Islamic University of Gaza Islamic University of Gaza Faculty of NursingFaculty of Nursing

Growth and DevelopmentGrowth and DevelopmentNurs. 321Nurs. 321

Second lectureSecond lecture

Ali Hassan Abu RyalaAli Hassan Abu Ryala2010-2011 2010-2011

Biophysical Development Biophysical Development Theory Theory

Arnold Gesell Arnold Gesell

(1880-1961)(1880-1961)

Arnold Gesell TheoryArnold Gesell Theory • Arnold Gesell was psychologistArnold Gesell was psychologist• Arnold Gesell’s theory based on his observations Arnold Gesell’s theory based on his observations

of children as related to their physical growth.of children as related to their physical growth.• Although each child’s pattern of growth and Although each child’s pattern of growth and

development is unique, this pattern is described development is unique, this pattern is described by the activity of the genes.by the activity of the genes.

• Arnold Gesell belief that a child has to interact Arnold Gesell belief that a child has to interact with nature in order to fully develop and reach its with nature in order to fully develop and reach its potential. potential.

• He fathered the theory of Maturation, which is the He fathered the theory of Maturation, which is the inner plan that is developed by the action of the inner plan that is developed by the action of the genes. genes.

Arnold Gesell Theory...contArnold Gesell Theory...cont Gesell studied children’s development with intense Gesell studied children’s development with intense

observation and believed that children are a bi-product of observation and believed that children are a bi-product of their environment and their internal make-up. their environment and their internal make-up.

What he believed is that there are sequences to a child’s What he believed is that there are sequences to a child’s inner development that start from conception and inner development that start from conception and continue well after birth. continue well after birth.

He stressed that a child definitely needed the social He stressed that a child definitely needed the social environment to realize his or her potential but it should environment to realize his or her potential but it should compliment the inner maturational principles. compliment the inner maturational principles.

He absolutely opposed teaching things to children that He absolutely opposed teaching things to children that they were not ready to handle, and felt it was important they were not ready to handle, and felt it was important that children were not rushed into stages that posed a that children were not rushed into stages that posed a threat to their internal growth.threat to their internal growth.

Arnold Gesell Theory ...contArnold Gesell Theory ...cont• The challenge that Gesell faced was unraveling the mystery behind The challenge that Gesell faced was unraveling the mystery behind

the precise mechanics of how the inner maturation worked. the precise mechanics of how the inner maturation worked. • He was only able to guess the approximate timing based on his He was only able to guess the approximate timing based on his

observations. observations. • The genes control maturation, and the genes determined the The genes control maturation, and the genes determined the

sequence, timing, and form of emerging patterns that promote sequence, timing, and form of emerging patterns that promote growth in children. growth in children.

• Gesell was a strong supporter of studying patterns; he felt that it Gesell was a strong supporter of studying patterns; he felt that it helps determine the process by which actions became organized. helps determine the process by which actions became organized.

• He believes that all normal children go through the same He believes that all normal children go through the same sequences, but at their own pace. sequences, but at their own pace.

Arnold Gesell Theory ...contArnold Gesell Theory ...cont• He believed that this pace is also driven by the child’s He believed that this pace is also driven by the child’s

temperament and personality that is associated with their genes and temperament and personality that is associated with their genes and social environment. social environment.

• When it came to child rearing he felt that parents needed to fully When it came to child rearing he felt that parents needed to fully understand the laws of maturation so that they would not force understand the laws of maturation so that they would not force children into any of their own preconceived patterns that is not children into any of their own preconceived patterns that is not naturally apart of the child’s inner make-up. naturally apart of the child’s inner make-up.

• Lastly he felt that teachers should adjust their instruction to the Lastly he felt that teachers should adjust their instruction to the student’s age, grade, growth rate, and their special talents and student’s age, grade, growth rate, and their special talents and abilities. abilities.

• This will allow for the child’s inner maturation pattern and the This will allow for the child’s inner maturation pattern and the social environment to work togethersocial environment to work together

Psychoanalytic/ DevelopmentPsychoanalytic/ Development

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Sigmund Freud TheorySigmund Freud Theory• Sigmund Freud was the first person to provide a formal theory of Sigmund Freud was the first person to provide a formal theory of

personality development.personality development.• Two internal biological forces essentially drive psychosocial Two internal biological forces essentially drive psychosocial

change in the child: sexual (libido) and aggressive energies.change in the child: sexual (libido) and aggressive energies.• Motivation for behavior is to achieve pleasure and avoid pain Motivation for behavior is to achieve pleasure and avoid pain

created by these forces. created by these forces. • The basis of fraud’s theory of development is derived from that the The basis of fraud’s theory of development is derived from that the

sexual energy of the "id" finds different sources of satisfaction sexual energy of the "id" finds different sources of satisfaction stages of psychosexual development.stages of psychosexual development.

• Freud’s psychoanalytic model of personality development has 5 Freud’s psychoanalytic model of personality development has 5 psychosexual developmental stages associated with different psychosexual developmental stages associated with different pleasurable zones serving as the focus for gratification and bodily pleasurable zones serving as the focus for gratification and bodily pleasure.pleasure.

Sigmund Freud Theory...contSigmund Freud Theory...cont

Stage one: Oral (birth – 12mounths)Stage one: Oral (birth – 12mounths)• Infant gets pleasure from sucking and oral Infant gets pleasure from sucking and oral

satisfaction (swallowing)satisfaction (swallowing)• Oral receptive personality: when the child Oral receptive personality: when the child

continue to seek the pleasure through the mouth; continue to seek the pleasure through the mouth; overeating and smoking. overeating and smoking.

• Oral aggressive personality: when oral pleasure is Oral aggressive personality: when oral pleasure is frustrated the child become verbally hostile othersfrustrated the child become verbally hostile others

Sigmund Freud Theory...contSigmund Freud Theory...contStage two: Anal (1-3 yrs)Stage two: Anal (1-3 yrs)• The focus of pleasure changes to the anal zone The focus of pleasure changes to the anal zone • Through the toilet-training process the child is asked to Through the toilet-training process the child is asked to

delay gratification in order to meet parental and social delay gratification in order to meet parental and social expectation.expectation.

• Anal retentive: if the child has excessive punishment for Anal retentive: if the child has excessive punishment for failure during toilet training, the child is satisfied from failure during toilet training, the child is satisfied from holding back feces to show neatness.holding back feces to show neatness.

• Anal expulsive: child gains pleasure from expelling the Anal expulsive: child gains pleasure from expelling the body’s waste products .body’s waste products .

• If the child is over satisfied in this stage he will defecate If the child is over satisfied in this stage he will defecate at inappropriate time and show messiness.at inappropriate time and show messiness.

Sigmund Freud Theory...contSigmund Freud Theory...cont

Stage three: Phallic or Oedipal (3-6yrs)Stage three: Phallic or Oedipal (3-6yrs)• The genital organs become the focus of pleasure The genital organs become the focus of pleasure • The time of imagination and as the child The time of imagination and as the child

fantasizes about the parent of opposite sex as his\fantasizes about the parent of opposite sex as his\her first love interest (Oedipal or Electra her first love interest (Oedipal or Electra complex) complex)

• By the end of this stage the child attempts to By the end of this stage the child attempts to reduce this conflict by identifying with parent of reduce this conflict by identifying with parent of the same sex in away to win recognition and the same sex in away to win recognition and acceptance.acceptance.

Sigmund Freud Theory...contSigmund Freud Theory...cont

Stage four: Latency (6-11yrs)Stage four: Latency (6-11yrs)• Sexual urges, from the oedipal stage, are Sexual urges, from the oedipal stage, are

repressed and channeled into productive activities repressed and channeled into productive activities that are socially acceptable; school work, riding that are socially acceptable; school work, riding bicycle, &playing.bicycle, &playing.

• Within the educational and social worlds of the Within the educational and social worlds of the child, there is much to learn and accomplish.child, there is much to learn and accomplish.

Sigmund Freud Theory...contSigmund Freud Theory...cont

Stage five: Gentile (Puberty thru Adolescence):Stage five: Gentile (Puberty thru Adolescence):• Sexual desires and interests are directed toward one’s Sexual desires and interests are directed toward one’s

pears.pears.• Adolescent Boy girlfriendAdolescent Boy girlfriend• Adolescent Female boyfriendAdolescent Female boyfriend• A time of turbulence when sexual urges reawaken and are A time of turbulence when sexual urges reawaken and are

directed to an individual outside the family circle. directed to an individual outside the family circle. • The beginning of a mature adult where sexual and The beginning of a mature adult where sexual and

aggressive "id" motives are transformed into energy for aggressive "id" motives are transformed into energy for marriage and occupation. marriage and occupation.

Sigmund Freud Theory...contSigmund Freud Theory...cont

N.B:N.B:

These stages must be satisfied enough, if These stages must be satisfied enough, if satisfied the person will become satisfied the person will become

emotionally mature if no the person will emotionally mature if no the person will find difficulty and unresolved conflicts find difficulty and unresolved conflicts

at any stage appears through dreams or at any stage appears through dreams or thoughts and inappropriate emotions. thoughts and inappropriate emotions.

Sigmund Freud Theory...contSigmund Freud Theory...contWeakness of Freud theoryWeakness of Freud theory• Based on limited sampleBased on limited sample• Little empirical supportLittle empirical support• Freud’s critics contend that the people are more Freud’s critics contend that the people are more

influenced by their life experiences than by their influenced by their life experiences than by their sexual energiessexual energies

• Freud based assumptions such as the oedipal Freud based assumptions such as the oedipal complex are not applicable across different complex are not applicable across different culturescultures

Psychosocial DevelopmentPsychosocial Development

Erik Erikson 1902-1994Erik Erikson 1902-1994

Erik Erikson TheoryErik Erikson Theory

• Eriksson's theory consist of eight stages of development. Eriksson's theory consist of eight stages of development. • Erik Erikson explains eight stages through which a Erik Erikson explains eight stages through which a

healthy developing human should pass from infancy to healthy developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood. late adulthood.

• In each stage the person confronts, and hopefully In each stage the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. masters, new challenges.

• Each stage builds on the successful completion of earlier Each stage builds on the successful completion of earlier stages. stages.

• The challenges of stages not successfully completed The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the futuremay be expected to reappear as problems in the future

""The individual change from The individual change from stage to other stage by stage to other stage by

achieving development tasks achieving development tasks of each stage"of each stage"

Erik Erikson Theory...contErik Erikson Theory...cont

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. MistrustPsychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust• The first stage of Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development The first stage of Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development

occurs between birth and one year of age and is the most occurs between birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. fundamental stage in life.

• Because an infant is totally dependent, the development of trust is Because an infant is totally dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers. based on the dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.

• If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. secure in the world.

• Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. for.

• Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictableworld is inconsistent and unpredictable. .

Erik Erikson Theory...contErik Erikson Theory...contPsychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and DoubtPsychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt• The second stage of Erickson's theory of psychosocial The second stage of Erickson's theory of psychosocial

development takes place during early childhood and is focused on development takes place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.children developing a greater sense of personal control.

• Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. this process.

• However, Eriksson's reasoning was quite different then that of However, Eriksson's reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's, Erikson believe that learning to control one’s body Freud's, Erikson believe that learning to control one’s body functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.

• Other important events include gaining more control over food Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.

• Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubtinadequacy and self-doubt

Erik Erikson Theory...contErik Erikson Theory...cont

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. GuiltPsychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt• During the preschool years, children begin to During the preschool years, children begin to

assert their power and control over the world assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social through directing play and other social interaction.interaction.

• Children who are successful at this stage feel Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. capable and able to lead others.

• Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.

Erik Erikson Theory...contErik Erikson Theory...cont

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. InferiorityPsychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority• This stage covers the early school years from This stage covers the early school years from

approximately age 5 to 11.approximately age 5 to 11.• Through social interactions, children begin to develop a Through social interactions, children begin to develop a

sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. • Children who are encouraged and commended by parents Children who are encouraged and commended by parents

and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. in their skills.

• Those who receive little or no encouragement from Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be successful.successful.

Erik Erikson Theory...contErik Erikson Theory...cont

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. ConfusionPsychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion• During adolescence, children are exploring their During adolescence, children are exploring their

independence and developing a sense of self.independence and developing a sense of self.• Those who receive proper encouragement and Those who receive proper encouragement and

reinforcement through personal exploration will reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. and a feeling of independence and control.

• Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will insecure and confused about desires will insecure and confused about themselves and the future.themselves and the future.

Erik Erikson Theory...contErik Erikson Theory...contPsychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. IsolationPsychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation• This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are

exploring personal relationships. exploring personal relationships. • Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed

relationships with other people. relationships with other people. • Those who are successful at this step will develop relationships Those who are successful at this step will develop relationships

that are committed and secure. that are committed and secure. • Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. • Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was

important to developing intimate relationships. important to developing intimate relationships. • Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend

to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depressionemotional isolation, loneliness, and depression..

Erik Erikson Theory...contErik Erikson Theory...contPsychosocial Stage 7 - Generatively vs. Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generatively vs.

StagnationStagnation• During adulthood, we continue to build our During adulthood, we continue to build our

lives, focusing on our career and family.lives, focusing on our career and family.• Those who are successful during this phase Those who are successful during this phase

will feel that they are contributing to the will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and world by being active in their home and community. community.

• Those who fail to attain this skill will feel Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Erik Erikson Theory...contErik Erikson Theory...contPsychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair • This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back

on life.on life.• Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their

life has been wasted and will experience many regrets. life has been wasted and will experience many regrets. • The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. • Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of

integrity.integrity.• Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few

regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. • These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting

death.death.

Questions????Questions????Thank You AllThank You All