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© Rucco, Stoneman and Brownhill 2012 Cambridge University Press

2

Grammar and punctuation

Unit 1 noUns and articlesnouns are naming words.

indefinite articles: a and anThe indefinite articles a and an (the shortened form of one) are only used before singular nouns: • a is used before nouns beginning with consonants • an is used for words beginning with vowels (a, e, i, o, u).

Examplesa girl, a school an apple, an elephant

Exception: a is also used when the sound (not the spelling) of the initial vowel of the noun is w or y (e.g. a ewe – sounds like ‘yoo’; a one – sounds like ‘wun’).

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definite article: theThe definite article, the, is a shortened form of this, that, these or those and is used before singular and plural nouns.

Examplesthe box, the boxes the woman, the women

revision: names of nouns1 common nouns: These name

people, animals, places or things.

Exampleswoman, boy, elephant, warehouse, book

2 Proper nouns: They always start with a capital letter. They name particular people, animals, places, things, organisations, days and months, but not seasons.

ExamplesJames, Mount Everest, Sydney Opera House, Friday

3 collective nouns: Collective nouns name groups of people, animals or things.

Examplesmob, bouquet, pack, swarm, collection

4 concrete nouns: These name things you can see, hear, smell or touch.

Examplesrainbow, humming, perfume, water

5 abstract nouns: Abstract nouns name feelings, qualities, ideas or actions that cannot be seen unless related to a person, an action or a concrete noun.

Exampleslove, energy, adolescence, smoothness of the wood

You test whether a word is a noun by placing a, an or the in front of it.

Consonants are all the letters in the alphabet except for the vowels: a, e, i, o, u.

The article an is also used before initial silent consonants (e.g. an hour, an heir).

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plurals of nouns

Ending Examples Ending Examples

Most common nouns– add s

girl = girlsbasket = baskets

Words ending inhissing sounds (s, sh, ch, x, z )– add es

bus = busesbush = bushesmatch = matchesfox = foxesbuzz = buzzes

Most common nounsending in o– add es

tomato = tomatoespotato = potatoeshero = heroesecho = echoes

Some nouns endingin o– add s

photo = photospiano = pianos

Nouns ending in aconsonant then y– change the y to ithen add es

lady = ladiesbaby = babiesenemy = enemies

Nouns that end in avowel (a, e, i, o, u)then y– add s

holiday = holidaysmonkey = monkeysboy = boysguy = guys

Most nouns endingin f– add s(ves can be used,but not for belief )

scarf = scarfshoof = hoofswharf = wharfsbelief = beliefs

Some nouns endingin f– change fto v then add es

calf = calvesshelf = shelvesloaf = loaves

Nouns ending in fe– drop the fe andadd ves

wife = wivesknife = knives

Some nouns with‘irregular’ plurals

man = menwoman = womenchild = childrentooth = teethfoot = feetmouse = miceoasis = oasesbasis = basesdeer = deersheep = sheepox = oxenplateau = plateaux

irregular pluralsEnglish contains many nouns taken from foreign languages, particularly Latin and Greek. Many of these nouns are used in mathematics, science and English. Most have irregular plurals.

Exampleslatin words Plural formradius (of a circle) radii (of several circles) genus (of plants) genera (of several groups of plants)fungus (mushroom, mould, etc.) fungi (plural)

Greek words Plural formanalysis (of a question, language) analyses (plural) phenomenon (remarkable thing or person) phenomena (plural) criterion (a principle or standard of judgement) criteria (a set of standards of judgement)

Wiki taskExpand the ‘Plurals of nouns’ table and upload it to the class wiki. You might also wish to add a table of common, proper, collective, concrete and abstract nouns.

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1 test yourself

1 Write the nouns in the box next to the adjectives or verbs they match.

antiquity inquiry nobility truthfulness gentility convenience rejection repetition invincibility speech

a inquire _________________________ b true __________________________

c noble _________________________ d reject __________________________

e repeat _________________________ f convenient __________________________

g speak _________________________ h ancient __________________________

i gentle _________________________ j invincible __________________________

2 Complete these sentences by adding an abstract noun. The first letter has been provided.

a A thief commits t_____________________.

b A person with no fixed address can be accused of v_____________________.

c A person who possesses something has o_____________________ of it.

d A tired person shows signs of w_____________________.

e A person who uses force to maintain his power demonstrates t_____________________.

3 Form the plurals of the following nouns and then write them in the correct columns.

leaf desk baby foot muscle stitch mess berry photo postman donkey thief sheaf volcano calf factory deer louse hero army

Add s Add es Change y Change f Irregular

_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________

_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________

_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________

_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________

4 To which nouns do each of the following collective nouns refer? (If you don’t know some of these words, use your dictionary.)

a A galaxy of ________________________. b A plague of ________________________.

c A school of ________________________. d A batch of ________________________.

e A pride of ________________________.

Interacting challenge Write an account of a school excursion to the zoo. Use some abstract, collective and plural nouns in your account. Swap with a partner and identity the nouns they have used in their piece.

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2 Extend yourself

Nouns can be put into classes.

Examples• men,women,children,grandmothers,uncles(thesewordsallbelongtotheclass

people)• trees,shrubs,vegetables,flowers,grasses(thesewordsallbelongtotheclassplants)

There are also sub-classes.

Examples• carpenters,plumbers,electricians,joiners(thesewordsallbelongtotheclasspeople

and the sub-class tradespeople)• potatoes,beans,pumpkin,spinach(thesewordsallbelongtotheclassplants and the

sub-class vegetables)

1 Write the correct class and/or sub-class alongside the following groups of nouns.

a deer, monkeys, zebras, sheep, horses _____________________________________

b vacuum cleaners, dishwashers, stoves _____________________________________

c axes, wrenches, hammers, shovels _____________________________________

d petunias, roses, daffodils, pansies _____________________________________

e cars, carriages, horses, boats, aeroplanes _____________________________________

f dentists, teachers, doctors, architects _____________________________________

g runners, footballers, cricketers, swimmers _____________________________________

h shark, whiting, cod, sardines, salmon _____________________________________

i Hereford, Angus, Jersey, Charolais _____________________________________

j dresses, trousers, saris, jackets, shirts _____________________________________

2 Many nouns have the same form (common) for masculine and feminine.

Examples parent, child, driver, cook, reporter, prisoner

Others have different forms for male and female. Some add -ess for feminine and some end in -er or -or and drop the o or e. A few add -er or a whole word for males.

Write the feminine or masculine alternative form for these nouns.

a brother _________________________ b aunt __________________________

c niece _________________________ d duke __________________________

e duck _________________________ f tiger __________________________

g manager _________________________ h lion __________________________

i heir _________________________ j emperor __________________________

k widower _________________________ l stallion __________________________

Interacting challengeIn small groups research, discuss and list as many animal and insect classes and sub-classes as you can. Try to think of some unusual ones such as crustaceans (shelled sea animals). When all groups have completed their lists, compare your findings in a whole class discussion.

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3 challenge yourself

1 Fill in the singular or plural form of these unusual nouns.

Singular Plural

axis

curricula

appendix

nuclei

stratum

crises

formula

terminus

data

erratum

2 Change the following nouns into their singular form (one only). Hint: Some are irregular (they do not follow the usual patterns – see the table on page 4).

a countries _______________________ b loaves ___________________________

c sisters-in-law _______________________ d radii ___________________________

e bureaux _______________________ f criteria ___________________________

3 To what class do the following belong?

a dollar, pound, zloty, mark, franc, penny ____________________________________

b pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon, curry ____________________________________

c parsley, basil, coriander, rosemary ____________________________________

d carburettor, accelerator, starter motor, brakes ____________________________________

e church, school, house, townhall, shop ____________________________________

4 All the nouns on the left begin with cat- and those on the right end with -ant. (Starting letters are given for these.) Can you work them out?

a a complete list ____________________ b pays rent t _____________________

c a disaster ____________________ d sells goods m _____________________

e a class or group ____________________ f teams win it p _____________________

Interacting challengeIn small groups choose a well-known public figure. Conduct research on the internet or in the library about their life and prepare a short talk in which all group members contribute a few comments. Be prepared to answer questions from other class members.

Singular Plural

criteria

oasis

memorandum

stimuli

medium

fungi

larva

foci

basis

thesis

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Unit 2 PronoUnsPronouns stand in place of (or stand for) nouns.

He (subject) made (verb) it (object)

main types of pronounsThe main types of pronouns are listed in this table.

Subjective pronouns Objective pronouns Possessive pronouns Emphatic pronouns

Doer of action Receiver of action Owner Emphasise

Singular I, you, he, she, it me, you, him, her, it my, your, his, her, its; also mine, yours, his, hers, its

myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself

Plural we, you, they us, you, them our, your, their; also ours, yours, theirs

ourselves, yourselves, themselves

other types of pronouns

relative PronoUns

relative pronouns are used to begin a clause (a group of words with a verb that is not a complete sentence on its own – see Unit 7. They make this clause relate to a noun that is immediately before it.

ExampleThe old man, who used to be a soldier, marched on Anzac Day.

In this example, the word who is a subjective (subject) pronoun. It relates used to be a soldier to the noun man. This information could have been written in two sentences.

ExampleThe old man marched on Anzac Day. He used to be a soldier.

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The forms of relative pronouns are as follows.

For people For things

Subjective who (usually), that which (more formal), that

Objective whom (usually), who, that which, that

Possessive whose whose, of which

ExamplessubjectiveThe man who robbed you is called Johnson.

The car, which/that I hired, broke down.

objectiveThe girls, whom he praised, were delighted.

The woman, from whom I bought it, seemed honest.

The window, that/which was broken by a stone, has been repaired.

PossessivePeople whose goods have been stolen can call the police.

Animals whose owners do not look after them suffer.

A special case is what. What = the thing (or things) that. What can be either a subjective or objective pronoun.

ExamplesThe things that we saw astonished us = What we saw astonished us (subjective)

When she sees the damage that you have done she will be furious = When she sees what you have done she will be furious (objective)

demonstrative PronoUns

demonstrative pronouns are used to point out some person or thing (that may have been named earlier in speech or writing). They are often used in answers to questions.

Demonstrative pronouns include this, that, these, those, one, ones, none, some and such when these words are used to replace a noun or nouns, but the same words may act as adjectives when used with nouns. Such is more often used as an adjective than a pronoun in writing.

ExamplesThis is my pen.

In this example, this is pointing out and is a demonstrative pronoun. But this conveys the meaning this pen. In This pen is my pen, the word this is acting as an adjective describing pen.

Singular demonstrative pronouns Plural demonstrative pronouns

This: This is my football. These: These are our friends.

That: That is his backpack. Those: Those peaches are not ripe.

One: One is enough for me. Ones: I like red roses better than white ones.

Such: Such was the result of the match. Some: Some are ripe enough to eat.

If you are unsure when to use who and when to use whom, you can rephrase the sentence so you choose between he and him: if you want him, write whom; if you want he, write who. For example: Who do you think did this? (Do you think he did this?) Whom should we ask to help us? (Should we ask him to help us?)

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1 test yourself

1 Insert the correct pronouns in the gaps. (Some have been done for you.)

For my eighth birthday ___________ father promised me a bicycle, but ___________ mother

said that I could only have ____________ if _____________ behaved myself. However, on the

afternoon of ___________ birthday, __________ accidentally broke several plates. They were

Mum’s favourites and ____________ said, ‘Just wait until ____________ father comes home’.

___________ friends cheered ___________ up when __________ suggested that __________

would forgive __________ as __________ wasn’t as if __________ had done __________ on

purpose. Soon __________ went home and tried to make __________ as useful as possible,

hoping that Mum would not tell ____________ father. When Dad arrived, ___________ said,

‘______________ must remember when __________ were young, ____________. Sometimes

___________ had accidents, too’. ___________ hugged __________ and went out to the car.

From the boot ____________ pulled out a bright red bicycle. ____________ could not believe

___________ was really ___________.

2 Fill in the correct emphatic pronouns. The first one has been done for you.

a The small boy said, ‘I must learn to tie my shoelaces myself’.

b The Prime Minister _____________________ presented the medals.

c Although she was small, Ann opened the door _____________________.

d The boys insisted on cooking the dinner _____________________.

e ‘You must solve the riddle _____________________,’ the wizard said.

3 Highlight the relative pronouns in these sentences.

a The wizard, who tricked the boy, was able to change his appearance.

b The cat, which caught the bird, was always stalking prey.

c The woman, whose children broke our window, was very angry.

d The hire car, that I rented, was expensive to run.

e When the football coach learns what you have done, he will punish you.

Writing challengeYour cat has caught a mouse and brought it inside. Describe what happens using as many pronouns as you can.

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2 Extend yourself

Objective pronouns (see the table on page 8) must be used after prepositions. Prepositions include: at, to, about, after, round, between, among and without.

1 Insert the correct pronouns in these sentences. Some may be used twice. The first one has been done for you.

me you her him it us you she

a The angry lady glared at me and her.

b The teacher will not listen to _____________ or ____________ as she dislikes our groups.

c A crowd gathered round Michael and _____________. (plural, first person)

d The policeman ran after both ____________ and ____________. (singular, third person)

e Between _____________ and _____________ I think _____________ is wrong.

2 Use relative pronouns to complete these sentences.

a ‘________________ books are these?’ asked the teacher.

b The girl, ________________ won the sprint, was very pleased.

c The boys, ________________ the cricket coach praised, were happy.

3 Rewrite these sentences by using possessive pronouns. The first one has been done for you.

a I own that red bicycle. That red bicycle is mine. Or That is my red bicycle.

b The man claimed that the old dog belonged to him.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

c We own the house on the corner.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

4 Fill the gaps with suitable pronouns.

The old man grumbled to ____________ as he walked towards the shop ____________ stood

at the corner. ____________ black dog, ____________ always wagged ____________ tail,

waddled beside him. Some boys ran past and ____________ told ____________ to watch

where ____________ were going as ____________ had almost knocked ____________ over.

‘____________ never look where ____________ are going,’ ____________ retorted.

‘Mind ____________ manners,’ ____________ replied, as ____________ entered the shop to

buy ____________ milk.

5 Underline the demonstrative pronouns and state whether they are singular or plural.

a That cat is thin, but those kittens are plump. _____________________________

b Don’t buy these apples; buy that cantaloupe. _____________________________

c You can carry the heavy bags, I’ll carry the light ones. _____________________________

d This pink rose is more perfect than the red one. _____________________________

e These grapes are sweet. Would you like some? _____________________________

Writing challengeDescribe your favourite possessions using as many pronouns as you can.



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indefinite pronouns are another type of pronoun, used to refer to persons or things in a general way, rather than to particular persons or things.

ExamplesThey say it will be a hot summer.

One should obey the road rules.

Other indefinite pronouns commonly used are: anybody, anything, some, others, someone, somebody, something, no one, none, nobody, everybody, everything, many, all and few.

1 Write two sentences each containing two indefinite pronouns (e.g. ‘Is anybody going to buy anything?’).

a ___________________________________________________________________________

b ___________________________________________________________________________

2 Highlight the pronouns in the following sentences and state what type they are. For example, first person subjective, first person emphatic, second person objective, third person possessive and relative (person or thing).

a Tom, who had been driving, blamed himself for the accident, which injured them.____________________________________________________________________________________________

b They looked around at the antique furniture, which had belonged to Napoleon.____________________________________________________________________________________________

c We were surprised when the owner himself opened the door of the mansion.____________________________________________________________________________________________

d Henry, whose Mercedes had been stolen, spoke angrily to the police, whom he

considered negligent because they had taken so long to arrive.____________________________________________________________________________________________

3 Write sentences to show the use of the singular and plural demonstrative pronouns in the one sentence for a and b (e.g. This is my brother and these are my cousins).

a that, those _________________________________________________________________

b one, ones __________________________________________________________________

4 Fill the gaps with suitable pronouns.

____________ brother, Adam, ____________hashadapassionforflyingsince

____________ was a small boy, is now learning to be an international pilot. This requires

____________ to discipline ____________astheflyingschooldemandsthatallstudents

keep ____________ healthy and alert. Each day ____________ have theory lessons, followed

by practice, ____________ is essential to test if ____________ have absorbed the information

____________ was presented in the theory class. Students ____________ progress is

unsatisfactory will have little chance of achieving ____________ ambition to be international

pilots and ____________mayberestrictedtoflyingaeroplanes____________ do not carry

passengers.

Technology challengeUsing presentation software of your choice (PowerPoint, Prezzi, Paint, etc.) create a visual lesson for your class explaining the different types of pronouns and their usages. Make your presentation as visually engaging as possible and remember to use lots of examples to illustrate your points. Upload your presentations to the class wiki for others to see.

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Unit 3 verbs and verb tenses verbs express actions. They are doing, being and having words.

tenses and participlestenses of verbs tell us when actions happen – present, past or future.

That car was slow. This car is fast. This car will be faster.

English uses many helper verbs (auxiliary verbs). The main ones are made from to be and to have. They are placed before:• present participles (part verbs ending in -ing, such as jumping, thinking, etc.)• past participles (shown, eaten, taken, etc.) to make a complete (finite) verb.

ExamplesI am (helper) thinking (present participle).

They are (helper) working (present participle).

I shall have (two helpers) finished (past participle) my homework soon.

Types of verb tenses are outlined in the table below.

Type Present Past Future

Simple run ran shall/will run

Continuous is running was running shall/will be running

Complete (perfect) have run had run shall/will have run

Complete (perfect) continuous have been running had been running shall/will have been running

Examples simplePresent I eat my lunch. Past I ate my lunch.Future I shall eat my lunch.

continuousPresent I am helping you.Past I was helping you.Future He will be helping you.

completePresent We have worked hard.Past She had worked well.Future They will have worked hard.

Sometimes more than one helper is needed to make a complete verb.

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Functions of verbsVerbs have functions. In grammar these are called moods. We can state facts, impose conditions or give orders.

Functions of verbs Present Past Future

Stating a fact(indicative)

work worked shall or will work

Imposing limits(conditional)

should workwould work

should have worked or would have worked

should/wouldreplacesshall/will

Expressing a command, request or an entreaty(imperative)

Let us (let’s) work. (First person) Let him/her it/them work.(Third person)Work! Come!(Second person) [The subject (you) is implied but not written]

Examples stating a fact (indicative)Present I walk to the shops.Past She went to a party yesterday.Future He will buy a mobile phone tomorrow.

imposing limits (conditional)Present A new stove would work better than this old one.Past The light should have worked as I put in a new globe.Future He should study harder next year. They would win matches, if they trained more.

expressing commands, requests or entreaties (imperative)Present Let’s (let us) not argue. (entreating/begging) Please let him come to your party. (request) Come here! (command)

The grammatical term (in brackets) is not as important as understanding what function the verb is performing.

Commands are always given to another person. Hence, the subject is you, which can be singular (one person) or plural (two or more people). In commands and orders the subject is usually left out. For example, we say ‘Come!’ not ‘You come!’

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1 test yourself

1 Change the verbs in the simple present into negative forms. The first one has been done for you.

a I like fish. I do not like fish. Or I don’t like fish.

b I think I am right. ___________________________________________________

c He often helps his father. ___________________________________________________

d They worry too much. ___________________________________________________

e You drive too quickly. ___________________________________________________

f We like to go to the cinema. ___________________________________________________

2 Turn the following sentences into future tense. The first one has been done for you.

a Corey plays football on Saturday.

Corey will play football on Saturday.

b She enjoys living near the sea.____________________________________________________________________________________________

c The new curtains improve the room.____________________________________________________________________________________________

d Often climbers carry ropes.____________________________________________________________________________________________

3 Change the following story into the past tense by changing the underlined words.

When they arrive (_________________) home, it is (___________________) quite

dark. They stumble (___________________)upthefrontsteps.Thefloorboardscreak

(__________________) eerily as they make (___________________) their way across

the hall and enter (___________________) the lounge room to the right. Suddenly

a light flickers (___________________) on and they start (___________________) in

fright. They do (___________________) not expect their parents to be home yet and

so they have (__________________) not prepared a story. ‘Where have you been?’

queries (___________________) their father. They know (_________________) they will

(_________________) be punished for wagging school, going to the beach and missing the

earlier train home.

Interacting challengeIn small groups, discuss what hobbies you enjoyed as a small child, which ones you currently enjoy and those that you would like to try in the future. Compile a list of your group’s interests and compare them with those of other groups in a whole class discussion.

The infinitive of a verb always has to in it (e.g. to play, to see).

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2 Extend yourself

Future tense

• ShallisnormallycorrectforIandwe(e.g.Ishall seeyoutomorrow.Weshall meetyoutomorrow).

• Butwhenyouwanttoexpressafixed intention(thatis,youaresuretodoit)shallbecomeswill(e.g.Iwill arriveat10o’clocksharp).

• Won’t(willnot)isusedinthenegativeform,notshan’t(e.g.Wewon’t arriveuntil11a.m).

• Williscorrectforyou,he,she,itandthey(e.g.Hewill dohismusicpracticeaftercrickettraining.Theywill gotothebeachnextholidays).

• Butwhenyouwanttoexpressafixed intentionitbecomesshall(e.g.Sheshall doassheistold.Theyshall dothedishes).

1 Insertthecorrectformofthefuturetenseinthesesentences.

a Whowillhelpme?We______________________.

b Whileyouarestillinbed,I______________________beatwork.

c You______________________havetocometovisitsoon.

d Yourfather______________________hearofyourpoorbehaviour.(fixedintention)

e ______________________theyfinishourhouseontime?

f I______________________beatschoolasIhaveanexcursion.(longnegativeform)

g ______________________youcometotheshoppingmallwithme?(shortnegativeform)

h Yachts______________________goroundthemarkerbuoys.(fixedintention)

i He______________________showyouthewaytothestation.

j They______________________beontimefortheperformance.(negative)

2 Underlinetheverbsinthesentencesbelowandstatewhatthetenseorfunctionis.

a Letusgoshopping.Theshopsshouldnotbecrowded.Mondaymorningisquiet.

___________________________________________________________________________

b Wouldn’titbebettertorollupthecarpetbeforeyoupainttheceiling?

___________________________________________________________________________

c SheaskedwhatsheshoulddoifanyletterscamewhileIwasaway.

___________________________________________________________________________

d IfIshouldfindyournotebook,Iwillgiveyouaring.

___________________________________________________________________________

e Ifyouwouldwaitamoment,Ishallcomewithyou.

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Interacting challengeInsmallgroups,discusssomeexperimentsyouhavecarriedoutinsciencelessons.Considerwhyscienceteachersgiveorders,makerequestsorimposelimitsonyourbehaviour.Discusswhichothersubjectsneedlimitsimposedonbehaviourandwhythesearenecessary.Youmayliketocreateasafetyposterwithsomecommandsentencesfordisplayinyourclassroom.



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tenses can be expressed in positive or negative forms. The negative is formed with:

• does not and the infinitive (without to) for he, she and it

• do not and the infinitive (without to) for I, we, you and they.

ExampleHe doesn’t like (not to like) pies.

1 Highlight the verbs and state their tenses or functions. The first one has been done for you.

a Get up earlier! Then you wouldn’t be late for work. imperative/negative conditional

b If you should put glasses into boiling water they would crack. _______________________

c Let’s go snowboarding! It snowed last night. _______________________

d The child was running so fast he slipped over. _______________________

e In a fortnight’s time we shall have gone on our holidays. _______________________

f ‘I am walking fast because I am cold,’ I replied to my friend. _______________________

2 Would rather imposes a condition. It is often shortened to I’d rather. Make up three amusing questions and answers (e.g. ‘Can I write my essay on the back of an envelope? I’d rather you wrote it on a sheet of paper’).

a ___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

b ___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

c ___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

3 Sometimes the suffix -en can be added to an adjective or a noun to turn it into a verb. Write sentences that add -en to change the adjectives dark and sweet and the nouns height and length into verbs.

a ___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

b ___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

c ___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

d ___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Interacting challengeWorking in small groups, discuss two fairytales that you are familiar with. What are the morals or principles each aims to teach? Were these conveyed with commands (such as ‘Do not talk to strangers’) or in other ways? Discuss how values and morals are instilled today. Consider the importance of the language patterns and visual choices made. Share your results with the class.

Wiki taskWrite the first paragraph of a story told in the past tense, beginning with: ‘It had rained all night …’. Then rewrite the paragraph in the present tense. Publish your two paragraphs on the class wiki.

Does not is often contracted (shortened to doesn’t; and do not to don’t).

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Unit 4 adjectivesAn adjective is a word that describes a noun.

Type Examples

Of quality(descriptive)

happy, pointy, thin, octagonal, miserable, silver, evil, square, brown, tall, large, modern, ancient

Of quantity whole, half, quarter, much, little, some, enough, any, all, no (when followed by a noun only)

Of number definite = numerical: seven, ninety, third, bothindefinite = numeral: some, few, many, sundry, all

To point out (demonstrate/ distinguish)

this, that, these, those; and the articles a, an and the (Articles ‘point out’ or ‘restrict’ the applications of nouns.)

To refer to (distributive)

every, each, either, neither

To question (interrogative)

what, which (when they ask about a noun): what person, which book

To own (possessive)

his, her, its, my, your, our, their (when they are before a noun only)

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Many words can function in different ways. They can work as adjectives, pronouns or articles. If the word is directly before a noun, it works as an adjective.

Example This is my coat.

In this example, my is a pronoun, because it stands for a person. It is also an adjective, because it describes the noun coat. Therefore, it is usually called a possessive adjective.

Type Pronoun Adjective

Distinguishing (points out) This is my hat.I do not want this.

This hat is mine. (before a noun)

Interrogative (asks a question) What is wrong? What bird (noun) is that?

Distributive (refers to a particular thing)Possessive (shows ownership)

Either will do. This coat is mine. Are these books yours?

I can write with either hand. (noun)This is my coat. (noun)Here are your books. (noun)

The table above shows how you can test the way the word is functioning.

Sometimes a word can be acting in two ways at once.

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1 test yourself

1 Fill in suitable adjectives before each noun.

a _________________________ teacher b _________________________ building

c _________________________ crowd d _________________________ water

e _________________________ laboratory f _________________________ octopus

g _________________________ camera h _________________________ mountain

i _________________________ sailor j _________________________ memory

2 State what type of adjectives the underlined words are. The first one has been done for you.

a The evil man tried to steal the old woman’s handbag. quality

b Did you have enough meat on your plate? ____________________________

c This road is more direct than that one. ____________________________

d Every person must provide a plate of food for the party. ____________________________

e A few people attended the meeting. ____________________________

f What animal is that hiding in the bushes? ____________________________

3 Three of the four adjectives mean nearly the same thing. Highlight the odd one out. (Use your dictionary to help you.)

a angry anxious furious irate

b courageous brave heroic dangerous

c energetic vigorous humorous lively

d light gloomy dark dim

e irregular habitual customary routine

4 Use each of the following pairs of adjectival opposites in one sentence.

a energetic/lazy ______________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

b firm/soft ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

c beautiful/ugly ______________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

d noisy/silent ________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

e nasty/nice _________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Writing challengeWrite a letter to an overseas friend describing the Australian countryside and lifestyle. Include as many adjectives as you can to make your friend see the colours and shapes of the landscape and the ways in which Australian teenagers spend their leisure time.

Website explorerCreate a list of websites that provide lists of adjectives. Add these links to your class wiki.

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2 Extend yourself

Adjectives can sometimes be used as nouns by placing the article the before them.

Example The rich are not always happier than the poor.

Nouns can work as adjectives to describe other nouns.

Example springflowers,flowerpot

Adjectives can have synonyms (words with the same or similar meaning), or antonyms (words with the opposite or nearly opposite meaning).

Adjectives can be made from nouns and from verbs by changing the words.

Examples deceit (noun), deceptive (adjective), extend (verb), extensive (adjective)

1 State what type of adjective the underlined words are. (Refer to the table on page 18.)

a The farmer ploughed the rectangular field. ___________________________

b Do you have enough money for your bus fare? ___________________________

c I do not know where I put my hat. ___________________________

d The boy made many mistakes when playing the piano. ___________________________

e Were you looking for these gloves? ___________________________

2 Provide a synonym and an antonym for the following adjectives. Note: The synonyms and antonyms must also be adjectives. You may need to use a dictionary or a thesaurus.

Adjective Synonym Antonym

methodical

ornamental

injurious

affectionate

habitual

3 Make adjectives from the following nouns or verbs. (Use your dictionary.)

a hygiene _______________________________

b fertilise _______________________________

c sphere _______________________________

d corrode _______________________________

e organism _______________________________

f fraud _______________________________

g stagnate _______________________________

h gristle _______________________________

i effervesce _______________________________

j intelligence _______________________________

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Interacting challengeSit in pairs. One person will suggest a noun or a verb. The other will then turn that word into an adjective. Try five words each.

Writing challengeDescribe a particularly memorable holiday. Carefully select your adjectives to describe actions, appearances, feelings, buildings and landscape. The reader of your piece should be able to imagine they are on holiday with you.

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1 Highlight the word that is not a synonym for the underlined word. (Use your dictionary.) Use five of them in sentences.

a pungent spicy piquant sharp sweet

b sallow ruddy wan ashen dull

c willful headstrong adaptable mulish obstinate

d despicable abject admirable degraded vile

e moderate ardent lenient controlled measured

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

2 State whether the underlined adjectives are numeral (indefinite) or numerical (definite).

a Jack came third in the cross-country race. ____________________________

b There were sundry items on sale in the antique shop. ____________________________

c The old man was approaching his ninetieth birthday. ____________________________

d Certain people in this class are very rude. ____________________________

e Both students had obtained scholarships. ____________________________

3 Use the following nouns as adjectives (without changing their form) by placing another noun alongside. For example, the word spring is a noun (names a season). In spring flowers, the word spring isanadjectiveasitdescribestheflowers.

a water ________________________ b wind _________________________

c farm ________________________ d expert _________________________

e adventure ________________________ f storm _________________________

g house ________________________ h coat _________________________

i novel ________________________ j murder _________________________

4 Use the adjectives in the box to write five sentences below.

obnoxious malicious invincible contagious discriminatory

a __________________________________________________________________________

b __________________________________________________________________________

c __________________________________________________________________________

d __________________________________________________________________________

e __________________________________________________________________________

Writing challengeWrite about eating out at a very expensive restaurant. Carefully describe the surroundings, crockery, cutlery, glassware, linen, food and the people. You may like to add a touch of humour!

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Unit 5 adverbs and adverbial Phrases

adverbsAn adverb adds to the meaning of a verb. Adverbs tell how, when, where or why the action takes place. Types of adverbs are listed in the table below.

Type Example

Manner(tells how)

fast, sweetly, angrily, smoothly, well

Place(tells where)

down, there, nearby, under, everywhere, above

Time(tells when)

now, soon, later, before, still

Frequency(tells how often)

often, twice, never, secondly, occasionally

Degree(tells to what extent)

very, fairly, rather, quite, too, almost

Interrogative(asks questions)

• when meaning at what time

• where meaning in what place

• how meaning in what way

• why meaning on account of which

adverbial phrasesAn adverbial phrase:• consists of a group of words without a verb• always begins with a preposition• acts as a single adverb.

ExamplesI always wear this ring. (adverb)

I wear this ring at all times. (adverbial phrase)

at (preposition)

They came to dinner in the evening. (adverbial phrase)

in (preposition)

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1 test yourself

1 Highlight the adverbs and then state what type they are.

a The rain fell steadily all day. ________________________

b My grandmother searched everywhere for her watch. ________________________

c Maryanne left for a holiday in Florida yesterday. ________________________

d The driver released the brake and the car moved forwards. ________________________

e I swim frequently in the school pool. ________________________

f ‘Don’t blame me,’ Matthew replied indignantly. ________________________

g The racehorse galloped rapidly after unseating its jockey. ________________________

h ‘You are quite tall for your age,’ said my great aunt. ________________________

i ‘Do you want me to come to your house later?’ I asked. ________________________

j I have been to England twice. ________________________

2 Change these adjectives to adverbs and then use them in sentences.

impolite serious equal awkward calm untidy proud hungry cold lazy

a __________________ ____________________________________________________

b __________________ ____________________________________________________

c __________________ ____________________________________________________

d __________________ ____________________________________________________

e __________________ ____________________________________________________

f __________________ ____________________________________________________

g __________________ ____________________________________________________

h __________________ ____________________________________________________

i __________________ ____________________________________________________

j __________________ ____________________________________________________

Writing challengeChoose a well-known nursery rhyme. Rewrite it or combine it with others, imposing different conditions.

Wiki taskLocate a list of adverbs online. Choose 10 words and use them in a short paragraph (three or four sentences). Upload your writing to the class wiki.

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2 Extend yourself

1 Use the adverbs in the box to complete the sentences below.

patiently stealthily punctually immediately distinctly

annually profusely dangerously everywhere savagely

a The guard dog lunged ______________________ at the burglar’s legs.

b The cars in the Grand Prix raced ______________________ around the bends.

c The intruders crept ______________________ towards the warehouse.

d Mushrooms grew ______________________ in the front paddock of the farm.

e We arrived ______________________ for our appointment with the principal.

f They searched ______________________ but they could not find their lost dog.

g Our school sports are held ______________________, always in first term.

h The witness stated that he remembered ______________________ what had happened.

i The refugees waited ______________________ to be allotted space in the houses.

j The ambulance arrived almost ______________________ after I telephoned.

2 Complete these sentences with an adverbial phrase or a clause.

a I shall be there __________________________________________________ (time/phrase).

b _________________________________________ you will find fallen apples (place/phrase).

c She shouted at me ____________________________________________ (manner/phrase).

d My friend is coming to my house ____________________________________ (time/phrase).

e We cannot go fishing ___________________________________________ (reason/clause).

3 Use the following adverbs in sentences.

a fully

___________________________________________________________________________

b noisily

___________________________________________________________________________

c elegantly

___________________________________________________________________________

d wearily

___________________________________________________________________________

e once

___________________________________________________________________________

f almost

___________________________________________________________________________

Writing challengeChoose a famous person (such as Sir Edmund Hilary, the first person to reach the top of Mount Everest). Describe what he or she did and why this made that person famous. Use adverbs in your description.

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Adverbs can also modify the following:

• other adverbs

ExampleHe was walking quite (degree) rapidly (manner).

• adjectives

ExampleThe children are very (adverb/degree) happy (adjective).

• prepositions

ExampleThe car was almost (adverb/degree) in (preposition) the river.

• conjunctions

ExampleHe was angry simply (adverb/reason) because (conjunction) we contradicted him.

• whole sentences – the adverbs therefore, hence, thus, however, accordingly, nevertheless, moreover, so, now and besides are often used for this purpose.

ExampleHe did not want to go. Nevertheless, he agreed that it would be for the best.

1 Classify the adverbs in italics. For example, ‘The fire spread alarmingly ’ (manner).

a Autumn is the time when (________________) many trees quickly (________________)

lose their leaves.

b The aeroplane flew swiftly (________________) skyward (________________).

c You look rather (________________) pale. Why (________________) don’t you go home?

d You sing well (________________) but if you practised you could sing better

(________________).

e The Rolls Royce runs more quietly (___________________) than the Mercedes, but the

Bentley runs the most quietly (_____________________) of all.

2 Underline the word(s) that the italicised adverb is modifying and state what part of speech it is. The first one has been done for you.

a She was running rather (adverb of degree) swiftly (adverb).

b The old woman was very (_______________) cheerful (_______________).

c The children climbed almost (_______________) to the top of the hill (_______________).

d The teacher replied angrily (_______________) because we had been impolite

(_______________).

e I had spent two days ill in bed. Therefore, (_______________) I could not compete in the

sprints (_______________).

f He recovered from his car accident fairly (_______________) soon (_______________).

Writing challengeYou are a ‘wacky’ scientist who has discovered something that is going to be very beneficial to society. Tell the story of your discovery using adverbs.



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Unit 6 sentencesA sentence is a group of words that has a subject (doer of the action) and a verb (an action) and that makes complete sense. All sentences are made up of two parts: 1 the subject (the doer) 2 the predicate (the verb and everything else).

Example The girl (subject) is walking the dog (predicate).

The girl (subject) is walking the dog (predicate).

Simple sentencessimple sentences contain only one main fact (a main clause) and have only one finite (complete verb), although they can contain participial phrases.

ExamplesI like reading. He will cook the hamburgers.

The sun, projecting much heat (participial phrase), scorched (finite verb) the earth. (Note: Some grammarians prefer to classify this type of sentence as complex [see below].)

Some simple sentences consist of just a subject and a verb.

Examples Cats meow. Men work.

This example is a simple sentence.

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compound sentencescompound sentences are made when we join two simple sentences with a conjunction (a joining word).

ExamplesAnne is 14 years old. She plays the violin. = Anne is 14 years old and (conjunction) plays the violin. (Note: We leave out the second subject she.)

I shall finish my work. I shall watch television. = After (conjunction) I finish my work, I shall watch television. (Note: first shall is left out.)

complex sentencesComplex sentences are made when we add further parts to a main clause.1 We can add a phrase (a group of words beginning with a preposition and without a complete

verb).

Examples The gardener is coming at 10 o’clock. (at = preposition telling the time)

I went to work by bus. (by = preposition telling the manner)

2 We can add one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses. A dependent clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb, but that does not make sense on its own. Such clauses only make sense when added to a main clause.

ExamplesJohn missed the bus (main clause) because he would not get up. (adverbial subordinate clause telling why = reason)

The old lady who lives next door (adjectival subordinate clause describing lady) had a bad fall. (Note: The main clause is split around the subordinate clause.)

agreement of subject and verbIn a sentence, the subject and the verb must agree.1 A singular subject must be followed by a singular verb.

Examples He laughs. I am laughing.

2 A plural subject must be followed by a plural verb.

Examples They laugh. We are laughing.

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3 When two nouns are joined by and, the verb must be plural.

Example Brad and Megan are in trouble.

4 Sometimes it is hard to decide which of two words is the subject.

Example The cost of potatoes is rising weekly. (Note: The verb is singular because the cost is rising, not the potatoes.)

5 collective nouns take singular verbs.

ExamplesThe government (collective as it represents one group) has passed a new law.

The company (collective noun = one group) of dancers is performing tonight.

test: Who is performing? Answer: The company not the dancers.but: The dancers (as individuals) are performing tonight.

6 Words expressing amounts are usually regarded as a single unit and take singular verbs.

Examples One hundred dollars is a lot to pay for a shirt.

Fifty kilograms feels heavy.

7 Words ending in s like a plural, but that name one thing, take singular verbs.

Example Measles is an unpleasant illness.

8 Words such as anybody, anyone, any, nobody, no one, none, each, every, either, everybody, everyone, neither, etc. take singular verbs.

Examples Everyone is here.

Neither of the boys has arrived yet.

test for the subject by asking who or what with the verb (e.g. ask: What is rising? Answer: The cost, not the potatoes).

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1 test yourself

1 State whether the following are sentences, phrases or clauses.

a Yesterday, I met my friend in the main street. ________________________________

b After dinner. ________________________________

c Mr Johnson is building a large ocean-going boat. ________________________________

d When it is time to go home. ________________________________

e How he managed to do it. ________________________________

2 Match the correct dependent clause to its main clause by placing the correct letter next to it.

main clause dependent clause

a I rode the horse … because the last train had left. _________

b The old house needed painting … because it was very tired. _________

c The cricket team won the match … where my father had left it. _________

d The baby was asleep in its cot … which had previously been lame. _________

e The new car sat in the driveway … before the winter rains arrived. _________

f I could not get home … when the bowler took a hat trick. _________

3 Reverse these sentences – positive to negative and negative to positive.

a The new student stated that he couldn’t understand mathematics very well.

___________________________________________________________________________

b Can you hurry up please? I’m waiting.

___________________________________________________________________________

c The new girl said that she didn’t like athletics, but she liked swimming.

___________________________________________________________________________

d Woodwork is interesting but painting and drawing aren’t.

___________________________________________________________________________

e I like roast dinners, but I don’t like hamburgers and chips.

___________________________________________________________________________

Writing challengeChoose a tradesperson such as an electrician, plumber, painter or carpenter. Use dependent clauses as you describe the work this person does and why it is important to the community.

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2 Extend yourself

1 Add phrases to make these sentences more interesting and informative.

a _________________________________________, I watched The Simpsons on television.

b A large ghost gum stood _____________________________________________.

c The old soldier told stories _____________________________________________.

d The Olympic torch relay always begins _________________________________________.

e All sportspeople gain pleasure _____________________________________________.

f _____________________________________________, limped the injured dog.

g ____________________________________________, you must disembark from the boat.

h The children received birthday presents ________________________________________.

i Sovereign Hill in Ballarat, Victoria, is popular ____________________________________.

2 Highlight the predicate in each of these sentences.

a Theslipperyfloorcausedmanyaccidentsresultingininjuries.

b The fruit bowl, which contained apples, bananas and pears, stood on the bench.

c Along the country road trudged a very old tramp.

d The sheep gathered under the shady tree to avoid the midday heat.

e The raincoat lay in a crumpled heap where the girl had dropped it.

3 Add clauses to complete these sentences.

a The black bull, _______________________________________________, charged at me.

b I missed the school bus _____________________________________________________.

c The cross-country team was successful ________________________________________.

d The giant mouse escaped from the laboratory ____________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

e The cartoonist, _____________________________________, was hired by the magazine.

f Rosella parakeets are named after Rosehill, NSW, ________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

g I don’t like catching the 7 a.m. train ____________________________________________.

h The baby, _____________________________________________, cried loudly.

i The road toll, _____________________________________________, is causing concern.

Interacting challengeIn groups of three or four, plan a trip to outback Australia. Discuss types of vehicles, equipment, clothes and other things you might need. Compare your planning skills with those of another group and decide which group was better prepared. You could have further discussion about coping with unexpected difficulties.

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1 Complete these sentences by adding a clause from the box. (You may need to talk to friends or your teacher.)

wherethepearlingindustryflourishes whichisneartoFederationSquare

who ran the first under-four-minute mile which is situated in Athens

who is a famous 400-metres runner which killed thousands of people

which is situated off the coast of Queensland which was completed last century

who has won many swimming medals where many people were beheaded

a The Black Death, ______________________________________, raged in London in 1665.

b Roger Bannister, _________________________________________________, was English.

c A train line, ____________________________________________, runs between Adelaide

and Darwin.

d Cathy Freeman, ______________________________________, is an Aboriginal Australian.

e Broome, _______________________________________________, is in Western Australia.

f The Great Barrier Reef, ______________________________________________, is one of

the natural wonders of the world.

g The Tower of London, ____________________________________________, is in England.

h The Parthenon, ____________________________________________, was built by the

Ancient Greeks.

i Ian Thorpe, ___________________________________________________, is an Australian.

j Flinders Street Station, _________________________________________, is in Melbourne.

2 Enter the correct verbs according to rules relating to agreement.

a Five hundred dollars __________________ too much to pay for a watch.

b If everyone __________________ here, I shall begin the experiment.

c The members of parliament __________________ facing an election soon.

d Neither of the athletes __________________ achieved the A standard time for selection.

e The rowing club committee __________________ decided to purchase a new set of oars.

f The price of chops _______________ been affected by the shortage of lambs being sold.

g The drought and the frosts _____________ been responsible for the small grape harvest.

h Either Jan or Daniel __________________ been selected as school captain.

Technology challengeThere are many websites where you can create quizzes and tests. One example is www.quizyourfriends.com. Create a quiz for your classmates on sentence types and subject–verb agreement. Make your quiz as challenging as possible.

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Unit 7 claUsesA clause is a group of words with a subject and verb but that is smaller than a sentence and does not necessarily make sense on its own.

noun clausesnoun clauses function like nouns.1 They can be the subject of a sentence (before

the main verb).

ExampleWhat Thomas saw made him shake with fright.

2 They can be the object of a sentence (after the main verb).

Example I was told that the train would be late.

3 They can be direct quotations of statements, questions, exclamations or commands.

Examples He said, ‘The parade has begun’. (quotation)

She asked, ‘Where are you going?’ (question)

adjectival clausesadjectival clauses function like adjectives (to describe nouns).1 They can describe people.

ExampleThe lady who always carries a red handbag is rather eccentric.

2 They can describe things.

ExampleThe cyclone that flattened Darwin was named Tracy.

adverbial clausesadverbial clauses function like adverbs (to add information about the verb).

ExamplesWhen the aeroplane landed, some people hurried to get off first. (Acts as an adverb of time – tells when.)

The young boy cried because he was lost. (Acts as an adverb of reason – tells why.)

The girl ran away as if she were frightened. (Acts as an adverb of manner – tells how.)

I found my books where I had left them. (Acts as an adverb of place – tells where.)

He will not visit unless you invite him. (Acts as an adverb of condition – places a condition upon.)

The play was longer than I had expected. (Acts as an adverb of degree – tells to what extent.)

The quote must answer what or who to take the place of a noun.

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1 test yourself

1 Highlight the noun clauses in these sentences.

a She promised that she would tell me.

b The fact that grandmother is very old is obvious.

c The teacher thought that I had copied the answers.

d I have forgotten what my mother told me.

e What Jane heard made her jump.

2 Complete these sentences by adding an adjectival clause.

a We met a tourist ____________________________________________________________.

b A man __________________________________________________ knocked on the door.

c The tennis player ______________________________________________ won the match.

d Can you please pass me a tool ________________________________________________.

e The roses, _________________________________________________, were in full bloom.

3 State whether the underlined adverbial clauses are of time, reason, place or manner.

a He can climb a tree as fast as a monkey does. ________________________

b When we arrived, we found out that the train had left. ________________________

c The hockey team lost because they were one player short. ________________________

d I asked the attendant where we had to queue for tickets. ________________________

e My father smiled at me as if he were pleased. ________________________

4 Using the sign as a guide, write clauses to explain what cannot be done at the beach.

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

Writing challengeDescribe a family outing to any location you choose. Use a variety of clauses to make your account descriptive, informative and lively.

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2 Extend yourself

1 Complete the sentences with the correct adjectival clause from the box below.

who is a famous actress which provide wool

who was an English king which is very icy

which is a long river which lives in rivers

a The Murray, _______________________________________________, constitutes a major

part of the boundary between Victoria and New South Wales.

b The Australian platypus, ____________________________________________, is a most

unusual animal.

c Antarctica, ___________________________________________________, is uninhabited.

d Henry VIII, ____________________________________________________, had six wives.

e Nicole Kidman, ______________________________________________, is an Australian.

f Sheep, ____________________________________________, usually live in cooler areas.

2 Add noun clauses to complete the following.

a She exclaimed, ____________________________________________________________.

b _____________________________________________________________, he requested.

c ________________________________________________________, the old lady thought.

d George inquired, ___________________________________________________________.

e ___________________________________________________________, she said urgently.

3 Highlight the adverbial clauses and state what type they are.

a When the headmaster entered, the students became silent. ________________________

b The plumber completed the work as he was directed. ________________________

c If it is necessary, I can mind your children. ________________________

d The match was so rough that many players were hurt. ________________________

e Iliveinanareawherefloodingiscommon. ________________________

Writing challenge‘At the circus, he/she saw …’ Use this as an opening to a story using interesting clauses.

Website explorerLocate a Wikipedia article that interests you. Read it and identify five different clauses. Have a partner check to see if you are correct.

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1 Highlight the noun clauses and state what type they are (e.g. subject, object, direct quotation, statement, question, exclamation, command).

a ‘I’ve never been so insulted!’ the officer shouted. ________________________

b What the spy observed made him fear for his safety. ________________________

c ‘Where have you been?’ my mother asked. ________________________

d The teacher informed me that I would have to work harder. ________________________

e ‘Finish your dinner and go to your room!’ my father cried. ________________________

2 Complete these sentences with adverbial clauses.

a I worked at McDonald’s ______________________________________________. (reason)

b I missed my connection __________________________________________. (concession)

c He is richer ________________________________________________________. (degree)

d I shall watch television _________________________________________________. (time)

e I found my knapsack _________________________________________________. (place)

3 Enter the following adjectival clauses into the sentences below.

who broke the window whom I met

that you found that wins this game

which can do tricks whose book I borrowed

whose mother is a nurse whom I dislike

who played in London who work diligently

a The musician, _________________________________________________, is very famous.

b The dog, ________________________________________________________, amuses me.

c My friend, ____________________________________________, has to take vitamins daily.

d Students ________________________________________________ should not fear exams.

e The team ____________________________________________ will be on top of the ladder.

f The watch _____________________________________________ belonged to Mr Wicklow.

g The student __________________________________________________ will be punished.

h The teacher, ________________________________________________, is always sarcastic.

i The neighbour, _________________________________________, has an extensive library.

j The actor, ______________________________________________, gave me his autograph.

Writing challengeBrieflyoutlinetheplotofyourfavouritefilmornovel.Useadjectivalandadverbialclausestoenhanceyour outline.

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Unit 8 active and Passive voice Sentences can be constructed in what is called the active or passive voice. active is when the ‘doer’ is the subject of the sentence and passive is when the ‘receiver’ is the subject.

Exampleactive voiceThe dog (doer) bit (action = verb) the boy (the receiver).

Passive voiceThe boy (receiver) was bitten (verb) by the dog (doer).

To form the passive voice the verb form changes.

Tense/verb form Active voice Passive voice

Simple present Present continuous Simple past Past continuous Present perfect Past perfect Future Conditional

keep is keeping kept was keeping has kept had kept will keep would keep

is keptis being keptwas keptwas being kepthas been kepthad been keptwill be keptwould be kept

Examplessimple present We keep the butter in the refrigerator. (active)

The butter is kept in the refrigerator. (passive)

simple pastThose boys broke the window of the library. (active)

The window of the library was broken by those boys. (passive)

Present perfectPeople have seen koalas close to their homes. (active)

Koalas have been seen by people close to their homes. (passive)

Continuous tenses using to be are less common.

ExamplesPresent continuous They are repairing the road. (active)

The road is being repaired. (passive)

Past continuousThey were carrying the injured player off the field. (active)

The injured player was being carried off the field. (passive)

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Passive voice is used in English when it is more convenient or interesting to stress the thing done than the doer, or when the doer is unknown.

Passive voice is frequently used by authorities for report writing, as it is impersonal.

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1 test yourself

1 Change these active voice sentences into passive voice. The first one has been done for you.

a Tradespeople are constructing a new theatre complex. (active)

A new theatre complex is being constructed by tradespeople. (passive)

b The old man opened the door slowly.

___________________________________________________________________________

c We heat our house by electricity.

___________________________________________________________________________

d You should open wine about three hours before you drink it.

___________________________________________________________________________

e Vandals have broken all the windows in the library.

___________________________________________________________________________

f Workers are pulling down the old theatre._______________________________________________________________________________

2 Insert the correct verb into these passive voice sentences. (Refer to the rules on page 38.)

a The dog _____________________ in the pound. (present continuous – keep)

b The present _____________________ to the girl. (present perfect – sent)

c Your books _____________________ in your locker (future – keep)

d The cakes _____________________ by my mother. (past perfect – bake)

e The cows _____________________ in the back field. (conditional – leave)

3 State whether the following sentences are active or passive voice.

a Mary will wash the dinner plates. ________________________________

b The paintings were damaged by the delinquents. ________________________________

c My car was stolen last night. ________________________________

d Your homework has been completed carelessly. _______________________________ _

e I remember my father taking me to the soccer. ________________________________

Writing challengeWrite about bathing and grooming a dog or caring for some other type of pet. Try to use both active and passive voice sentences.

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2 Extend yourself

1 Turn these passive voice sentences into active voice. (Hint: You may have to change some parts of speech.)

a The signpost has been tampered with.

___________________________________________________________________________

b Your money could be put to better use.

___________________________________________________________________________

c My paintings are to be exhibited by the Arts Council.

___________________________________________________________________________

d Why wasn’t the car locked or put into the garage?____________________________________________________________________________________________

2 State the tense of these active verbs and then give the passive form. (Refer to page 38 for help.)

active verb tense/verb form Passive verb

liked _________________________ _________________________

having said _________________________ _________________________

to make _________________________ _________________________

washes _________________________ _________________________

is writing _________________________ _________________________

has judged _________________________ _________________________

will assemble _________________________ _________________________

to have valued _________________________ _________________________

was asking _________________________ _________________________

had invented _________________________ _________________________

3 Some thoughts are better expressed in either active or passive voice. State the voice of the following sentences and why it is appropriate for the situation.

a I nearly missed the train this morning.

___________________________________________________________________________

b Trespassers will be prosecuted.

___________________________________________________________________________

c Michael caught three fish, but threw the smallest one back.

___________________________________________________________________________

d This cathedral was built in the seventeenth century.

___________________________________________________________________________

e The knight slew the dragon with his sword.

___________________________________________________________________________

Writing challengeWrite about what you consider to be one of humankind’s greatest inventions. Try to use both active and passive voice sentences.

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sPecial cases

Verbs using must, ought to and should use the present or past verbs together with the infinitive, which drops the to (e.g. shut, not to shut).

ExamplesActive: You must (present) shut (infinitive without to) these windows.

Passive: These windows must (present) be (helper infinitive without to) shut (past).

1 Use must, ought to and should to turn these active voice sentences into passive voice. The first one has been done for you.

a You must always do your homework.

Homework must (present) always be (helper infinitive without to) done (past).

b You should play your trombone daily if you want to improve.

___________________________________________________________________________

c They ought to feed their horses as it is getting late.

___________________________________________________________________________

d The students must obey the school rules.

___________________________________________________________________________

2 Change these sentences from passive to active voice.

a Dams are made by beavers.

___________________________________________________________________________

b She was stung by a jellyfish.

___________________________________________________________________________

c Thecampwasfloodedbyastorm.

___________________________________________________________________________

d Were you interested by the idea?

___________________________________________________________________________

3 State why active or passive voice would be more appropriate in these situations.

a An announcer calling a football match.

___________________________________________________________________________

b Prohibitions listed on a sign at a beach.

___________________________________________________________________________

c A teacher giving instructions to the class.

___________________________________________________________________________

d An instruction about wearing formal clothes to a function.

___________________________________________________________________________

Writing challengeUse active voice to describe how someone came to invent a simple object that has made life much easier.

Wiki taskChallenge yourself to find an interesting way to explain the rules for active and passive voice using the class wiki. Add images and visuals to make this section as engaging as possible.

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Unit 9 PUnctUation Punctuation is any of a series of conventional marks used to make sense of writing.

Name Use Example

Full stop To end a sentence The boy can run.

Question mark To end a real question or an implied query

What are you doing? (real question)Eat it all? (child querying a parent’s order)

Exclamation mark To end an exclamation orstrong command

How strange! (exclamation)‘Halt!’ ordered the sentry. (strong command)

Apostrophe 1 To show ownership boy’s bat (1 boy = singular)boys’ bats (2+ boys = plurallady’s hatladies’ hats

2 To show that a word has been contracted

cannot = can’t (no omitted)I’ll = I shall (sha omitted)I’d = I had (ha omitted)I’d = I would (woul omitted)

Colon To replace the words as follows

The things we need are: paint, brushes, white paper, water and drawing pins.

Comma 1 To divide words in a list I like apples, pears, bananas and grapes.

2 To divide phrases We went up the hill, over the bridge and into the town.

3 To divide clauses The sheep dog, which had been highly trained, obeyed every order.

4 To divide words that explain others

That girl, Jacinta, is very clever. Bob, please come here.

5 To mark off direct speech Rosemary said, ‘I’m taller than you’ to Maria.

6 To mark off single-word and polite answers, and connectives

yes, no, please, thank you, even so, nevertheless, however

7 To separate parts of a sentence

I don’t have to get up yet, do I?

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1 test yourself

1 Print out this page and use a red pen to insert capital letters, full stops, question marks, exclamation marks and commas where needed.

a has john gone to football training yet

b what a lovely surprise

c next year i would like to visit spain portugal and greece

d the strange dog dashed down the drive through the gate and onto the road

e my favourite subjects are graphics art science and mathematics

2 Print out this page and insert commas or colons where needed. Use a red pen to make them stand out.

a To make my collage I need magazines glue felt-tipped pens and a sheet of paper.

b Cotton is a plant fibre wool is an animal fibre but silk is spun from silkworm saliva.

c This book has many purposes to inform to teach and to give practice.

d MigratorybirdssuchasJapanesesnipethewanderingalbatrossandswallowsflygreat

journeys of thousands of kilometres.

e The garden is too wet to dig however the lawn can still be mown.

3 Can you solve these punctuation puzzles in a minute? (Use the symbols.)

a What ends my questions? _______

b What stops me totally? _______

c What starts my list? _______

d What divides my list? _______

e What tells me you are shouting? _______

4 Write five of your own sentences using a range of puntuation marks.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Interacting challengeWorking in pairs, choose a famous person from long ago. Research what he or she did and prepare a speech. Each person should talk for one to two minutes. You may like to use images to add interest.

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2 Extend yourself

1 Print out this page and use all your knowledge about punctuation marks to correct these sentences. Use a red pen. (Add inverted commas – i.e. talking marks – if you can.)

a we caught the caledonian mc brayne ferry from oban to craignure

b does the train to sydney leave from platform 3

c we won the head of the river I shouted joyfully

d sometimes ancient leaders were referred to as warrior kings the history teacher said

e connors cousin thomas who did not like sharing was coming on saturday

2 Print out this page and punctuate the following sentences. Some need colons as well as other punctuation marks. Use a red pen.

a oak trees are deciduous trees which lose their leaves in winter

b mountains which are made of hard rocks are often shaped by ice or water

c cumulus clouds look like cotton wool stratus look like layers or streaks and cirrus clouds

are curly

d the old man gathered his gardening equipment spade fork rake wheelbarrow

3 Write sentences with the following punctuation marks.

a exclamation mark, capital letters, commas

___________________________________________________________________________

b colon, commas, full stop

___________________________________________________________________________

c apostrophes, question mark, commas

___________________________________________________________________________

d commas dividing phrases, full stop

___________________________________________________________________________

e question mark after an implied query, quotation (talking) marks, full stop

___________________________________________________________________________

4 Rewrite the passage below, inserting the correct punctuation.

the colobus is perhaps one of the most handsome of african monkeys its fur is coal black

and snow white and hangs in long silky strands around its body like a shawl it has a very

long plume like tail which is also black and white it is a vain monkey and spends a lot of time

grooming its lovely coat it likes to eat fruit lie in the sun and drift into a deep sleep

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Interacting challengeRead a passage from the book you are studying in class aloud to a classmate. Whenever there is a punctuation mark, pause, and the other person should call out what that punctuation mark might be.

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3 Challenge yourself

1 Rewrite the sentences inserting full stops, commas, colons and inverted commas (quotation marks or talking marks) where necessary.

a Wise people learn by other people’s mistakes whereas fools learn by their own

___________________________________________________________________________

b The wind has not died down on the contrary it is becoming stronger

___________________________________________________________________________

c Although few climb to the bottom of Bryce’s Canyon even fewer climb Mt Everest

___________________________________________________________________________

d I collected my baking equipment a basin a beater a spoon a baking tin

___________________________________________________________________________

e I packed my clothes tops pants underclothes socks and shoes

___________________________________________________________________________

f Scott led the British Antarctic expedition however Amundsen led the Norwegian

___________________________________________________________________________

g While deciduous trees lose their leaves in winter evergreens keep theirs

___________________________________________________________________________

2 Punctuate the following. Use capitals, full stops, question marks, exclamation marks, commas, apostrophes and colons where needed. (Use inverted commas if you know about them and insert a / [forward slash] to show where paragraph breaks should be.)

i had never before visited the inner hebrides a group of islands off the west coast of

scotland where are we going to stay i asked the bus driver he replied that we would

stay at tobermory a quaint little fishing village with houses painted in many colours blue

yellow red white and green i was very excited the next day when we visited fingals cave

on the very small isle of staffa here the famous composer mendelssohn was inspired to

write an overture which he named after the cave later we continued by ferry to the island

of iona where the warrior saint columba had landed in 563 ad sixty-seven kings including

macbeth and duncan lie buried in the graveyard near the abbey how marvellous i

exclaimed i always thought they were fictional characters in shakespeares plays.

Wiki taskAdd a section to the class wiki showing how each of the following punctuation marks can be used: commas, apostrophes, question marks and exclamation marks. See what difference puncutation makes here: ‘Let’s eat Grandpa!’ or ‘Let’s eat, Grandpa!’ Have some fun!



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Unit 10 more aboUt PUnctUationOther important punctuation marks include inverted commas, brackets and dashes.

inverted commasinverted commas are often called ‘talking marks’ or ‘quotation marks’. They are used in direct speech to show the words actually spoken.

Example ‘You must tidy your room,’ my mother said.

There are no set rules about double or single marks when using a quotation within another quotation, except that the two sets must be different from each other and be consistent within the text.

ExampleJane replied, ‘I’m sure the teacher said, “We may have a test next week” ’.

Or Jane replied, “I’m sure the teacher said, ‘We may have a test next week’ ”.

inverted commas can be used around a word that is slang (colloquial).

ExampleHis mates accused him of being a real ‘wuss’ about injections.

book, film, play and poetry titles can be placed between inverted commas when used in handwritten text. However, they are written in italics when typed or in published text.

ExampleThe film ‘Star Wars’ has many fans.

The film Star Wars has many fans.

Brackets and dashesbrackets ( ) and dashes – are used to separate words within a sentence.• brackets: Used for explanatory notes or additions inserted in quoted material or sentences.• dashes: Used to mark a sudden shifting or interruption of thought in a sentence, or faltering

speech. They can also be used to make the ending appear as an emphatic afterthought.

ExamplesHe was a somnambulist (that is, a sleep-walker).

George (you should remember him) sends his regards.

Their bull-terrier – it’s pedigreed – won Best in Show last week.

The detective found two clues – a pistol and a footprint.

Inverted commas can be single ‘ ’ or double “ ”.

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1 test yourself

1 Print out this page and place brackets or dashes where required in these sentences.

a I think berry fruits strawberries, blackberries, raspberries are delicious.

b I remembered rather too late that I needed to pick up the drycleaning.

c The MacDonald boys our distant cousins were visiting our family.

d The contents of the drawer cottons, needles, scissors and material were in complete

disorder.

e The traveller wanted two things a hot bath and a clean bed.

2 Place the titles in the box in the correct sentences and use suitable punctuation to indicate that they are titles. Add capitals also. (You may need to discuss these questions with friends, family or teachers.)

the cat in the hat circus oz

shrek romeo and juliet

the haunted mansion essential english skills

snake the iliad

tomorrow when the war began the man from snowy river

a __________________________________________________ is an amusing, animated film.

b The young children’s story _____________________________________ is now also a film.

c _______________________________________ is a textbook to help students with English.

d A famous Australian poem is __________________________________________________.

e The film Troy was based upon Homer’s ancient Greek poem ________________________.

f __________________________________ is an entertainment using Australian performers.

g Shakespeare wrote the famous play ____________________________________________.

h ______________________________ is one of a series of teenage novels by John Marsden.

i A famous poem about a reptile is titled __________________________________________.

j An amusing ghost film was titled _______________________________________________.

Writing challengeWrite the dialogue of a discussion between students and their teacher about the best film they have seen. (Hint: When writing dialogue, start a new line each time the speaker changes.) Unit 40 contains a guide to writing dialogue.

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2 Extend yourself

1 Enter the words, phrases or clauses from the box in the correct places in the sentences below.

the Tigers Professor Jones small ones

such as dentistry, law and medicine Mildura

a Perkins said: ‘He (__________________________________) leaves no grammar untaught’.

b We beat only one team – _____________________________________________________.

c We drove on to the next town (___________________________) before stopping for lunch.

d They gave out samples (__________________________________) at the chocolate factory.

e Many occupations – _____________________________________________ – demand long

professional training.

2 Print out this page and use brackets or dashes where appropriate in these sentences.

a The paediatrician that is a children’s specialist checked my baby sister.

b The peacock the male of the species shows off by spreading its tail.

c Evergreen trees those that retain their leaves all year are better in gardens.

d My best friend Helen you met her last week has had an asthma attack.

e My friend said I won’t tell you what he said.

3 Print out this page and use appropriate punctuation to show the titles in these examples.

a The book was called a practical english grammar.

b We went to see the film the last days of rome.

c Did you like the novel tomorrow when the war began?

d ‘The movie shrek II was good, wasn’t it?’ I said.

e once around the sun is an anthology of poems by students.

Writing challengeDescribe two of the most exciting sequences you have seen in a film or have read in a novel. Tell why you found them exciting. Use punctuation accurately.

Website explorerLocate examples online of each punctuation mark you have looked at in Units 9 and 10. Copy and paste each example into a Word document with the URL (web address).

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semi-colons ; are used for several reasons:

• to break up a sentence that would otherwise have too many commas and therefore be confusing(e.g.ThisyearIhaveplantedshrubs,vegetablesandflowersinmygarden;playedgolf, tennis and basketball; and have still been able to attend films, plays and clubs.)

• between items in a list where commas may not be clear enough (e.g. She took the essentials on holiday: money and passport; bikini and sunscreen; and plenty of books to read.)

• between closely related yet independent clauses in place of a conjunction (e.g. Bali was amazing; she would definitely be going back.)

• between independent clauses linked with a conjunctive adverb (e.g. She wished she could travel more often; however, it took months to save.)

1 Print out this page and insert semi-colons and commas where appropriate in these sentences. Use a red pen to make your marks stand out.

a The main football oval cannot be used today however the small oval is still available.

b The rain has not stopped instead it now contains sleet.

c Very few people manage to climb Mount Everest on the other hand very few ever climb

any major mountain.

d The students who had competed in the 1500 metres lay slumped on the ground others

however were waiting eagerly to compete in the sprints.

e We had to wait until morning to climb the peak snow was falling heavily.

2 Fill the spaces with suitable titles. Insert capitals where needed.

a My favourite novel is _________________________________________________________.

b A film I have seen recently is __________________________________________________.

c A poem I enjoy is ____________________________________________________________.

d The title of a daily paper is ____________________________________________________.

e A children’s picture book is ___________________________________________________.

3 Print out this page and place commas, colons, brackets and dashes where needed in these sentences.

a Don’t tell me groan that I’ve got to read a 440-page novel next term.

b We get all nationalities as migrants English Vietnamese Indians Iraqis Cambodians.

c There is an old saying red in the morning shepherd’s warning.

d The future of the company will be determined by external factors possible trends

technology markets.

e I shall need a new case a very large one for my extended trip abroad.

Writing challengeDescribe the best comedy film or series you have seen. Explain what made it so entertaining; for example, situational humour, verbal humour, visual humour or a combination of these. Illustrate your account with a cartoon strip if you wish.

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