early Showa Era(1926-1989),Yanagita wrote in hisbook “Okami-no Yukue” (Wolf'swhereabouts):“I do not subscribeto the theory that this species isextinct.”

However, he was unable toconclude the animals were stillaround, either. With too littleevidence to go on, he noted, “Mysense tells me we may neverknow the answer.”

In Australia, a cloning project isunder way to bring an extinctspecies back to life. The projectteam has taken a DNA samplefrom the preserved specimen of aTasmanian tiger, and hassucceeded in partially duplicatingthis sample.The Tasmanian tiger isbelieved to have been extinct for68 years.

The concept of “regeneration”is the theme of “Warai Okami”(Laughing wolf), a novel by YukoTsushima published byShinchosha.

The author draws a parallelbetween Japanese wolves and aboy and a girl who are living inthe chaos of post-World War IIJapan. In the novelist's mind, theJapanese wolf is a symbol of whatJapan is losing today, and the wolfalso stands for the vitality thatcan “regenerate” contemporarysociety. A monument inscribedwith a haiku was erected in thevillage of Higashi-Yoshino fiveyears ago. The haiku by ToshioMihashi says: “I walk/ With thatwolf/ That is no more.”

The Asahi Shimbun, June29(IHT/Asahi: June 30,2004)(06/30)

Source:http://www.asahi.com/english/vox/TKY200406300120.html

Our thanks to Pat Morris(Wolfseeker) for the regularsupply of wolf news fromaround the world, and toAndrew Matthews for hissub-editing work. Articlesthat are reprinted in full areappropriately credited withthe author’s name anddetails of where the articlewas first published.

19Wolves of the World