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Plant and Vegetation 10

Khosro Sagheb TalebiToktam SajediMehdi Pourhashemi

Forests of IranA Treasure from the Past, a Hope for the Future

Forests of Iran

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PLANT AND VEGETATION

Volume 10

Series Editor: M.J.A. Werger

Khosro Sagheb Talebi • Toktam Sajedi Mehdi Pourhashemi

Forests of Iran

A Treasure from the Past, a Hope for the Future

ISSN 1875-1318 ISSN 1875-1326 (electronic) ISBN 978-94-007-7370-7 ISBN 978-94-007-7371-4 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-7371-4 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013951635

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Khosro Sagheb Talebi Forest Research Research Institute of Forests

and Rangelands Tehran , Iran

Mehdi Pourhashemi Forest Research Research Institute of Forests

and Rangelands Tehran , Iran

Toktam Sajedi Forest Sciences University of British Columbia Vancouver , BC , Canada

www.springer.com

v

Pref ace

Iran is a land that is world-wide famous for its long history, culture, rich literature, poesy, roses and gardens, which is a precious treasure from our ancestors. On the other hand, this land has a special position in the northern hemisphere because of its rich vegetation and plant diversity, in particular because of its role as a connecting bridge between Europe and Asia. Hence, forests of Iran are another treasure from our natural history in the hands of the present generation, but unfortunately the forests of Iran are not that well-known internationally.

The idea of publishing this book is not very new and we have discussed it since a long time, but meeting Ms. Dr. Valeria Rinaudo at the 23rd International World Congress of IUFRO in Seoul, Korea 2010, and her encouragements and supports have brought it to reality. Further, her successor Ms. Elisabete Machado assisted us in several aspects. We are thankful to both of them.

Forests, as the richest and complex terrestrial ecosystems, illustrate the past of a country not only from a natural science point of view, but also from historical and cultural aspects. We aimed to make foresters, botanists, ecologists and any other interested persons in other continents familiar with our internationally forgotten forests. After a brief introduction and describing the general ecological aspects of Iran, this book presents the forests of three main phytogeographical regions of the country. Some issues are given in general, while some others are presented in detail. Similarity of the Caspian forests in northern Iran to those of European, the forests of southern Iran to those of Africa and South Asia, and the forests of western, central and eastern Iran to those of Turkey and Asia Minor explains the relation of Iranian forests to the other forests of the world.

The authors have tried to introduce the forests of Iran not only based on their personal knowledge, experiences and researches, but they were lucky to also use the experiences of other native forest researchers and scientists. We would like to

vi

express our acknowledgment to all who have helped us by their suggestions and discussions. Last but not least, we are thankful to the reviewers for improvement of this book, the kind team of Springer, and in particular Prof. Marinus Werger for his precious suggestions and comments.

Tehran, Iran Khosro Sagheb-Talebi Vancouver, BC, Canada Toktam Sajedi Tehran, Iran Mehdi Pourhashemi March 2013

Preface

vii

Contents

1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 1 1.1 Forests of West and Central Asia ....................................................... 3 1.2 Forests of Iran .................................................................................... 5 1.3 Phytogeography ................................................................................. 8 References ................................................................................................... 11

2 Euxino-Hyrcanian Province: Caspian and Arasbaran Regions ........... 15 2.1 Hyrcanian Zone .................................................................................. 17 2.1.1 Climate ................................................................................. 18 2.1.2 Geology and Soil .................................................................. 23 2.1.3 Vegetation and Forest Types ................................................ 25 2.1.4 Site Demands of Some Main Species .................................. 30 2.1.5 Oriental Beech ..................................................................... 31 2.1.6 Hornbeam ............................................................................. 32 2.1.7 Oak ....................................................................................... 33 2.1.8 Maple ................................................................................... 35 2.1.9 Ecogram of Hyrcanian Tree Species .................................... 46 2.1.10 Management ......................................................................... 47 2.1.11 Socio-economic Issues ......................................................... 53 2.2 Arasbaran Region ............................................................................... 54 2.2.1 Geology and Soil .................................................................. 55 2.2.2 Climate ................................................................................. 55 2.2.3 Vegetation ............................................................................ 56 References ................................................................................................... 60

3 Irano-Turanian Region ............................................................................. 67 3.1 Plant Geography ................................................................................. 69 3.2 Zagros Zone ....................................................................................... 70 3.2.1 Geographical Range ............................................................. 70 3.3 Palaeobotany ...................................................................................... 72 3.4 Climate ............................................................................................... 75

viii

3.5 Geology and Soil .............................................................................. 78 3.6 Vegetation, Forest Formations and Types ........................................ 78 3.7 Site Demands of Some Main Trees .................................................. 82 3.7.1 Oaks ................................................................................... 82 3.7.2 Pistachio ............................................................................. 83 3.7.3 Montpellier Maple ............................................................. 84 3.7.4 Wild Pear ............................................................................ 84 3.7.5 Hawthorn ............................................................................ 86 3.8 Ecogram of Tree Species ................................................................. 86 3.9 Silvicultural Characteristics ............................................................. 87 3.10 Socio-economic Issues ..................................................................... 90 3.11 Irano-Turanian Zone ........................................................................ 98 3.11.1 Geographical Range ........................................................... 98 3.12 Climate ............................................................................................. 99 3.13 Geology and Soil .............................................................................. 100 3.14 Vegetation and Forest Types ............................................................ 101 References ................................................................................................... 107

4 Saharo-Sindian Region ............................................................................. 115 4.1 Climate ............................................................................................. 117 4.2 Geology and Soil .............................................................................. 118 4.3 Flora, Vegetation and Forest Types .................................................. 119 4.3.1 Flora and Vegetation .......................................................... 119 4.3.2 Mangrove Forests ............................................................... 120 4.3.3 Site Demands of Some Main Trees .................................... 123 4.4 Management ..................................................................................... 134 4.5 Socio-economic Issues ..................................................................... 137 References ................................................................................................... 138

Index ......................................... ....................................................................... 143

Contents

1K.S. Talebi et al., Forests of Iran: A Treasure from the Past, a Hope for the Future, Plant and Vegetation 10, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-7371-4_1, © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

List of the English and botanical names of the plant species mentioned in the introduction.

English Botanical

Apple ring tree Acacia albida Del. Asian mangrove Rhizophora mucronata Poir. Box tree Buxus hyrcana Pojark Brant’s oak Quercus brantii Lindl . Caspian poplar Populus caspica Bornm. Caucasian hackberry Celtis caucasica Willd . Chestnut Castanea sativa Mill. Christ’s thorn Syn.: Arabian jujube Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. Common birch Betula pendula Roth. Common elm Ulmus carpinifolia G. Suckow Syn.: U . minor

Miller Common fi g Ficus carica L. Common jujube Ziziphus vulgaris Law. Common pistachio Pistacia vera L. Crimean black pine Pinus nigra Arnold subsp. pallasiana (Lamb.)

Holmbe English oak Quercus robur L. Euphrate poplar Populus euphratica Olivier European hackberry Celtis australis L. Gall oak Quercus infectoria Oliv. Greek juniper Juniperus polycarpos C. Koch syn . J. excelsa M.B. Hazelnut Corylus avelana L. Hyrcanian pear Pyrus hyrcana Feodr. Indian mesquite Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce Syn: . P. spicigera L. Italian cypress Cupressus sempervirens L. var . horizontalis

(Mill.) Gord. Kandevan-wild pear Pyrus kandevanica Ghahreman, Khatamsaz &

Mozaffarian

Chapter 1 Introduction

(continued)

2

English Botanical

Large-scaled oak Quercus magnosquamata Djav. Mahleb cherry Prunus mahaleb L. Syn.: Cerasus mahaleb (L.)

Miller Mazandaran pear Pyrus mazanderanica Schönbeck-Temesy Montpellier maple Acer monspessulanum L. Mount Atlas pistachio Pistacia atlantica Desf. Mountain ash Syn.: Rowan tree Sorbus aucuparia L. Mountain elm Ulmus glabra Hudson Myrtle Myrtus communis L. Norway maple Acer platanoides L. Olive tree Olea europea L. Oriental arbor-vitae Thuja orientalis L. Oriental beech Fagus orientalis Lipsky Oriental plane Platanus orientalis L. Red dogwood Cornus sanguinea L. Rohida Tecomella undulata (Roxb.) Seem. Sessile oak Quercus petraea L.ex Liebl. Siberian elm Zelkova carpinifolia (Pall.) Dipp. Sisso Syn.: Shisham Dalbergia sisso Roxb. Small-leaved elm Ulmus boissieri Grudz. Sumac tree Rhus coriaria L. Tamarisk Tamarix spp. Turkmenian pear Pyrus turcomanica Maleev Walnut Juglans regia L. White mangrove Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. Wild almond Amygdalus scoparia Spach Wild cherry Prunus avium L. Wild service Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz. Yew Taxus baccata L.

At very fi rst view many people think that Iran is a dry country covered with deserts and sand dunes, a Sahara in which only camels are moving around. Some others are informed about the mountains and their high peaks, and again others think that Iran is just rich of oil and natural gas resources and they have no idea about the nature of this land. But when we talk longer and describe the country and its rich vegetation they recognize that there is more in Iran than they thought.

The forests of Iran are among the oldest forests in Asia and the northern hemi-sphere. The vast area of the country, its diverse climate and rich diversity of plant species within different geographical regions, make this part of the Middle East attractive to botanists, biologists and foresters. Although many scientists have visited the country and published some scientifi c articles about the vegetation of Iran, the region still remains unknown to many other interested people.

The lack of information about Iran and its vegetation motivated the authors to write this book and present it to colleagues around the world. The work presented in

(continued)

1 Introduction

3

this book aims to introduce the forests of Iran which have a long and interesting geobotanical history and could be attractive from an ecological point of view. It also aims to offer better knowledge at an international level for students, university professors and researchers of forest science and any other interested people in other related fi elds. Some general descriptions are given fi rst about West and Central Asia and the phytogeographical regions, followed by details about the forests of Iran, its geology, pedology, climate, vegetation types, management and socio-economical issues.

1.1 Forests of West and Central Asia

West and Central Asia extend from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the mountains of the Tian Shan and Altai in the east, and the Sea of Oman in the south to the Caucasus Mountains and Steppes of Russia in the north. This vast land forms a bridge between Europe and Asia and constitutes not only a wide range of climates, landscapes, and vegetation, but is also home to an extraordinary array of historical heritage, cultures, peoples, land uses and economic activities. Iran and Turkey possess the most extensive forest areas in West Asia, while Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan are typical examples of low-forest cover countries in Central Asia.

Geographically, West Asia is predominately a mountainous region consisting of two extensive plateaus, namely Anatolia in Turkey and the Central Plateau in Iran. The Anatolian Plateau rises steadily towards the east and is bound to the north and south by steep mountain ranges. In the west, this plateau falls gradually to sea level, terminating in a series of promontories. Half of the land of Turkey is above 1,000 m and 10 % is over 2,000 m. Further to the southeast of Turkey the mountainous lands extend into Iran forming a high central plateau which is surrounded by mountains in all four geographical directions. The geology of the region is very varied and shows a fascinating mosaic, containing a wide range of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, including extensive areas of recent volcanic rock and numerous extinct volcanoes (Kleine et al. 2009 ).

The Central Asian Region consists of both vast lowland plains mainly in the north bordering Russia as well as mountain ranges of various elevations located in the south and southeast such as the Altai, Dzungarian Ala Tau and the Tian Shan Mountains at the border of Western China. The largest lowland plains are located in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, particularly in the north and western parts of these countries. Kyrgyzstan, on the contrary, is dominated by mountainous landscapes with 85 % of the country lying higher than 1,500 m and 42 % higher than 3,000 m above sea level (Meshkov et al. 2009 ; Orozumbekov et al. 2009 ; Botman 2009 ).

Given the enormous variability in topography of the landscape in West and Central Asia, a wide range of climatic conditions can be found in the region. In Turkey, the mountainous topography results in pronounced vertical and horizontal climatic differences from semi-arid to humid conditions. While the coastal areas enjoy milder climates, the inland Anatolian plateau experiences extremes of hot summers

1.1 Forests of West and Central Asia

4

and cold winters with limited rainfall (Colak et al. 2009 ). The conditions in Iran are similarly characterized by a generally Mediterranean climate type with some continental infl uences. In addition, subtropical conditions can be found in the southern part of the country. Rainfall generally decreases from north to south and from west to east. In contrast, the climate in Central Asia is highly continental with considerably colder winters and hotter summers than is the case at the same latitudes in Eastern Europe. Generally, annual precipitation in the lowlands and foothills ranges between 80 and 500 mm while the mountain areas receive more rainfall, up to about 1,000 mm per year. In the lowlands the annual rainfall is several times less than what could be evaporated, resulting in a considerable moisture defi cit. Such a dry climate provides the conditions for the predominance of desert and semi- desert landscapes and requires artifi cial irrigation for cultivating agricul-tural crops (Kleine et al. 2009 ).

The countries of West and Central Asia are home to diverse ecological character-istics caused by varying topographical and climatic features. According to the Global Ecological Zones developed by FAO, Turkey and Iran are mainly separated from the Central Asian countries (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan) in terms of phytogeographical characteristics and ecological regimes.

Unlike many other Asian countries Turkey and Iran are located at the meeting place of several phytogeographical regions such as the Euro-Siberian, Mediterranean (only in Turkey), Irano-Turanian and Saharo-Sindian (only in Iran) regions, and act as a transition zone between a variety of humid to arid vegetation patterns. As a consequence, the vascular fl ora of Turkey and Iran contain over 9,000 and 8,000 taxa, respectively, while they are the richest of the Near East and Middle East. This richness is of interest for both the total number of species and especially the number of endemics, of which there are approximately 3,000 in Turkey. Thus, the Euro- Siberian Region is an important component of this diversity. At the Black Sea coast of Turkey most of the Euxinian climatic zone below the tree-line is covered with forest or by scrub vegetation where the forest has been destroyed. At lower levels, mainly deciduous species are present, often associated with evergreen shrubs, while at higher levels conifers become dominant. In the North of Iran, the Caspian coast is characterized by the Euxino-Hyrcanian sub-humid forest vegetation of the Euro- Siberian Region. One of the most striking aspects concerning this region is that deciduous forests destroyed by glacial advances in Europe and Northern Asia survived in Iran. Therefore, the Hyrcanian forests are one of the last remnants of natural deciduous forests in the world. Within the altitudinal distribution of the vegetation, the lack of conifers is the basic indicator for the difference between the two climatic zones of the Euro-Siberian Region. The Irano-Turanian Region is also characterized by a very large number of genera, sections and species. This is by far the largest of the phytogeographical regions both in Turkey and Iran, and is confi ned to Central and East Anatolia in Turkey and reaches the Zagros Mountains and the Central Plateau of Iran. The broad zone of Crimean black pine forest borders Central Anatolia in the north and it is usually associated with a largely Irano-Turanian ground-fl ora. It meets the oak scrub in the west and the south, which is the most abundant type of vegetation on the periphery of the

1 Introduction

5

Central Anatolian steppes. In the semi-arid vegetation of the Zagros Mountains the climax vegetation is an open xerophytic cold-resistant deciduous oak forest which dominates between 1,000 and 2,000 m elevation and accounts for almost 40 % of the country’s forests. The Turanian Biosphere Reserve, one of the nine Iranian biosphere reserves with an area of 1.8 million ha, is also located in the vast area of the Central Iranian Plateau. So far, 604 plant species have been identifi ed in this reserve, from which 46 are endemic species. Located in the south, the Khalijo-Omanian Region plays an important role in terms of biodiversity with its mangrove forests extending their range from east to west. Apart from these highly diverse forests, Christ’s thorn, Indian mesquite , Euphrates poplar and various kinds of Acacias are widespread, representing subtropical vegetation elements and having a Sahara-Sindian origin (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2003 , 2009 ; Colak et al. 2009 ).

Today, the total forest area in Turkey is around 21.2 million ha, in Iran it is approximately 13.4 million ha, in Kazakhstan about 12.3 million ha, in Uzbekistan over 8.2 million ha and in Kyrgyzstan 0.9 million ha (Kleine et al. 2009 ).

1.2 Forests of Iran

Iran is known as a main land between Inner Asia, Arabia, India and Mesopotamia, which has been always attractive because of its history, cultural richness, natural beauties and sightseeing (Rashad 2000 ), as well as being a connecting bridge between Asia and Europe. Iran is a Middle East nation, extending over 1,648,000 km 2 , located between 25° and 40°N latitude and 45°30′ and 60° E longitude. It shares boundaries in the north with Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan, in the east with Afghanistan and Pakistan, in the west with Turkey and Iraq, and the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman in the south (Anon 2002 ).

The geological past and geographical location of Iran resulted in open land-scapes with vast mountain ranges, forests, wide plains, uncultivatable deserts, fertile plains and large swamps. After the Iranian plate merged with the southern shores of the Eurasian continent, tens of millions of years ago, important geographical events took place and mountain ranges emerged over several periods (Darreshouri and Kasraian 1998 ). Therefore, Iran is a mountainous land with a high central plateau which is surrounded by mountains in all four geographical directions. Almost 54 % of the land area is covered with mountains. The highest peak, Damavand, is 5,670 m above sea level.

Although Iran’s climate is generally Mediterranean, due to the variability in its topography a wide range of climatic conditions can be found in the country. The mountainous topography results in pronounced vertical and horizontal climatic differences. While the Caspian coastal areas enjoy a milder climate, the inland plateau experiences extremes of hot summers and cold winters with limited rainfall. In addition, subtropical conditions can be found in the southern part of the country. Rainfall generally decreases from north to south and from west to east.

1.2 Forests of Iran

6

The Alborz Mountains begin with the Azerbaijani frontier ranges (Caucasus) in the northwest and extend northeast, not far from the border of Turkmenistan. This high mountain chain forms more or less an unbroken wall with elevations over 5,000 m. It receives most of its precipitation from the Caspian and Black Seas. Rainfall is evenly distributed over the year. The climate in the western part of the Caspian region is very humid with cold winters and without a dry period; the annual rainfall is 2,000 mm and the mean annual temperature is 15 °C. The eastern part is humid with mild winters and a short dry period; the annual rainfall is 600 mm and the mean annual temperature is 18 °C. The growing season lasts between 7 and 9 months (Sagheb-Talebi 1990 ; Sagheb-Talebi and Dastmalchi 1997 ). Massive sed-imentary limestones and other calcareous rocks form the Alborz range, except for the small Asalem area in the northwest, with acidic bedrock. Soil types vary from rendzina and calcareous brown forest soil at well-drained sites to hydromorphic soils at very humid sites (Habibi 1985 ).

The Zagros Region consists of the western and southern slopes of the Zagros Mountains, which run from northwest to southeast, from the Turkish border to the Persian Gulf. Elevation ranges from 200 to 4,500 m and mean annual precipitation varies between 250 and 800 mm. Rainfall occurs only during winter and spring, which causes severe summer droughts of 4–8 months duration. Summers are hot and winters are cold. The mean annual temperatures vary here between 11 °C in the northwest and 25 °C in the southwest. Soils are of limestone origin with a pH of 7.0–8.5 (Mortazavi 1994 ; Maroufi 1997 ; Dastmalchi et al. 1999 ).

Along the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman, there are mountain ranges which are less high than those in other parts of the country and the climate along the southern coasts is subtropical. Rainfall is limited to the winter season and does not exceed l00 mm per year in most of this region. The rains are torrential and irregularly distributed. The summer is long and extremely hot and dry. Elevation ranges from sea level to 2,000 m. The mean annual temperature increases from southwest to southeast and the difference between the minimum and maximum temperatures is 40.3 °C in the southwest and 17.1 °C in the southeast.

Three geological zones exist in this region: (Ι) the Southwestern plain zone, mostly covered by alluvial sediments and Paleozoic and Cenozoic formations; (ΙΙ) the Folded area zone, covered by thick alluvial sediments of thousands of meters. There are low hills containing petroleum reserves in the region made up of Upper Miocene and Paleocene sediments lacking any volcanic activities; and (ΙΙΙ) the Southeastern zone, with young volcanic activity related to the Tertiary and early Quaternary. The soil in this region is mainly saline with pH values of more than 7.5. The majority of these soils are made by river path sediments resulting from water fl ow during rainfall or are sediments from the fl ooding of permanent rivers. Soil texture is light and medium, however in some areas, especially low lands, heavy soils are also found (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2003 ).

The central high plateau, a former salt-lake, is very dry and forms the deserts. In some parts of this region saline soil conditions are found which form the saline deserts, called Kavir. The largest Kavirs are called Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut

1 Introduction

7

which cover a total area of 130,000 km 2 . Generally, geological and tectonic activities are still continuing in Iran. Therefore, earthquakes are a threat in almost all parts of the country and frequently destroy vast areas of land.

Although the country is categorized as a dry country in general, there are various watersheds and main rivers, mostly in the northern and western parts of the country. While the central plateau, the north-east and the south-east regions are dry, the northern and western regions are endowed with suffi cient water resources. Aras River, Sefi drud, Qizil Uzun, Chalus, Tajan, Atrak and Gorganrud Rivers are the major river systems in the Hyrcanian region, which fl ow into the Caspain Sea. Zarinerud, Siminrud, Zayanderud, Karun, Karkhe and Arvandrud are the major river systems in the Zagros region which provide 40 % of the total water resources of the country and fl ow into the Persian Gulf. The most important river in the southeast of the country is Helmand, which fl ows into Hamun Lake at the border with Afghanistan. Mond, Mehran and Sarbaz Rivers are the major rivers in the south which fl ow into the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman. Urmia, Parishan, and Hamun Lakes are the largest inner lakes which are located in the northwest, south and southeast of the country, respectively.

According to the latest statistics from the Forest, Range and Watershed Organization (FRWO), the total area of natural resources of Iran, including forests, rangelands and deserts is 134,884,365 ha which covers 81.85 % of the total land area (Anon 2008 ). The proportion of different natural resources is given in Table 1.1 .

According to historians, the fi rst protected forest has come into existence in Iran when Kashayar Shah, the Achaemenian king, was passing through a beautiful cypress forest on his way to Minor Asia and ordered his royal army to protect it. In this way, the very fi rst protected area in the world was established in Iran in the sixth century B.C. (Javanshir 1999 ).

In Iran the Department of Environment is in-charge of managing protected areas. These areas include national parks, ecological reserves, wilderness areas and sanctuaries. The conservation of biological diversity has highest priority. Equally important is the expansion of protected areas. Rare plant species reserves, peri-urban man-made parks and protection forests are managed by the forestry sector.

Currently, based on Krentiski’s classifi cation, the Iranian forest reserves are cat-egorized as Managed Nature Reserves. These protected areas consisting of 91 forest reserves with a total area of 80,628 ha, account for 0.65 % of the entire forest area of the country. They are managed by the Plantations and Parks Offi ce of the Forests,

Table 1.1 Area and proportion of natural resources in Iran (Anon 2008 )

Natural resources Area (ha) Proportion (%)

Natural forest 13,364,010 8.10 Man-made forest 946,546 0.57 Bush and woodland 2,723,756 1.65 Rangeland 84,960,321 51.60 Desert 32,863,972 19.94 Total 134,884,365 81.85

1.2 Forests of Iran

8

Rangelands and Watershed Organization (FRWO) aiming at the protection of unique pure stands of the following species on unique sites (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2003 ):

Aleppo oak, Apple ring tree, box tree, Brant’s oak, Caspian poplar, Caucasian hackberry, chestnut, common birch, common elm, common fi g, common jujube, common pistachio, European hackberry, Greek juniper, hazelnut, Hyrcanian pear, Indian mesquite, Italian cypress, Montpellier maple, Mount Atlas pistachio, myrtle, olive tree, oriental arbor-vitae, oriental beech, oriental plane, rohida, Siberian elm, sisoo, small-leaved elm, sumac tree, tamarisk, walnut, wild almond, white mangrove and yew.

UNESCO defi nes biosphere reserves as coastal or terrestrial regions internationally recognized to serve as a factor stabilizing and developing a balanced relationship between people and nature under the Man and Biosphere Program. Nine regions in Iran are recognized as biosphere reserves including: Ararsbaran, Arjan Plain, Mount Geno, Golestan Forest, Mangrove Forests, Kavir Plain, Lake Urmia, Lake Miankaleh and Turan Plain.

Plant species are classifi ed into several categories based on the UN list of conser-vation priority. Endangered (EN) and Vulnerable (VU) are the most important categories among them. Based on this list, yew and box tree are endangered species in Iran. Vulnerable species are: Asian mangrove, English oak, Kandevan-wild pear, Mazandaran pear, oriental arbor-vitae, red dogwood and Turkmenian pear. Many other Iranian species are endangered or on the verge of extinction due to the degradation intensity and other problems. Some of these species are: common birch, chestnut, mahleb cherry, large-scaled oak, mountain ash, Mountain elm, Norway maple, sessile oak, Siberian elm, sisoo, wild cherry and wild service.

1.3 Phytogeography

There are diverse classifi cations about the phytogeographical regions of Iran (Zohary 1963 , 1973 ; Mobayen and Tregubov 1970 ; Sabeti 1976 ; Parsa 1978 ; Hedge and Wendelbo 1978 ; Thatkhtajan 1986 ; Frey and Probst 1986 ; Assadi 1988 ; White and Léonard 1991 ), but in this book we have cited the classifi cation of Sabeti ( 1976 ) which seems to be more realistic and adaptable with the forests of Iran. From an ecological point of view, Iran is divided into three phytogeographical regions; the Euxino-Hyrcanian Province of the Euro-Siberian region in the north; the Saharo- Sindian Region in the south; and the Irano-Turanian Region in the western and central sectors of the country (Sabeti 1976 ). The total area of natural forests of Iran is approximately 13.4 million ha, which covers only 8 % of the total land area (Anon 2008 ). Under UN and FAO defi nitions (Ball 1999 ), Iran is a Low Forest Cover Country (LFCC). Forests are also divided into three ecological zones; northern (the Caspian or Hyrcanian) with a humid climate; southern (the Khalijo- Omanian = Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman) with a dry subtropical climate; and the Irano-Turanian which is divided into two zones: the western mountainous zone (the Zagros) with sub-Mediterranean characteristics and a semiarid climate; and the central plateau zone with a steppic arid climate (Fig. 1.1 ).

1 Introduction

9

While most parts of Europe were covered with ice 15,000 years ago, the whole central plateau of Iran was under an immense lake. This has been defi ned as a humid period in the central parts of Iran. Paleobotanical evidence indicates that this region was still humid and covered with dense vegetation 7,000–7,500 years ago. But about 5,500 years ago, the climate changed and it became relatively dry. Archaeological research shows that humans were living here in huts made of wood and twigs around 4,500 years B.C. (Javanshir 1999 ). We can imagine that then trees and shrubs were commonly found in the central parts of Iran.

To explain the history of the forest cover in Iran, we are putting forth the following hypothesis based on the phenomena of glaciations. As has been proved by Prof. Bobek (cited in Shahsavari 1997 ), the heaviest glaciations occupied only very restricted areas around some high peaks of the Alborz Mountains, also called Elburz in different publications in Iran, while the entire Hyrcanian zone was free of glaciers. During glaciations and interglaciations there were some advances and retreats of the vegetation from the south to the north and conversely. During these changes of climate there were parallel changes of vegetation. The northern Eurasian zone of large conifers belongs to the cold climate; thus during glaciations, the coniferous region that preceded the glaciers advanced towards the south. This phenomenon was reversed during the interglaciary periods; as the climate became warmer and dry, the conifers returned towards the north. This migration took place four times

Fig. 1.1 Phytogeographical regions of Iran (Euxino-Hyrcanian: 1 Caspian (Hyrcanian), 2 Arasbaran; Irano-Turanian: 3 Zagros, 4 Steppic central plateau, 5 Saharo-Sindian)

1.3 Phytogeography

10

during four glacial periods and subsequent interglaciations. The general climate of Iran has never suffi ciently cooled down to accommodate the zone of the northern conifers. Therefore, the Hyrcanian fl ora represents all the characteristics of the ancient flora and has affinities with other mesophilic floras of the northern hemisphere of the Tertiary period, which explains the lack of large conifers (Mobayen and Tregubov 1970 ).

There is no exact data about the forest area in the previous centuries, despite the long cultural history of Iran. We just know that the ancient civilizations in Iran, Achemenidian, Sasaniden etc., have used wood and large trunks in their buildings, palaces and royal gardens. The large halls of famous Persepolis were made of large stone and wooden pillars, which were from Juniper, Cedar and Cypress trees.

Considering the old history of civilization in Iran, we can surely state that a large proportion of natural forests in Iran has been destroyed by man. Taking into account that modern scientifi c forest management is very young and forestry activities are in their infancy in Iran, Prof. Saie, the very fi rst forest engineer in Iran, has estimated the forest area of Iran at some 19.5 million ha (Saie 1942 ). Another estimation showed a forest area of about 18 million ha (Anon 1964 ). Later, the forest area of the country was estimated at some 16 million ha (Mobayen and Tregubov 1970 ). The most recent survey shows that the total natural forest area of Iran is approxi-mately 13.4 million ha (Anon 2008 ).

Forest degradation can be explained with several natural and historical events in the country’s development. Ecological and human forces are responsible for forest degradation. Long-term paleoclimatic changes have led the climate to become warmer and dryer, which caused the vegetation to become more xerophile. Therefore, tall trees were replaced by shorter ones and the dense vegetation cover of the land became gradually sparse and scattered. Besides, civilization in Iran is more than 4,000 years old and has greatly affected Iranian forests. Population growth, expanding cities and territories as well as defence against enemies required signifi -cant amounts of natural material such as wood. With the available technology of the past, providing food and gaining more agricultural lands and farms could only be realized by deforestation and expansion of agriculture. Forests were cleared for agriculture, grazing, and urban and industrial areas. Wood has been used for fuel and construction. Nearly all the natural vegetation of the valleys and cultivatable plains has been cleared for farming and fruit production. These fertile and easy-to- irrigate areas were traditionally used for growing rice, tea, and tree crops such as orange and kiwi in the Caspian region as well as wheat, barley, peach, apricot, almond and walnut in the Zagros region. Several historical investigations provide evidence that deforestation in Iran occurred throughout centuries and the present- day forest area is much less than its natural potential (McGregor 1875 ; De Morgan 1890 ; Hedin 1910 ; Bahrami 1951 ; Lemton 1983 ; Shahmirzadi 1993 ; Ramezani 1995 ). Within the last century, the forest area has declined to two-thirds of the original area; from 19.5 to 13.4 million ha.

Despite forest degradation, as a result of major topographical, geological and climatic variation, Iran is rich in plant diversity. The country supports a total of around 8,000 plant species belonging to 150 families, and is one of the major

1 Introduction

11

centres of endemism in this part of the world. There has been a long history of low- intensity, traditional land management including grazing in Iran, which for most part has not confl icted with, indeed in many areas has positively contributed to, the maintenance of viable populations of the species. However increasing anthropo-genic pressures, including deforestation, intensifi cation of agriculture, drainage of wetlands and industrial development, have already had a great impact on the growth, survival and distribution of native species in Iran, especially the rare and endemic species. Table 1.2 shows the number of endemic species in Iran. A total of 1,727 species are recorded as endemic in Iran, from which 432 species are vulnerable and 21 species are endangered (Jalili and Jamzad 1999 ).

The Caspian (Hyrcanian) forests are the most important refuge and relic forests in West Eurasia, and an important biodiversity centre. Here deciduous broadleaf forests are the natural vegetation of the temperate oceanic-suboceanic regions in West Eurasia. Relics of primary undisturbed temperate broadleaf forests are extraordinary rare all over the world and the Caspian forests partially represent the last relics of primary temperate broadleaf forests world-wide (Knapp 2005 ).

One hundred and thirty woody (tree and shrub) species are reported in the Hyrcanian forests. Zagros forests in western Iran contain 170 tree and shrub species and the whole Irano-Turanian region is the habitat of 370 woody species (Djazirei 1962 ; Sabeti 1976 ).

Up to now, 148 mammal species (Harrington and Dareshoori 1976 ) and more than 350 bird species (Scott et al. 1975 ) are reported in the country. No exact data exists about reptiles, but 56 land snake species and 5 water snakes are reported in Iran (Latifi 2000 ).

References

Anonymous (1964) Natural resources of Iran. Forest and Rang Organization, Engineering Offi ce, Tehran, 37p (In Persian)

Anonymous (2002) Atlas of Iran. Gitashenasi Cartographic & Geographical Institute, Tehran, 256p (In Persian)

Anonymous (2008) Natural resources of Iran. Forest, Rang and Watershed Organization, Engineering Offi ce, Tehran, 52p (In Persian)

Table 1.2 Number of endemics present in different phytogeographical regions in Iran

Phytogeographical region Total number of endemics

Average no. of endemics per million ha

Hyrcanian 115 12.5 Khalijo-Omanian 52 1.1 Irano-Turanian 1,452 14.0 Multi-regional endemics 108 – Total 1,727 10.5

Slightly altered after Jalili and Jamzad ( 1999 )

References

12

Assadi M (1988) Plan of the fl ora of Iran. Publication of Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Tehran, 79p (In Persian)

Bahrami T (1951) History of agriculture in Iran. University of Tehran Press, Tehran, 242p Ball J (1999) Overview of low forest cover countries in developing region. In: Mirsadeghi SM (ed)

Proceedings of international meeting on special needs and requirements of developing countries with low forest cover and unique types of forests. Forest and Range Organization, Tehran. October 4–8,pp 39–56

Botman E (2009) Forest rehabilitation in the Republic of Uzbekistan. In: Lee DK, Kleine M (eds) Keep Asia green, vol IV “West and Central Asia”. IUFRO World Series, IUFRO, Vienna, vol 20-IV, pp 253–296

Colak A, Simay K, Rotherham ID (2009) Restoration, rehabilitation and management of deforested and degraded forest landscape in Turkey. In: Lee DK, Kleine M (eds) Keep Asia green, vol IV “West and Central Asia”. IUFRO World Series, IUFRO, Vienna, vol 20-IV,pp 183–252

Dareshoori F, Kasraian N (1998) Nature of Iran. Rouzaneh Kar Publication, Tehran, 198p (In Persian) Dastmalchi M, Gheisy S, Sagheb-Talebi K (1999) Results of elimination and pioneer trials with

tree species in West-Azerbaijan. For Poplar Res 1:1–68 De Morgan J (1890) Geography de west de l’Iran (trans: Vadiie K, 1960). Chehr Press, Tehran Djazirei MH (1962) Formations Forestières de l’Iran. Ministère de l’Agriculture, Consei Superior

de Recherches Agricoles, Ministère de l’Agriculture, Conseil Superior de Recherches Agricoles, Tehran, Bull. No. 1, 44p

Frey W, Probst W (1986) A synopsis of the vegetation of Iran. In: Kürschner H (ed) Contribution to the vegetation of Southwest Asia. Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden, pp 9–43

Habibi H (1985) Les Sols des hêtraies des forêts Caspiennes et leur rôle sur les différents types de hêtraies. Iran J Nat Res 38:1–17

Harrington FA, Dareshoori F (1976) A guide to mammals of Iran. Department of the Environment. Tehran, 93p (In Persian)

Hedge IC, Wendelbo P (1978) Patterns of distribution and endemism in Iran. Not RBG Edinb 36:441–464

Hedin S (1910) Deserts of Iran (trans: Rajabi P, 1976). Tukan Press, Tehran Jalili A, Jamzad Z (1999) Red data book of Iran. A preliminary survey of endemic, rare and

endangered plant species in Iran. Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Tehran, Tech. pub. No. 215, 748p

Javanshir K (1999) History of the natural resource science of Iran. The Academy of Sciences of I.R. Iran and Ministry of Agriculture, Tehran, 470p (In Persian)

Kleine M, Colak AH, Kirca S, Sagheb-Talebi Kh, Orozumbekov A, Lee DK (2009) Rehabilitation degraded forest landscapes in West and Central Asia, a synthesis. In: Lee DK, Kleine M (eds) Keep Asia green, vol IV “West and Central Asia”. IUFRO World Series, IUFRO, Vienna, vol 20-IV, pp 5–25

Knapp HD (2005) Die globale Bedeutung der Kaspischen Wälder. In: Nosrati K, Marvie Mohadjer R, Bode W, Knapp HD (eds) Schutz der Biologischen Vielfalt und integriertes Management der Kaspischen Wälder (nordiran). Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Bonn, pp 45–70

Latifi M (2000) Snakes of Iran, 3rd edn. Department of the Environment, Tehran, 478p Lemton AKS (1983) Land owner and farmer in Iran (trans: Manuchehri A). Centre of Scientifi c

and Cultural Publication of Tehran, Tehran Maroufi H (1997) Tree species growth trial in un-irrigated condition in Sanandaj (West-Iran).

Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Tehran, Tech. pub. No. 172, 52p (In Persian) McGregor SM (1875) A trip to Khorasan province, vols 1 & 2 (trans: Mehdizade M). Astan-e

Ghods Press, Mashhad Meshkov VV, Baizakov SB, Yeger AV, Orozumbekov A (2009) Forest rehabilitation in Kazakhstan.

In: Lee DK, Kleine M (eds) Keep Asia green, vol IV “West and Central Asia”. IUFRO World Series, IUFRO, Vienna, vol 20-IV, pp 83–130

Mobayen S, Tregubov V (1970) Guide pour la carte de la vegetation naturelle de l’Iran. Bull. no. 14, Universite de Tehran. Project UNDP/FAO, IRA 7, 20p

Mortazavi SM (1994) Results of eucalyptus species elimination trials in Fars province (Southern Iran). Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Tehran, Tech. pub. No. 99, 71p (In Persian)

1 Introduction

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Orozumbekov A, Musuraliev T, Toktoraliev B, Kysanov A, Shamshiev B, Sultangaziev O (2009) Forest rehabilitation in Kyrgyzstan. In: Lee DK, Kleine M (eds) Keep Asia green, vol IV “West and Central Asia”. IUFRO World Series, IUFRO, Vienna, vol 20-IV, pp 131–182

Parsa A (1978) Flora of Iran. 1. Ministry of Science and Education, Tehran, 506p Ramezani A (1995) Ten thousand years history of Iran, 4 vols. Eghbal Press, Tehran (In Persian) Rashad M (2000) Iran; Geschichte Kultur und lebendige Traditionen – antike Stätten und

islamische Kunst in Persian. DuMont Buchverlag, Köln, 400p Sabeti H (1976) Forests, trees and shrubs of Iran. Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources

of Iran, Research Organization of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Tehran, 810p (In Persian) Sagheb-Talebi K (1990) Climatological condition of Nowshahr district, Pazhoohesh. Res Sci

Technol 9(18):17–26 Sagheb-Talebi K, Dastmalchi M (1997) Results of elimination trials (broad-leaved species) in

Guilan province, Part Ι. Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Tehran, pp 1–75, Tech. pub. No. 168 (In Persian)

Sagheb-Talebi K, Sajedi T, Yazdian F (2003) Forests of Iran. Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Tehran, Tech. pub. No. 339, 28p

Sagheb-Talebi Kh, Yousefi P, Kananian M (2009) Forest rehabilitation in Iran. In: Lee DK, Kleine M (eds) Keep Asia green, vol IV “West and Central Asia”. IUFRO World Series, IUFRO, Vienna, vol 20-IV, pp 27–82

Saie K (1942) About the forests of Iran. Forestry offi ce, Ministry of Agriculture, Tehran (In Persian) Scott D, Moravej Hamadani H, Adhami Mirhosseyni A (1975) The birds of Iran. Department of the

Environment. Tehran, 410p (In Persian) Shahmirzadi S (1993) Fauna and fl ora of Kevir surroundings in 7,000 years ago. In: Proceedings of

conference of deserts in Iran. Research Centre for Deserts, University of Tehran, vol 1, pp 253–268 (In Persian)

Shahsavari A (1997) The Hyrcanian province phytogeographical and paleobotanical studies of the south of Caspian Lake. Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Tehran, Tech. pub. No. 125, 48p

Thatkhtajan A (1986) Floristic regions of the world. Translation of Folristicheskie Oblasti Zemli. University of California Press Ltd, Berkeley, 522p

White F, Léonard J (1991) Phytogeographical links between African and southwest Asia. Flora et Vegetatio Mundi 9:229–246

Zohary M (1963) On the geobotanical structure of Iran. Bull Res Council Israel Sect D (Bot) 11(Supplement):113

Zohary M (1973) Geobotanical foundations of the Middle East, 2 vols, G. Fischer, Stuttgart, 739p

References


List of the English and botanical names of the plant species mentioned in this chapter.

English Botanical

Alexandrian laurel Danae racemosa (L.) Moench Black alder Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. Box holly Ruscus hyrcanus Woron. Box tree Buxus hyrcana Pojark Cappadocian maple Acer cappadocicum Gled Caspian honey locust Gleditschia caspica Desf. Caspian poplar Populus caspica Bornm. Caucasian alder Alnus subcordata C.A.M. Caucasian oak Quercus macranthera Fisch. & C.A.M. Chestnut-leaved oak Quercus castaneifolia C.A.M. Christ’s thorn paliurus Paliurus spina-christi Miller Colutea Colutea persica Boiss. Common ash Fraxinus excelsior L. Common birch Betula pendula Roth. Common hornbeam Carpinus betulus L. Common juniper Juniperus communis L. Cretan brake (evergreen fern) Pteris cretica L. Cyclamen Cyclamen coum Mill. Date-plum Diospyrus lotus L. Syn.: Caucasian persimmon Dog’s mercury Mercurialis perennis Dogwood Cornus mas L. Syn.: Cornelian cherry European beech Fagus sylvatica L. False walnut Pterocarya fraxinifolia Land. (Spach.) Field maple Acer campestre L. Foetid juniper Juniperus foetidissima Willd. Greenbriar Smilax excelsa L.

Chapter 2 Euxino -Hyrcanian Province: Caspian and Arasbaran Regions

(continued)

16

English Botanical

Hairy Wood-rush Luzula pilosa Hawthorn Crataegus microphylla C. Koch. Hazelnut Corylus avelana L. Holly tree Ilex spinigera Loes Hyrcanian maple Acer hyrcanum Fisch. & C.A.M. Ironwood Parrotia persica C.A.M. Italian cypress Cupressus sempervirens L. var . horizontalis (Mill.)

Gord. Ivy Hedera pastachovii Woron. Ex Grossh. Greek juniper Juniperus polycarpos C. Koch.

Syn.: J. excelsa M.B. Large-leaved lime tree Tilia platyphyllos Scop. Medlar Mespilus germanica L. Mount Atlas pistachio Pistacia atlantica Desf. Mountain elm Ulmus glabra Hudson Montpellier maple Acer monspessulanum L. Oriental arbor-vitae Thuja orientalis L. Oriental beech Fagus orientalis Lipsky Oriental hornbeam Carpinus orientalis L. Primula Primula heterochroma Stapf Sanicle Sanicula europaea Sessile oak Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl. subsp. iberica

(Steven) Krassiln. Siberian elm Zelkova carpinifolia (Pall.) Dipp. Silk tree Albizzia julibrissin Durazz. Smoke tree Cotinus coggygria Scop. Sweet gum Liquidambar styracifl ua L. Velvet maple Acer velutinum Boiss. Wayfaring tree Viburnum lantana L. Yew Taxus baccata L. Wild cherry Prunus avium L.

Syn.: Cerasus avium (L.) Moench Wild service Sorbus torminalis (L.) Crantz. Whortleberry Vaccinium arctostaphylos L. Woodruff (Bedstraw) Galium odoratum L.

Syn.: Asperula odorata L.

The southern limit of the Euro-Siberian region coincides with the southern coastal areas of the Black and Caspian Seas. The mesophyllic vegetation of these areas borders in the south on the xerophytic vegetation of the Iran-Turanian region. The western area near the Black Sea is referred to as the Euxinian province, whereas the eastern, near the Caspain Sea, as the Hyrcanian province; they are separated by the Caucasus massif. Sometimes these two provinces are treated jointly as the Euxino- Hyrcanian province, with two subprovinces, the Euxinian and the Hyrcanian.

(continued)

2 Euxino -Hyrcanian Province: Caspian and Arasbaran Regions

17

Within Eurasia they present one of the very characteristic relic refugia for the mesophyllic tree and shrub fl ora (Browicz 1989 ).

In Iran, the Euro-Siberian region is represented by the Euxino-Hyrcanian province. It is confi ned here to the coastal surroundings of the Caspian Sea and occupies three main habitats: alluvial fl ats of the coastal plain, the northern slopes of the Alborz Mountains, and the subalpine meadows of these mountains. The most outstanding feature of this area is the broad-leaved deciduous forest, which ranges in altitude from sea-level to 2,800 m above sea-level. The province is well distinguished from other areas by high annual precipitation (600–2,000 mm), a considerable part of which falls in summer. The high air humidity and the higher winter temperatures at lower altitudes make the greater part of this area most favour-able for mesic forest, not unlike those of western or southern Europe. The rather high number of species endemic to the Euxino-Hyrcanian province gives this forest type a distinctive character (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2003 ). A very recent paleobotanical study based on the C 14 and luminescence method in the central Alborz, Kojour region, located at almost 1,200 m.a.s.l. indicated that the oldest sedimentary layer in which fossilized broad-leaved plants were found dates back to 82,000 ± 8,800 BP (Montazeri et al. 2011 ).

This phytogeographical region consists of two separate forest zones: Hyrcanian and Arasbaran.

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

The Hyrcanian vegetation zone, also called Caspian forest, is a green belt stretching over the northern slopes of the Alborz mountain ranges and covers the southern coasts of the Caspian Sea. This area stretches from Astara in the northwest to the Gorgan vicinity in the northeast of Iran. Based on the latest data from the Iranian Forests and Rangelands Organization (Anon. 2008 ), this area is approximately 800 km long and 110 km wide and has a total area of 1.85 million ha comprising 15 % of the total Iranian forests and 1.1 % of the country’s area. The Alborz moun-tains lying between the Caspian Sea and the Iranian plateau has resulted in a climate causing a distinct vegetation cover. Hyrcanian forests stretch out from sea level up to an altitude of 2,800 m and encompass different forest types thanks to their 80 woody species (trees and shrubs). The area is rich in hardwood species, but there are only four genera of endemic softwood (conifer) trees including yew, Greek juniper, oriental arbor-vitae and Italian cypress . However, based on the studies of Fadaiey Khojasteh et al. ( 2010 ) of a small part of the Mesozoic fl ora in Iran and on the presence of several coal mines with abundant well-preserved plant macrofossils and samples of scattered wood fossils, three genera of Mesozoic Gymnosperms were recognized. The presence of Podozamites as a coniferous genus indicates that at that time the middle elevation forests were dense and dominated by a mixture of evergreen and deciduous trees.

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

18

The Hyrcanian forest at lower altitudes contain a number of relict Arcto-Tertiary thermophilous species, such as ironwood, Caspian honey locust, Siberian elm and false walnut (Akhani et al. 2010 ). One could have doubts about some species, like silk tree, being classifi ed as a Hyrcanian element. The major part of the range of this species is situated in China, Korea and Japan, at a distance of about 6,000 km from the Caspian Sea (Browicz 1989 ).

The primary function of the Hyrcanian forests, other than wood production, is supportive and environmental: they play a vital role in the conservation of soil and water resources and keep nature at balance on these susceptible steep mountain slopes. Rapid urbanization and industrialization, intensive grazing, over-utilization of forests for fi rewood production and farming in wooded areas are amongst the main causes of deforestation in this area. One of the most signifi cant impacts of this degradation is the depletion of epiphytic species in the region (Shahsavari 1997 ). Over the last few decades, swift forest degradation has brought about a number of environmental, social and economical impacts including soil erosion, fl oods, degradation of farmlands and habitats, reduction of biodiversity and natural resources and air and water pollution. Manipulation of forest ecosystems has threatened a number of animal species such as fallow deer, roe deer, wolf, fox, wild cat, leopard, pheasant and trout.

Evidence from studies on loess/palaeosol sequences, long-term Caspian Sea- level fl uctuations, and peat/lake deposits in northern Iran give some indication of the climate and vegetation history of the south Caspian region. Based on these investi-gations, during the early Pleistocene at least parts of the area were covered by steppe-like vegetation and the climate was slightly warmer than today. It is also postulated that northern Iran was an extensive area of increased dust accumulation and loess formation during the Pleistocene glaciations, which is contemporaneous with and similar to major climate changes in SE Central Europe and Central Asia (Kehl et al. 2005 ; Frechen et al. 2009 ). These studies further suggest pronounced climate changes for the north of the country in which a dry and cool climate changed to moist and warm conditions during Pleistocene glaciations. Similarly, a markedly dry period occurred during the early Holocene in the south Caspian area, parallel to the climatic optimum in Europe (Bobek 1953 –1954; Akhani et al. 2010 ).

2.1.1 Climate

The climate of the Caspian region is controlled by several components of a regional atmospheric circulation pattern and is strongly modulated by a complex topography and the maritime effect of the Caspian Sea.

Spatial analysis of precipitation seasonality shows that the western and eastern parts of the Hyrcanian region have markedly different regimes (Domoers et al. 1998 ). The higher amount of rainfall over the western Hyrcanian region during autumn is due to the location of this area at the head of north-easterly winds originating form the Siberian anticyclone or Polar front. These winds sweep the


19

surface of the Caspian Sea and bring much moisture to the south Caspian region before becoming de-stabilized at the front zone with hot/dry continental air masses descending from the central Iranian high plateau (Khalili 1973 ).

According to Akhani et al. ( 2010 ), the south Caspian region has contrasting bioclimatic differences with other parts of Iran. Some of the main bioclimatic particularities of this region are:

1. High amount of annual precipitation decreasing from west to east, 2. Relatively even distribution of annual precipitation with maximum rainfall

occurring during the early autumn, 3. Very short duration or absence of a dry season (P < 2 T) especially in the western

Hyrcanian region, 4. High percentage of mean annual relative air humidity, exceeding 80 % at some

stations, creating almost permanent fogs at higher altitudes, 5. Average of minima of temperatures of the coldest month is above the freezing

point.

Precipitation : The Hyrcanian zone is a humid zone in the north of Iran. The average annual rainfall ranges between 530 mm in the east and 1,350 mm in the west, reaching up to an occasional record of 2,000 mm in the west (Fig. 2.1 ). Based on the climatic data from meteorological stations, the maximum annual rainfall is experienced during spring and late fall and winter. Relative humidity is also constantly high with an average value fl uctuating from 74.6 % in the east to 84.6 % in the west (Fig. 2.2 ), rarely dropping below 60 % at the hottest hours.

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Fig. 2.1 Mean annual precipitation and temperature in the Hyrcanian zone, decreasing from west (Astara) to east (Gorgan)

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

20

Thus, the region can be considered as one of the world’s ever-wet areas. The rise in humidity at the highest temperatures results in the saturation of air and subse-quent cloud formation in the afternoons especially on the northern slopes. Research has indicated that the lowest evaporation rate among different forest stands is that of box tree and false walnut amounting to 0.5 mm/h at a height of 1.5 m above ground level (Shahsavari 1997 ).

Temperature : According to climatic data from meteorological stations, the average annual temperature in the Hyrcanian region varied from 15 °C in the west to 17.5 °C in the east over the past decade (Fig. 2.1 ). Temperature of the warmest month ranges from 28 to 35 °C while that of the coldest month is between 1.5 and 4 °C. Summer temperature ranges between 20 and 30 °C. The coeffi cient of ecological dryness is negligible in the region and many parts such as Bandar-e Anzali and Lahidjan lack a dry season. However, ecological dryness increases from the west toward the east, reaching up to 3 months in Gorgan. Local areas under microclimatic infl uence are exceptions (Sabeti 1976 ).

In general, the Hyrcanian climate is warm Mediterranean in the east and temperate and semi-temperate Mediterranean and occasionally temperate xeric in the central and western parts (Sabeti 1969 ).

The Alborz Mountains begin with the Azerbaijani frontier ranges (Caucasus) in the northwest and extend northeast, not far from the border with Turkmenistan. This high mountain chain forms more or less an unbroken wall with elevations over 5,000 m, and receives most of the precipitation from the Caspian and Black Seas. Rainfall is evenly distributed over the year. The climate in the western part of the Caspian region is very humid with cold winters and without a dry period (Fig. 2.3 ); there the annual rainfall is 2,000 mm and the mean annual temperature is 15 °C. The climate diagrams of the central parts are shown in Figs. 2.4 and 2.5 . The eastern

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Fig. 2.2 Mean annual humidity in the Hyrcanian zone


21

part is humid with mild winters and a dry period of around 4 months (Fig. 2.6 ); there the annual rainfall is 600 mm and the mean annual temperature is 18 °C. The growing season lasts between 7 and 9 months (Sagheb-Talebi 1990 ; Sagheb-Talebi and Dastmalchi 1997 ; Etemad 2002 ; Mohammadnejad Kiasari et al. 2010 ; Mirkazemi 2009 ).

According to the De Martin method, the climate at the oriental beech sites of Iran, which are the most important forest habitats, is very humid and cold in lowlands and midlands (up to 1,700 m) and very humid and ultra-cold in highlands (up to 2,200 m). The frost periods in midlands and highlands lasts 3 and 5 months,

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Fig. 2.3 Climate diagram of the western Hyrcanian region; Pilambara in Guilan province

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Fig. 2.4 Climate diagram of Nowshahr in the western part of Mazandaran province, central Hyrcanian region

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

22

respectively (Etemad 2002 ). The Asalem beech forests, the westernmost Hyrcanian forests, with an annual precipitation of 2,000 mm, are the wettest beech forests of the country. Moving toward the east, the amount of precipitation rapidly drops, falling down to half in the Gorgan beech forests. Moreover, the major part of the precipitation at Asalem occurs in the fall and summer whereas that of Gorgan occurs mostly in fall and winter (Habibi 1985a ). The average annual precipitation and temperature at three altitudinal classes (Etemad 2002 ) are shown in Fig. 2.7 .

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Fig. 2.5 Climate diagram of Neka in the eastern part of Mazandaran province, central Hyrcanian region

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Fig. 2.6 Climate diagram of the eastern Hyrcanian region; Gorgan in Golestan province


23

2.1.2 Geology and Soil

The Alborz Mountain ranges form the folded fringe of the vast Iranian plateau and have been built by two major mountain formations. The fi rst movements leading to the formation of Alborz were initiated in the Paleocene. In the early Cenozoic, the Alborz Mountain ranges were formed. The second phase of mountain formation occurred in the early or mid Oligocene which resulted in the elevation and subsequent erosion of the central Alborz belt and eventually the thick deposition of Molas. The Alborz Mountains cannot be considered the upshot of an individual mountain formation movement, but their formation is part of a considerably wider movement including entire Iran and the Caucasian Mountains, being surrounded by the Saudi Arabian plate in the south and the Russian plate in the north (Khosrotehrani 1988 ).

Palaeogeographic reconstructions indicate that the area corresponding to the southern part of the present Alborz Mountains were non-depositional/erosional areas and most likely formed a mountain range since the Late Cretaceous at ca. 65 Ma. However, unlike the southern section of the Alborz, the northern section is a geologically younger area which was submerged under the Paratethys Ocean until the middle Miocene at about 15–10 Ma (Berberian and King 1981 ). It is certain that large water bodies were present in the current area of the Caspian and Aral Seas which might have been a major source of humidity for the south Caspian region since the early Cenozoic. The size of these water bodies was considerably bigger than that of the Caspian Sea as we know it today during the main part of the Palaeogene and the early Neogene to the end of the Miocene (ca. 5.2 Ma) when major tectonic movements disconnected the Caspian basin from the ocean.

1100

1150

1200

1250

1300

1350

1400

low middle high

Altitude classes

mea

n a

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itat

ion

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Fig. 2.7 Mean annual precipitation and temperature at altitudinal classes in beech forests

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

24

Even during the last glacial period, the Caspian Sea level rose to up to +50 m and became connected to the Black Sea, signifying that it had a considerably larger size during some time intervals (Yanko-Hombach et al. 2010 cited in Akhani et al. 2010 ).

The geological substrates of the Caspian western coasts, such as Asalem, consist of acidic igneous rocks (granite), occasionally alkaline diorite, andesite, perfi rite, and metamorphic rocks like quartz schist belonging to the beginning of the Tertiary. In the central parts, such as Nowshahr (Veisar and Kheiroodkenar forests), the geological formations are dolomite and calcic layers sometimes associated with Paleozoic red sandstones surrounded by calcic layers of the Jurassic, Cretaceous or Carboniferous. At high altitudes, intrusive igneous rocks, often alkaline, are seen. In the eastern Mazandaran (Sangdeh and Neka forests) the geological formations are often composed by lime and dolomite belonging to the Triassic and Jurassic. However, metamorphic rocks, often red quartz schist, belonging to the late Tertiary are also found in some parts. In the easternmost beech forests in Gorgan, the geological formations mainly include lime, dolomite, and sandstones of Devonian or Carboniferous and Jurassic calcic layers. Metamorphic rocks such as quartz schist are also found in some areas (Sarmadian and Jafari 2001 ).

The most important soil types in the Hyrcanian region (Habibi Kasseb 1992 ; Zarrinkafsh 2002 ) are as follows:

– Brown soils: Brown soils are the most abundant soils in the Northern forests and comprise approximately 90 % of the Hyrcanian region. These are semi-deep soils found on mild slopes and include calcareous, forest acidic, podzolic and non-podzolic soils. Forest brown soils occur in nearly all regions, under Querco- Carpinetum and especially Fagetum communities. A calcareous type is often found in the eastern parts, under Querco-Carpinetum communities, while an acidic type, the most fertile one, is found in western parts, under Fagetum communities.

– Alluvial soils: Alluvial soils occur over a wide area of the region and even the entire country. They are very old soils dating back to the Quaternary Period and are found in plains and most river beds.

– Rendzina soils: Rendzina soils are independent of climatic factors and are generally found on steep slopes and hard limestone parent rocks on which Parrotietum, Parrotio-Carpinetum and Tilio-Buxetum communities often come to existence.

– Colluvial soils: These are often found in damp valleys or on low slopes lying on calcareous and acidic parent rocks. They are deep and uniform soils characterized by a high humus content where velvet maple, lime tree, Caucasian alder and common ash habitats are found.

– Rankers: These are formed in mountainous areas with a cold and humid climate and acidic parent rocks, at higher elevations than the oriental beech community but below the high mountain ranges.

– Lithosols: These are the most primitive unweathered soils, generally found on the Alborz southern slopes and highlands or on lime and marl structures of some dry valleys such as the Hasan Abad Valley in Chalus.


25

2.1.3 Vegetation and Forest Types

The Mediterranean fl oral element experienced signifi cant changes due to drastic changes in distribution areas of the species during the Tertiary Period and later. This has been documented for beech and also for other species, e.g. Siberian Elm of which fossil material has been found in Austria, and sweetgum in the islands of Cypress and Kert. However, forested areas remained intact along the southeastern coasts of the Black Sea and south of the Caspian Sea, and a number of plant archeologists consider them as relict ecological systems. Thus, this area, along with similar North American and East Asian forest communities that remained intact, are seen nowadays as a belt of deciduous Tertiary forest communities that were formerly associated with each other. There are 65 tree species in the Hyrcanian region among which some Tertiary relic species: Siberian elm, ironwood and false walnut. Of the 80 woody species reported from the region, 45 species (ca 60 %) belong to the late Pleistocene. The extent of the Hyrcanian forests hardly changed during the entire Quaternary Period at least until the end of the Ice Age. During this time, the entire area was dominated by a single indicator forest system including various Arcto-Tertiary (northern) elements. During the ice ages undoubtedly the temperature- susceptible species such as Eucommia, Ginkgo and Taxodium got extinct in this area (Shahsavari 1997 ).

Aside from the Euxino-Caucasian forest lands, no high-altitude softwood (conifer) forest stands are found in the Alborz region and the timber line is characterized by a hardwood species (Caucasian oak). While the altitudinal limit of the forest is at 2,700 m, individual trees have been reported up to 3,000 m (Shahsavari 1994 cited from Bobek 1951). Needle-leaved species would not survive above 2,700 m due to the warm and dry climate in combination with a considerable amount of snowfall and the competition from grasses and shrubs. No conifer seeds were found in the archeological digs in the Lar region whereas beech, hornbeam, alder, hazelnut, oak and birch seeds were abundant. Hence, it can be concluded that the climatic conditions and vegetation cover of the Hyrcanian region did not undergo major changes during the Quaternary Period (Shahsavari 1997 ). This is the reason why several biogeographers consider the Caspian forests as an important refugium of temperate broad-leaved trees during the Quaternary glaciations (Zohary 1973 ; Probst 1981 ; Leroy and Arpe 2007 ).

Thus, the Hyrcanian forests are one of the last remnants of natural deciduous forests in the world. Native and endangered tree species include Caspian honey locust, false walnut, ironwood, Siberian elm, box tree, Caspian poplar and a few conifer species such as yew and oriental arbor-vitae (Sagheb-Talebi 2000 ; Knapp 2005 ).

One of the distinct characteristics of the Hyrcanian zone is the occurrence of epiphytic plants, such as ivy and Greenbriar, and especially suspending mosses, such as Pseudoleskeella laxiramea and Leucodon immerses (Frey and Kürschner 1979 ), which seems quite unusual in areas with dry summers. This could be attrib-uted to the high relative humidity in the region even in dry periods.

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26

In the plains, chestnut-leaved oak is mixed with box tree, which forms the Querco-Buxetum community. On the lower slopes, below 700 m, the chestnut- leaved oak and common hornbeam are increasingly mixed with ironwood and form the two communities of Querco-Carpinetum and Parrotio-Carpinetum . Between 700 and 1,500 m, oriental beech is the dominant tree species and forms the Fagetum hyrcanum , in pure and mixed stands with other noble hardwoods over a vast area in this cloudy zone. From their fl oristic composition, these beech forests are linked with European forests and have affi nities to the beech forests of the Balkans. However, local conditions of aspect and edaphic factors, such as soil moisture and depth, are all of importance in determining the composition of the vegetation, and lead to the establishment of different beech sub-communities. Above the beech belt, Caucasian oak and oriental hornbeam build the Querco macranthero-Carpinetum orientalis , forming the forest community of higher elevations up to the timberline with short trees or shrubs (Sagheb-Talebi 2000 ). The forest communities will be discussed comprehensively in the next pages.

The indicator trees of the Hyrcanian zone are as follows:

Box tree Common hornbeam Oriental beech

Cappadocian maple Date-plum Siberian elm Caspian honey locust False walnut Silk tree Caspian poplar Ironwood Velvet maple Caucasian alder Italian cypress Wild cherry Chestnut-leaved oak Large-leaved lime tree Wild service Common ash Mountain elm Yew

Among these, four species, namely box tree, ironwood, Caspian poplar and Caspian honey locust are endemic to the Hyrcanian zone.

The high species diversity in the region has given rise to various plant communities. The most important tree and shrub communities in the Hyrcanian zone (Mobayen and Tregubov 1970 ) are:

– Querco-Buxetum : Having permeable sandy soils, this is a plant community exclusive to the Caspian coastal plains. Two distinct strata are found in this community. The fi rst stratum consists of chestnut-leaved oak trees along with species like velvet maple, alder and Caucasian false walnut. The second stratum is very dense consisting of boxwood, Caspian honey locust, silk tree and date-plum as well as a ground cover of ferns, e.g. Cretan brake , and grasses, and a number of moss species growing on the ground and hanging from tree branches, giving these forests eye-catching sceneries.

– Querco-Carpinetum : This is found in the lowlands on northern slopes in Guilan and Mazandaran provinces, that have a lower relative humidity than the sites of the former community. Due to the extensive utilization of the chestnut-leaved oak trees, the only species found in this community is common hornbeam (Fig. 2.8 ) . Towards the drier climate to the northeast, the community gradually transforms into a Zelkovo-Quercetum community.


27

– Parrotio-Carpinetum : This community covers the low slopes of the Caspian coast forming a dense tree structure. In addition to ironwood which is the indicator species in the community, other species such as common hornbeam , cyclamen and primula are found. This community has been extensively exploited reaching degradation at many sites (Fig. 2.9 ). However, it still extends over a vast area and occurs in several varieties.

Fig. 2.8 A mixed oak-hornbeam stand ( top ) and with absence of oak ( bottom )

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28

– Fagetum hyrcanum : Also called the Hyrcanian beech community, occurs as a pure (Fig. 2.10 ) and mixed community of beech trees. With oriental beech as the main species, this community makes up the most beautiful and richest of Iranian forests. The standing volume on average has been estimated at almost 600 and in

Fig. 2.9 An ironwood-hornbeam stand

Fig. 2.10 A pure oriental beech stand


29

some cases 800 m 3 /ha. Some beech trees grow up to 50 m in height with a dbh of 2 m. This forest has remarkable signifi cance due to its productivity and economical value and has been better preserved as compared to other communities.

– Carpinetum orientale – Quercetum macranthera : This forms the higher strata of the Northern Forests climbing up to an altitude of 3,000 m. This hornbeam community consists of short trees with shoots sprouting from the stumps of felled trees. This forest has no signifi cant economical value. However, it is an excellent conservation cover to prevent erosion, but unfortunately it is exten-sively grazed.

– Cupressus sempervirens var. horizontalis and Thuya orientalis communities : The two species form relict communities of limited extent from a warmer period with an interglacial climate. It contains a lot of Mediterranean elements. The climate also resembles the Mediterranean climate. These communities are mainly found in Hasan Abad Valley in Chalus (Fig. 2.11 ), Rudbar Valley, Ramian forest and Surkesh Valley in Gorgan.

We should draw special attention on the beech forests as the most productive stands of the Hyrcanian region. Seven distinct groups are identifi ed based on beech forest type, local conditions, parent rocks and physico-chemical properties of the soil (Habibi 1985a ).

Fagetum associated with Vaccinium arctostaphylos mainly found at mid and high altitudes on northeastern and western slopes over acidic (igneous and meta-morphic) parent rocks and light, semi-deep, fully drained soils. pH is highly acidic (4–5.5) due to the cold and humid climate and the organic matter accumulation is high on the surface. Soils are rich in phosphorus and magnesium, moderate in nitro-gen and highly variable in potassium and calcium.

Fig. 2.11 An Italian Cypress stand in Hasan Abad Valley, Chalus

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

30

Fagetum associated with Ilex spinigera mainly found at mid and high altitudes generally characterizing low-sloped, wet sites over acidic parent rocks and deep, semi-heavy, drained soils which are more or less hydromorphous. The humus is often acidic with pH values between 4.5 and 5.5 and accumulated organic matter. Soils are rich in all minerals except potassium.

Fagetum associated with Asperula odorata (syn Galium odoratum) found at the same altitudes as the two former ones, occurring on any parent rock with deep, semi-heavy to heavy, drained soils. The soil is less acidic (pH = 5–5.5) with less surface organic matter and rich in all minerals except potassium.

Fagetum associated with Ruscus hyrcanus occurs at low and mid altitudes on northern slopes over calcic (sometimes non-calcic) parent rocks with deep, heavy- textured but drained soils. The soil is less acidic (pH = 6–6.5) and rich in nitrogen, phosphorous, calcium and magnesium but moderate in potassium. The humus is less acidic and is often eutrophic and mesotrophic mull.

Fagetum associated with Luzula pilosa mainly found at mid and high altitudes on northern and northwestern slopes over more acidic and less calcic parent rocks and deep, semi-heavy, drained soils. Humus is mostly an acidic (pH = 4.5 – 5.5) oligotrophic mull and soils are rich in phosphorous, calcium and magnesium but poor in nitrogen and potassium.

Fagetum associated with Sanicula europaea often found at mid altitudes on northwestern and western slopes over various parent rocks with deep, semi-heavy, drained soils. The humus is mostly mesotrophic and oligotrophic mull with a pH of 4.5–5.5. The soil is rich in nitrogen, calcium and magnesium, poor in potassium and highly variable in phosphorous.

Fagetum associated with Mercurialis perennis often found at mid altitudes on northwestern and western slopes over calcic parent rocks with deep, heavy but fully drained soils. The humus is eutrophic and mesotrophic mull with a pH of 5–6. The soil is rich in nitrogen.

2.1.4 Site Demands of Some Main Species

It has been shown repeatedly that individual species have different genetically- based physiological requirements or tolerances. A given species may be highly competitive in one community in a given site but, although it may also exist in adjacent communities having different site conditions, other species may be more competitive and predominant in those ecosystems. Most forest species in a given climate region probably have their optimal development under similar site condi-tions with favorable water and nutrients (Barnes et al. 1998 ). Climate, specially temperature and precipitation, altitude, geographical aspect, land form and soil are the most effective factors limiting the distribution of tree species. Having knowledge about the distribution of species, in particular their horizontal and vertical distribution, nutrient requirements and water regime in the soil, as well as the tolerance of species for soil acidity, are the essential elements for understanding the site demands


31

of trees (Anon. 1990 ). Dominant species that have more ecological elasticity, large physiological amplitudes, and competitive vigour can occupy vast areas and make up communities of large expansion, such as European beech in West-, and Central Europe and oriental beech in the Hyrcanian region.

In the following, site demands of the most important tree species of the Caspian forests are presented:

2.1.5 Oriental Beech

Beech forests account for approximately 17.6 % of the total forest area, 30 % of the standing volume and 23.6 % of the stem number in the Hyrcanian forests in Iran (Rasaneh et al. 2001 ). This shade tolerant species with high competition potential covers the north aspects of the middle altitudes of the Hyrcanian forests from west (Astara, border to Azerbaijan Republic) to east (Ziyarat Valley of Gorgan). It is the dominant tree between 700 and 1,500 m.a.s.l. where the air moisture is high and the sky is covered with fog for most of the year, especially within the growing season. It makes up pure (Fig. 2.12 , left) and mixed stands with other noble hardwoods including velvet maple, Caucasian alder, large-leaved lime and common hornbeam. However, individuals or small groups of beech can be found at altitudes from around 300 to 2,000 m.a.s.l. Some old beech individuals can achieve high dimensions: up to 1 m diameter at breast height and 50 m high (Fig. 2.12 , right).

Fig. 2.12 A pure oriental beech stand in Mazandaran province ( left ) and an old large oriental beech in Gorgan ( right )

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

32

The Fagetum communities of Iran occur on two types of parent rock, namely acidic (igneous and metamorphic) and calcic (sedimentary and metamorphic). Soils lying on acidic parent rock usually have a light or balanced texture and complete drainage whereas soils formed on calcic parent rock are generally semi-heavy to heavy textured and exhibit gradual or occasionally slow drainage (Habibi 1985a ). Based on the classifi cation of Duchaufour ( 1970 ), the soils of this region can be divided into four categories: Acidic brown, podzolic brown, hydromorphous brown and pseudogley. Fagetum communities associated with whortleberry have the light-est soils while the communities with woodruff and box holly have the heaviest. The most acidic beech forest types with pH 4–5.5 are associated with whortleberry and the most non-acidic ones (pH 6–6.5) with box holly. Sarmadian and Jafari ( 2001 ) indicate that Fagetum communities of the central areas, where drainage is good, are found on soils over acidic parent rock, on ridges and high fl at lands as well as on deep clay-rich soils. These soils are amphisols with a high biological activity in the upper layers despite their acidic condition. The C/N ratio does not exceed 20.

Sajedi et al. ( 2004 ) studied the humus of beech forests using the method of Green et al. ( 1993 ) and found that the most acidic humus forms are found in the Fagetum communities of Asalem, where the annual rainfall average is highest. Moving eastwards, the acidity decreases, while the biological activity increases.

Two humus forms, namely mull and moder, and six humus types, including Vermimull, Rhizomull, Leptomoder, Hydromoder, Mormoder and Lamimoder, have been identifi ed in beech forests so far. In comparison with beech forests of Europe, especially in the upper mineral layers like the A1 horizon, the pH of the Iranian beech forests with an average of 4.9 is slightly lower (Sajedi 2002 ).

2.1.6 Hornbeam

Hornbeam accounts for 30.5 % of the standing volume and 30 % of the stem num-ber in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran (Rasaneh et al. 2001 ). There are two hornbeams growing in the Hyrcanian forests:

– Common hornbeam This hornbeam can be found from Europe to the Caucasus and northern Iran. In the Hyrcanian forests, hornbeam is widely distributed from the plateau mixed with chestnut-leaved oak and ironwood up to middle latitudes (1,500 m.a.s.l.) mixed with oriental beech. It usually is a companion species that occupies the middle and lower storey in beech and oak stands (Fig. 2.13 ). In some degraded stands, hornbeam occupies all area and makes a temporary pure pioneer stand which becomes suppressed under other dominant species during the later succes-sion stages. It is a medium height tree, 25 m high, and some old individuals can reach up to 100 cm dbh.

Mixed with ironwood, hornbeam grows on relatively light and semi-deep cal-careous brown soils with a pH between 7 and 7.5. Soils of hornbeam habitats mixed with oak and beech are heavy and deep acidic brown and hydromorphus brown with a pH between 4.6 and 6.3 (Habibi 1985b ).


33

– Oriental hornbeam Oriental hornbeam is a short tree, almost 5 m tall, occurring widely at higher altitudes in the Caspian region. It is usually mixed with Caucasian oak. Most of the distribution area of this species lies between 1,900 and 2,500 m.a.s.l., where almost 90 % of trees are coppiced, producing six sprouts on average. Soils of oriental hornbeam habitats are usually shallow, seldom semi-deep, with loam to clay-loam and a pH between 5.7 and 7.2 (Rostamikia 2010 ; Rostamikia and Sagheb-Talebi 2011 ).

2.1.7 Oak

Oaks account for 8 % of the standing volume and 7.6 % of the stem number in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran (Rasaneh et al. 2001 ). There are several different oak spe-cies growing in the Hyrcanian forests (Djavanchir Khoie 1967 ; Panahi et al. 2011 ), but the following two are the most important:

– Chestnut-leaved oak The chestnut-leaved oak (Fig. 2.14 , left) is a light demanding tree and one of the most productive, valuable and precious species in northern Iran. It can be found from the plateau, together with other broad-leaved trees, in particular with box tree, up to 1,000 m.a.s.l., where it is mixed with common hornbeam. The upper distribution limit of this species depends on geomorphology, climate and soil; at higher altitudes it prefers warm and sunny slopes (Gorgi Bahri 1988 ). Chestnut-leaved oak makes up usually two-layered stands, with oak in the upper and

Fig. 2.13 A mixed common hornbeam stand in low land, Golestan province

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34

hornbeam in the lower storey. Since the habitats of oak are mild with less steep slopes and also have easy access, the oak stands have been harvested since centuries. Hence, nowadays the proportion of oak is less than before and the stand volume and natural regeneration ability has decreased dramatically (Marvie-Mohadjer 1983 ). Chestnut-leaved oak has a high longevity and some old individuals with huge dimensions (Fig. 2.14 , right) can be still found in protected forests.

The soil of oak habitats at lower elevations is usually semi-deep calcareous brown with a moderate texture and a pH between 5.8 and 6.8, whereas at middle elevations it is a deep clay loam to clay forest brown soil with a pH between 5.3 and 6.2. At higher altitudes rendzina soils (pH 7.3) and in fl at habitats hydromorphous soils (pH 5.1) are also reported for oak stands (Habibi 1983 ; Gorgi Bahri 1988 ).

– Caucasian oak This species grows only at higher elevations above 1,700 m.a.s.l. Individuals of Caucasian oak occur scattered between 1,700 and 2,000 m.a.s.l. but dense stands can be found between 2,000 and 2,500 m.a.s.l. The mean annual temperature and mean annual precipitation at higher elevations varies between 5 and 10 °C and between 400 and 600 mm, respectively. The climate in the Caucasian oak habitats is semi-humid with very cold winters; the dry period lasts 4 months in late spring and summer; therefore the growing season is short (Ebrahimi 2011 ; Sharafi eh and Sagheb-Talebi 2013 ). This species occurs on all geographical aspects and land forms (valley, slope and ridge) on shallow, sandy-clay-loam soils with a pH between 5.2 and 8.1. It can also reach big dimensions (Fig. 2.15 ): more than 2 m dbh and almost 25 m in height (Rostamikia 2010 ; Ebrahimi 2011 ; Sharafi eh and Sagheb-Talebi 2013 ). Akhani et al. ( 2010 ) mentioned the occurrence

Fig. 2.14 An individual chestnut-leaved oak in Loveh forest, Golestan province ( left ) and an old individual with dbh >2 m and an age of almost 600 years, Mazandaran province ( right )


35

of this oak in subalpine deciduous forest on habitats with particular topographic and orographic characteristics. There is intensive tree cutting, grazing and browsing there, and the subalpine oak forest is fragmented and open and receives more sunshine. Trees are small and open canopy intervals are covered by various montane steppe vegetation types of the Irano-Turanian zone with transitional scrubs and meadows of the Euro-Siberian zone. Sharafi eh and Sagheb-Talebi ( 2013 ) reported the presence of common juniper between the Caucasian oak trees in the uppermost zone of montane forests in Semnan province.

2.1.8 Maple

Several maple species are growing in the Hyrcanian region; of these the following two species are widely distributed in different parts of the Caspian forests:

Velvet Maple Velvet maple is one of the fast growing and productive tree species in the Caspian region that accounts for 5.8 % of the standing volume and 2.7 % of the stem number in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran (Rasaneh et al. 2001 ). Some individuals of velvet maple can reach large dimensions: 50 m in height and more than 2 m in diameter (Fig. 2.16 ). It is a light demanding species and can be found as individual trees or in small groups from the plateau up to 2,000 m.a.s.l. in different forest communities.

Fig. 2.15 An old Caucasian oak at higher elevation in the north of Semnan province

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36

This tree accompanies beech in the upper layer of most Fagetum hyrcanum forest communities where the soil moisture is relatively high but with suffi cient drainage. The soil of velvet maple habitats is usually deep, eutrophic and mesotrophic, calcar-eous, brown, rich in nitrogen and organic matter, with a moderate to heavy texture and a pH between 4.5 in deeper layers and 7.4 at the surface (Sagheb-Talebi 1999 ). Velvet maple (Fig. 2.17 ) is one of the most popular trees for plantations and restora-tion of different forest stands in the Caspian region, and is widely produced in nurseries.

Cappadocian maple Cappadocian maple is also a light-demanding tree but grows less fast than velvet maple. It appears as individuals and in small groups and better tolerates shallow, alkaline and dry soils than velvet maple. It accounts for 1.2 % of the standing vol-ume and 1.5 % of the stem number in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran (Rasaneh et al. 2001 ). The upper distribution limit of this species is a bit higher than velvet maple and some individuals have been recorded at 2,300 m.a.s.l. Cappadocian maple has usually smaller dimensions compared to velvet maple: it reaches 20–30 m in height (Sabeti 1976 ). The leaves and bark pattern of Cappadocian maple (Fig. 2.18 ) look different from that of velvet maple.

Caucasian alder Alder accounts for 9.1 % of the standing volume and almost 5 % of the stem number in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran (Rasaneh et al. 2001 ) and is one of the fastest growing

Fig. 2.16 A huge individual velvet maple growing in the Hyrcanian forests


37

tree species in the Caspian region producing long, branchless trunks (Fig. 2.19 ). It is a light-demanding species and can be found as individual mature trees or in small groups. While black alder has a limited distribution range in lowlands, from sea level up to 300 m.a.s.l., the Caucasian alder is distributed from the plateau up to 2,000 m.a.s.l. in different forest communities, where the soil moisture is relatively high, especially at valley bottoms (Sabeti 1976 ). Because of high light demand and possessing light seeds alder is the fi rst woody species that grows along forest roads and also covers bare areas after landslides or fi re. Hence, it may be considered a pioneer species in the Caspian forests. It is a tall tree with a small crown and the height of some individuals of alder exceed 40 m. In autumn the leaves of this alder usually drop off green and much later than those of other species. Just as velvet maple, Caucasian alder is widely used for plantations and restoration of degraded stands in the Caspian region (Mohammadnejad Kiasari et al. 2010 ).

Ash Ash (Fig. 2.20 ) is one of the rarer species in the Caspian forests that accounts for 0.3 % of the standing volume and almost 0.5 % of the stem number (Rasaneh et al. 2001 ). It is a light- dependant tree species that requires nutrient-rich, fresh soils,

Fig. 2.17 The long stem and leaves of a velvet maple

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

38

where it usually grows intermixed with other broad-leaved species. It also can be found as individual trees or in small groups on moist soils from the plateau up to 2,200 m.a.s.l. Ash in Europe is considered a tree with a low longevity, around 100 years, while in the Hyrcanian forests it can reach up to 80 cm diameter, a height of 40 m, and an age of almost 250 years (Tabari 1993 ; Sabeti 1976 ).

Ashes of 100 cm diameter are reported by Ortvald Erichsen ( 2012 ) from the Caspian forests (Fig. 2.20 ). With alder, ash makes the Fraxino-Alnetum community in alluvial lowlands, and with maple the Fraxino-Aceretum in wet habitats within the distribution area of beech forests. The soil of ash habitats is usually deep, moist with a good drainage, a moderate to heavy texture and a pH between 5 and 8 (Tabari 1993 ).

Ironwood Persian Ironwood is an endemic tree species that only grows in the Hyrcanian forests. It reaches to a height of 25 m and grows from the plateau up to 1,400 m.a.s.l. Ironwood accounts for 5.4 % of the standing volume and 10.5 % of the stem number (Rasaneh et al. 2001 ). Combined with common hornbeam it makes the Parrotio-Carpinetum association (Djazirei 1965 ). The soil of ironwood stands is usually a

Fig. 2.18 Bark and leaves of Cappadocian maple


39

shallow to semi-deep rendzina or forest brown soil. Ironwood has a very high potential to produce root suckers and coppice shoots, and therefore most stands are coppiced (Sabeti 1976 ; Khosropour et al. 2011 ). It possesses a hard wood which is used for poles in mining; it also is used as an ornamental tree because of diverse leave colors in autumn which turn from yellow to purple red at the same time and on a single tree. It is very common that the branches of ironwood trees merge and make artistic and picturesque scenes (Fig. 2.21 ).

Wild cherry Wild cherry is one of the noble, light-demanding and rare hardwoods that grow as individual trees or small to medium sized groups in the submontane forests of the Caspian region (Fig. 2.22 ). Cherry trees are usually found on warm and less steep slopes. A maximum diameter of 103 cm (Khanjani Shiraz 2009 ) and maximum height of 35.4 m (Mirkazemi 2009 ) have been reported for cherry trees.

The soils of wild cherry habitats are usually calcareous and deep, sometimes 120–170 cm, and the texture is a sandy-clay-loam to clay-loam with a pH between 4.3 and 7.1 in the western Caspian forests, while it is a silt-loam with a pH varying between 5.6 and 8 in the eastern Caspian forests. Investigations showed that there are differences between western and eastern provenances of wild cherry in the Caspian forests (Fig. 2.23 ). The western provenances from the moist region are

Fig. 2.19 An individual Caucasian alder in beech forest ( left ) and a plantation of alder in the lowlands ( right )

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

40

more restricted by pH and clay content of the soil, whereas the eastern provenances from drier regions are more restricted by sand and organic matter content of the soil (Sagheb-Talebi 2011 ).

Wild service Wild service (Fig. 2.24 ) is also one of the noble and rare hardwoods. It has special ecological requirements and grows as individual trees or in small to medium-sized groups in submontane forests of the Caspian region. It occurs in thermophile and dry forest communities, on north-western and western aspects from 500 to 2,000 m.a.s.l., but it grows best on north, north-west and north-east facing slopes between 1,500 and 2,000 m.a.s.l. with slopes of less than 50 %, on semi-deep to deep, calcareous soils. The soil texture of service tree habitats is loam to clay-loam and the pH varies between 5.6 and 7.2 (Pourmajidian 2000a , b ; Espahbodi et al. 2007 ). A maximum diameter of wild service of 100 cm is reported by Espahbodi et al. ( 2007 ) and a maximum height of 34 m by Pourmajidian ( 2000a ).

Fig. 2.20 An ash of high dimensions in Asalem, western Caspian forests


41

Large-leaved lime Large-leaved lime (Fig. 2.25 ) is a thermophilous, shade-tolerant species growing on semi- deep to deep, calcareous soils, from the plateau to above 1,500 m.a.s.l. on northern, northeastern and eastern aspects with slopes of less than 35 %. The soil texture of lime stands is loam to clay-loam and the pH varies between 6.1 and 7.6 (Sheikholeslami 2002 ). It accounts for 2.7 % of the standing volume and 1 % of the stem number in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran (Rasaneh et al. 2001 ).

Large-leaved lime occurs in forest stands with other broad–leaved trees, in particu-lar oriental beech in beech-lime forests (Sheikholeslami et al. 2005a ), or mixed with box tree forming the forest association Tilio-Buxteum in lowlands (Assadi 1985 ). Sheikholeslami et al. ( 2005b ) have measured lime trees with a maximum diameter of 255 cm and maximum height of 43 m.

Siberian elm Siberian elm ( Fig. 2.26 ) is a thermophilous tree species growing from the plateau up to 1,200 m.a.s.l. in groups and up to 1,450 m.a.s.l. as single trees. Although it occurs in the western parts, it is more common in the eastern, dry and warm locations of the Caspian region: in the eastern Mazandaran and Golestan provinces (Sabeti 1976 ; Yazdian 1995 ) where, with chestnut-leaved oak, it makes up the unique Zelkovo carpinifoliae – Quercetum castaneifoliae association (Naginezad et al. 2012 ). Siberian elm is mostly present at east-facing, calcareous slopes on brown soils with suffi cient drainage, and a texture of silt-loam to silt-clay-loam with a pH between 6.1 and 8 (Yazdian 1995 ; Mohajer 2010 ).

Fig. 2.21 A straight stem ( left ) and a picturesque scene of ironwood branches ( right )

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

Fig. 2.22 An individual wild cherry

Fig. 2.23 Position of different provenances of wild cherry and associated soil properties in the Caspian forests; output of a Principal Component Analysis

43

Italian Cypress Italian Cypress is one of the native conifers and it is a Mediterranean element. It is resistant to drought and grows in scattered populations on particular locations where it makes up an unusual forest community (Fig. 2.27 ) in a strip between 500 and 1,000 m.a.s.l. in the north of Iran. The largest area with almost pure stands of Cypress is 4,000 ha large and is located in the south of Chalus, central Mazandaran province. The climate of Cypress stands is sub- humid to sub-dry with a mild winter and summer drought. The longevity of Cypress is relatively high, more than 1,000 years, and it reaches to a maximum diameter of more than 100 cm and a height of 30 m. The soil of Cypress stands is usually a shallow and poor, calcareous marn with a high content of chalk and a pH of more than 7. It also grows on bare rocks, but the best growth conditions are provided on deep soils on north-faced slopes (Sabeti 1976 ; Rezai 1992 ; Zare, 2001 ; Hosseini et al. 2001a ; Mohajer 2003 ).

Fig. 2.24 A wild service individual in Gorgan, western Caspian forests

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

44

Yew Yew is a shade- and drought-tolerant sub-montane species, but individuals of this evergreen tree occur up to 2,800 m.a.s.l. in the Sangdeh region, Mazandaran province. Yew stands in Iran are protected and cutting is prohibited. Yew trees of 30 m high, 150 cm in diameter, and a longevity up to 2,000 years have been reported (Sagheb-Talebi and Lessani 2001 ; Zare 2001 , Hosseini et al. 2001b ).

Three forest communities of yew have been reported from Iran: Lauroceraceto-Taxetum at 1,400–1,700 m.a.s.l. in the Vaz-Noor region, Taxeto-Fagetum at 1,300–1,450 m.a.s.l. in the Savadkuh region, both in Mazandaran province, and Carpineto-Taxetum at 1,400–1,550 m.a.s.l. in Afratakhte, Gloestan province (Mossadegh 1971 ; Zare 2001 ).

One of the oldest and large areas of yew, almost 150 ha, is located in Afratakhte. In that region, almost 30 ha at Puneh-Aram, is a pure yew stand (Fig. 2.28 ), whereas the rest is mixed with broad-leaved trees including chestnut-leaved oak,

Fig. 2.25 An individual Large-leaved lime tree in Aliabad forest, eastern Caspian region


45

Fig. 2.26 An individual Siberian elm in Mazandaran province

Fig. 2.27 A dense ( left ) and a sparse stand of Italian Cypress on calcareous marn soil ( right ) in Hassanabad, south of Chalus, central Mazandaran province

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

46

common hornbeam, large-leaved lime, common ash, wild cherry and velvet maple (Lessani 1999 ; Sagheb-Talebi and Lessani 2001 ). Based on species composition, biodiversity, and physiographic variables, four different plants ecological groups have been identifi ed in Aftratkahte, including (i) yew with large- leaved lime tree, Alexandrian laurel and holly tree on northern aspects, (ii) yew with wild cherry, (iii) yew with chestnut-leaved oak, hawthorn and medlar on less steep, southern aspects, and (iv) yew with common juniper, common hornbeam and colutea on steep slopes at higher elevations (Esmailzadeh and Hosseini 2007 ).

Soils of yew stands are humic and brown, calcareous, rich in organic matter and calcium carbonate, the pH varies between 6.5 and 7.5, and the texture is moderate to heavy and often gravelly (Habibi and Lessani 1986 ).

2.1.9 Ecogram of Hyrcanian Tree Species

Ecograms are used for showing the present, potential, and optimum range of species, in which usually two signifi cant factors, soil water and nutrients (more or less correlated with acidity) are used as coordinates. Although trees may have

Fig. 2.28 A pure yew stand in Aliabad, Golestan province ( left ) and an old individual yew in Yakhkesh, Mazandaran province ( right )


47

similar ecological demands and tolerances, they occur together in different communities not because they react in the same way, but because they compete successfully in different ways due to differences in their genetic and physiological potentials. Different trees and shrubs having similar demands may exist in a given arid or wet environment, but they occupy different niches (Anon. 1990 ; Barnes et al. 1998 ). Figure 2.29 illustrates the ecogram of the most important trees and shrubs in the Hyrcanian region.

2.1.10 Management

Modern scientifi c forest management and administration is very young and forestry activities are still in their infancy in Iran. Systematic management of forests started in the 1940s after establishment of a Forest Department; however, the history of some primitive forest organization dates much further back into the past to the Qajar dynasty (1785–1925). In 1905, the Offi ce of road, railway and forests was established within the Ministry of Public Benefi ts. In 1920, the fi rst Offi ce of forest started to work within the Ministry of Agriculture. Preliminary forest inventory and survey of the Caspian forests started by Hans Schricker from Austria in 1923. At this time, Russian, English, French and Swedish companies were active in wood utilization from the northern forests of Iran, transporting valuable wood of

Fig. 2.29 An ecogram showing the relative positions of the main tree species that form the forests on soils of varying moisture and acidity in the Hyrcanian region

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

48

boxwood, walnut, chestnut-leaved oak, elm and velvet maple trees. In 1924, von Demhaagen, a German forest expert, was employed to provide forest management plans. In that year the Central forest organization was established. Forty forest guards were trained for 6 months by von Demhaagen and Schricker in 1930. In 1937, Karim Saie, the very fi rst Iranian forest engineer, returned to the country after his education in France and established a new forestry unit. Later he published a book about the forests of Iran (Saie 1942 ). In 1948, the name of the Forest offi ce changed to Forest Agency. The tasks of this reorganization included the establish-ment of forest nurseries, forest protection, prevention of charcoal production and the preparation of new forest management plans for coppice stands and later for the high forests (Javanshir 1999 ).

Many other foreign experts have worked in Iran. Hamilton, Austin and Mitland, British experts, who earlier worked in India, came to Iran to discover new wood resources for export to Europe. For a while, the French experts Janti and Pabo cooperated with Iranian forest and range experts. Since 1955, some American foresters took part in forestry activities. But none of them was as effective as the Austrian Schricker. He established the forest organization in Iran, lived 20 years in the country and died in Iran in 1943. He is buried at the Campus of the Faculty of Natural Resources of Tehran University in the city of Karaj.

In 1967, the Ministry of natural resources was established, but it didn’t exist long. In 1971, this ministry was dissolved and merged with the Ministry of Agriculture. At present, the Forest, Range and Watershed Organization (FRWO) affi liated to the Ministry of Jihad-e Agriculture, is in charge of rehabilitation, protection, exploitation and development of forests, rangelands and watersheds. The head of the organization is the Deputy Minister of Forest, Range and Watershed Management Affairs. The institutional structure of FRWO is com-posed of the North (Hyrcanian) Forest Deputy, which is responsible for humid and sub-humid forests, and the Semi-dry and Dry Forests Deputy, which is responsible for Irano-Turanian and Khalijo-Omanian regions. Land Affairs, Watersheds and Financial Affairs are the other deputies of this organization. FRWO has 32 provincial offi ces that are responsible for forests protection. Each offi ce has a few Forestry sub-units and each forestry unit is composed of a few ranger offi ces (Anon. 2005 ).

To plan, supervise and conduct activities, FRWO is comprised of many departments including Forest Management, Afforestation and Parks, Range Management, Sand Dune Fixation and Combating Desertifi cation, Extension and Public Relations, Training, Protection, Legal Affairs, Land Survey, Planning and Programming, and Institutional Affairs. The plans and strategies of the organization are to be approved by the High Council for Forests, Rangelands and Soil. Without approval of the High Council forestry plans are not enforceable. Some of the forestry plans are prepared by the private sector and they are implemented under supervision of FRWO (Anon. 2005 ).

Forest management today totally differs from the past, not only in objectives but also in philosophy. At the beginning, forests were considered exclusively for the production of wood or goods. Therefore, clear cut was very common for producing


49

charcoal and the Caspian forests were managed as a short-term coppice system. Afterwards, the uniform shelterwood system was almost the only system applied for about 30 years with the aim of producing even-aged high forest. Establishing pure homogenous plantations with fast growing tree species was the only objective. Present-day forest management in the Hyrcanian region gives priority to maintaining the natural complex forest ecosystems besides timber production. It means pro-tecting the soil, providing clean air, clean water and a healthy habitat for wildlife. Close-to-nature silviculture and managing forests in uneven-aged mixed stands for providing biodiversity and protecting the genetic resources are more favourable (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2009 ). Table 2.1 shows the present Hyrcanian forest lands. 1,100,000 ha amounting to some 60 % of the Caspian Forests are currently managed by governmental agencies, the private sector and cooperative contractors in 102 watershed catchments (Anon. 1999 , 2010 ).

Over the past decades, considerable changes have been made in forest man-agement and selection criteria have been reinforced based on an ecosystem point of view. Even-aged high stands have been changed into uneven-aged high forests, clear cutting in restoration areas largely has been stopped, spot cutting in limited areas has attracted attention and harvest rates have been diminished (Table 2.2 ).

In plantations, endemic hardwoods were replaced by exotic softwoods. Based on the same report, the average inventory per ha in the Hyrcanian managed (production) forests equals 280 m 3 and the annual volume increment ranges between 2 and 8 m 3 /ha depending on the species, site, age and stand density. Figure 2.30 shows the percent-age area, volume, and stem number of different inventory classes in this region.

Fallen trees volume is 6.4 m 3 /ha and damaged trees account for almost 42 % of the total. 53 % of the entire forest area lacks reproduction or shows poor reproduction. This may be attributed to intensive grazing. The condition of Hyrcanian forests with regard to grazing intensity is presented in Fig. 2.31 .

Table 2.1 Area of forest land in the Hyrcanian zone

Land type Area (1,000 ha)

Functional forest 1,323.0 Conservation forest 343.0 Uncovered inlands 43.5 Bush lands 268.0 Plantations 115.0 Scattered forests 87.0

Table 2.2 Variations in Iranian Northern Forests harvests over the last two decades

Year Area covered by forest management plans (ha) Harvest (m 3 )

Average harvest (m 3 /ha)

1989 659,000 2,015,000 3.05 1998 914,000 1,342,000 1.46 2010 1,100,000 800,000 0.72

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

50

weak grazing34%

moderate grazing14%

over grazing52%

even-agedstands12%

uneven-agedstands88%

Fig. 2.31 Grazing ( left ) and age status ( right ) in the Hyrcanian forests

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51

Figure 2.32 clearly shows the forest form, stand structure and stand density of the Hyrcanian forests. Oriental beech and common hornbeam trees compose 54 and 60 % of the stem number and standing volume of the Northern Forests, respectively. Over the past decade species like oriental beech, common hornbeam and large- leaved lime have diminished in volume while the volume of ironwood, Caucasian alder and other species has increased. Nine percent of trees in diameter classes thicker than 60 cm, including old and decaying trees, account for 50 % of the volume. Also, 58 % of the trees are healthy while the other 42 % are damaged (Rasaneh et al. 2001 ).

Over the past decades, even-aged uniform methods, particularly the shelterwood system, have been extensively employed for forest management. However, these methods have not been very successful in the North Iranian forests due to a number of technical and potential problems. The presence of livestock in all forests and failure in preventing their entrance into the regeneration area, improper felling, incorrect marking, dependence on natural advanced regeneration and improper utilization practices are among the main technical problems. Unfavorable annual regeneration, inappropriate climatic variations such as wet falls (harmful for ripening seeds on the trees), mild winters with low snowfall (decreasing the shelf time of the seeds), cold springs and late frost (harmful to germination, health of shoots and blooming of seed trees) could be noted as the main potential problems. Furthermore, frequent droughts, inappropriate soil beds with acidic humus forms, under-humid or over-humid site conditions, soil compaction due to the livestock presence, steep slopes that are unfavorable for seed establishment and germination, the naturally irregular structure of the stands and their incompatibility with the even-aged uniform methods also greatly infl uence the conditions (Amani and Hassani 1999 ).

Although the annual growth of forests varies under different ecological condi-tions, mean annual volume growth of the Caspian forests is conservatively estimated at some 2 m 3 /ha, which makes a total of four million m 3 annual growth for the whole area. In the past decades, the total wood harvest was two times bigger than the natural potential of the forests of northern Iran.

Since the beech forests are very important among the Caspian forests, most of the studies and investigations have been carried out in beech stands. The average beech volume per ha ranges between 480 and 740 m 3 in pure stands and 600 and 700 m 3 in mixed stands (Fallah 2000 ; Sagheb-Talebi and Schütz 2002 ; Hassani and Amani 2009 ). Moreover, one third of the total volume of the existing trees falls into the large size trees category (dbh >55 cm) comprising two thirds of the total stand volume (Sagheb-Talebi and Schütz 2002 ).

Observations and experiences indicate that masting occurs every 4–6 years in these beech forests (Etemad 2002 ). A dual masting cycle has been suggested to exist for oriental beech trees in Iran; a minor one with low amounts of seeds happens every 1–5 years and a major one with very high amounts of seed occurs every 4–5 years (Mirbadin et al. 2000 ).

Silvicultural studies indicate that the Hyrcanian Fagetum communities are heterogeneous regarding their silvicultural characteristics both in pure and mixed stands. Group forms are observed in stands. These even-aged young or old tree

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

52

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Fig. 2.32 Proportion of forest form ( top ), stand structure ( middle ) and crown density ( bottom ) in the Hyrcanian forests


53

groups resemble an uneven-aged structure at a larger scale. The results show that at 0.25–0.5 ha areas, an even-aged structure can be distinguished despite the irregularity and heterogeneity of the numbers in the various diameter classes. At a larger level, at more than 0.5 ha area, the numbers in the various diameter classes exhibit an uneven-age structure. The mosaics of even-aged and uneven-aged spots are hori-zontally distributed adjacent to each other in patches of different sizes. Although the curves and structure greatly deviate from the normal curves in selectively managed forests, there still exists a kind of irregular heterogeneous structure with trees in different levels and vertical spaces (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2001 ).

Based on the same study, beech trees growing in 200–500 m 2 area gaps show a qualitatively and quantitatively better reproduction. The naturally occurring gaps in the forest are not regularly shaped, though many have oval shapes. Studies have indicated that although the best quantitative growth of beech is observed in large gaps (>0.1 ha), young trees with the best forms are found in medium-sized (200–500 m 2 ) gaps. Therefore, it seems that a group selection system involving the removal of 2–4 main trees can be suggested as a sustainable management method for the Iranian beech stands (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2001 ; Sagheb-Talebi and Schütz 2002 ).

Fortunately, the revisions in forest management strategies have brought new ideas and improved the system for natural and man made forests. Applying other suitable silvicultural systems, such as the selection method in uneven-aged stands and the reduction of the wood harvest to only 700,000 m 3 /year, besides employing some 1,200 forest guards, also have had positive impacts on forest management. Charcoal production is limited and timbers are now further processed to high quality products such as veneer, MDF, plywood and particle board.

In humid zones, like the Caspian region, reforestation of degraded areas in lowlands and also at the upper limits of the forest (i.e. timber line) is given highest priority. Due to the importance of the unique relict ecosystem of the Hyrcanian forests, plantations with native broad-leaved species are preferred. The establish-ment of mixed-species plantations as well as seed orchards and nurseries equipped with new technologies and instruments is recommended. On the Caspian Plateau plantations of fast-growing trees like poplars and willows outside of the existing forest area are promoted aiming at the production of large quantities of wood for the pulp and paper industry. In the mountainous natural but degraded forest areas, plantations of native fast growing species such as alder, maple, wild cherry and elm should be considered in forest management plans. Suitable non-forest areas should be identifi ed for afforestation projects based on ecological-environmental studies.

2.1.11 Socio-economic Issues

A large population, traditional agricultural methods combined with using steep slopes for cultivation, a generally low output of land, the presence of livestock in the forest causing overgrazing, lack of infrastructure, low income (poverty) and low living standards are the most important socio-economical challenges in the country.

2.1 Hyrcanian Zone

54

People living in the towns and villages are very dependent on the natural resources like rangeland (grassland) and forest. 78,390 families are living inside or in the vicinity of the Caspian forests. They are faced with several economical and hygienic problems, and lack of other services. They need land for agriculture and rangeland for their livestock. They have a traditional migration system, in which they spend spring and summer at high altitudes and return to the lower altitudes in autumn and winter. The number of their cattle (cow, sheep and goat) is estimated at four million cattle units. Livestock are feeding on seedlings and other ground vegetation in the forests almost all year round. We should also consider the rural demands and illegal wood consumptions, which increase the total wood exploitation from the Caspian region. Wood requirements for fuel and household uses of these people are about two million m 3 a year, to which 160,000 m 3 should be added for house or hut construction. 52,000 ha of the Caspian forests have been degraded for this purpose (Anon. 1999 ). Charcoal production was a wood consumption system of very low quality and it was practiced for a long time.

2.2 Arasbaran Region

The Arasbaran forest site, previously covering a vast area, currently constitutes the limited territory of Kalibar, Ahar and Jolfa with an area of 160,000 ha in the northwest of Iran. This area is confi ned by the border river Aras in the north, the Sarab and Tabriz Mountains in the south, the provinces Ardebil and East Azerbaijan in the east and the cities Jolfa and Marand in the west (Anon. 2004 ). The Arasbaran forest zone is ecologically much less studied than the Hyrcanian forest zone.

This area is characterized by special climatic features, a high biodiversity, the presence of rare fauna and fl ora, and vegetation elements associated with various climates. Despite the limited area, 1,080 plant species, of which 97 woody species, have been identifi ed in the region (Javanshir 1992 ) and later this has been increased to 1,334 plant species from 493 genera and 97 families (Birang et al. 2001 ). This, along with the presence of a rare fauna and the fact that Arasbaran is a protected area of 78,560 ha that covers 56 % of the region, has placed the region among the nine Iranian biosphere reserves under the UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (M & B) program (Nahrli et al. 1999 ; Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2003 ).

Arasbaran thus has distinct fl oristic, ecological, wild life and cultural heritage characteristics and is the exclusive site for some rare Iranian species. It is the only habitat of one of rarest birds in the world called Lyrusus mlakosieweczi . Brown bear, leopard, wild boar, Eurasian lynx, wild goat, roe deer, Caspian snow cock, snow cock and pheasant are among the most important wildlife species.

The conditions of the region and the richness of its fauna and fl ora have resulted in various ecosystems and vegetation types in the region. However, the abundance of villages, the conversion of forest areas into farmland, the felling of trees for fi rewood production, husbandry and overhunting have extensively changed the


55

natural outlook of the region over the past decade. Rural road construction and unsupervised road construction in mountainous areas are other threatening activities in the region (Yazdian et al. 1998 ). The investigations of Alijanpour et al. ( 2009 ) showed that there is a signifi cant difference in woody plants biodiversity between the protected and non-protected areas in the Arasbaran forests. This confi rms the positive impact of 35 years of preservation-based management.

2.2.1 Geology and Soil

The mountain formation process in Azerbaijan has been infl uenced by two sets of factors: Tertiary geological activities leading to the formation of low mountains and volcanic activities giving rise to high and huge mountains. Generally, the geological structure of the region has the same characteristics as in central Iran. During the Paleozoic it was mainly a plateau area, but the region remained highly active in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic resulting in distinct unconformities and magmatic activities seen in volcanic rocks and granites. Young faults were active in the Quaternary (Khosrotehrani 1988 ).

Overall, the Arasbaran Mountains have been shaped as a set of irregular folds amidst three huge volcanoes, namely Ararat, Sabalan and Sahand, and recurring eruptions and earthquakes. The steep slopes in the northern parts have given rise to the development of plains and vast alluvial lands while in some parts, such as at the eastern slopes of the Aras River, which are diffi cult to access, gigantic rocky cliffs are observed. Soils are generally shallow or of medium thickness and parent rock is often exposed. Soil pH is acidic and becomes more acidic in denser forest areas. The main soil types are forest brown and calcic brown soils. Oak stands are often established on calcic brown soils with a pH value of 5–7.5, whereas hornbeam stands are found on forest brown soils having higher pH values, ranging from 6 to 8 (Abasloo 2000 ).

2.2.2 Climate

Generally speaking, the climate of the Arasbaran region is humid and cold (Alijanpour 1995 ). The climatic diversity of the Arasbaran region is due to the main mountain directions. Depending on their direction, winds bring in humidity from the Caspian Sea in the east, the Mediterranean in the west and by Siberian low pres-sure fronts from the north. The average annual rainfall is estimated to be around 300–600 mm, but the large number of foggy days and their hidden precipitation effectively provide an additional supply of water to the soil, especially at altitudes between 1,000 and 2,000 m. Moreover, the eastern part is under the infl uence of cyclonic and anti-cyclonic air movements which results in a higher humidity.


56

Cyclonic air, supplying 80 % of the humidity in the region, passes eastwards and precipitates when it meets mountains. The Caspian anti-cyclonic air streams move westwards and pass across the eastern Arasbaran plains and precipitate in the eastern parts of the forest region, resulting in a higher vegetation density and diversity (Anon. 2004 ; Yazdian 2000 ).

Information on temperature variation at three different altitudes in the Arasbaran forest region are presented in Table 2.3 .

2.2.3 Vegetation

The Arasbaran region, with almost 30 plant communities, contains vegetation elements associated with various climates and phytogeographical regions (Jalili et al. 2003 ). Figure 2.33 shows the frequency of phytogeographical groups and Fig. 2.34 shows the life form spectrum of plants in the Arasbaran protected area (Hamzeh’ee et al. 2010 ).

Table 2.3 Temperature variation in the Arasbaran region

Altitude Mean annualtemperature (°C)

Mean temperature of the warmest month (°C)

Mean temperature of the coldest month (°C)

High lands 5 12 −2 Mid-lands 8 15 1 Low lands 14 21 17

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Fig. 2.33 Frequency of phytogeographical groups in the Arasbaran protected area ( IT Irano- Turanian, PL Pluregional, ES Euro-Siberian, M Mediterranian, Cosm Cosmopolitan)


57

The most important woody plants at this site are the following: Caucasian oak, sessile oak, common fi eld maple, Montpellier maple, Hyrcanian

maple, foetid juniper, yew, Mount Atlas pistachio, Christ’s thorn paliurus, wild service, mountain elm, smoke tree, wayfaring tree, and dogwood (cornelian cherry).

Some of the above mentioned species such as smoke tree, wayfaring tree, foetid juniper and dogwood are restricted to the Arasbaran region.

Sessile oak ( Q. petraea ) (Fig. 2.35 ) usually occurs on northern and western aspects in lower altitudes from 650 to 1,500 m.a.s.l. The soils of sessile oak

Fig. 2.35 A sessile oak stand in Arasbaran

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Fig. 2.34 Frequency of life forms of plants in the Arasbaran protected area ( Hem Hemicryptophyte, The Therophyte, Geo Geophyte, Pha Phanerophyte, Cha Chamaephyte, Hel Helophyte, Hyd Hydrophyte)


58

habitats are forest brown or calcareous brown soils with mull humus, a loamy to sandy- loamy texture and a pH between 5.2 and 7.5. In contrast to the sessile oak, Caucasian oak is adapted to higher elevations, over 1,600 m.a.s.l. It occurs in a variety of habitats (Abasloo 2000 ).

Montpellier maple grows at diverse aspects from 800 to 1,700 m.a.s.l. on sandy- loam soils with a pH between 6.8 and 8.1, whereas Hyrcanian maple grows from 800 to 2,000 m.a.s.l. on slopes of all aspects except southern slopes, on heavier soils (sandy-clay-loam) with a pH between 7.5 and 8.2 (Barzegar-Ghazi 2011 ).

Cornelian cherry is a small tree that grows in mixed broad-leaved stands at Arasbaran on warm and dry slopes with calcareous soils, producing red fruits that are used fresh or dry as by-products in the region. The fruit production of this tree is estimated at 914 kg/ha (Ghanbari et al. 2010 ).

Yew occurs mixed as an understorey element with Montpellier maple, common hornbeam (Fig. 2.36 ) and oak, mostly on north-faced steep slopes between 1,000 and 1,700 m.a.s.l. in the Arasbaran region. The soil of yew stands is shallow with a

Fig. 2.36 Yew regeneration under hornbeam in the Kalibarchay region, Arasbaran forests


59

moderate to heavy texture, a pH around 8 and it is rich in organic matter. Because of heavy cutting during past decades, most of the yew stands are coppice, but regen-eration from seed is very common (Amirghasemi et al. 2001 ; Barzegar-Ghazi 2002 ; Ebady and Omidvar 2011 ). Ghanbari Sharafeh et al. ( 2010 ) reported that the number of yew juveniles in Kalibarchay and Elginechay in the Arasbaran region reaches to 520 per ha; 52.5 % of them had regenerated from seed; they were less than 30 cm high, and were in a good condition.

The Arasbaran forests occurring at altitudes of 1,000–1,700 m.a.s.l. are of the best quality. This is due to the favorable climatic conditions on these slopes for forest development and there is much less overgrazing than at higher and lower altitudes. Twenty two percent of the Arasbaran forests have a canopy cover of less than 5 % (Sajedi 2000 ). The altitudinal distribution range of the main species and their canopy density in the Arasbaran region are given in Fig. 2.37 . The percentage

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)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

<5 5-25 25-50 50-75 >75Crown canopy density (%)

Are

a (%

)

Fig. 2.37 The altitude distribution range of the main species ( top ) and proportion of canopy den-sity classes in the Arasbaran region ( bottom )


60

area covered by various canopy density classes for each of the main species of the Arasbaran region is presented in Table 2.4 .

Seventy nine percent of the studied sessile oak, Caucasian oak and common hornbeam trees in Sutanchay forest originated from vegetative propagation (coppice) (Abasloo 2000 ). The dominant species among the regenerating trees is hornbeam followed by oak. In young stands the proportion of oak, hornbeam and cherry is less as compared to older stands (Amirghasemi et al. 2001 ).

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Table 2.4 The percentage area covered by various canopy density classes for each of the main species of the Arasbaran region

Canopy density class (%)

Foetid juniper

Sessile oak

Caucasian oak

Common hornbeam

75–100 – 34 23 30 50–75 4 34 24 24 20–25 35 17 33 26 5–25 6 3 13 8 <5 55 12 7 12


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References



English Botanical

Aleppo oak Quercus infectoria Oliv. subsp. boissieri (Reut.) O. Schwarz var. boissieri

Quercus infectoria Oliv. subsp. boissieri (Reut.) O. Schwarz var. tenuicarpa (Djav. Khoie) Jamzad et Panahi

Quercus infectoria Oliv. subsp. boissieri (Reut.) O. Schwarz var. pfaeffi ngeri (Kotschy ex Tchihatcheff) Jamzad et Panahi

Almond Amygdalus spp. Ash Fraxinus rotundifolia Mill. Azarole hawthorn Crataegus azarolus L. Baneh oak Quercus ungeri Kotschy Bean caper Zygophyllum atriplicoides Fisch. & C.A.M. Berberry Berberis integerrima Bunge Birch Betula sp. Caucasian hackberry Celtis caucasica Willd. Common almond Amygdalus communis L. Common birch Betula pendula Roth. Common pistachio Pistacia vera L. Common sea-backthorn Hippophae rhamnoides L. Brant’s oak Quercus brantii Lindl. var. brantii Browicz

Quercus brantii Lindl. var. belangeri (A. DC.) Zohary Chestnut-leaved oak Quercus castaneifolia C.A.M. Christ’s thorn Ziziphus spina - christi (L.) Willd. Syn.: Arabian jujube Cotoneaster Cotoneaster nummularia Fisch. & C.A.M. Daphne Daphne mucronata Royle Elm Ulmus spp. English oak Quercus robur L. subsp. pedunculifl ora (K. Koch) Menitsky Euphrate poplar Populus euphratica Olivier

Chapter 3 Irano-Turanian Region

(continued)

68

English Botanical

False walnut Pterocarya fraxinifolia Land. (Spach.) Farash Tamarix articulata Vahl Syn.: Athel tamarisk Grapevine Vitis spp. Greek juniper Juniperus polycarpos C. Koch.

Syn.: J . excelsa M.B. Hawthorn Crataegus pontica C. Koch Hausknecht’s almond Amygdalus hausknechtii (C.K. Schneider) Bornm. Honeysuckle Lonicera nummulariifolia Jaub. & Spach Italian cypress Cupressus sempervirens L. var. horizontalis (Mill.) Gord. Jointpine (Ephedra) Ephedra spp. Judas tree Cercis siliquastrum L. Juniper Juniperus spp. Khinjuk pistachio Pistacia khinjuk Stocks Lebanon oak Quercus libani Oliv. Little cherry Cerasus microcarpa (C.A.M.) Boiss. Long-stalked oak Quercus longipes Stev. Mahaleb cherry Prunus mahaleb L.

Syn.: Cerasus mahaleb (L.) Miller Montpellier maple Acer monspessulanum L. Mount Atlas pistachio Pistacia atlantica Desf. Myrtle Myrtus communis L. Olive tree Olea europea L. Oriental plane Platanus orientalis L. Persian oak Quercus brantii Lindl. subsp. persica (Jaub. & Spach)

Zohary Pinnated oak Quercus cedrorum Kotschy Pistachio Pistacia spp. Poplar Populus spp. Rigid tamarisk Tamarix stricta Boiss. Sagebrush Artemisia spp. Sai oak Quercus saii Djavanchir Syn: Hairy oak Saltwort Salsola arbuscula Pall. Saxaul Haloxylon ammodendron (C.A.M.) Bunge Siberian elm Zelkova carpinifolia (Pall.) Dipp. Sumac tree Rhus coriaria L. Tamarisk Tamarix spp. Thorned almond Amygdalus lycioides Spach Syn. Amygdalus reuteri

Boiss. & Buhse Walnut Juglans regia L. White wormwood Artemisia herba - alba Asso Wild almond Amygdalus scoparia Spach Wild pear Pyrus glabra Boiss.

Syn.: P . syriaca Boiss. Willow Salix spp.

3 Irano-Turanian Region

(continued)

69

3.1 Plant Geography

During long geological periods, most of Iran’s surface was covered by the extensive ancient Mediterranean Sea – the Tethys, which expanded as far east as Central Asia and India. During the Paleogene and earlier, the land masses on both sides of the sea were populated fi rst by a mesic Afro-Malesian tropical fl ora (Chandler 1954 ) and later by a xerotropical fl ora similar to the tropical East-African savannas. As regards the desert fl ora, a xero- and halophytic fl ora, presumably the nucleus of the present Irano-Turanian element, existed according to Iljin ( 1946 , 1958 ) in Anterior and Middle Asia, already at a time when the latter was covered by a tropical fl ora.

Toward the end of the Miocene, the Tethys retreated from its eastern part and huge stretches of Anterior, Middle and Central Asia turned dry and continental and became open for invasion. The old xero- and halophytic fl ora could now occupy these newly emerged areas, and there intensive speciation has probably taken place. The ever-increasing drop in temperatures during the Pliocene, which led to the fi nal retreat of the tropical fl ora, favoured the development of this xerophytic type of the Asian fl ora. During that period and further on in the Pleistocene the higher moun-tains of Iran became inhabited by the Arcto-Tertiary broad-leaved deciduous forest which had a broader southward expansion than it has now. The Zagros forest was then considerably richer in Arcto-Tertiary elements as is evidenced by the very rare occurrence of Siberian elm, false walnut and chestnut-leaved oak in the Kurdistan Mountains. The ranges of the Central Plateau may have been occupied at that period by the present Zagrosian forest type and may have also supported a denser steppe- forest vegetation than they do today. Consequently, the area of the xero-phytic fl ora of Iran became more restricted during the Glacials. While the meso-phytic fl ora of the Caspian province persisted there because of the particularly favourable conditions of the local climate, the arboreal fl ora of other parts has been largely decimated; thus the Zagros forests, which were primarily of boreal origin, have become transformed into a dry deciduous Irano-Turanian forest.

It should be emphasized that Iran has not only been a centre of speciation for many taxa, but also a highway of fl oral migrations and irradiations from east to west and from south to north. From the Zagros Mountains many species of trees and shrubs (e.g. Lebanon oak, Aleppo oak, wild pear, common almond, azarole hawthorn, Judas tree) penetrated during the Pliocene, probably via the Antitaurus or Armenia, to the East-Mediterranean Mountains. Another long-distance migration was accomplished in the Pliocene by some species of the genus Pistacia . The wild pistachios, namely Khinjuk pistachio and Mount Atlas pistachio, reached Egypt and the Canary Islands via North Africa (Zohary 1963 ).

The Irano-Turanian region includes central and eastern Anatolia, the greater part of Syria, part of southern and eastern Palestine, a small part of the Syrian Desert, upper Mesopotamia, a large part of the Armenian Highlands, the arid and semi-arid areas of southern and eastern Transcaucasia, the Iranian Plateau without the tropical deserts, the southern spurs of the Hindu Kush Range, the southern slopes and spurs of the western Himalayas west from 83 o eastern longitude, and the entire vast arid territory from southern European Russia and eastern Transcaucasia up to and including the Gobi (Thakhtajan 1986 ).

3.1 Plant Geography

70

The Irano-Turanian Region has always been distinct from the adjacent Regions by a series of fl oristic and vegetational characteristics. Most of the Irano-Turanian Region is dominated by a continental climate, widely ranging in temperature. Rainfall in that area is confi ned to the winter season which is less extreme in temperature. Its central and eastern parts, however, have very extreme winter tem-peratures, and their rainy season is spring and early summer, to which the growing season is thus limited, while late summer and winter are generally resting periods. The local climatic differences are partly responsible for the differences in the fl ora and vegetation, which should be considered as relics of a former climatic period (Sabeti 1976 ). Floristically, the region is characterized by a very large number of genera, sections and species (Jalili and Jamzad 1999 ). Thus, 65 % of the Iranian species belong to the Irano-Turanian element (Sabeti 1976 ).

The fl ora of the Irano-Turanian Region is characterized by a rather high number of endemic genera and very high species endemism (probably no less than 25 %). The richest fl ora is that of the Iranian Plateau, and the most impoverished fl ora is that of eastern Central Asia (Thakhtajan 1986 ).

A high number of undescribed species in this area, such as in the genus Astragalus , have made phytosociological studies and the identifi cation of plant distribution boundaries very diffi cult. The most common life forms of Irano-Turanian plants are Chamaephyta and Hemicryptophyta. They include a large number of spiny xerophytic species, such as from the genera Astragalus , Acanthophyllum , Carthamus , Onobrychis , Alhagi , Dracocephalum , and many perenial herbs (Sabeti 1976 ).

Despite geographic and topographic variations, the presence of upland prairie and plateaus and mountain ranges in the area, a rather similar climatic regime dominates throughout this region. Low precipitation and a long dry season make this region very distinctive. Variation in temperature is very extreme, to the extent that the maximum summer temperature is similar to the hottest spots in the Sahara, whereas the minimum winter temperatures are lower than those recorded in the Mediterranian region. Thus, biological activities and vegetation growth ceases during long-dry summers and cold-dry winters (Sabeti 1976 ).

The Irano-Turanian region consists of two distinct vegetation zones: the western mountainous zone (the Zagros) with sub-Mediterranean characteristics and a semi- arid climate; and the central plateau zone (the Irano-Turanian) with a steppic arid climate (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2003 ).

3.2 Zagros Zone

3.2.1 Geographical Range

From a geographical point of view, the Zagros forests are divided into two main sections: continuous forests and diffuse forests. Continuous Zagros forest vegetation covers a vast area of the Zagros Mountain ranges stretching from the Perdane


71

(Ghabr-e Hossein) area near Piranshahr in the northwest of Iran (West Azerbaijan province) to the vicinity of Firuzabad (Fars province), having an average length and width of 1,300 and 200 km, respectively. These forests are distributed across ten provinces including West Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, Kermanshah, Lorestan, Chaharmahal and Bakhtyari, Kohgiluyeh and Boyerahmad, Ilam, Khuzestan, Esfahan and Fars.

Classifi ed as semi-arid forests, the Zagros forests (Fig. 3.1 ) with an area of about six million ha account for almost 44 % of the country’s forests (Anon. 2005 ). These forests are most important with respect to water supply, soil conservation, climate change and the socio-economical balance of the entire country. Seven fi rst grade rivers, carrying 34.5 billion cubic meters of water and accounting for 40 % of the total ground water of the country, rise in the Zagros Mountains and fl ow into the fertile plains. The existence of these water resources is directly dependent upon the existence of these forests. High ecological potential, especially the possession of rich water supplies, has resulted in a high population density in the region. 9.8 million people reside in this region, of which 1.5 million live inside the forested areas, extensively affecting the ecosystem (Anon. 2002b ).

Small forest stands, currently scattered throughout the provinces of West Azerbaijan, Kermanshah, Hamedan and Markazi, are an indication of a widely spread, continuous forested area that existed in the past. According to Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi ( 2003 ), the present forest stands include:

• Pessan or Marmishu forest in West Azerbaijan province : This forest stand, with an area about 5,000 ha, is located approximately 70 km north of Urmia city in a valley named Marmishu. Marmishu forest, nearby the border of Iran and Turkey, has the highest elevation of all of the forested areas in the Zagros zone. Oaks dominate this forest along with other species such as common birch.

• Silvana - Valley forest in West Azerbaijan province : Oak species dominate this forest stand. Birch is scattered as individuals or in mixed stands with oaks.

Fig. 3.1 Zagros forests in Baneh, Kurdistan province ( left ) and Dasht-e Arjan, Fars province ( right )

3.2 Zagros Zone

72

• Scattered stands of Saqqez city in Kurdistan province : These small stands with an average area of less than 1 ha each are scattered on the Zarrineh-Rud watershed near Saqqez city. The forest is a mixed stand of various species among which oaks, hawthorn, Mount Atlas pistachio and wild pear stand out.

• Gian forest stand in Hamedan province : This stand with an area about of 200 ha is located 20 km south-west of Nahavand city in the area called Sarab-e- Gian. Brant’s oak dominates this stand.

• Siah - Darre forest stand in Hamedan province : This stand with an area of about 5 ha is nearby the village of Siah-Darre, close to Nahavand city. Daphne dominates this stand with scattered individuals of Brant’s oak trees.

• Zarrin - Bagh oak forest stand in Hamedan province : This stand with an area of about 15 ha is located approximately 40 km south-west of Nahavand city and 15 km south of Firuzan city. Brant’s oak dominates this stand.

• Pirkashan pistachio stand in Kermanshah province : This stand with an area of about 50 ha is located approximately 90 km north-east of Kermanshah near a village called Pirkashan. This is a pure stand of Mount Atlas pistachio and about 500 pistachio trees are categorized as old and middle-aged.

• Sarab - e - Badie forest stand in Kermanshah province : Located north of Harsin, this forest stand has an area of about 50 ha and Brant’s oak dominates.

• Balutestan forest stand of Sonqor in Kermanshah province : Located northwest of Sonqor city near Balutestan village, this stand has an area of about 30 ha and Brant’s oak dominates.

3.3 Palaeobotany

So far, some paleobotanical studies have been carried out in the Zagros zone (Wright 1961 ; van Zeist and Wright 1963 ; Megard 1966 ; Wright et al. 1967 ; van Zeist 1967 ; Wasylikowa 1967 ; van Zeist and Bottema 1977 ; Bottema 1986 ; Wasylikowa et al. 2006 ; Djamali et al. 2008a , b ). Investigations on the vegetational and climatic history of southwestern Iran were initiated in 1960 in connection with archeological studies in the area by Braidwood. Several lake-sites were cored and a preliminary pollen diagram for one of the sites, Lake Zeribar, has been published (van Zeist and Wright 1963 ). Based on the palynological studies of the Zagros area reported by van Zeist and Wright ( 1963 ) and van Zeist ( 1967 ), a late Pleistocene (22,500 B.P.) sagebrush steppe, implying a cool, dry climate, changed about 13,000 years ago into an oak- pistachio savanna, as the climate became warmer. About 5,500 years ago the savanna thickened to an oak forest, presumably refl ecting an increase in precipitation or decrease in temperature to modern levels.

Until the beginning of twenty-fi rst century, the longest continuous pollen record from the Zagros region was from Lake Zeribar, western Iran (van Zeist and Bottema 1977 ), but this only extends back to the last glacial period (42,000 ± 3,600 14 C yr B.P.). Recently, a palynological study based on two 100-cm long cores from Lake Urmia in northwestern Iran, being the longest pollen record for the continental


73

interior of the Near East, provided a vegetation record spanning 200 ka (Djamali et al. 2008b ). The data provide the fi rst continuous pollen record covering the entire last interglacial period and the early to middle Holocene in the semi-arid continental interior of the Near East. This study shows that during both the penultimate and last glaciations, a steppe of sagebrush and Poaceae dominated the upland vegetation with a high proportion of Chenopodiaceae in both upland and lowland saline ecosystems. While Greek juniper and deciduous oak trees were extremely rare and restricted to some refugia, common sea-backthorn constituted an important pha-nerophyte, particularly in the upper last glacial sediments. A pronounced expansion in Jointpine shrub-steppe occurred at the end of the penultimate late-glacial period but was followed by extreme aridity that favoured a sagebrush steppe. Very high lake levels, registered by both pollen and sedimentary markers, occurred during the middle of the last glaciation and the upper part of the penultimate glaciation. The late-glacial to early Holocene transition is represented by a succession of common sea-backthorn, jointpine, birch and fi nally juniper and oak. The last interglacial period (Eemian), slightly warmer and moister than the Holocene, was followed by two interstadial phases similar in pattern to those recorded in the marine isotope record and southern European pollen sequences.

In another section of Zagros, a pollen diagram was derived from a 150 cm core taken from the shallow, hypersaline Lake Maharlou in the south-eastern part of the Zagros Mountains, SW Iran (Djamali et al. 2008a ). The pollen record shows that Brant’s oak woodland and pistachio-almond scrub dominated the area during the late Holocene. The record starts at around 5,700 cal B.P. with a dry period during which both pistachio-almond scrub and Brant’s oak woodland were at their minimum extent. This period was followed by the expansion of pistachio-almond scrub in the area and the spread of Brant’s oak woodlands at higher altitudes. An important occupation phase, characterized by the appearance of several cultivated tree species such as walnut, olive tree, grapevine and oriental plane, started at ca. 4,300 cal B.P., coinciding with the onset of the Bronze Age civilization of Jiroft in Central Iran. Human activities become very clear after 3,700 cal B.P. Around 2,700 cal B.P., extensive stands of pistachio-almond scrub became profoundly degraded, presumably under strong human pressure coinciding with the beginning of the Persian Empires. The maximum expansion of the Brant’s oak woodland has occurred about 2,100–1,700 cal B.P. This woodland remained relatively stable until 400 cal B.P.

Zohary ( 1963 ) presented a vegetation map of western Iran and Wright et al. ( 1967 ) described it (Fig. 3.2 ) as follows:

In this map, four major vegetation formations may be recognized: steppe of the Mesopotamian piedmont, savanna (steppe forest) of the Zagros foothills and of the mountains of the interior plateau, oak woodland of the Zagros Mountains, and steppe of the interior plateau. The oak woodland on the Mesopotamian side (the lower or outer side) and particularly on its plateau side (inner side) is marked by areas where human disturbance has left only groves or individual trees. The extent of the natural woodland must have been much greater in these areas before the times of disturbance. The map of Zohary shows that the inferred breadth

3.3 Palaeobotany

74

Fig. 3.2 Vegetation map of western Iran, slightly generalized from Zohary ( 1963 ). Numbers show locations of pollen surface samples in the four transects marked by ovoid areas (Wright et al. 1967 )


75

of the natural woodland (250 km wide, reaching to Hamadan) was greatest in the Marivan- Khorramabad segment of the mountains. The relatively low height of the ridges in this segment permits the deeper invasion of storms from the Mesopotamian side (Wright 1961 ). The adjacent segments along the Zagros chain are so high that they block the penetration of storms into the plateau area. This factor, along with a greater number of separate mountains on the plateau north-east of Hamadan, accounts for the broad protrusion of the map unit designated by Zohary as originally steppe forest, a protrusion that reaches like fi ngers entirely across the plateau to the Elburz Mountains and breaks the sagebrush steppe into two areas, that around Tabriz and that extending eastward from Iraq. The steppe forest (savanna) is now represented only by isolated trees or patches of pistachio or almond, the rest of the area having been modifi ed by cutting or other disturbance.

The savanna on the outer fl ank of the Zagros Mountains covers a narrower belt close to the oak woodland and has a somewhat different composition. Besides pistachio and almond, it contains Christ’s thorn and other plants that are dominant at still lower altitudes.

The steppe of the interior plateau, dominated by the white wormwood association, is confi ned to areas that are not only dry but also have relatively cool winters. The northern area extends from Tabriz westward in intermontane valleys to central Anatolia (but not to moister western Anatolia). The southern area extends eastward to Afghanistan, and in south-eastern Iran where the Zagros ridges are very low it almost comes into contact with the low altitude desert steppe bordering the Persian Gulf.

3.4 Climate

Precipitation : The rain and snowfall in the Zagros zone stem from fronts passing from the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea and occasionally from northern Europe towards the region. As a rule of the thumb, precipitation diminishes from the north to the south and from the west to the east. Precipitation mainly occurs in winter and averages around 400–800 mm, so that approximately 70 % of the total precipitation, and in some cases (Ilam) up to 97 % of it, falls in the second half of the year (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2003 ). This results in a long, dry summer. Based on De Martin dryness index there are four climates in the region namely humid, semi- humid, Mediterranean and semi-arid climates. Dry periods in the fi rst two climate areas last 4–5 months and in the two latter ones 4–6 months (Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ).

Temperature : Climate data indicates that the average annual temperature ranges between 9 and 25 °C depending on the latitude and altitude. The difference between the absolute maximum and minimum temperatures is absolutely large with some 50 °C reaching up to 74 °C and this indicates that the climate is highly continental. The number of frost days in different areas is between 10 and 149 days a year (Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ). Some climate diagrams of various parts of

3.4 Climate

76

the Zagros zone are given in Figs. 3.3 , 3.4 , 3.5 and 3.6 . The fi gures show that the dry period lasts between 4 and 5 months, despite relative good amounts of annual precipitation.

The analysis of the data collected from precipitation and temperature regimes from 1961 to 2003 revealed that during this period, the central parts of the Zagros, around Shahrekord in Charmahal and Bakhtiari province and Khorramabad in

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Fig. 3.3 Climate diagram of northern Zagros; Marivan in Kurdistan province

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Fig. 3.4 Climate diagram of Kermanshah in Kermanshah province


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Lorestan province, have become cooler and more humid with an increased number of frost days. But in the southern part of the Zagros the weather has become warmer and more humid and in the northern parts of the Zagros warmer and dryer. In both latter parts the number of frost days decreased (Masoodian and Darand 2011 ).

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Fig. 3.5 Climate diagram of central Zagros; Bazoft in Chaharmahal and Bakhtyari province

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Fig. 3.6 Climate diagram of southern Zagros; Sepidan in Fars province

3.4 Climate

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3.5 Geology and Soil

In the late Paleocene, land form changes and faulting were brought about by the separation of Saudi Arabia from Africa and its movement toward the Iranian plateau in the southern and southwestern parts of Iran. The Zagros Mountains consequently emerged from the sea. These deposits were then uplifted in the Miocene as a result of mountain formation movements. The region was then covered by magmas from volcanic eruptions in the Tertiary and in the Quaternary soil or alluvial deposits were packed on top due to soil erosion (Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ).

The major soil types in the region include brown soils, chestnut soils, lithosols, rendzinas and alluvial soils. The most abundant soil type in the Zagros region is forest brown soil. Lithosols and rendzinas have less depth, fertility and water hold-ing capacity as compared with brown soils and are generally found on moderate or steep slopes (Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ).

3.6 Vegetation, Forest Formations and Types

The fl ora of western Iran is relatively well known. Some botanists such as Boissier ( 1867 –1888), Parsa ( 1943 –1959), Rechinger ( 1963 –2012), Djavanchir Khoei ( 1967 , 1976 ) Sabeti ( 1976 ), Assadi ( 1988 –2012) and Mozaffarian ( 2004 , 2008 ) have written about the fl ora of the Zagros.

The dominant genus in the Zagros zone is oak with a diverse range of species spread across the area, but the highest diversity of oaks is found in the northern Zagros forests in West Azerbaijan and Kurdistan provinces (Djavanchir Khoei 1967 ; Sabeti 1976 ). Morphological diversity in oak species due to their widespread distribution, diverse leaf morphology, and hybridization, has resulted in many diffi culties in identifi cation, classifi cation and specifying the habitat boundaries of the species of this genus (Djavanchir Khoie 1967 ; Tucker 1974 ; Sabeti 1976 ; Jones 1986 ; Johnson et al. 2002 ).

The classifi cation of these species has been commonly based on the morphology of the leaves and the acorns which are among the changeable vegetative parts of plants. This easily can mislead botanists in their identifi cation of some species of oaks.

Various opinions have been expressed by botanists and foresters on the classifi cation of oak species. Some researchers have spent years to study oak species, including those of Iran (Parsa 1943 –1959; Bobek 1951 ; Jazirehi 1962 ; Zohary 1963 ; Mobayen and Tregubov 1965 ; Tabatabai and Djavanchir Khoei 1966 ; Sabeti 1976 ; Ghahreman 1990 ; Ghahreman ( 1975–2007 ); Tabatabai and Ghasriani 1992 ; Fattahi 1993 , 1994a , and 1997 ; Yazdian 2000 ; Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ; Mozaffarian 2004 , 2008 ).

Djavanshir Khoie ( 1967 ) in his Ph.D. thesis presented the most comprehensive classifi cation of oak species of Iran based on the morphology of leaves and acorns. In that classifi cation 25 new taxa of oaks were introduced, 19 of which belong to


79

the Zagros zone. His publication also stated that seven oak species which previously were thought to occur only in neighboring countries of Iran, were found in Iran. Out of these seven species, six occur in the Zagros zone. Overall, he identifi ed 30 oak species which makes his classifi cation of oaks the most diverse one with the highest number of species so far. Four years later, Menitsky ( 1971 ), in Flora Iranica ( 1971 ) edited by K.H. Rechinger, published six new oak species from the Zagros zone. Panahi ( 2011 ) and Panahi et al. ( 2012a , b , c , d ) have presented the most recent classifi cation of oaks; it is based on micro-morphological characters of leaves and pollen grains and the morphological characters of leaves and acorns. According to that classifi cation 12 taxa of oaks were mentioned from the Zagros region. Those oaks of the Zagros region were classifi ed as Quercus but in two sections, Quercus and Cerris , and belonging to two groups: lobed-leaved oaks and dentate-leaved oaks. According to this classifi cation system, the Zagros oak species and their distribution ranges are as follows:

(A) Lobed-leaved oaks (subgenus Quercus , section Quercus ):

– Pinnated oak ( Q . cedrorum ): This species is only found in small stands in West Azerbaijan.

– Aleppo oak ( Q . infectoria subsp. boissieri var. boissieri ): This variety is widely distributed in West Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, Kermanshah and Lorestan provinces.

– Aleppo oak ( Q . infectoria subsp. boissieri var. tenuicarpa ): Small stands of this taxon only occur in Baneh, Kurdistan province, mixed with Q . infectoria subsp. boissieri var. boissieri .

– Aleppo oak ( Q . infectoria subsp. boissieri var. pfaeffi ngeri ): This taxon occurs mixed with Q . infectoria subsp. boissieri var. boissieri throughout its distribution area.

– Long-stalked oak ( Q . longipes ): This species is found in small stands in Piranshahr and Khoy (West Azerbaijan) and Osku (East Azerbaijan).

– English oak ( Quercus robur L. subsp. pedunculifl ora (K. Koch) Menitsky): Individuals of this taxon grow in the Osku and Pessan valley of Urmia (West Azerbaijan province), between Baneh and Marivan (Kurdistan province) and between Khoy and Tabriz.

(B) Dentate-leaved oaks (subgenus Quercus , section Cerris )

– Brant’s oak ( Q . brantii var. brantii ): This taxon occurs throughout the Zagros forests, mainly in the northern and central areas.

– Brant’s oak ( Q . brantii var. belangeri ): Individual tree specimens of this variety were seen only in the northern and central Zagros in Q . brantii var. brantii populations.

– Persian oak ( Quercus brantii Lindl. subsp. persica (Jaub. & Spach) Zohary): This species occurs mainly in the central and southern Zagros.

– Sai oak or Hairy oak ( Quercus saii Djavanchir): This species only is found in the Mule Gale and Dashte Arjan forests, located in the vicinity of Shiraz, Fars province.


80

– Baneh oak ( Quercus ungeri Kotschy) : This species only is found in the Baneh forests, Kurdistan province.

– Lebanon oak ( Quercus libani Oliv.): It is widespread in West Azerbaijan and Kurdistan provinces.

Out of the above species, four species including Brant’s oak, Persian oak, Lebanon oak, and Aleppo oak have the widest distribution. Although from the taxonomic point of view, the two species Brant’s oak and Persian oak are identifi ed as two different species, in almost all studies carried out in the Zagros region they have been considered as synonymous and the name Brant’s oak has widely been used. Hence, in this book we also use Brant’s oak. The distribution of Brant’s oak, Lebanon oak and Aleppo oak is the main criterion on which the Zagros forests are classifi ed into two distinct parts: the Northern Zagros and the Southern Zagros forests.

The Northern Zagros, including West Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, Kermanshah and the northern areas of Lorestan provinces, is the exclusive site for Aleppo oak mixed with some other oak species present in this area, especially Lebanon oak. And the Southern Zagros, including the other provinces of the Zagros zone, is the exclusive site for Brant’s oak.

Aleppo oak forests continuously cover most of the northern Zagros in West Azerbaijan and Kurdistan provinces; however, at lower latitudes this species does not grow continuously and is found only in patches. For example, in Kermanshah province, gall-forming Aleppo oak forests are restricted to the Gahvare area, near Javanrud city, the Faryadras area near Osmanvand town and in Lorestan province it is restricted to the northern part in Shine area near Nurabad city.

Besides oak species, some important tree and shrub species occur in the Zagros zone, including Montpellier maple, Mount Atlas pistachio, khinjuk pistachio, wild pear, common almond, wild almond, thorned almond, Haussknecht’s almond, Caucasian hackberry, hawthorn, daphne, mahaleb cherry, myrtle, honeysuckle, cotoneaster, sumac tree and Greek Juniper.

The main vegetation formations in the region are as follows (Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ; Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2011 ):

– Oak : This vastest and most famous forest formation covers the slopes of the Zagros, mainly of the southwestern Zagros Mountain ranges facing the Persian Gulf. Continuous forests of this formation extend from 450 m.a.s.l. in Khuzestan province (the Godarland area near Masjed Soleyman city) to 2,700 m.a.s.l. in Kohgiluye and Boyerahmad province (Tasuj area). A distinct feature of this formation is the presence of the Italian cypress and birch along with oak. The most extended cypress forests of this formation with an area of 1,000 ha are located in the Tang-e-sulak area in Kohgiluye and Boyerahmad province. Pure stands of Italian cypress can also be found on the Bansul watershed in Ilam province with an area of about 2 ha and in the Zuaab and Chidan valley near Baghmalek in Khuzestan province. A limited number of birch trees can be found in the Pessan and Silvana valley close to Urmia city.


81

– Pistachio - Almond : On the hillsides of the Zagros Mountains Pistacietum and Pistacio - Amygdaletum appear. Their main taxa are the different subspecies of Mount Atlas- and khinjuk pistachio and several almond species. Almonds affect the natural regeneration of wild pistachio, because the seedlings of pistachio are protected under the spiny bushes of almonds. These associations are composed of Caucasian hackberry, Montpellier maple, little cherry, daphne, hawthorn and wild pear (Sabeti 1976 ).

– Greek juniper : This formation commonly occurs at the tree line of the Zagros zone at high elevations in Lorestan, Kohgiluye and Boyerahmad, Chaharmahal and Bakhtyari, and Fars provinces. It includes sparse juniper trees which are mixed with species of other formations of lower elevations. The upper distribution limits of this species reach 3,400 m.a.s.l., which is among the highest elevations of juniper distribution in the world, and include the slopes of Dena Mnt at the Pass of Bijan in Kohgiluye and Boyerahmad province, the Shahkooh area in Kerman province, and in the Aminabad area near Firuzkuh city in Tehran province (Ali Ahmad Korori and Khoshnevis 2000 ; Ali Ahmad Korori et al. 2011 ). The latter province is located in the central plateau zone but the other two provinces are located in the Zagros zone.

– Riparian formation : This formation occurs in strips in the valleys along the rivers in the Zagros zone. In this formation pure and mixed stands of various species, such as willow, euphrate poplar, tamarisk, Judas tree, walnut, poplar, oriental plane, are common and sometimes also other hydrophilic species, such as ash and elm, mixe with the species mentioned above or replace them. One of the most distinct characteristics of this formation is the presence of false walnut. The latter species grows in two areas in this zone: the Shulabad valley near Aligudarz city in Lorestan province and the Lart valley near Dareshahr city in Ilam province. False walnut is one of the main characteristic tree species of the Hyrcanian forest zone south of the Caspian Sea, and it is considered an important indicator species in the Zagros zone.

There are different forest types throughout the Zagros Mountains both as pure and as mixed stands.

Most of the habitats in the Zagros region are covered by pure or mixed stands of Lebanon oak. In the northern parts of the Zagros, Lebanon oak is more abundant on the northern slopes where it is moister and the soils are more fertile. It grows from 1,400 to 2,150 m.a.s.l. Throughout this range it usually forms pure stands at higher elevations and mixed stands with other oak species at lower elevations (Fattahi 1994a , 1997 ). The most productive forests are found between 1,600 and 1,700 m.a.s.l. (Maroofi et al. 2006 ). Aleppo oak is usually found on northern slopes as well but at lower elevations compared with Lebanon oak. Brant’s oak is more resilient and tolerant than these other two oak species and its geographic distribution is not lim-ited by elevation or aspect, and thus it is found at various aspects and elevations (Fattahi 1994a , 1997 ). However, pure stands of Brant’s oak are usually found at lower and mid elevations from 1,000 to 2,000 m.a.s.l. (Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ). Once the site conditions are favorable to other species as well,


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various mixed stands of oak-wild pistachio, oak-wild pear, and oak-Montpellier maple occur. Also, in the southern parts of the Zagros region, pure stands of Brant’s oak are the most widespread forest type. Mixed oak stands are not common because Aleppo oak and Lebanon oak do not grow in the southern Zagros. However, among the very few other oak species in this part of the Zagros, pure and mixed stands of Sai oak are found in small areas of the Dasht-e Arjan and Mule-Gale forests near Shiraz in Fars province (Panahi 2012c ). Mix stands of oak with other species than oak are found in the southern Zagros where oak is not the dominant species. Some of them include stands of pear-Montpellier maple and Montpellier maple-Brant’s oak. Oak is not the only species to form pure stands; other species such as wild pistachio, pear, Montpellier maple, wild almond and hawthorn also form pure stands (Fattahi 1994a ; Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ).

3.7 Site Demands of Some Main Trees

In the following, site demands of the most important tree species of the Zagros forests are presented:

3.7.1 Oaks

Our studies show that Lebanon oak is a low-demanding tree which prefers to appear on slopes with eastern and north-eastern aspects. The altitudinal range of this tree species varies between 1,400 and 2,000 m.a.s.l., while its optimum range is found at 1,600 to 1,700 m.a.s.l. The pH of the soils in Lebanon oak habitats varies between six and seven and the soils are shallow with a fi ne to coarse texture at the surface and at a deeper layer, respectively. The optimal site conditions for Lebanon oak are found in valleys where the soils are more humid and fertile, and hence where pure stands of this species are found. Under other site conditions Lebanon oak occurs mixed with Aleppo oak (Maroofi et al. 2006 ).

Mehdifar and Sagheb-Talebi ( 2006 ) reported that Aleppo oak occurs from 1,200 to 2,400 m.a.s.l. in the central Zagros. The soils at gall-forming Aleppo oak habitats have different textures varying from fi ne (loam) to coarse (clay) soils with a pH between 7.4 and 8. In general, northern slopes and vallies within the altitudinal range from 1,200 to 1,600 m.a.s.l. are suitable sites for Aleppo oak.

Brant’s oak is a low-demanding tree which in the central Zagros occupies areas between 1,400 and 2,300 m.a.s.l. and in the southern Zagros between 1,050 and 2,550 m.a.s.l. The texture of the soils in Brant’s oak habitats vary from clay to clay- loam and have a pH between 7.5 and 8.1. This species occurs on sites of all geographical aspects and landforms, but the optimal site conditions in the central Zagros is on south-western slopes between 1,800 and 2,000 m.a.s.l. Most of the


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trees show coppice regeneration which is an indication of severe human impacts (Talebi et al. 2006 ; Bordbar et al. 2010 ).

A comprehensive study of these three oaks in the northern Zagros shows that the distribution of Lebanon oak is more related to altitude, sand, and silt content of the soil (located on the right side of the fi rst axis in the fi rst quarter of Fig. 3.7 ). The distribution of Aleppo oak is more related to clay and slope gradient (located in the third quarter on negative sides of both axis 1 and 2) and negatively to electrical conductivity of the soil (EC). Brant’s oak is scattered over many different site conditions and shows a stronger correlation to CaCO 3 and pH (Khanhassani 2012 ).

3.7.2 Pistachio

Several studies report that the distribution ranges of pistachio species in semi-arid regions varies between 700 and 2,500 m.a.s.l., on slopes of different geographical directions but mostly on northeastern and eastern slopes. The soils in habitats where pistachios grow are usually calcareous lithosols of shallow to moderate depth with a fi ne to moderate texture and a pH between 7.2 and 8 (Pourshafi Zanganeh 2003 ; Tahmasbi and Fattahi 2003 ; Salehi et al. 2003 ; Ramezany et al. 2003 ; Zahedipour et al. 2005 ; Rad and Fattahi 2005 ). Figure 3.8 shows an old wild pistachio in the central Zagros.

Axis 2

Axis 1

Alt

EC

Q. libani

Q. infectoria

Q. brantii

Acer

Pyrus

Crataegus

Sand

Silt

Direction

%CSlope

Clay

Caco3

pH

++

+++

Fig. 3.7 Positions of species, environmental factors and soil properties in an output of a Canonical Coordinate Analysis of sites in the northern Zagros. EC electrical conductivity of the soil


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3.7.3 Montpellier Maple

Montpellier maple is a low-demanding, short tree or shrub (Fig. 3.9 ) growing from 1,900 to 2,700 m.a.s.l. and on shallow, calcareous, alkaline soils with a moderate to heavy texture. This maple can be found as individual trees or in groups of small to medium sizes, on all landforms and geographical directions, but it prefers humid vallies facing north and west and affected by the humid weather from the Mediterranean Sea. The soil pH in Montpellier maple habitats varies between seven and eight and the organic carbon content of the soil is usually high (Babaiyan 2001 ; Jahanbazi Gujani 2005 ; Khodakarami 2005 ).

3.7.4 Wild Pear

Wild pear appears in small groups and also in large mixed stands (up to 35,000 ha) with azarole hawthorn and honeysuckle in the Sepidan region (Fig. 3.10 ), Fars province, southern Zagros (Hamzepour and Bordbar 2002 ). Wild pears with a maximum dbh of 55 cm and a maximum height of 8 m have been recorded in this region. The distribution amplitude of this species lies between 800 and 2,200 m.a.s.l. but its density and presence is higher on west- and north-facing slopes between

Fig. 3.8 An old Mount Atlas pistachio in the central Zagros


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1,500 and 2,000 m.a.s.l. The soils in these habitats vary from moderate to coarse (clay loam to clay) calcareous soils, with a pH between 7 and 8.4, and a high CaCO 3 content. Land form and soil fertility are the most important factors for the distribu-tion of wild pear, while soil depth and the percentage of sand and gravel are among the limiting factors (Zohrevandi 2006 ; Hamzepour et al. 2010 ).

Fig. 3.9 An individual Montpellier maple in Kermanshah province

Fig. 3.10 Mixed stand of wild pear ( left ) and an individual wild pear ( right ) in Sepidan, Fars province


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3.7.5 Hawthorn

Hawthorn is also a short tree or shrub (Fig. 3.11 ) which occurs in moderate to cold semi-humid climates between 1,300 and 2,000 m.a.s.l. on slopes and in vallies of all geographical aspects. This species is usually found as individual trees or in small groups, but a mixed stand of hawthorn is reported in Tang-e Bazazkhane in Kermanshah province (Khanhassani 2006 ). The soils of hawthorn habitats are fine- textured (clay to clay loam), neutral soils, with a pH between 7.2 and 7.7. The maximum diameter and height of hawthorn is reported up to 41 cm and 6.5 m, respectively (Khanhassani 2006 ).

3.8 Ecogram of Tree Species

In Fig. 3.12 , the ecogram of the important species in the Zagros region is given. Because of the great competitive ability and diverse ecological demands of Brant’s oak, the other species, except the other two oaks, occur in small to medium groups in a restricted portion of their potential range only. Lebanon oak occupies the areas in the northern Zagros, where it is more humid and colder, while Aleppo oak occupies the central Zagros and southern parts of the northern Zagros, which is less humid and cold. Montpellier maple, wild pear and hawthorn occupy only special niches within the whole Zagros zone.

Fig. 3.11 Hawthorn in Kermanshah province


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3.9 Silvicultural Characteristics

Silvicultural characteristics of Zagros forest are different according to their formation. Three groups can be distinguished:

Coppice stands : These oak stands are characterized by sprout-clumps and currently are the commonest group of oak forests in the Zagros zone (Fig. 3.13 ). These stands are formed asexually/vegetatively through sprouting which is the most common way of regeneration in oak stands in the Zagros zone. The number of sprouts within each sprout-clump differs and depends on the species and on site conditions. It usually decreases as the age of the clumps increase due to the competition between the sprouts. Usually, the number of sprouts within each oak sprout-clump is between 10 and 30 (Fattahi 1994a ; Pourhashemi 2003 ; Valipour et al. 2008 , 2010 ) but it can increase up to 150 (Fattahi 1994a ). The potential of oak species to reproduce vegetatively, the fact that they frequently have been cut and harvested for many years, and the particular ecological and edaphic conditions in these ecosystems, are the main causes for the domination of coppice stands in the Zagros zone.

Coppice stands of the Zagros are usually single-layered and have a low average height. Moreover, oak species, especially Brant’s oak, possess the unique capacity to outcompete other species and form pure oak stands and, conse-quently, they have a low species diversity (Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ).

Fig. 3.12 Ecogram showing the main tree species that form the forests on soils of varying moisture and acidity in the Zagros zone


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The species density of these stands (the number of species per ha) usually is low and the canopy-cover density also is low, thus the ground surface is exposed to direct sun light in the major part of these forests. Direct and intense sun radiation increases the evaporation from the soil surface and increases the depth of the dry upper soil layer. Consequently, sexual regeneration of the tree species is very problematic and most forest stands lack seedlings or saplings. However, it is important to note that the acorn production of oak trees in the Zagros zone is good. For example, Pourhashemi et al. ( 2011 , 2012 ) reported that the average acorn production of each Aleppo oak in 2009 was 160 and that of each Brant’s oak in 2010 was 370 in the Baneh forests in Kurdistan province. For individuals of Brant’s oak in the Dasht-e-Arjan forests in Farsh province average acorn production was 750. Also, the acorn germination rate and vigour and its viability is relatively good (Ghorbani et al. 2005 ; Yazdanfar 2006 ; Shakeri et al. 2008 ), but because of acorn pests, low soil fertility and low moisture content of the top soil, and also because of intensive livestock grazing/feeding of the acorns, seedlings cannot establish in these forests (Pourhashemi 2003 ). Fast growth of oak sprouts, continuous harvesting of trees, and constant grazing of the oak sprouts from the stembase have gradually reduced the soil productivity in these forests. Coppice stands usually grow at lower elevations close to the villages where more trees are being harvested continuously for fuel and other needs. At higher elevations low temperature is one of the main reasons to impede sexual regeneration. The number of sprouts within each sprout-clump reduces with increasing elevation (Fattahi 1994a ; Pourhashemi 2003 ; Pourhashemi et al. 2007 ; Soleimani et al. 2008 ).

Coppice with standards stands : In the Zagros zone these are usually found at higher elevations than coppice stands and they usually include two layers. The upper layer includes seed-originated oak trees and the lower layer includes sprout- clumps

Fig. 3.13 Coppice stands of Brant’s oak in the northern ( left ) and central Zagros ( right )


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of oak together with other species such as Montpellier maple, wild pistachio, hawthorn, and wild pear. In some areas of the Zagros region, other species such as daphne, wild almond and little cherry also are frequent in the lower layer of these stands (Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ; Hosseinzadeh et al. 2004 ). The higher density of the crown canopy cover and the dual layer structure far better protect the soil from direct sun radiation. And, compared with the coppice stands, the combination of the deeper roots of the seed-originated trees and the shallow roots of the sprout-clumps together provides better soil aeration and increase the productivity of the soil.

High stands : These stands, comprising less than 10 % of the Zagros forests stands, are usually found in diffi cult to access and remote areas and can also be found on cemeteries in the northern parts of the Zagros. These stands usually have a high species diversity and often are triple-layered. The upper layer includes different oak species, the middle layer usually includes wild pistachio, wild pear, and Montpellier maple, with daphne, wild almond species, and cotoneaster under-neath in the lower layer. These are dense stands with a relatively dense crown canopy up to 90 % on some of the cemeteries such as mola-allah and Guromar close to Mirabad city in West Azerbaijan province. Old oak trees of more than 80 cm dbh and 15 m high are still found in this stands (Fig. 3.14 ). The presence of fallen leaves and humus on the forest fl oor, the deep and productive soil and the dense crown canopy cover provide suitable conditions for the natural regeneration of oaks and other species (Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ).

On average, mean annual volume increment in the Zagros forests is 0.5–0.7 silve per ha (0.5 m 3 /ha). Based on expert’s estimations and according to the information obtained from forestry plans, the mean volume is 10.4 and 13.2 m 3 /ha in the northern and southern Zagros, respectively. The minimum and maximum volume

Fig. 3.14 Old individuals of Brant’s oak in Kermanshah ( left ) and Lordegan ( right ), central Zagros


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per ha in the southern Zagros is about 0.1 and 117 m 3 , respectively, but it should be noted that the exceptionally high value was measured in a very special stand (Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ).

3.10 Socio-economic Issues

The human population living in the Zagros zone is about ten million, out of which 1.5 million are living within forests and have a great impact on the degradation of the forests. The number of cattle of the settled population and the nomads amounts to 14.6 million units in this zone. They feed on seedlings, ground vegetation as well as oak leaves and young twigs. 800,000 ha of rain-fed agricultural land with shifting cultivation (Fig. 3.15 ) cause some of the severest degradation and soil erosion in the Zagros zone (Anon. 2002b ). People are very dependent on forests and 80 % of their fuel wood demand is supported through coppice oak stands.

Also, as mentioned above, the traditional systems of agriculture and animal hus-bandry are some of the main causes of forest degradation. Clear-cutting of forests, especially in the past decades, the use of steep slopes in the mountainous regions, and shifting cultivation, resulting in low productivity after some years and thus the need to look for new lands, increase the degradation rate. Lack of water and estab-lishment of rain-fed systems instead of using new technologies for irrigation aggra-vate these problems.

The local dwellers are very much dependent on the Zagros forests, and thus these forests are currently being utilized for various purposes, most of which are not based on principles of sustainability of the ecosystems and are destroying these forests. The most important harvested products in the Zagros zone include:

(a) Non-timber products, by-products: The Zagros forests are very important in terms of production of a diverse

variety of non-timber products some of which are currently being traditionally harvested. Some of the most important non-timber Zagros forest products include:

Fig. 3.15 Rain-fed agriculture ( left ) and shifting cultivation ( right ) even under oak trees in the Zagros


91

• Gum The most valuable plant resin currently found in the Zagros zone is pistachio resin or gum. Saqqez is the local name for the relatively thick and sticky fl owing resin exudates excreted from scars cut into wild pistachio trunks during the growing season. The resin becomes stiff later in the cold season. This syrup is initially bitter, but gets better after boiling a few times in water and can be chewed as a gum. Harvesting Saqqez in Zagros forests happens every 3 years. Traditionally, Saqqez harvesting starts in early June. At that time the harvesting group uses an ax for cutting alternatively zigzagging scars for tapping. Usually, each tree is tapped from10 to 15 scars. The scars have no specifi c direction on the trunk and are irregular. Trees should be left to restore during 2 years before they can be re-tapped. For tapping small clay pots are attached to the trunk underneath the scars (Fig. 3.16 ). The excreted syrup fl owing into these pots will be collected according to a specifi c time table and is processed traditionally. The fi nal product, so-called white Saqqez, will be sold as a gum or will be manufactured further into turpentine and colophon, each of which can be processed into many other products. Turpentine is used in different industries such as make-up products, pesticides, and paint. Colophon is used in various industries too such as gum production, plastic manufacturing, and printing (Eslami Manuchehri 1992 ). The net income from the collection of 1 kg Saqqez in villages around Kamyaran city in Kurdistan province varies from 57,040 to 80,000 rial (Mahdavi et al. 2008 ; Seyyed Akhlaghi 2011 ).

In addition to Saqqez, wild pistachio excretes a natural syrup called Mastaki or Mastic which is collected from the bark or from the soil surface near the tree. However, this product has a lower value than Saqqez because it is often mixed with bark particles, dust and soil particles and also most of its turpentine is lost which reduces its quality. Mastic gum is usually used in production of air fresheners and sanitizers (Eslami Manuchehri 1992 ).

Fig. 3.16 Small clay pots attached underneath the scars to the trunk of Mount Atlas pistachio ( left ) and the syrup excreted into these pots ( right ), Kurdistan province


92

• Gall Galls are abnormal outgrowths of plant tissues, especially leaves and branches, caused by various parasites, from fungi and bacteria, to insects and mites, and can have various forms (cited by Pourshafi Zangane 1993 ). Most of the galls are caused by bees from the Cynipidae family which can produce a high num-ber of galls on oaks (about 80 %) and also on species of the Rosaceae family. Galls in the Zagros forests are formed both on oaks and wild pistachio, but they are more diverse and play a more important role in oak forests. So far, 40 different types of galls have been identifi ed on oak trees in the Zagros zone with Aleppo oak (also called gall oak) being the main and Brant’s oak the second most important hosts (Fig. 3.17 ; Sadeghi et al. 2009 ). Form, size, colour, inside characteristics and their arrangements on the host differ among oak species and are species- specifi c. Galls are important for their high tannin and tannic acid contents and are used in the manufacturing of permanent ink, leather tanning, dyeing, wood glue, protection of iron and steel rods from rusting, stabilization of fi laments, oil-well excavation, oil fi ltration, and in medical products.

According to the existing statistics, the Mazuj gall, which is the most important gall in Iran and is found in the Zagros zone, has the highest tan-nin content. When still green, Mazuj galls contain 72 % tannin and it

Fig. 3.17 Different Galls on leaves ( top left and bottom right ) and branches ( top right and bottom left ) of Aleppo or gall oak


93

increases to 76 % after ripening in white Mazuj. Kharnuk and Sichka galls have the second and third highest tannin contents with 60 and 55 %, respectively (Pourshafi Zangane 1993 ). The only gall being harvested is Mazuj gall. Forest dwellers harvest green Mazuj gall in mid summer for 20–25 days and then continued with harvesting white Mazuj gall for 1–1.5 months.

• Manna Manna is a sweet, sticky, and sugar-like exude from some plant parts in response to the insect activities. The most valuable mannas in the Zagros forests are called Gazu and Shoke. Gazu is found on leaves of the Aleppo oak and Shoke on acorns of Brant’s oak (Pourshafi Zangane 1993 ). Gazu is a sweet manna type excreted in response to the bite of an aphid on oak, willow and wild pear, but currently only the Gazu from oak species has commercial value. This substance appears as a slightly sweet syrup on leaves of the Aleppo oak towards the end of spring and its production reaches its maximum rate within a few days. To harvest Gazu all the branches with Gazu get cut off and left untouched on the ground for a few days until they are dry. Then, using woody sticks, leaves are separated from branches and subsequently the syrup on the leaves will be separated from leaves by hitting the leaves with sticks. The Gazu gathered through this process then will be sieved to remove remaining leaf parts and other particles. Gazu is used in cooking to make various local foods such as Halva and also a specifi c local breakfast. The Gazu left over on the leaves is used to make Dushaab which is a dark brown syrup made by boiling Gazu in water. Usually, 60–70 kg of leave particles make 20 kg of Dushab (Fattahi 1994c ).

Shoke also is a sweet manna which is formed on the acorns of Brant’s oak, only in the southern Zagros. This substance is harvested in September when the acorns are fully ripe. The acorns are put into boiling water and kept there for about one minute, in order to dissolve the sweet manna in the hot water. The solution is sieved to remove the acorns and then it is boiled again. After evaporation of the water the remaining sweet, light brown and honey-like substance is called Shoke. It is used with butter at breakfast (Pourshafi Zangane 1993 ).

• Oil The oil from wild pistachio is one of the most important non-timber forest products in the Zagros forests and its nutrition value is similar to that of olive and peanut oils. This oil has saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and is considered a valuable food source. Pistachio oil is extracted mechanically or by using a soxhlet; more oil is extracted by using the latter technique. The remaining product from wild pistachio after extracting the oil is called seed meal and is used as food for livestock and fowl because of its high nutritional value and good taste. Esmaeil Khanian and Emadi ( 1995 ) have estimated that the oil and seed meal contents of wild pistachio are 25 and 75%, respectively. In Ilam province, the average annual production of pistachio oil and seed meal are 5 kg and 30 kg/ha, respectively (Hosseinzade 1996 ). In another study it is


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reported that all wild pistachio trees in the entire Chaharmahal and Bakhtyari province are capable of jointly producing 1,282 ton of oil every 2 years using the soxhlet technique. The net income from seed meal and pistachio oil in this province for a 2-year period is about 380 billion rials (Jahanbazi Gujani 2012 ).

• Edible forest fruits Edible wild fruits in the Zagros zone are rather diverse and are traditionally harvested. Each year in spring, wild pistachio trees, aged 10 years and older, produce abundant fruit clusters of fi ne fruits. Ripening happens in mid June. Before the fruits are ripe, they get collected in early May. Wild pistachio has many applications. Fresh fruits with a green skin are used in pickles and jams. Also, in many parts of western Iran, fruits are split in half and are used in winter time to make a special syrup called Khushaab or Khushaav. Wild pis-tachio fruits have many applications in traditional medicine. The green skin of the fruits has a high tannin content and is used in the paint industry. In villages the fruits are used as nuts in snacks after their hard crust has been broken. The tasty seeds are also used in dishes with rice, in Halva and other kinds of food. The average seed production of wild pistachio is variable. For example, the average seed production in the Sarchehan and Mianjangal areas in Fars prov-ince is 13.4 and 7 kg per tree, respectively (Nemati and Bordbar 2003 ), and it is 9.9 kg in the forests of Ilam province (Hosseinzade 1996 ). Seed production of wild pistachio trees in the entire Chaharmahal and Bakhtyari province has been estimated at a total of about 6,692 ton in 2006 (Jahanbazi Gujani et al. 2006 ) and about 4,674 ton in 2012. Seeds can be harvested every 2 years (Jahanbazi Gujani 2012 ).

Acorns are among the edible forest fruits that have been used since ages. Brant’s oak acorns are sometimes grinded into a fl our to bake a type of bread called “Baru bread”. The acorns are a food source for livestock as well. For this purpose, acorns get buried in the ground and later in winter they are used as a food source for livestock (Tabatabai and Ghasriani 1992 ). The acorn pro-duction of oak is considerable because of the abundance of oak species in the Zagros forests. For example, Marjani et al. ( 1982 ) have estimated the acorn production of each Brant’s oak tree in Kohgiluyeh and Boyerahmad province to be around 20 kg and about 200–600 kg/ha. Safari ( 1982 ) has reported this value for the same species in the same region to be 10–100 kg. Ghorbani et al. ( 2005 ) has estimated the average seed production of Brant’s oak in Ilam prov-ince at about 600 kg/ha.

Also, fruits from hawthorn, almond, pear, sumach, cotoneaster, plums and walnut are among the edible forest fruits in the Zagros zone. For example, in villages of Kamyaran city in Kurdistan province, 16 non-timber forest products are being harvested every year (Mahdavi et al. 2008 ; Mahdavi et al. 2011 ). Non-timber forest products make up 3.8 % of the local’s annual income (Mahdavi et al. 2011 ). Wild rose petals, and the leaves of wild pistachio and oak are also products of these forests and are harvested in the traditional way.


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• Wood products Coppice stands make up most of the Zagros forests. Thus, high quality and commercial wood is lacking, and the main types of wood products that are harvested traditionally by the local communities include fuel wood, wood for charcoal production, lumber for construction and wood pieces for handcrafts. Most of this wood is obtained from different oak species. Statistics show that each tribal family in the Zagros zone uses daily 10–15 kg and annually 4,500 kg of fuel wood (Porhemmat and Parikhi 1996 ). In a study conducted in Doveyse village near Marivan city in Kurdistan province, with 67 families and a population of 392 people, 3,560 m 3 of wood was used in home construction and 202 m 3 for stables. In this area, houses need repair every 15 years and stables every 5 years. Also, 60 loads of fuel wood are needed annually for cooking and heating. Each load of fuel wood is about 100 kg, thus the total fuel wood being used by this village is estimated at about 402 ton/year (Anon. 2002a ). In another village, Havalekhol near Baneh city in Kurdistan province, with 33 tribal families, 88 % of families used fi rewood as fuel and their annual fuel wood consumption was estimated at about 497 m 3 which equals 832 mule loads or 115 ton (Bayazidi and Jamshidian 2005 ).

Charcoal is produced offi cially and illegally. The offi cial production is in accordance with a charcoal production plan. The fi rst license for charcoal production from oak trees dates back to 1955 in Meymand, Yasuj region. Most of the charcoal production plans were made between 1967 and 1972 in different parts of the Zagros, such as the Monj-Lordegan plan in Chaharmahal and Bakhtyari province, Garan-Marivan in Kurdistan province, Shadman in West Azerbaijan province, and Sadat Mahmudi in Kohgiluye and Boyerahmad province (Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ). Fortunately, charcoal production was stopped offi cially in 1973, but the illegal form still continues. Unfortunately no exact data and information is available on illegal charcoal production.

• Livestock grazing Village or regional livestock feed in the Zagros forests throughout the whole year whereas nomadic livestock feeds in the Zagros forests for only half of the year (Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ).

Over a 3 month grazing period, the number of livestock is four times larger than the pasture capacity. The low pasture capacity leads to the livestock eating all the existing biomass and the subsequent forage shortage results in the incursion of a good deal of the livestock into the forests. According to the statistics presented by the State Bureaus of Natural Resources (Anon. 2002b ) there are 14.6 million stationary and nomadic livestock units feeding on the Zagros forests every year. Forest understory forage constitutes a negligible proportion of the total feedstock and the livestock generally feed on leaves, fruits and young branches of living trees or felled trees and humus. This has led to the gradual disappearance of wildlife due to food supply restrictions, degradation of the soil bed and its organic surface materials and the subse-quent shortage of food elements and soil erosion.


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In the cold regions with great snowfall in the northern Zagros, such as Baneh in Kurdistan province, the fi nancial reliance of local communities on their livestock has made them highly dependent on their surrounding forest resources. Thus, a kind of traditional knowledge of forest management was locally developed that enables the local communities, at a family scale, to continue to survive by sustainable and continuous ways of harvesting forest resources (Ghazanfari et al. 2004 ). In this form of traditional forest manage-ment, each family manages the upper layer of the coppice forest, including tree trunks and canopy, in such a way that the trees in that layer are kept even-aged, while their management of the lower layers near the ground does not aim to keep those layers even-aged. This method is practiced within a specifi c area governed by a tradition called Galajar which obtains the needs of forage for livestock, fuel wood and construction wood using such an orderly system over time and space (Ghazanfari et al. 2003 ).

In an even-aged coppice system, pollarding and harvesting of the oak shoots is carried out through a traditional process called Galazani to collect forage for livestock. Galazani starts on September 5th and continues until October 5th. The owner of each Galajar, usually divides his land into three sections to harvest each section in a rotation of 3 years. Thus the harvesting rotation cycle is 3 years in Galazani (Fattahi 1994b ; Pourhashemi et al. 2004 ). The collected shoots and branches get piled up, usually on tree stems, and the piles are called Luye Gala (Fig. 3.18 ). Each Luye Gala includes 50–350 clusters or Bakhe and each Bakhe includes 4–12 oak branches with leaves on them. Each Luye Gala consists of branches from 20 to 60 trees. In winter, the livestock are taken to the forest and fed from the Luye Galas. During extremely cold conditions, the villagers carry the Luye Galas to the village to feed their livestock (Fattahi 1994b ). Among the oak species, pollarding of Lebanon oak and Aleppo oak is more popular because of their palatable taste compared to Brant’s oak.

Fig. 3.18 Pollarding of oak trees ( left ) and a Luye Gala ( right ), Kurdistan province


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Frequent and constant Galazani has a signifi cant effect on the structure of these forests. Reduction in species diversity, stand density, crown canopy cover, average stand height, natural regeneration, and stand structural diversity are among the negative effects of Galazani on forest ecosystems (Heidari 2005 ; Shakeri 2006 ; Salehian 2009 ; Rostami Jalilian 2010 ; Ranjbar 2011 ).

• Rain-fed agriculture underneath trees Based on the information obtained from the Bureaus of Natural Resources in the Zagros region (Anon. 2002b ) there are approximately 800,000 ha rain-fed farms in the Zagros forests and these are the main centers of soil erosion.

Throughout this area, traditionally, the forest fl oor is being ploughed using tractors or domestic animals and agricultural products such as wheat or barley are sown and grow up on rainfall. This continuous agro-forestry and cultivation of crops on the forest fl oor reduces soil productivity and exhausts the soil, and thus the production declines. On the other hand, without understory vegetation, soils erode very fast.

For instance, in the Bazoft River basin in Chaharmahal and Bakhtyari province, total soil erosion due to rain-fed farming has been estimated to be around 16 ton every year (Jazirehi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2003 ).

Flat lands are preferred in choosing lands for rain-fed agriculture; but farming is not restricted to fl at lands and farming on steep slopes has become common in many areas in the Zagros zone. Unfortunately, plowing on steep slopes in wrong directions (downslope instead of along contours) intensifi es soil erosion. In addition, farming the forest fl oor changes the soil fauna and reduces microbial and meso – and microfaunal diversity. Burning crop residues after the harvest which is traditionally done to improve the top soil sometimes initiates big fi res and disturbs the ecosystem.

• Construction activities and development projects Construction of dams and roads are among the most important constructional activities greatly affecting the Zagros forests. In recent years, many valuable trees in the Zagros zone have been cut to build highways and roads between cities. For example, in order to build the Khoramabad-Polezal highway with a length of 104 km a width of 26 m, 130 km of access roads have been built and 52 million m 3 has been excavated.

Dam construction also has caused damage to the Zagros forests. For exam-ple, the Karkhe dam in Khuzestan province ruined 160 km 2 of forests and rangelands in the Zagros region. To supply water for Karoun and Masjed Soleyman in Khuzestan province and Seymare in Ilam province, 540 and 70 km 2 , respectively, of the Zagros forests will be fl ooded. Many more dams, such as the Garan near Marivan city in Kurdistan province, which have been built or currently are being constructed, should be added to this list.

The exploitation of various kinds of rock, sand and gravel quarries in the Zagros zone, and also oil and gas pipelines crossing the Dena Protected Area in Kohgiluye and Boyerahmad province have caused a lot of damage to these forests.


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• Land use change from forests to agricultural lands and gardens This is one of the most common activities in the Zagros forest region. The large number of inhabitants, limited agricultural lands and poverty are among the most important reasons for changes in land use from forests to agricultural lands and gardens (Fig. 3.19 ). Transformation of land happens much faster for pieces of land near villages that are less steep and more productive and this eventually expands to other oak forests on steep rocky slopes further away from villages. Implying this land use transformation, the villagers cut the land clear of all trees and shrubs, burn the stumps, and plough the land; however, they abandon the land after a few years, since the forest soils are not usually useful for farming and they are too stony, and they move to a new piece of land and start the process all over again.

Apart from all the infl uences and affects discussed above, some other factors have contributed to the over-utilization and degradation of the Zagros forests. These include poverty, shortage of regional opportunities (i.e. lack of scientifi c and cultural centers and industrial facilities, resulting in high unemployment in the region), the 10-year war between Iraq and Iran, low literacy, a predominance of subsistence livelihoods and daily dependence on forests resources (Pourhashemi et al. 2004 ).

3.11 Irano-Turanian Zone

3.11.1 Geographical Range

The area of this zone measures 4,500,000 ha and it accounts for almost 32.5 % of the country’s forests (Anon. 2005 ). This region includes the entire central Iranian plateau stretching from the southern slopes of the Alborz mountains in the north to

Fig. 3.19 Land use changes from forest to agricultural land. Forest has been clear-cut and trans-formed into agricultural land near a village in Chaharmahal and Bakhtyari province ( left ); few stems are kept standing in agricultural land on less steep slopes in Kermanshah province ( right )


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the slopes of the Zagros mountains in the west and south and to the borders of Iran with Afghanistan and the former Soviet Union, extending northwestwards to Azerbaijan (Mobayen and Tregubov 1970 ; Assadi 1988 ). The Turanian Biosphere Reserve, one of the nine Iranian biosphere reserves with an area of 1.8 million ha, is located in this region (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2003 ; Sagheb-Talebi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2011 ). So far, 604 plant species have been recorded in this reserve of which 46 species are endemic (Asri et al. 2000 ; Asri 2003 ).

3.12 Climate

In general terms, based on the Emberger method, four different climate regimes can be distinguished in the Irano-Turanian forest zone, including a cold dry, a temperate dry, a temperate desert and a warm desert climate (Iran Nejad Parizi 2001 ). Furthermore, according to the statistics obtained from the nearest meteorological stations, the average annual rainfall is 130 mm (between 84 and 260 mm) with the maximum in the northern parts reaching up to 800 mm in the highlands. The rainfall occurs from early fall to late spring and reaches its maximum in winter. Average daily temperature, maximum daily temperature in July and minimum daily tem-perature in January are 18 °C, 42 °C (occasionally climbing up to 47 °C) and −7 °C (occasionally going down to −25 °C), respectively (Asri et al. 2000 ). Figures 3.20 . 3.21 , 3.22 and 3.23 give the climate diagrams of four different sites within the Irano-Turanian zone.

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Fig. 3.20 Climate diagram of Urmia in the north-west of the Irano-Turanian zone

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During the Paleozoic central Iran was a plateau. During the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, central Iran was tectonically active, creating several distinct unconformities while magma outfl ows formed volcanic rocks and granites. Young active faults as well as basalt rocks specifi c to the Quaternary occur at several places (Khosrotehrani 1988 ).

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Fig. 3.22 Climate diagram of Mahalat in the centre of the Irano-Turanian zone

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Fig. 3.21 Climate diagram of Layen in the north-east of the Irano-Turanian zone


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The soils have a low organic matter content and are slightly acidic to highly alkaline and the soil profi le often contains lime concentrations. Soil biological activity is low and in some areas salt deposits occur on the surface (Asri et al. 2000 ). Lack of vegetation and the perseverance of harsh environmental conditions have resulted in slow biological decomposition. The main factor infl uencing the soil formation processes is physical decomposition. Thus, the soils are young and non- evolved, highly susceptible to erosion and easily washed away by seasonal rainfalls (Habibi Kaseb 1992 ).

3.14 Vegetation and Forest Types

Lack of rainfall throughout the long summers and very high rates of evaporation provide very harsh and dry conditions in this region under which only xerophytic species can grow. However, diverse plant communities grow on foothills and at high elevations which considerably enhance the fl oristic richness of this region despite its harsh environmental conditions. The plant communities of this zone have deser-tic characteristics and are of the steppic dwarf shrub types with sagebrush being dominant in the understory (Yousefi 2007 ; Asri 2007 ). Overall, the forests in this zone can be divided into two groups: mountain forests and plain forests.

• Mountain forests These stands are composed of three main species: Greek juniper, wild pistachio and wild almond. Different species of these three genera occur in different parts of Iran. They are typical for the mountain forests of the Irano-Turanian zone.

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Fig. 3.23 Climate diagram of Khabr in the south-east of the Irano-Turanian zone


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These forests occur from 750 to 3,400 m.a.s.l. and include the uppermost forests in the central plateau zone of Iran. The most common forest types include (Sagheb-Talebi, et al. 2003 ; Sagheb-Talebi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi 2011 ):

– Greek juniper type Greek juniper is the dominant tree species in this sparse, scattered forest type. It is one of the few coniferous forest types existing in Iran. According to Sagheb- Talebi and Ebrahimi Rostaghi ( 2011 ), juniper stands usually appear in pure forms at higher elevations, but they are mixed with other species such as wild pistachio (in Razavi Khorasan province), berberry (on the southern profi le of the Alborz range and in the Aminabad area near Firuzkuh city in Tehran province), and cotoneaster (on the Jajrud watershed in Tehran province).

It is diffi cult to speak of an association of Greek juniper because the trees are scattered widely and the vegetation is heavily grazed underneath by livestock. There are only occasional areas where the forest is well preserved and it can be said with certainty that in the past this forest was denser than today (Sagheb- Talebi et al. 2003 ).

Juniper forests on Iran’s central plateau start from the northeast of Iran close to Kalat-e Naderi city in Razavi Khorasan province and continue towards the west on the northern and southern slopes of the Hezarmasjed mountain range, Bajgiran, Raz and Jargalan in Northern Khorasan province. Such stands also occur patchily up to the southern slopes of the Alborz moun-tain range in Semnan province and form very dense stands at high elevations in Chaharbagh, Khosh Yeylaq, Khatirkuh, and Sorm-e Rudbarak. The distri-bution of these forest stands towards the west continues from Firuzkuh to Alborz, Ghazvin, Zanjan, Ardebil, and East Azerbaijan provinces and reach Lake Urmia in West Azerbaijan in north-western Iran. Juniper stands are also found in the south and east of Iran in Fars, Kerman, Yazd, and Hormozgan provinces. In Hormozgan in the south, they are found in patches at Geno Mountain, Hajiabad, Homay Mountain and Chahestan, but in Kerman province they are widely distributed and most of the high elevations are covered by juniper stands. The highest juniper tree in Iran is 23.4 m tall and grows in the Badrud area near Firuzkuh city and the thickest one, growing near Shahrestanak in Alborz province, measures 9.1 m DBH (Ali Ahmad Korori and Khoshnevis 2000 ; Ali Ahmad Korori et al. 2011 ).

Juniper trees grow on all geographical aspects and land forms, but mostly on north and north-west facing slopes, at higher elevations. In Layen, Razavi Khorasan province (Fig. 3.24 ), they occur from 1,600 to 2,700 m.a.s.l. There the dry period lasts almost 6 months and the mean annual temperature and mean annual precipitation are 8 °C and 372 mm, respectively. Juniper habitats have shallow, calcareous, alkaline soils with a pH between 7.7 and 8.7, and a moderate to light texture with lime contents of 5–25 %, and C/N ratios between 9 and 27 (Momeni Moghadam et al. 2012 ).


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– Mount Atlas pistachio type Mount Atlas pistachio, originating from the Irano-Turanian region, is the most important deciduous tree in the mountain forests of this region, occur-ring across a considerable area. The Bakhtegan Lake watershed in Fars province, the Barez Mountain range in Kerman province, especially the areas around Baaft city and Dehbekri, and the wild pistachio forests in Southern Khorasan, Yazd and Sistan and Baluchestan provinces are among the most important habitats of wild pistachio.

Fig. 3.24 Juniper forest in Layen ( top and bottom ), Razavi Khorasan province, north-west Iran


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– Almond type Almond is a dominant species in the Irano-Turanian region and has a variety of species in this zone, and wild almond undoubtedly has a much wider distribution area than Mount Atlas pistachio. Almonds occupy the same habitats as pistachio. Pure stands of almond form a successional stage; they develop after the mixed pistachio-almond stands are disturbed and Mount Atlas pistachio, which is ecologically more demanding, cannot survive and is replaced by almond. Pure almond stands of the Irano-Turanian zone are to be found in the Badameshk forests in Southern Khorasan province, near Mohammadabad Maskun in Kerman province and in Badamak forests near Firuzabad in Fars province.

Wild almond shrubs grow on all geographical aspects and land forms, but north facing valleys and north and east facing slopes provide better ecological conditions for this species. In the central parts of Iran, Markazi province (Fig. 3.25 ), it occurs between 1,200 and 2,500 m.a.s.l. Here the dry period lasts almost 180 days, there are 83 frost days and the mean annual tempera-ture and mean annual precipitation are 12.5 °C and 276 mm, respectively. Almond habitats have shallow, skeletic, calcareous, alkaline soils with a high gravel content and a low organic carbon content (0.05–1.63 %). The soil of almond stands has a moderate to light texture and pH varies between 7.6 and 8.2 (Goodarzi 2008 ).

Fig. 3.25 Wild almond shrubs in Markazi province, central Iran


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– Mount Atlas pistachio-Wild almond type This mixed forest type has the widest range of distribution among different forest types in the Irano-Turanian zone and the best stands of this forest type are found in Kerman, Fars, Yazd, Southern Khorasan and Sistan and Baluchestan provinces. This forest type is also very important because of its commercial value, producing pistachio and almond.

It is worth to note that the main three species of mountain forests, being Greek juniper, Mount Atlas pistachio and wild almond, form mixed stands with other species as well. Some of these mixed stands include: Greek juniper-cotoneaster, Mount Atlas pistachio-Montpellier maple, and Mount Atlas pistachio- Montpellier maple-wild almond. In the southern Alborz range, these types occur in separated patches that vary in size from 1 to 200 ha (Ravanbakhsh and Etemad 2008 ). These stand types are to be divided into two groups based on their ecological and geographical charac-teristics: (1) stands and tree groups established on semi-dry mountain slopes; (2) riparian stands and tree groups established in valleys along rivers and streams.

On the southern slopes of the Alborz range between 1,300 and 2,350 m.a.s.l. wild almond is the dominant species among forest types. Moreover, this spe-cies grows up to 2,650 m.a.s.l on southern slopes in stands mixed with other species (Ravanbakhsh et al. 2010 ).

– Common pistachio type This is another important forest stand type in this zone that, despite its narrow distribution, is ecologically very unique and it is specifi c to this zone. The two main habitats for this forest type are in the north of Razavi Khorasan prov-ince, in the Khaje and Polgerd areas near Kalat-e Naderi city.

• Plain forests This forest type, also called “desertic forests”, includes various vegetation types such as (Mobayen and Tregubov 1970 ; Djavanchir Khoei 1976 ):

– Saxaul type This type of vegetation mainly grows on sandy dry habitats, and it is made up of bushes and very scattered small trees (Fig. 3.26 ). These sands are also sometimes slightly salty. The saxauls are very valuable species, because they stabilize the soil and thus diminish the intensity of wind erosion. Normally groups of saxaul grow on dunes on the side sheltered from the wind. The saxauls, although slowly growing, are very important for the reforestation of dunes and the stabilization of their soil.

– Tamarisk type These can mainly be found in the South-East, on the borders with Afghanistan and Pakistan. This is an almost desertic, psammophilic and slightly halophilic association. There are about 36 species of tamarisk in Iran, most of which are bushes, but there are also tall tamarix trees of great economical importance (Fig. 3.27 ) such as Farash (athel tamarisk), rigid tamarisk, etc.


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– Bean caper type This is also a steppe association related to the preceding one, but it is an asso-ciation of bushy, shrubby plants, especially bean caper, salwort, etc. Transitions to dwarfshrub steppe are common.

Zone of thorned almond , berberry and hawthorn : This is a zone of thorny bushes typical of very degraded and overgrazed vegetation. In effect it is the result of a degenerative selection process: the plants that have been able to survive are those

Fig. 3.27 A line of tamarisk trees in the south-east of Iran

Fig. 3.26 Saxaul on sand dunes in the dry-warm Irano-Turanian zone


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left by the animals, to which must be added a few bushes growing on steep inacces-sible rocks.

Figure 3.28 illustrates the ecogram of the most important trees and shrubs in the Irano-Turanian region. As shown in this ecogram, Almond and Juniper are the dominant tree species with a wide occurrence in various habitats in this region.

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Fig. 3.28 An ecogram showing the main tree species that form the forests or woodlands on soils of varying moisture and acidity in the Irano-Turanian zone

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References



English Botanical

Arabian boxthorn Lycium shawii Roemer & Schultes Asian mangrove Rhizophora mucronata Poir. Calligonum Calligonum sp . Caper Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew.

Syn.: Capparis aphylla Roth Christ’s thorn Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. Syn.: Arabian jujube Common mesquite Prosopis julifl ora (Swartz) DC. Egyptian Acacia Acacia nilotica (L.) Dellile Ephedra Ephedra foliata Boiss. & Ky. Ex Boiss. Euphrate poplar Populus euphratica Olivier Indian mesquite Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce

Syn.: P. spicigera L. Indian oleander Nerium indicum Miller Khinjuk pistachio Pistacia khinjuk Stocks Lebbeck tree Albizzia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Mauritian jujube Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Mazari palm Nannorrhops ritchiana (Griff.) Aitch Mesquite Prosopis koelsiana Burkil Moringa Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori Mountain almond Amygdalus arabica Olivier Syn.: Arabian almond Mount Atlas pistachio Pistacia atlantica Desf. Oerfot acacia Acacia oerfota (Forssk.) Schweinf. Rohida Tecomella undulata (Roxb.) Seem. Saltbush Atriplex sp . Saxaul Haloxylon ammodendron (C.A.M.) Bunge Seepweeds Suaeda fruticosa J.F.Gmelin

Syn.: S. vermiculata Forssk. ex Gmelin

Chapter 4 Saharo-Sindian Region

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This region is located along the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman. There mountain ranges are less high than in other parts of the country and the climate along the coasts in the south is subtropical. Elevation ranges from sea level to 2,000 m. Rainfall is limited to the winter season and does not exceed l00 mm per year in most of this region. The rains are torrential and irregularly distributed. The summer is long and extremely hot and dry. The fl ora is very poor in species, and it has never been an important centre of speciation. In this region there are Saharo-Arabian, Sudanian and also Irano-Turanian species. Towards the south-west it includes some elements of the Saharo-Arabian fl ora. Eastwards, the Sudanian subregion is largely Nubo-Sindian in nature, and has a low but well-spread rainfall and a relatively rich fl ora (Zohary 1963 , 1973 ).

Saharo-Arabian and Sudanian elements as well as some Irano-Turanian elements are seen at higher altitudes and in the northern part of this region. The ecological reasons for a concentration of some subtropical elements in this part of Iran are the winter temperature, altitude and the rainfall of this area as compared with the central plateau (Jalili and Jamzad 1999 ).

The Saharo-Sindian region is generally known as the Khalijo-Omanian zone in Iran. Having an area of 2,130,000 ha, this region stretches as a narrow band from Ghasr-e-shirin in the west toward the south and ends at the Iranian-Pakistani border in the east. The main vegetation elements in the region are subtropical and have a Sahara-Sindian origin. The total forest area of this region measures 1.1 million ha (Anon. 2004 ). This phytogeographical region is divided into two territories: Khaliji and Omani, which are ecologically distinct. The Khaliji territory includes the western parts up to the Hormozgan-Bushehr border; it has calcic soils originating from the Zagros mountain ranges. The Omani territory includes the eastern parts, i.e. parts of Hormozgan and Sistan and Baluchestan provinces, and has mostly acidic soils of an exotic origin (Mobayen and Tregubov 1970 ). Climates are also different with higher temperatures along the Omani coasts. In fact, the average temperature increases from the west to the east in this region.

Mangrove forests are one of the most important vegetation communities in this region, especially along the central parts of the south coast.

English Botanical

Sissoo Syn.: Shisham, Indian rosewood Dalbergia sisso Roxb. Sodom apple Calotropis procera (Willd) R.Br. Tamarisk Tamarix sp. Thorned almond Amygdalus lycioides Spach Thirsty thorn Acacia ehrenbergiana Hayne Tooth brush tree Syn.: Miswak Salvadora persica L. Tuch Syn.: Salvadora Salvadora oleoides Decne. Umbrella thorn acacia Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne White mangrove Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. Wild almond Amygdalus scoparia Spach

(continued)

4 Saharo-Sindian Region

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4.1 Climate

Generally, the climate in this region is dry. Rainfall occurs in winter and summer is without rain.

Precipitation : Generally, annual precipitation increases from the east, 115 mm in Chah Bahar, to the west, 227 mm in Bushehr, of the Khalijo-Omanian forest zone. Relative humidity is higher in Chah Bahar than in Abadan in the west and the variation in relative humidity is little in the east while in the west it is very high (Keneshloo 1998 ); as a result, the difference between maximum and minimum relative humidity in Chah Bahar and Abadan is 44.5 and 72.6 %, respectively.

Temperature : The average maximum temperature increases from east to west, while the average minimum temperature decreases; the difference between the minimum and maximum temperatures in Abadan and Chah Bahar is 40.3 and 17.1 °C, respec-tively. The absolute minimum temperature is 0 °C in Abadan (in January and February) while that of Chah Bahar is 10.6 °C (in December). The region has warm summers and humid winters. Using the Gaussian method, the eastern parts can be classifi ed as having a severe semi-desert climate, the middle areas in the vicinity of Bushehr a mild semi-desert climate and the western parts again a severe semi-desert climate (Keneshloo 1998 ). The climate of the coastal fringe at Chah Bahar can also be characterized as a subtropical climate with dominating desert characteristics toward the west.

Four climate diagrams of different parts of this region are given in Figs. 4.1 , 4.2 , 4.3 , and 4.4 . Drought is the most important limiting factor in this region, and the fi gures indicates that the dry period lasts between 10 and 12 months.

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Fig. 4.1 Climate diagram of Abadan in the western part of the Khalijo-Omanian region

4.1 Climate

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Three geological zones exist in this region:

The Khuzestan plain zone covers a limited area on the western fringes of the region and is an extension of the Arabian plateau. It is mostly covered by alluvial sediments. There are also Paleozoic and Cenozoic formations in that zone.

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Fig. 4.2 Climate diagram of Bushehr in the central-west of the Khalijo-Omanian region

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Fig. 4.3 Climate diagram of Bandarabbas in the central part of the Khalijo-Omanian region


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The Zagros folded area zone is an extension of the Zagros Mountains that reaches to Hormozgan province and covers the Persian Gulf coasts. It experiences a con-tinuous down-lift and sedimentation that resulted in thick alluvial sediments of thousands of meters. There are low hills containing huge petroleum reserves in the upper Miocene and Paleocene sediments. Volcanic activities are lacking.

The Eastern Iranian Zone – Makran Mountain ranges stretch from the east-ern parts of Iran to the coast of the Oman Sea. The zone has young volcanic activities related to the Tertiary and early Quaternary with cones partially buried under sediments. Over 10,000 m of marine sediments, formed during the Cenozoic, make this region unique in Iran (Khosrotehrani 1988 ).

The soils in the region are mainly saline with pH values of more than 7–8.5. Most of these soils are riverine sediments deposited by running water when the perma-nent rivers fl ow and fl ood after rainfall. Soil texture generally is light or medium, but in some areas, especially in lowlands, heavy soils are found. One of the most important geomorphological factors of the eastern Khalijo-Omanian region, the so- called Sistan, is the wind which lasts on average for 120 days. It is called Lavar and plays an important role in soil erosion (Keneshloo 1998 ; Darvish 2000 ).

4.3 Flora, Vegetation and Forest Types

4.3.1 Flora and Vegetation

Takhtajan ( 1986 ) discusses the South Iranian Province, comprising the tropical parts of Fars and Mekran (Makran) in southern Iran and the tropical part of Mekran

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Fig. 4.4 Climate diagram of Chahbahar in the eastern part of the Khalijo-Omanian region


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in southern Baluchestan (southwestern Pakistan). It extends at lower altitudes in a belt of varying width bordering the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. This territory, which is rather continuous in its southernmost and southwestern parts, becomes interrupted further north and extends with numerous branches northward and eastward along the wadis that traverse the southern ridges of the Zagros and Mekran ranges. It is therefore very diffi cult to draw an accurate line between the territories of the Omano-Sindian and Irano-Turanian fl oras in Iran (Zohary 1973 ; Takhtajan 1986 ).

As mentioned before, this region is generally known as the Khalijo-Omanian zone in Iran. Climate along the southern coasts of the country has determined the fl ora and the vegetation, in the sense that the main species of the Khaliji territory are Arabian jujube, Christ’s thorn, Indian mesquite and Euphrates poplar and form mostly open vegetation types. In the Omani territory Indian mesquite and various species of acacia form the most important open vegetation types. Mangrove forests, being one the most important communities in this region, consist of mangrove trees (white and Asian mangrove). Other important species of the Khalijo-Omanian region are:

Egyptian acacia, thirsty thorn, umbrella thorn acacia, oerfot acacia, lebbeck tree, Sodom apple, caper, sissoo, moringa, mazari palm, Indian oleander, tooth brush tree, tuch and rohida.

At higher altitudes, these species decrease and are replaced by, among others, almonds (wild almond and thorned almond) and Mount Atlas and khinjuk pista-chios (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2003 ).

4.3.2 Mangrove Forests

Iranian mangrove forests are spread along the southern coasts from the Guatre Gulf (Gwatar Bay) in the southeast to the Naiband Gulf in the southwest and occur as small or large, and continuous or discontinuous communities, covering an area of 20,000 ha. The largest continuous communities with the highest diversity occur at Qeshm Island and Bandar-e Khamir covering an area of 10,000 ha and including dense and semi-dense forests. Due to harsh site conditions white mangrove and Asian mangrove trees (Fig. 4.5 ) are the exclusive species in the Iranian mangrove forests (Safi ari 2003 ).

There are pure white mangrove, pure Asian mangrove and mixed stands (Fig. 4.6 ), in particular in Hormozgan province (Taghizadeh et al. 2009 ). The mangrove ecosystems of Iran contain unique faunal communities with different crabs, shrimps, fi shes (32 species), reptiles, birds (Fig. 4.4 ) and amphibians with the Mudskipper ( Periophtalmus sp.; Fig. 4.7 ) as the most important one (Scott et al. 1975 ; Safiari 2003 ).

Mangrove ecosystems are special in that they cover the ecotone between terres-trial and aquatic habitats. Water courses, estuaries and tides play an important role


121

in the formation of deltas and in sedimentation and consequently in the establishment of the mangrove forests. Mangroves have a very important multi-purpose function. They decrease the power of waves and storm winds. They can play important roles in erosion prevention, proper sedimentation, aquaculture, honey production,

Fig. 4.5 White mangrove ( left ) and Asian mangrove ( right ) with fruit ( top right ) in Hormozgan province

Fig. 4.6 White mangrove trees ( left and right ) and Asian mangrove ( middle ) in Hormozgan province


122

protein production, woody biomass production, and ecotourism, and they also serve as very important sources for biodiversity. By promoting sedimentation of river silt mangroves can protect coral reefs that grow in front of the coasts (Safi ari 2002 ).

Due to their multi-purpose role, the Iranian mangrove forests enjoy priority protection. They constitute one of the nine biosphere reserves of the Man and Biosphere (M&B) program and are supervised by the Environment Department (Sharifi 1994 ; Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2003 ).

Proximity to the tropic of Cancer, as well as climatic features including cyclones and Indian Ocean Monsoons, make that the Iranian mangrove belt is regarded as subtropical region. The majority of the rainfall occurs in winter and summers are quite dry. The optimal temperature for mangroves growth is 22–26 °C, 240–260 days a year. This ecosystem is highly susceptible to temperature fall. In contrast, rainfall fl uctuations do not play an important role in the establishment and growth of the forests. However, rainfall plays a more important role at higher temperatures: if rainfall is low it then can cause salinization of the soil. The soil in mangrove forests is waterlogged, highly turbid, brown to black in color, fi ne textured and has a high clay content. The coarser the soil, the less the quality and quantity of the forest. Reproduction is also better on fi ne-textured soil. Soil pH varies from 6.5 to 7.2 in these forests (Safi ari 2003 ).

The development of mangrove forests in southern Iran is one the goals of the forest service. There are large areas with potential for expansion of mangrove stands; for example, the total area of present mangrove forests in Hormozgan

Fig. 4.7 Rich fauna of mangrove forests, Great White Heron ( Egretta alba ; left ), crab ( right top ) and Mudskipper ( Periophtalmus sp.; right bottom )


123

province is almost 12,500 ha, but swamps and tidal areas in this province amount to 28,000 ha. Within 3 years (2005–2007), more than three million seedlings of white and Asian mangrove trees have been produced and planted in Hormozgan province only ( Safi ari and Nasouri 2009 ). The area of mangrove stands at Quatre Gulf (Gwatar Bay) in Sistan and Baluchestan province has been increased from 100 to 150 ha (Danehkar et al. 2012 ). The two species are considered hygro-halophytic species (Keneshloo 1998 ) and the best results for afforestation with white mangrove are obtained by planting the seedlings in the lower tidal zone and by irrigation with saline water in the nursery (Mohammadizadeh et al. 2012 ).

4.3.3 Site Demands of Some Main Trees

4.3.3.1 Indian Mesquite

Indian mesquite, a shrub or tree with an umbrella-shaped crown (Fig. 4.8 ) of 2.5–10 m, in some cases even 18 m tall (Djavanshir 1999 ; Mozaffarain 2005 ), is a Saharo- Sindian element that grows from the Persian Gulf (Bushehr province) to the coasts of the Sea of Oman (Sistan and Baluchestan province). It is a xerophytic spe-cies with deep roots and is usually present from the coast line up to 600 m.a.s.l., on alluvial river terraces and plains with light loam-silt to loam-sandy alkaline soils. The mean annual precipitation in Indian mesquite habitats varies between 45 mm in the south-east and 200 mm in the south-west and the species is able to endure temperatures from −4 to 50 °C. The soils of Indian mesquite stands are usually dry entisols and aridisols with a hyperthermic regime, poor in organic carbon and rich in lime. The Electric Conductivity (EC) and pH of the soils are around

Fig. 4.8 Indian mesquite in Hormozgan province


124

15 dS/m and 7–8, respectively (Sadeghi 1997 ; Keneshloo 1998 ; Esfandiari 2000 ; Kouhgardi et al. 2007 ; Emtehani et al. 2009 ). Studies have shown that the accumu-lation of proline and sugar during two stages in the life cycle, seedling and maturity, may form the mechanism to tolerate drought stress (Mosleh Arany et al. 2012 ).

4.3.3.2 Christ’s Thorn

Christ’s thorn, also called Arabian jujube, is an evergreen tree with an oval-shaped crown (Fig. 4.9 ). It is 5–12 m, seldom 15 m tall and grows along the entire coasts of the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman from Khuzestan to Sistan and Baluchestan provinces (Javanshir 1999 ; Mozaffarain 2005 ). Christ’s thorn trees posses a deep and large rooting system, which facilitates water and nutrient uptake from deep soil layers when the upper soil layers get dry during the dry period. Fruits of this tree are edible and are rich in vitamins and carbohydrates; the leaf and fruit extract has

Fig. 4.9 A Christ’s thorn tree in Hormozgan province


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anti- microbial and anti-fungal effects. Traditionally, people gain a local shampoo from the leaves of Christ’s thorn (Assareh and Allahverdi-Mameghani 2008 ; Torahi 2008 ; Sadeghi et al. 2008 ).

This species widely occurs on alluvial and fl ood plains as well as on coastal hills and lower slopes of mountains up to 1,000 m.a.s.l., where it mixes with other tree species including pistachio (Mount Atlas and khinjuk pistachios), almond (wild almond and mountain almond or Arabian almond) and Montpellier maple. Christ’s thorn stands are usually sparse and the stem number per ha varies between 20 and 30. At these sites, the mean annual precipitation fl uctuates between 150 and 280 mm and the absolute minimum temperature can be as low as −6 °C. The soils of Christ’s thorn habitats are moderate to heavy in loam, sandy-loam or even have a silt-clay texture. The EC is between 0.2 and 8.30 mmohs/cm and the pH between 7 and 8.2. The soils are usually poor in phosphorus and organic matter. Other studies show that the presence of Christ’s thorn is strongly correlated with sand and moisture content of the soil. Individuals of this species are also scattered on gravelly colluvial and alluvial fans, on semi-deep soils with a moderate to heavy texture (Kouhgardi 2003 ; Sadeghi 2008 ; Ghadiripour 2011 ).

4.3.3.3 Acacia spp.

Acacia species are among the main species for restoration, rehabilitation and devel-opment of forests in the Saharo-Sindian region. They are not only used for wood production, but also for livestock fodder and medicinal plants. There are various Acacia species in the Iranian Saharo-Sindian region, but the following four are the most important:

Thirsty thorn This small tree, usually 2–4 m, seldom up to 6 m high (Fig. 4.10 ), grows in Bushehr, Hormozgan and the south of Kerman provinces and in the south of Sistan and Baluchestan province on south faced slopes (Sabeti 1976 , Javanshir 1999 ; Mozaffarain 2005 ).

Pure stands of thirsty thorn are very rare and it is usually mixed with other species including oerfot acacia, Indian mesquite and tamarisk. The sparse stands of this species, with 30–170 stem per ha, are found on calcareous sandy-loam to loam- sandy coastal plains up to 1,100 m.a.s.l. Soils are gravelly and usually poor in organic matter, alkaline, with a pH between 7.1 and 8.2, and non-saline (EC 2–4 dS/m). The climate in the distribution area of thirsty thorn is dry and warm to hyper-dry but the species tolerates an absolute minimum temperature of −1 °C ( Emtehani 2003 ). Young seedlings of this species can tolerate an irrigation interval of 50 days (Soltanipour 2000 ).

Egyptian Acacia Egyptian acacia, also called Arabic gum tree, usually is 2–15 m tall and grows on alluvial plains from Bushehr in the west to Baluchestan in the east of the Iranian Saharo-Sindian region (Sabeti 1976 ; Mozaffarain 2005 ). This species is a


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multipurpose, light-demanding tree that is scattered from sea level up to 900 m.a.s.l. The climate of the distribution area of the Egyptian acacia is hyper-dry with an annual rainfall between 125 and 200 mm. The species tolerates an absolute mini-mum temperature of +3 °C. The soils in the habitat of this tree are calcareous and have a moderate texture, with silt-loam to loam, a pH between 6.8 and 8.5 and an EC between 1 and 13 dS/m. Egyptian acacia can reach large diameters; a maximum dbh of 57 cm has been reported for this species. Therefore it has been traditionally used for ship making at harbors along the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman (Emtehani 2003 ). The species is drought resistance and its seedlings can survive irrigation with intervals of 10 and 50 days (Soltanipour 2000 ; Ameri and Keneshlou 2011 ).

Umbrella thorn acacia This is a fl at-topped or umbrella-shaped tree (Fig. 4.11 ) up to 10 m tall that grows in the arid climate of the central Saharo-Sindian region, in Hormozgan province, where the mean annual precipitation and mean annual temperature are 170 mm and 27 °C, respectively. The absolute minimum temperature of umbrella thorn acacia habitats is +6 °C (Najafi Tireh Shabankareh 1999 ; Emtehani 2003 ; Mozaffarain 2005 ). This species is resistant to drought but sensitive to frost and occurs scattered on coastal lands from sea level to 350 m.a.s.l.; as an exception individuals of this species can be found up to 600 m.a.s.l. (Charak and Bastak) and very rarely up to 860 m.a.s.l. (Mehrgan Mountain). The soils of the habitat of this acacia species are

Fig. 4.10 A thirsty thorn with yellow fl owers


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usually alluvial with a sandy to gravelly loam texture; they are non-saline and alkaline with a pH between 7 and 8.5. This species is very suitable for soil protec-tion and stabilizing sand dunes, and it is also used as livestock fodder (Najafi Tireh Shabankareh 1999 , 2003 ).

Emtehani ( 2003 ) reported sparse umbrella thorn acacia stands with 25–60 stems per ha and an individual with a dbh of 150 cm in his studies on Iranian native Acacia species. Investigations showed that this species can even be planted under rain-fed conditions in an arid climate (Soltanipour 2000 ).

Oerfot acacia This species is a shrub with several stems sprouting from its collar (Fig. 4.12 ) or a short tree. It grows only in Hormozgan province, in the central parts of the Iranian Saharo-Sindian region. Stem and branches of this species are covered with thorns (Mozaffarain 2005 ). Its mean height is some 3 m, and it grows with 40–380 stems per ha, occupying the coastal strip up to 500 m.a.s.l. The climate of oerfot acacia habitats is warm and hyper-dry with an annual rainfall of less than 200 mm and an absolute minimum temperature of +1 °C. Hence, the species is sensitive against frost and can not tolerate temperatures below zero degrees. It is usually accompanied by other tree species, including the other three Acacia species, Indian mesquite, tooth brush tree and Sodom apple. The soils of oerfot acacia habitats are calcareous, light to moderate (sandy to loamy), with a high sand content (50–76 %), alkaline (pH = 7.2–8.3), from saline to non-saline (EC = 0.4–16 dS/m) and poor in organic carbon (Emtehani 2003 ; Damizadeh 2010 ).

Fig. 4.11 Flat topped umbrella thorn acacia in Hormozgan province


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4.3.3.4 Euphrates Poplar

This poplar is genetically and morphologically widely variable. It has a wide distribution range from the north-east to the south-west and the north-west to the southeast of the country and it is not restricted to the Saharo-Sindian region, but also grows in the Irano-Turanian region and in deserts (Sabeti 1976 ; Mozaffarain 2005 ; Calagari et al. 2007 ; Soleimani et al. 2012 ). Euphrates poplar is a 15 m tall tree, usually with a light crown and crooked stems, very seldom with a straight trunk, and with a high ability of producing root suckers. Climatically, it is adapted to dry regions with a dry season of 7–8 months, but like other poplars its water demand is relatively high. Therefore it grows along rivers and makes gallery forests where the water supply is suffi cient (Fig. 4.13 ). Associations of this species appear also as woodland (Fig. 4.14 ). This poplar tolerates a wide range of temperatures and grows on non-saline as well as on saline soils.

Calagari et al. ( 2010 ) collected several Euphrates poplar provenances between 28°–38° northern latitude and 45–61° eastern longitude in Iran. In this area the mean temperature varies from 12 to 26 °C and mean annual precipitation from 65 to 346 mm. The species grows on alluvial soils and fl ood plains with a light texture at the surface (sandy loam) and a moderate texture (loam) at depth. In the 35 years-old Euphrates poplar gallery along the Karun River, stands with 339–357 stems per ha and 68–73 % canopy cover and with mean annual diameter increment of 9.5 mm have been reported (Calagari 1998 ).

Fig. 4.12 A short oerfot acacia shrub in Hormozgan province


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Fig. 4.13 A gallery forest of Euphrates poplar along the Karkheh River in Khuzestan province

Fig. 4.14 Crooked Euphrate poplars ( background ) with a tamarisk ( foreground ) in a woodland on the alluvial plain of the Karkheh River in Khuzestan province


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4.3.3.5 Caper

Caper is an evergreen shrub or a short tree, up to 9 m tall, with a green stem and a circular crown (Fig. 4.15 ). Stem and branches of this species are covered with thorns and the green stem and branches are able to photosynthesize. Caper stands are usu-ally sparse and accompanied by tamarisk, Arabian boxthorn and seepweeds which occur scattered over the central to eastern Saharo-Sindian region. The climate of Caper habitats is arid and warm; mean annual precipitation is 141 mm, the absolute maximum temperature is 45 °C and the absolute minimum temperature is +3 °C. During 8 months of the year the mean temperature is over 25 °C, but the relative humidity of the air is rather high with more than 60 %. This seems to supply moisture for this tree (Mozaffarain 2005 ; Damizadeh et al. 2009a ).

This species grows on warm lowland plains and hilly slopes on gravely soils with a moderate to light texture of loam to sandy loam, and with lime layers at the surface. The soils of the Caper habitats are calcareous, alkaline, with a pH between 7.4 and 8.4, saline (EC up to 22.5 mmhos/cm) and poor in organic matter. Caper also grows on rocky and hard soils and possesses very strong roots that can break the hard pan and penetrate deep into the soil. In Caper habitats, the stem number of

Fig. 4.15 A Caper with a green stem and branches, orange fl owers and red fruits ( top right )


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caper trees can be up to 100 per ha, and a maximum dbh of 31 cm has been measured. The production of root suckers in Caper individuals is relatively high, so that up to fi ve root suckers per m 2 have been reported (Damizadeh 2010 ).

4.3.3.6 Toothbrush Tree

The toothbrush tree, also called Miswak, is a shrub or short tree, 2–7 m high (Fig. 4.16 ), which only grows in eastern Hormozgan and Baluchestan in the Saharo-Sindian region in Iran (Sabeti 1976 ; Mozaffarain 2005 ). The climate of habitats of this species is hyper-arid and warm with a mean of 140–200 mm of annual precipi-tation, a mean annual temperature of 27 °C and absolute minimum and maximum temperatures of +6 and 45 °C, respectively. The physico-chemical properties of the soil in toothbrush tree habitats indicate that this species can grow on non-saline to saline (EC = 1.1–37.3 mmohs/cm), calcareous alkaline (pH = 7.5–8.2), and light to moderate (loam and sandy loam) soils that are poor in organic matter. The occur-rence of this tree is correlated with silt, sand and clay content, as well as with soil acidity (Damizadeh 2010 ).

Stem number of Miswak in its habitats varies between 39 and 61 per ha and root suckers numbers fl uctuate between 16 and 84 in 100 m 2 plots. One of the most important functions of this species is acting as a nurse plant and providing shadow for the establishment of seedlings of other tree and shrub species under its canopy.

Fig. 4.16 A toothbrush shrub; leaves, fl owers and fruits ( top left ) and stems and branches ( bottom left ) in Hormozgan province


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From the 14 tree and shrub species associated with the toothbrush tree, six species (Ephedra, Arabian boxthorn, seepweeds, Christ’s thorn, mesquite and Indian mesquite) grew directly under the canopy of toothbrush tree. The total number of plants under the canopy of the toothbrush tree varied between 3 and 32 (Damizadeh et al. 2009b ).

4.3.3.7 Sissoo

Sissoo, also called Shisham or Indian rosewood, is a short tree with mean collar (stem base) diameter of 25 cm and average height of 8 m. It only grows on very special locations on wet valley bottoms and along streams (Fig. 4.17 ) between 300 and 600 m.a.s.l. in the Saharo-Sindian region of Iran (Sabeti 1976 ; Mozaffarain 2005 ; Ghadiripour 2011 ).

The climate of sissoo habitats is moderately warm desert. Climatological data reported for Dezful in Khuzestan province, where sissoo is common, indicates that the mean annual precipitation is 380 mm, mean annual temperature 23.8 °C, absolute minimum temperature −9 °C, absolute maximum temperature +54 °C, and the dry period lasts 7 months (Saleheh Shooshtari et al. 2004 ; Ghadiripour 2011 ).

Sissoo grows on both non-saline and light saline (EC = 0.5–8.3 mmhos/cm) allu-vial soils with a light texture, sandy to sandy-loam, and a pH between 7.7 and 8.2. The occurrence of this species is positively correlated with the percentage nitrogen of the soil and with silt and clay content (Ghadiripour 2011 ). Shisham (Indian rosewood) showed promising results in rehabilitation trials of some degraded woodlands near the Dez river: survival was 77 %, mean height 44.5 m and mean diameter growth 15.4 cm (Fig. 4.17 ) after 9 years under rain-fed conditions (Saleheh Shooshtari et al. 2004 ).

Fig. 4.17 Sissoo habitat along a stream ( left ) and a planted individual of sissoo on an alluvial rehabilitation site in Khuzestan province ( right )


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4.3.3.8 Moringa

Moringa was recorded for the fi rst time in Iran in the vegetation of the Bashagerd region by Javanshir ( 1999 ). This evergreen shrub or short tree, 4–7 m tall, grows only in Bashagerd, Hormozgan province, and in some parts of western Baluchestan in Iran. It produces valuable vegetable oil that has various industrial applications (Mozaffarain 2005 ; Mirzaie-Nodoushan and Asadi-Corom 2010 ). The habitats of moringa in Iran are located on hills to rocky mountain slopes (Fig. 4.18 ) between 100 and 1,500 m.a.s.l. with 180–200 mm annual precipitation and a mean annual temperature of 27 °C. Moringa occurs sparsely scattered, with a canopy cover of 3.5 % and 29 stems per ha, on shallow calcareous gravelly soils poor in nitrogen and organic matter, with a moderately sandy-loam texture, a pH of 8.1–8.3 and an EC of 0.4–1.16 mmhos/cm. The diameter at breast height of moringa varies between 4 and 37 cm.

4.3.3.9 Mazari Palm

The Mazari palm is a short wild palm, up to 3 m tall, that grows mainly in the Makran and the Baluchestan region (Sabeti 1976 ) but also in Bashagerd and Kerman (Javanshir 1999 ; Mozaffarain 2005 ). It usually occurs on lowland plateaus, along streams and valley bottoms, but surprisingly it climbs to 1,600 m.a.s.l

Fig. 4.18 Moringa on a rocky mountain slope in the Baluchestan region


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and grows in sand stone crevices on Mehrab Mountain, Hormozgan province (Javanshir 1999 ). The altitude of Mazari palm habitats varies between 100 and 1,700 m.a.s.l., the mean annual precipitation fl uctuates between 100 and 160 mm and the mean annual temperature between 20 and 26 °C. The mean temperature of the coldest months, December–January, is more than 7.5 °C and the mean tem-perature of the hottest months, July-August, is over 40 °C; the dry period lasts here 9–11 months. Soils of Mazari palm habitats are lightly textured, loamy sands, with a pH between 7.6 and 8.2 (Emtehani 2008 ).

Finally, Fig. 4.19 shows an ecogram of the most important tree species in the Saharo-Sindian region. It is clearly shown that Christ’s thorn and Indian mesquite are the most dominant and widely distributed species in this region.

4.4 Management

In a developing country like Iran, with rapid growth to reach higher economical standards, the execution of development projects has a high priority. In order to achieve new, high levels, good coordination between different sectors will be essen-tial. But in some cases, execution of development projects, including the expansion of oil and gas pipe lines, contrasts with the protection of forests. Considering the fragile ecosystems and the warm and dry climate of this region, it is certain that

Fig. 4.19 Ecogram showing the main tree species that form the forests on soils of varying moisture and acidity in the Saharo-Sindian region


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forest degradation has important impacts on the loss of green area or areas covered by any kind of vegetation, on soil erosion, on the decrease of water penetration into the soil and the increase of fl ooding risks. It also signifi cantly contributes to the destruction of habitats of some important species of the fl ora and fauna, endangering the biodiversity at national and international levels.

In general, the loss of forests in this region is threatening human well-being and health. With deforestation, many ecosystem functions are negatively affected. Global warming, natural hazards, deterioration and erosion of soil and lack of water have increased migration of the population from small towns and villages to large cities or new settlements within existing forest areas. This will result in more forest degradation.

Over-exploitation of ground water, poverty, over-grazing and degradation of vegetation, global climate change and long dry periods are major factors responsible for forest and rangeland degradation, not only in this region but also in the whole country (Darvish 2009 ).

In the Iranian Saharo-Sindian region with arid, semi-arid and hyper-arid climates desertifi cation and land degradation is very severe due to population growth. Such growth implies the demand for meeting a wide spectrum of human needs, the increase of unregulated grazing, and the conversion of vast areas of rangelands to low-yield dry farming as well as drought and fl ooding. Lack of precipitation and drying up of water resources as well as shifting sand dunes not only threaten agri-cultural lands, but also human life and development of settlements near deserts, leading to an increase in the migration rate. Rehabilitation of such warm and dry areas with unfertile soils is not an easy task and requires proper policy, plans and frameworks, facilities and governmental investments and supports.

The general objectives of forest restoration in this region are to reverse the loss of natural and man-made forests cover, and to introduce new forest to sites that never before supported them, or have been deforested a long time ago. Besides improving degraded natural forest ecosystems, forest restoration focuses on afforestation to restore soil fertility, control erosion, and provide services and goods no longer available from natural forests, including fuel wood, fodder, non-wood products, and industrial wood. Ideally, these new plantations will be established with a clear vision of their economic, ecological, environmental, and landscape roles (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2009 ).

Planning for exploitation of waste water and fl ood is an alternative for rehabilita-tion of the eroded areas. Iran has a rich history and profound knowledge of combating desertifi cation. During more than three decades, the Forest, Range and Watershed Organization has undertaken considerable activities to restore areas. The outcome can be observed in sand dune fi xation through biological, mechanical and chemical methods and the establishment of about two million ha of green space with tree and shrub species adapted to the local site conditions. Using mulch for fi xation of sand dunes, in particular in Khuzestan province, and planting tree and shrub species resistant to the harsh climate of the desert, such as tamarisk, saltbush, calligonum, Indian mesquite and saxaul, are examples of these activities.

4.4 Management

136

In the arid and semi-arid regions, like the Khalijo-Omanian region, reforestation and enrichment of forest cover are of high priority. This should be carried out by planting pioneer species in open areas, in order to create favourable conditions for the return of native species. Considering the ecological potential of these areas natural recovery is a very promising approach. However, such projects are only successful if they are based on prior ecological surveys and investigations.

The strategy of forest rehabilitation gives priority to reducing and if possible eliminating degradation factors in existing forests (i.e., the fi rst step). In the next step, degraded areas should be planted and covered with suitable tree or shrub species. Native species are preferred, but in some cases planting of exotics, like various fast-growing Eucalypt species, and species with a high regeneration poten-tial such as non-native common mesquite, is accepted as well. Not only trees for wood production, but also for non-wood products have an important role in this region. Hence, plantation of multipurpose trees, including date palm, Mauritian jujube, mango and guava is also considered.

In order to restock the degraded forests, to supplement the natural regeneration, to improve stand quality, to change crop composition, or to control soil erosion and fl oods different restoration methods have been used in this region. For selection of the appropriate restoration method a combination of various criteria are taken into account such as climatic conditions, aspect and topography, soil conditions, water supply, socio-economic conditions and presence of domestic livestock. The choice of species depends also on climatic conditions, local microclimate, soil conditions, objectives of the plantation, and growth rate and drought resistance of species.

Considering the above mentioned aspects, different methods of forest rehabilita-tion have been applied in Iran. The following methods are most widely used in this region:

– Enrichment : This method aims at both quantitative and qualitative enrichment of forest stands. In the quantitative approach, efforts are made to increase the den-sity and extend of the crown canopy, while in the qualitative enrichment method the improvement of the species composition in the stand has highest priority. In the degraded forests of semi-arid and arid regions, different species are planted to enrich the forest. This gradually improves the ecosystem. In stands with a low density, planting of shrubs and small trees provides more shade and reduces the harmful high solar radiation load.

– Agroforestry : As a new scientifi c approach, agroforestry has emerged recently, but as a tradition, it has been used since centuries in Iran. This method combines agricultural crops with tree crops and forest trees aiming at improving the living standards of rural inhabitants. Planting of date palms and native poplars (Euphrate poplar) is almost a tradition in this region.

– Watershed management and fl ood water spreading : About 55 % of the area of watershed basins in the country is prone to sudden fl ooding, which intensifi es erosion and causes destructive fl oods. Iran is a pioneer among the countries in the region in controlling desertifi cation through fl oodwater spreading. Uneven distribution of precipitation during the year and unexpected heavy rainfall lead to


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heavy fl oods, bringing millions of cubic meters of water onto the land in a short period of time. This huge amount of water usually destroys villages and agricul-tural lands along with other vital infrastructure such as roads and dams. Floodwater spreading is a method to reduce the destructive effects of fl ashfl oods and to produce other benefi ts from reclaiming eroded land. The purposes of this method include satisfying the water requirements of annual and perennial crops, range plants, shrubs and trees; removing sediment carried by fl oodwaters for later storage in surface reservoirs or aquifers; recharging aquifers artifi cially for later withdrawal; stabilizing the drifting sand by silts, clays and organic matter carried as suspended load by fl oodwaters; transforming of land into productive farms; reducing gully erosion and controlling downstream fl ooding and prevent-ing waterlogging of agricultural lands and population centers which are located downstream of the fl oodwater spreading areas.

To this purpose a channel network is used to spread the water fl ow onto fl at land. Channels are located 140–250 m apart. When fl oodwater reaches the end of a fl ood-water spreading system, it has lost most of its sediment load and is now suitable for artifi cial recharge or storage in surface reservoirs. Afterwards, fast-growing exotic ( Eucalyptus spp.) and native species ( Acacia spp.) are planted adjacent to water channels (Kowsar 1991 ; Kowsar et al. 1996 ). This method has substantially raised the income of farming communities in the plains and the yields of fl ood-irrigated farmlands. With this method, the destructive power of water turns into productive capital.


Most of the economic projects of this region are related to oil industries. Iran owns the second largest natural gas resources and the fi fth biggest oil resources among the OPEC countries. These resources are mostly located in Khuzestan and Bushehr provinces in the west of the Saharo-Sindian region.

Like many Middle East countries, the socio-economic situation in Iran is complicated. Agriculture and livestock products link inseparably with forests. The very ancient and traditional relation of man to nature, in particular to forest and rangeland, is very strong and since centuries has not changed very much. There are many local communities in all parts of the country, including this region, who use forests and rangelands for their subsistence. The products include fodder, wood and non- wood products.

Forest degradation results from several natural and historical events in the country’s development. Ecological and human forces are responsible for forest degradation. Long-term paleoclimatic changes have caused the climate to become warmer and dryer, and this led to the vegetation becoming more xerophytic. Therefore, tall trees became scarcer and the dense vegetation cover of this region became gradually sparse and scattered. Besides, the civilization in Iran, which mainly


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started in the southern part of the country, is more than 4,000 years old and has had great impact on the Iranian forests. Population growth, expansion of cities and territories as well as defence against enemies required signifi cant quantities of natural material such as wood. With the available technology of the past, providing more food and gaining more agricultural lands and farms could only be obtained by deforestation and the expansion of agriculture. Forests were cleared for agriculture, grazing, and urban and industrial areas. Wood has been used for fuel and construc-tion, as well as traditional ship making. Several historical investigations provide evidence that deforestation in Iran occurred throughout centuries and the present-day forest area is much less than its natural potential (McGregor 1875 ; De Morgan 1890 ; Hedin 1910 ; Bahrami 1951 ; Lemton 1983 ; Shahmirzadi 1993 ; Ramezani 1995 ).

Plantations are intended to ease human and animal pressure on the natural forest areas. Employing rural people in afforestation and reforestation activities (participatory approach), besides encouraging agroforestry, are another target of forest rehabilitation in order to improve the living standards of rural communities and achieving sustain-able development. Recently, plantations of multipurpose trees like Christ’s thorn, Mauritian jujube, moringa, etc. have been recommended. In some cases the planting of fruit trees like mango, lemon and jujube tree and banana not only protect the soil and the ecosystem, but also can bring benefi ts for the rural people. The rehabilitation policy also prescribes plantations of fast growing species like some acacias. However, agro-forestry systems must continue to receive attention, such as the planting of different Ziziphus species around agriculture fi elds. Agro-forestry has a long tradition in the region, but these traditional systems should be improved and in some cases replaced by new approaches using the latest results of research.

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A Acacia

A. albida , 1 A. ehrenbergiana , 116 A. nilotica , 115 A. oerfota , 115 A. tortilis , 116

Acer A. campestre , 15 A. cappadocicum , 15 A. hyrcanum , 16 A. monspessulanum , 2, 16, 68 A. platanoides , 2 A. velutinum , 16

Acidic , 6, 24, 29, 30, 32, 51, 55, 101, 116 Acorn , 78, 79, 88, 93, 94 Afforestation , 48, 53, 123, 135, 138 Albizzia

A. julibrissin , 16 A. lebbeck , 115

Alborz Mountains , 6, 9, 17, 20, 23, 98, 102 Aleppo oak , 8, 67, 69, 79–83, 86, 88, 92,

93, 96 Alexandrian laurel , 15, 46 Alkaline , 24, 36, 84, 101, 102, 104, 123, 125,

127, 130, 131 Alluvial , 6, 17, 24, 38, 55, 78, 118, 119, 123,

125, 127–129, 132 Almond

Hausknechti's , 68, 80 thorned , 68, 80, 106–107, 116, 120

Alnus A. glutinosa , 15 A. subcordata , 15

Altitude , 17–19, 23–25, 29–31, 33, 34, 54–57, 59, 73, 75, 83, 116, 120, 134

Amygdalus A. arabica , 115 A. communis , 67 A. hauskneschtii , 68 A. lycioides , 68, 116 A. reuteri , 68 A. scoparia , 2, 68, 116

Annual precipitation , 76 Annual temperature , 6, 19–21, 23, 34, 75, 102,

104, 126, 131–134 Anthropogenic , 11 Apple ring , 1, 8 Aquatic , 120 Arabian

almond , 115, 125 boxthorn , 115, 130, 132 jujube , 1, 67, 115, 120, 124

Arabic gum tree , 125 Arasbaran , 9, 15–60 Arcto-Tertiary , 18, 25, 69 Arid , 4, 8, 47, 69, 70, 126, 127, 130,

135, 136 Aridisol , 123 Artemisia herba-alba , 68 Asalem , 6, 22, 24, 32, 40 Asexual regeneration , 88 Ash , 2, 8, 15, 24, 26, 37–38, 40, 46, 67, 81 Asian mangrove , 1, 8, 115, 120, 121, 123 Asperula odorata , 16, 30 Astragalus , 70 Athel tamarisk , 68, 105 Atriplex , 115 Avicennia marina , 2, 116 Azarole hawthorn , 67, 69, 84 Azerbaijan , 5, 6, 20, 31, 54, 55, 71, 78–80, 89,

95, 99, 102

Index

144

B Baluchestan , 103, 105, 116, 120, 123–125,

131, 133 Baneh oak , 67, 80 Bean caper , 67, 106 Berberis integerrima , 67 Berberry , 67, 102, 106 Betula pendula , 1, 15, 67 Bioclimatic , 19 Biological diversity , 7 Biosphere Reserve , 5, 8, 54, 99, 122 Birch , 1, 8, 15, 25, 67, 71, 73, 80 Black alder , 15, 37 Botanical names , 1–2, 15–16, 67–68, 115–116 Box holly , 15, 32 Box tree , 1, 8, 15, 20, 25, 26, 33, 41 Brant's oak , 1, 8, 67, 72, 73, 79–83, 86–89,

92–94, 96 Broad-leaves , 17, 25, 33, 38, 41, 44, 53, 58, 69 Brown soil , 24, 32, 34, 39, 41, 55, 58, 78 Bush , 7, 49, 81, 105–107 Bushehr , 117, 118, 123, 125, 137 Buxus hyrcana , 1, 15

C Calcareous , 6, 24, 32, 34, 36, 39–41, 43, 45,

46, 58, 83–85, 102, 104, 125–127, 130, 131, 133

Calcic , 24, 30, 32, 55, 116 Calligonum , 115, 135 Calotropis procera , 116 Canopy , 35, 52, 59, 60, 89, 96, 97, 128,

131–133, 136 Caper , 67, 106, 115, 120, 130–131 Cappadocian maple , 15, 26, 36, 38 Capparis

C. aphylla , 115 C. decidua , 115

Carbohydrate , 124 Carboniferous , 24 Carpineto-Taxetum , 44 Carpinetum orientale - Quercetum

macranthera , 29 Carpinus

C. betulu , 15 C. orientalis , 16, 59

Caspian honey locust , 15, 18, 25, 26 Caspian poplar , 1, 8, 15, 25, 26 Caspian region , 6, 10, 18–20, 23, 33, 35–37,

39–41, 44, 53, 54 Castanea sativa , 1 Caucasian alder , 15, 24, 26, 31, 36, 37, 39, 51 Caucasian hackberry , 1, 8, 67, 80, 81

Caucasian oak , 15, 25, 26, 33–35, 57, 58, 60 Caucasian persimmon , 15 Caucasus , 3, 6, 16, 20, 32 Celtis

C. australis , 1 C. caucasica , 1, 67

Cenozoic , 6, 23, 55, 100, 118, 119 Central Aisa , 3–5, 18, 69, 70 Central Plateau , 3–5, 7–9, 69, 70, 81,

102, 116 Cerasus

C. mahaleb , 2, 68 C. microcarpa , 68

Cercis siliquastrum , 68 Chaharmahal and Bakhtyari , 71, 77, 81, 94,

95, 97, 98 Charcoal , 48, 49, 53, 54, 95 Chestnut , 1, 8, 78 Chestnut-leaved oak , 15, 26, 32–34, 41, 44,

46, 48, 67, 69 Christ's thorn , 1, 5, 15, 57, 67, 75, 120,

124–125, 132, 134, 138 Christ's thorn paliurus , 15, 57 Clear-cutting , 49, 90 Climate , 2–6, 8–10, 17, 18, 20–22, 25, 26, 29,

30, 33, 34, 43, 54–56, 69–72, 75–77, 99–101, 116–119, 125–127, 130–132, 135, 137

Close-to-nature silviculture , 49 Coastal

fringe , 117 plain , 17, 26, 125

Colutea , 15, 46 Colutea persica , 15 Commercial , 93, 95, 105 Common

almond , 67, 69, 80 ash , 15, 24, 26, 46 birch , 1, 8, 15, 67, 71 elm , 1, 8 fi g , 1, 8 hornbeam , 15, 26, 27, 31–33, 38, 46, 51,

58, 60 jujube , 1, 8 juniper , 15, 35, 46 mesquite, 115, 136 pistachio , 1, 8, 67, 105 sea-backthorn , 67, 73

Community mixed , 28 pure, 28

Competition , 25, 31, 87 Conifers , 4, 9, 10, 43 Conservation forest , 49

IndexIndex

145

Construction activities , 9 Continental , 4, 19, 69, 70, 72, 73, 75 Coppice shoot , 39 Coral reefs , 122 Cornelian cherry , 15, 57, 58 Cornus

C. mas , 15 C. sanguinea , 2

Corylus avellana , 1, 16 Cotinus coggygria , 16 Cotoneaster , 67, 80, 89, 94, 102 Cotoneaster nummularia , 67 Crataegus

C. azarolus , 67 C. microphylla , 16 C. pontica , 68

Cretaceous , 23, 24 Cretan brake evergreen fern , 15 Crimean black pine, 1, 4 Crown , 37, 52, 59, 89, 97, 123, 124, 128, 130, 136 Cupressus sempervirens , 1, 16, 29, 68 Cyclamen , 15, 27 Cyclamen coum , 15 Cynipidae , 92 Cypress , 1, 7, 8, 10, 16, 17, 25, 26, 29, 43, 45,

68, 80

D Dalbergia sisso , 2, 116 Daphne

D. mucronata , 67 D. racemosa , 15

Date-plum , 15, 26 Dbh , 29, 32–34, 51, 84, 89, 102, 126,

127, 131 Deciduous , 4, 5, 11, 17, 25, 35, 69,

73, 130 Decomposition , 101 Deforestation , 10, 11, 18, 135, 138 Degradation , 8, 10, 18, 27, 90, 95, 98,

135–137 Dena , 81, 97 Dentate-leaved oaks , 79 Desert , 2, 4–7, 48, 69, 75, 99, 101, 105, 117,

128, 132, 135 Desertic forest , 105 Desertifi cation , 48, 135, 136 Devonian , 24 Diameter , 31, 35, 38–41, 43, 44, 50, 51, 53,

86, 126, 128, 132, 133 Dimensions , 31, 34–36, 40 Diospyrus lotus , 15

Distribution amplitude , 84 horizontal , 30, 53 vertical , 30

Diversity , 2, 4, 5, 7, 10, 26, 55, 56, 78, 87, 89, 97, 120

Dog's mercury , 15 Dogwood , 2, 8, 15, 57 Dominant , 4, 26, 31, 32, 60, 75, 78, 82, 101,

102, 104, 105, 107, 134 Drainage , 11, 32, 36, 38, 41 Drought , 6, 43, 51, 117, 124, 126, 135, 136 Dry , 2, 4, 6–9, 18–21, 24, 25, 34, 36, 40,

41, 48, 58, 69, 70, 72, 73, 75, 76, 88, 90, 93, 99, 100, 102, 104, 105, 116, 117, 122–125, 128, 132, 134, 135

Dushaab , 93

E Eastern , 4, 6, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 39–41, 44, 55,

56, 69, 70, 82, 83, 116, 117, 119, 128, 130, 131

Ecogram , 46–47, 86–87, 107, 134 Ecotone , 120 Ecotourism , 122 Edaphic , 26, 87 Edible fruits , 94, 124 Egyptian Acacia , 115, 120, 125, 126 Elburz Mountains , 75 Elevation , 3, 5, 6, 17, 20, 23, 24, 26, 34,

35, 46, 58, 71, 81, 88, 101, 102, 116

Elm , 1, 2, 8, 16, 18, 25, 26, 41, 45, 48, 53, 57, 67–69, 81

Emberger , 99 Endangered , 8, 11, 25 Endemic , 4, 5, 11, 17, 26, 38, 49, 70, 99 English oak , 1, 8, 67, 79 Enrichment , 136 Entisol , 123 Ephedra , 68, 115, 132 Epiphytic plants , 25 Estuaries , 120 Euphrate poplar , 1, 67, 81, 115, 129, 136 European beech , 15, 31 European hackberry , 1, 8 Euro-Siberian , 4, 8, 16, 17, 35, 56 Eutrophic , 30, 36 Euxinian , 4, 16 Evaporation , 20, 88, 93, 101 Evergreen fern , 15 Exploitation , 48, 54, 97, 135

IndexIndex

146

F Fagetum , 24, 26, 28–30, 32, 36, 51 Fagus

F. orientalis , 2, 16 F. sylvatica , 15

False walnut , 15, 18, 20, 25, 26, 68, 69, 81 Farash , 68, 105 Fars , 71, 77, 79, 81, 82, 84, 85, 88, 94,

102–105, 119 Ficus carica , 1 Field maple , 15, 57 Flood , 18, 119, 125, 128, 135–137

water spreading , 136, 137 Flora , 4, 10, 17, 25, 54, 69, 70, 78, 79, 116,

119–134 Floristic , 26, 54, 70, 101 Foetid juniper , 15, 57 Food source , 93, 94 Forest

area , 3, 5, 7, 10, 31, 49, 53–55, 116, 135, 138

community , 26, 43 ecosystem , 49

Forest, Range and Watershed Organization , 7, 48, 135

Fraxino-Aceretum , 38 Fraxino-Alnetum , 38 Fraxinus

F. excelsior , 15 F. rotundifolia , 67

Frost , 21, 51, 75, 77, 104, 126, 127 Fuel wood , 135 Functional forest , 49

G Galajar , 96 Galazani , 96, 97 Galium odoratum , 16, 30 Gall , 1, 80, 92–93 Gallery forest , 128, 129 Gap , 53 Gazu , 93 Geobotanical history , 3 Geograhical aspects , 34, 82, 86, 101, 104 Geology , 3, 23–24, 55, 78, 100–101,

118–119 Geomorphological factors , 119 Glacial , 4, 10, 24, 69, 72, 73 Glaciation , 9, 18, 25, 73 Gleditschia caspica , 15 Golestan , 8, 22, 33, 34, 41, 46 Gorgan , 17, 19, 20, 22, 24, 29, 31, 43 Grapevine , 68, 73

Grazing , 10, 11, 18, 35, 49, 50, 88, 95, 135, 138

Greek juniper , 1, 8, 16, 17, 68, 73, 80, 81, 101, 102, 105

Greenbriar , 15, 25 Growing season , 6, 21, 31, 34, 70, 91 Guava , 136 Guilan , 21, 26 Gully erosion , 137 Gum , 91, 126 Gwatar Bay , 120, 123 Gymnosperms , 17

H Habitat , 11, 17, 18, 21, 24, 32–36, 38–40, 49,

54, 58, 78, 81–86, 102–105, 107, 120, 123, 125–127, 130–135

Hairy Wood-rush , 16 Halophytic fl ora , 69 Haloxylon ammodendron , 68, 115 Halva , 93, 94 Hardwood , 17, 25, 26, 31, 39, 40, 49 Hausknecht's almond , 68 Hawthorn , 16, 46, 68, 69, 72, 80–82, 84, 86,

89, 94, 106 Hazelnut , 1, 8, 16, 25 Hedera pastuchovii , 16 Height , 20, 29, 31, 32, 34–41, 43, 75, 84, 86,

87, 97, 127, 132, 133 Hemicryptophyta , 57, 70 Highland , 21, 24, 69, 99 Hippophae rhamnoides , 67 Holly tree , 16, 46 Holocene , 18, 73 Honeysuckle , 68, 80, 84 Hormozgan , 102, 116, 119–128, 131,

133, 134 Humid , 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 19–21, 24, 29, 34, 43,

48, 51, 53, 55, 75, 77, 82, 84, 86, 117

Humus eutrophic , 30 mesotrophic , 30 moder , 32 mull , 30, 32 oligotrophic , 30

Hydromorphic , 6 Hyper-dry , 125–127 Hyperthermic , 123 Hyrcanian maple , 16, 57, 58 Hyrcanian pear , 1, 8 Hyrcanian region , 7, 18–22, 24, 25, 29, 31, 35,

47, 49

IndexIndex

147

I Ilam , 71, 75, 80, 81, 93, 94, 97 Ilex spinigera , 16, 30 Indian

mesquite , 1, 5, 8, 115, 120, 123–125, 127, 132, 134–136

oleander , 115, 120 rosewood , 116, 132

Individuals , 31, 32, 34–37, 44, 71, 72, 79, 88, 89, 125, 126, 131

Interglaciations , 9, 10 Inventory , 47, 49 Irano-Turanian , 4, 8, 9, 11, 35, 48, 56, 67–107, 128 Ironwood , 16, 18, 25–28, 32, 38–41, 51 Irrigation , 4, 90, 123, 125, 126, 138 Italian cypress , 1, 8, 16, 17, 26, 29, 43, 45,

68, 80 Ivy , 16, 25

J Jointpine , 68, 73 Judas tree , 68, 69, 81 Juglans regia , 2, 68 Juniper , 1, 8, 10, 15–17, 35, 46, 57,

60, 68, 73, 80, 81, 101–103, 105, 107

Juniperus J. communis , 15 J. excelsa , 1, 16, 68 J. foetidissima , 1, 16, 68 J. polycarpos , 1, 16, 68

Jurassic , 24

K Kandevan-wild pear , 1 Kavir , 6, 8 Kerman , 71, 72, 76, 79–81, 85, 86, 98,

102–105, 125, 133 Kermanshah , 71, 72, 76, 79, 80, 85,

86, 98 Khalijo-Omanian , 5, 8, 11, 48,

116–120, 136 Khinjuk pistachio , 68, 69, 80, 81, 115,

120, 125 Khushaab , 94 Khuzestan , 71, 80, 97, 118, 124, 129, 132,

135, 137 Kohgiluye and Boyerahmad , 71, 80, 81,

94–96 Kurdistan , 69, 71, 72, 76, 78–80, 88, 91,

94–97

L Lake Zeribar , 72 Land form , 3, 30, 34, 78, 85, 102, 104 Landscape , 3–5 Land use change , 98 Large-leaved lime tree , 16, 26, 44, 46 Large-scaled oak , 2, 8 Lauroceraceto-Taxetum , 44 Lebanon oak , 68, 69, 80–83, 86, 96 Lebbeck tree , 115, 120 Lime , 24, 31, 41, 44, 46, 51, 101, 102, 123, 130 Limestone , 6, 24 Liquidambar styracifl ua , 16 Little cherry , 68, 81, 89 Livestock , 51, 53, 54, 88, 93–96, 102, 125,

127, 136, 137 Local dwellers , 90 Longevity , 34, 38, 43, 44 Long-stalked oak , 68, 79 Lonicera nummulariifolia , 68 Lorestan , 71, 77, 79–81 Lowland , 3, 4, 21, 26, 37–39, 41, 53, 73, 119,

130, 133 Lumber , 95 Luzula pilosa , 16, 30 Lycium shawii , 115

M Mahleb cherry , 2, 8 Managed Nature Reserves , 7 Management , 3, 10, 11, 47–53, 55, 96, 134–137 Man-made , 7, 135 Manna , 93 Masting , 51 Mauritian jujube , 115, 136, 138 Maximum temperature , 6, 117, 130–132 Mazandaran , 2, 8, 21, 22, 24, 26, 31, 34, 41,

43–46 pear , 2, 8

Mazari palm , 115, 120, 133–134 Mediterranean , 3–5, 20, 25, 29, 43, 55, 69, 70,

75, 84 Medlar , 16, 46 Mekran , 119, 120 Mercurialis perennis , 15, 30 Mesophilic fl ora , 10 Mesopotamia , 5, 69, 73, 75 Mesotrophic , 30, 36 Mesozoic , 17, 55, 100

fl ora , 17 Mespilus germanica , 16 Mesquite , 1, 5, 8, 115, 120, 123–125, 127,

132, 134–136

IndexIndex

148

Middle East , 2, 4, 5, 137 Midland , 21 Migration , 9, 54, 69, 135 Mineral , 30, 32 Minimum temperature , 75, 117, 125–127,

130, 132 Miocene , 6, 23, 69, 78, 119 Miswak , 116, 131 Moderate , 29, 30, 34, 36, 38, 46, 59, 78,

83–86, 102, 104, 125–128, 130–133 Moisture , 4, 19, 26, 31, 36, 37, 47, 87, 88,

107, 125, 130, 134 Monsoon , 122 Montane , 35 Montpellier maple , 2, 8, 16, 57, 58, 68, 80–82,

84–86, 89, 125 Moringa , 115, 120, 133, 138 Moringa peregrina , 115 Mountain

almond , 115, 125 ash , 2, 8 elm , 2, 8, 16, 26, 57

Mount Atlas pistachio , 2, 8, 16, 57, 68, 69, 72, 80, 84, 91, 103–105, 115

Mudskipper , 120, 122 Multi-purpose , 121, 122 Myrtle , 2, 8, 68, 80 Myrtus communis , 2, 68

N Nannorrhops ritchiana , 115 Natural , 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 18, 34, 48, 49,

51, 53, 55, 75, 81, 89, 91, 95, 97, 135–138

Natural resources , 7, 18, 48, 54, 95, 97 Needle-leaved species , 25 Nerium indicum , 115 Nitrogen , 29, 30, 36, 132, 133 Non-saline , 125, 127, 128, 131, 132 Non-timber , 90, 93, 94 Northern , 2, 4, 7–10, 17, 18, 20, 23–26, 29,

30, 32, 33, 41, 46, 47, 49, 51, 55, 57, 75–83, 86, 88, 89, 96, 99, 102, 116, 128

Norway maple , 2, 8 Nubo-Sindian , 116 Nutrient , 30, 37, 46, 124

O Oak

acorn , 94 Aleppo , 8, 67, 69, 79–83, 86, 88, 92, 93, 96

Brant's , 81, 82 Caucasian , 15, 25, 26, 33–35, 57,

58, 60 Chestnut-leaved , 15, 26, 32–34, 44, 46, 48,

67, 69 gall , 1, 92 hairy , 68, 79 Lebanon , 68, 69, 80–83, 86, 96 long-stalked , 68, 79 Persian , 68, 79, 80 pinnated , 68, 79 Sai , 68, 79, 82

Oerfot acacia , 115, 120, 125, 127, 128 Oil , 2, 92–94, 97, 133, 134, 137 Olea europea , 2, 68 Oligocene , 23 Oligotrophic , 30 Olive tree , 2, 8, 68, 73 Omano-Sindian , 120 Organic matter , 29, 30, 36, 40, 46, 59, 101,

125, 130, 131, 133, 137 Oriental arbor-vitae , 2, 8, 16, 17, 25 Oriental beech , 2, 8, 16, 21, 24, 26, 28, 31–32,

41, 51 Oriental hornbeam , 16, 26, 33 Oriental plane , 2, 8, 68, 73, 81

P Paleobotany , 72–75 Paleocene , 6, 23, 78, 119 Paleoclimatic , 10, 137 Paleozoic , 6, 24, 55, 100, 118 Paliurus spina-christi , 15 Parent rock , 24, 29, 30, 32, 55 Parrotia persica , 16 Parrotietum , 24 Parrotio-Carpinetum , 24, 26–28 Participatory approach , 138 Patch , 53, 75, 80, 102, 105 Pedology , 3 Persian Gulf , 5–8, 75, 80, 116, 119, 120, 123,

124, 126 pH , 6, 29, 30, 32–34, 36, 38–41, 43, 46, 55,

58, 59, 82–86, 102, 104, 119, 122, 123, 125–127, 130–134

Phanerophyte , 57, 73 Phosphorus , 29, 125 Photosynthesize , 130 Physiological requirements , 30 Phytogeographical region , 3, 4, 8, 9, 11, 17,

56, 116 Pinus nigra , 1 Pioneer , 32, 37, 136

IndexIndex

149

Pistachio , 1, 2, 8, 16, 57, 67–69, 72, 73, 75, 80–84, 89, 91–94, 101–105, 115, 120, 125

Pistacia P. atlantica , 2, 16, 68, 115 P. khinjuk , 68, 69, 80, 81, 115, 120, 125 P. vera , 1, 67

Pistacietum , 81 Pistacio-Amygdaletum , 81 Plain forests , 101, 105 Plantation , 7, 36, 37, 39, 49, 53, 135,

136, 138 Plant geography , 69–70 Platanus orientalis , 2, 68 Plateau , 3–9, 17, 19, 23, 32, 33, 35, 37, 38, 41,

53, 55, 69, 70, 73, 75, 78, 81, 98, 100, 102, 116, 118, 133

Pleistocene , 18, 25, 69, 72 Podzolic soil , 24 Pollarding , 96 Pollen , 72–74, 79 Poplar , 1, 5, 8, 15, 25, 26, 53, 67, 68, 81, 115,

120, 128–130, 136 Population , 10, 11, 43, 53, 71, 79, 90, 95, 135,

137, 138 Populus

P. caspica , 1, 15 P. euphratica , 1, 67, 115

Precipitation annual , 4, 6, 17, 19, 22, 23, 34, 76, 102,

104, 117, 123, 125, 126, 128, 130–134

maximum , 19 minimum , 125

Primula , 16, 27 Primula heterochroma , 16 Production , 10, 18, 48–50, 53, 54, 58,

88–91, 93–95, 97, 121, 122, 125, 131, 136

Proline , 124 Prosopis

P. cineraria , 1, 115 P. julifl ora , 115 P. koelsiana , 115 P. spicigera , 1, 115

Protected area , 7, 54–57, 97 Prunus

P. avium , 2, 16 P. mahaleb , 2, 68

Pteris cretica , 15 Pterocarya fraxinifolia , 15, 68 Pyrus

P. glabra , 68 P. hyrcana , 1

P. kandevanica , 1 P. mazanderanica , 2 P. syriaca , 68 P. turcomanica , 2

Q Qeshm Island , 120 Quaternary , 6, 24, 25, 55, 78, 100, 119 Quatre Gulf , 123 Querco-Carpinetum , 24, 26 Querco macranthero-Carpinetum orientalis , 26 Quercus

Q. brantii , 1, 67, 68, 79 Q. castaneifolia , 15, 41, 67 Q. infectoria , 1, 67, 79, 83 Q. libani , 68, 80 Q. longipes , 68, 79 Q. macranthera , 15, 29, 59 Q. magnosquamata , 2 Q. petraea , 2, 16, 57, 59 Q. robur , 1, 67, 79 Q. saii , 68, 79 Q. ungeri , 67, 80

R Rainfall

annual , 4, 6, 19–21, 32, 55, 99, 126, 127 maximum , 19, 99 minimum , 126, 127

Rain-fed agriculture , 90, 97 Rangeland , 7, 8, 17, 48, 54, 97, 135, 137 Red dogwood , 2, 8 Reforestation , 53, 105, 136, 138 Refugium , 25 Regeneration

asexual , 87 sexual , 88

Rehabilitation , 48, 125, 132, 135, 136, 138 Relic forests , 11 Remnant , 4, 25 Rendzina soil , 24, 34 Resin , 91 Restoration , 36, 37, 49, 125, 135, 136 Rhizophora mucronata , 1, 115 Rhus coriaria , 2, 68 Rigid tamarisk , 68, 105 Riparian , 81, 105 Ripening , 51, 93, 94 Rohida , 2, 8, 115, 120 Root , 39, 89, 123, 128, 130, 131 Root sucker , 39, 128, 131 Rose , 24, 94

IndexIndex

150

Rotation cycle , 96 Rowan tree , 2 Ruscus hyrcanus , 15, 30

S Sagebrush , 68, 72, 73, 75, 101 Saharo-Arabian , 116 Saharo-Sindian , 4, 9, 115–138 Saline , 6, 73, 119, 123, 127, 128, 130–132 Salix , 68 Salsola arbuscula , 68 Saltbush , 115, 135 Saltwort , 68 Salvadora

S. oleoides , 116 S. persica , 116

Sand dune , 2, 48, 106, 127, 135 Sandstone , 24 Sanicle , 16 Sanicula europaea , 16, 30 Saqqez , 72, 91 Savanna , 69, 72, 73, 75 Saxaul , 68, 105, 106, 115, 135 Sea of Oman , 3, 5–8, 116, 123, 124, 126 Sediment , 6, 73, 118, 119, 137 Seed , 25, 37, 51, 53, 59, 93, 94

originated , 88, 89 Seepweeds , 115, 130, 132 Semi-arid , 3, 5, 69, 71, 73, 75, 83, 135, 136 Semi-desert , 117 Sessile oak , 2, 8, 16, 57, 58, 60 Sexual regeneration , 88 Shade tolerant , 31, 41 Shelterwood , 49, 51 Shisham , 2, 116, 132 Shoke , 93 Siberian , 2, 8, 16, 18, 25, 26, 41, 45, 55,

68, 69 Siberian elm , 2, 8, 16, 18, 25, 26, 41, 45,

68, 69 Silk tree , 16, 18, 26 Silvicultural characteristics , 51, 87–90 Sindian , 8, 123, 131 Sisso , 2, 120, 132 Sistan , 103, 105, 116, 119, 123–125 Site demands , 30–31, 82–86, 123–134 Slope , 6, 17, 18, 20, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 33, 34,

39–41, 43, 46, 51, 53, 55, 58, 59, 69, 78, 80–84, 86, 97–99, 102, 105, 125, 130, 133

Small-leaved elm , 2, 8 Smilax excelsa , 15 Smoke tree , 16, 57

Socio-economic , 3, 53–54, 71, 90–98, 136–138

Sodom apple , 116, 120, 127 Softwood , 17, 25, 49 Soil

alluvial , 24, 55, 78, 118, 119, 128, 132 amphisol , 32 brown , 6, 24, 32, 34, 39, 41, 46, 55, 58,

78, 122 clay , 32, 34, 40, 82, 85, 86 colluvial , 24 drained , 29, 30 fertility , 78, 85, 88, 135 fresh , 37, 58 gravelly , 46, 125, 127, 130, 133 heavy , 6, 30, 119 humic , 46 hydromorphous , 30, 32, 34 light , 6, 29, 32, 102, 104, 119, 123, 128,

130, 132 lithosols , 24, 78, 83 loam , 33, 34, 39–41, 58, 85, 86, 123,

125–128, 130, 131 marn , 43, 45 mineral , 32 moderate , 29, 30, 34, 36, 38, 46, 59,

78, 83–86, 102, 104, 125, 127, 130, 131

moisture , 26, 36, 37, 47, 87, 88, 107, 125, 134

non-saline , 125, 127, 128, 131, 132 physico-chemical properties , 29, 131 podzolic , 24, 32 pseudogley , 32 ranker , 24 rendzina , 6, 24, 34, 39, 78 saline , 6, 73, 119, 130–132 shallow , 34, 39, 43, 55, 58, 82–84, 89, 102,

104, 133 silt , 83, 122, 132 texture , 6, 32, 36, 40, 41, 46, 82, 119,

126, 128 Sorbus

S. aucuparia , 2 S. torminalis , 2, 16

Southern , 4–6, 8, 16, 17, 23, 24, 46, 58, 69, 73, 75, 77–80, 82, 84, 86, 89, 90, 93, 98, 102–105, 119, 120, 122, 138

Species broad-leaved , 38, 53 companion , 32 composition , 46, 136 dominant , 31, 32, 60, 82, 104, 105 fast growing , 35, 49, 53, 136–138

IndexIndex

151

light demanding , 33, 35, 37 needle-leaved , 25 rare , 7, 11, 37, 54, 125 shade tolerant , 31, 41 suppressed , 32

Sprout , 33, 87, 88 Stand

coppice , 48, 87–89, 95 even-aged , 49, 53 high , 49, 89–90 mixed , 26, 31, 49, 51, 71, 72, 81, 82,

84–86, 105, 120 productive , 29 pure , 8, 43, 51, 72, 80–82, 104, 125 standard , 88–90 two-layered , 33 uneven-aged , 49, 53 volume , 34, 51

Statistics , 7, 92, 95, 99 Stem , 31–33, 35–38, 41, 49–51, 75, 125, 127,

130–132 number , 31–33, 35–38, 41, 49–51, 125,

130, 131 Steppes , 3, 5 Storey

lower , 32, 34 middle , 32 upper , 33

Stratum , 26 Suaeda

S. fruticosa , 115 S. vermiculata , 115

Sub-dry , 43 Sub-humid , 4, 48 Submontane , 39, 40, 44 Subtropical , 4–6, 8, 116, 117, 122 Sudanian , 116 Sumac tree , 2, 8, 68, 80 Sustainability , 90 Swamp , 5, 123 Sweet gum , 16, 25 Syrup , 91, 93, 94

T Tamarisk , 2, 8, 68, 81, 105, 106, 116, 125,

129, 130, 135 Tamarix

T. articulata , 68 T. stricta , 68

Tannin , 92–94 Taxeto-Fagetum , 44 Taxus baccata , 2, 16 Tecomella undulata , 2, 115

Temperature absolute , 75, 117, 125–127, 130–132 annual , 6, 20, 21, 34, 75, 102, 104, 126,

131–134 maximum , 6, 117, 130–132 minimum , 75, 117, 125–127, 130, 132

Terrestrial , 8, 120 Tertiary , 6, 10, 18, 24, 25, 55, 78, 119

Arcto- , 18, 25, 69 Thermophilous , 18, 41 Thorned almond , 68, 80, 106, 116, 120 Thorny , 106 Thristy thorn , 116, 120, 125, 126 Thuja orientalis , 2, 16 Tidal , 123 Tilia platyphyllos , 16 Tilio-Buxetum , 24 Timberline , 26 Tolerance , 30, 47 Tolerant , 31, 81 Tooth brush tree , 116, 120, 127 Topography , 3, 5, 18, 136 Transcaucasia , 69 Trunk , 10, 37, 91, 96, 128 Tuch , 116, 120 Turkey , 3–5, 71 Turkmenian pear , 2, 8 Turpentine , 91

U Ulmus

U. boissieri , 2 U. carpinifolia , 1 U. glabra , 2, 16 U. minor , 1

Umbrella thorn acacia , 116, 120, 126–127 Utilization , 26, 47, 51

V Vaccinium arctostaphylos , 16, 29 Valley , 10, 24, 29, 31, 34, 37, 71, 75, 79–82,

104, 105, 132, 133 Vegetable oil , 133 Vegetation , 2–5, 9–11, 16–18, 25–30, 35,

54, 56–60, 70, 72–74, 78–82, 90, 97, 101–107, 116, 119–120, 135, 137

Vegetative propagation , 60 Velvet maple , 16, 24, 26, 31, 35–37,

46, 48 Viburnum lantana , 16 Vitis , 68

IndexIndex

152

Volcanic , 3, 6, 55, 78, 100, 119 Volume , 28, 31–38, 41, 49–51, 89 Vulnerable , 8, 11

W Walnut , 2, 8, 10, 18, 20, 25, 26, 48, 68, 69, 73,

81, 94 Water course , 120 Waterlogging , 137 Watershed , 7, 8, 48, 49, 72, 80, 102, 103,

135, 136 management , 48, 136–137

Wayfaring tree , 16, 57 West Asia , 3 Western , 3, 6–8, 11, 16–22, 24, 29, 30, 39–41,

43, 57, 70, 72–75, 78, 80, 94, 116–118, 133

White almond , 8 mangrove , 2, 8, 116, 120, 121, 123 wormwood , 68, 75

Whortleberry , 16, 32 Wild almond , 2, 8, 68, 80, 82, 89, 101, 104,

105, 116, 120, 125 Wild cherry , 2, 8, 16, 26, 39–40, 42, 46, 53 Wildlife , 49, 54, 95 Wild pear , 8, 68, 69, 72, 80, 81, 84–86, 89, 93

Wild service , 2, 8, 16, 26, 40, 43, 57 Willow , 53, 68, 81, 93 Woodland , 7, 73, 75, 107, 128, 129, 132 Wood production , 18, 125, 136 Woodruff (Bedstraw) , 16, 32 Woody species , 11, 17, 25, 37, 54

X Xerophytic , 5, 16, 69, 70, 101, 123, 137 Xerotropical , 69

Y Yew , 2, 8, 16, 17, 25, 26, 44, 46, 57–59

Z Zagros Mountains , 4–6, 69, 71, 73, 75, 78, 81,

99, 119 Zelkova carpinifolia , 2, 16, 68 Zelkovo carpinifoliae - Quercetum

castaneifolia , 41 Ziziphus

mauritiana , 115 spina-christi , 1, 15, 67, 115 vulgaris , 1

Zygophyllum atriplicoides , 67

IndexIndex

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