IRAN

Azeri

Talysh

KurdGuilak

Mazandarani

Turkmen

Kurd

Lur

IranianArab

Qashqai

Persian

Balooch

Uninhabited Area

IranianArab

Estimate: Persians (65%), Azeris (16 %), Kurds (7%), Lurs (6%), Arabs (2%), Baluchi (2%), Turkmens (1%), Turkic tribal groups such as the Qashqai (1%), Non-Iranian, non-Turkic groups such as Armenians, Assyrians, and Georgians Laks, Qashqai, Armenians, Persian Jews, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, Tats, Mandaeans, Gypsies, Brahuis, Hazara, Kazakhs and others (less than 1%).

Persian (Farsi) is spoken as a mother tongue by at least 65% of the population and as a second language by a large proportion of the remaining 35%.

• Territory of Iran is inhospitable to agriculture– Great Salt Desert and two mountain ranges– Rain-fed agriculture confined mostly to northwest– Pastoral nomads– Major obstacle to economic development

• Overcome recently by oil revenues

• Population centers located mostly on oasis, rivers, and constructed irrigation networks

• Iran on strategic crossroads areas, making it vulnerable to invasion

– Central Asia and Turkey– Indian subcontinent and Middle East– Arabian Peninsula and Caucasus Mountains

• Considered boundary between Europe and Asia

• Population reflects invasions– Majority speaks Farsi

Modern Iran traces roots to sixth century B.C.E.

Islamic religion traced to Arab invasions of seventh century

Four critical junctures shaped Iran’s current national identity, geographic boundaries, interpretation of Islam (Shi’ism), and political system Safavid Dynasty 1501-1722 Qajar Dynasty 1794-1925 Pahlavi Dynasty 1925-1979 Revolution of 1979

Led to establishment of current Islamic Republic

Means sign of God, Given to Shi‘is clerics who have amassed

many followers and become experts in religious, ethical, philosophical, and jurisprudence matters.

It is the highest rank of Shi‘is theologians. Ayatollahs do not exist in the Sunni Islamic sect; Sunni Islam does not have such a formal religious

hierarchy as the Shi'a In the absence of the Madhi (12th Imam),

Shi’is believe the authority to interpret Shari’a should be in the hands of the senior clerical scholars- Ayatollahs

Islamic constitution drawn up by Assembly of Religious Experts after 1979 revolution Amended 1989 by Council for the Revision

of the Constitution Mixture of theocracy and democracy

Preamble affirms: belief in God, Qur’an, Prophet Muhammad, Twelve Imams, return of Hidden Imam, faith in Khomeini’s doctrine

Declares that laws, institutions, state organizations must conform to “divine principles”

Iranian Government Power Structure

The Supreme Leader

IncumbentAli Khamenei

since 4 June 1989

The Islamic Republic has had two Supreme Leaders in its history:

•Ruhollah Khomeini •who held the position from 1979 until his death in 1989

• Ali Khamenei, who has held the position since succeeding Khomeini in 1989.

The Supreme Leader of Iran انقالب ,رهبر Is the highest ranking political and religious

authority in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The post was established by the constitution

in accordance with the concept of Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists*

The title "Supreme" Leader is often used as a sign of respect; however, this

terminology is not found in the constitution of Iran, which simply referred to the "Leader"

*Guardianship of the Jurist is a post-Age-of-Occultation theory in Shi'a Islam which holds that Islam gives a faqih (Islamic jurist) or fuqaha (jurists) custodianship or guardianship over those in need of it.

Responsible for delineation and supervision of the general policies of the Republic

Sets policy guidelines Link between branches of government Commander-In-Chief of the armed forces

Controls the military intelligence and security operations Has sole power to declare war and peace

Appoints the: Heads of the Judiciary Heads of State Radio and Television Network Military Foces Six of the Twelve members of the Council of Guardians Preachers

Can eliminate and dismiss presidential candidates and President himselg

Grant Amnesty

Many clerics have criticized both Khomeini and his succesor Khamenei for two reasons.

1) Criticized for its active participation in daily political affairs.

2) The powers held by the Supreme Leader and participation in all aspects of life by a scholar should have been a position solely for the Twelfth Imam.

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad had to make clear after his election that the country needs to work to hasten the return of the real leader of Iran – the Twelfth Imam

Islamic Republic is often described as a regime of the ayatollahs

More run by Mid-Ranking Clerics today

High-Ranking do not want to be associated with Khamenei Did not want to be with Khomeini either Disagreed with notion of Jurist’s

Guardianship

The Expediency Discernment Council of the System is an administrative assembly appointed by

the Supreme Leader Set up to resolve differences or conflicts

between the Majlis and the Council of Guardians, but,

“Its true power lies more in its advisory role to the Supreme Leader."

The Leader "delegated some of his own authority to the council — granting it supervisory powers over all branches of the government" — following President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's election in 2005.

The President

Elected by universal suffrage for 4 year terms Can only be re-

elected for one term

Must be approved by the Council of Guardians

Presidents of Iran since ‘79 Revolution

Name Term

Abolhassan Banisadr

1980–1981Impeached

Abolhassan Banisadr

August 2, 1981- August 30,1981

Assassinated

Ali Khamenei 1981–1989

Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani

1989–1997

Mohammad Khatami

1997–2005

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

2005- Current (Term expires 5 August 2013)

Responsible for implementation of Const. Appoints & supervises the Council of Ministers Coordinates government decisions Selects government policies to be placed before

legislature Has 8 Vice Presidents, Cabinet of 22 ministers Appoints:

ministers of intelligence and defense, but does not control armed forces

Provincial Governors Town Mayors Ambassadors Directors of organizations: Oil, Electricity, Bank

The main political leader of the Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran A coalition of conservative political groups in

the country. An engineer and teacher from a poor

background, Appointed a provincial governor, after

Revolutuion. He was removed after the election of President

Mohammad Khatami and returned to teaching. Tehran's council appointed him mayor in

2003. He took a religious hard-line, reversing

reforms of previous moderate mayors. His 2005 presidential campaign, supported

by the Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran, garnered 62% of the runoff election votes, and he became President on August 3 2005.

Controversial figure both within Iran and internationally. Domestic Policies:

Has been criticized domestically for his economic lapses and disregard for human rights

He launched a gas rationing plan in 2007 to reduce the country's fuel consumption,

Cut the interest rates private and public banking facilities could charge.

He supports Iran's nuclear energy program. His election to a second term in 2009 was widely disputed

and caused widespread protests domestically and drew significant international criticism regarding its legitimacy

Foreign Policies: Ahmadinejad is an outspoken critic of the United States,

Israel, and United Kingdom. Refuses to recognize Israel as a legitimate nation He advocates "free elections" for the region, and believes

Palestinians need a stronger voice in the region's future.[23]

President heads huge bureaucracy Expanded to provide jobs for many college

and high school graduates 1979: 300,000 civil servants, 1 million employees 1990’s: 600,000 civil servants, 1.5 million employees Important ministries:

Culture and Islamic Guidance- controls media, proper conduct in life

Intelligence

Clergy dominate bureaucracy

Supposedly autonomous Directed by clerics appointed

personally by the leader Annual income may be half of that of

the government Exempt from taxes Paid in foreign currency

A deliberative body of 86 Mujtahids (Islamic scholars) that is charged with electing and removing the Supreme Leader of Iran and supervising his activities. Elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on

the basis of qualification and popular esteem Members of the assembly are elected from

a government-screened list of candidates by direct public vote to eight-year terms. Current laws require the assembly to meet for

at least two days, twice annually.

Responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties

The Experts are to review and consult among themselves concerning Islamic jurists possessing the qualifications of leadership. Constitutionally these criteria include "Islamic

scholarship, justice, piety, right political and social perspicacity, prudence, courage, administrative facilities and adequate capability for leadership.“

In the event they find one of the jurists better versed in Islamic regulations, the subjects shall elect him as Supreme Leader.

Otherwise, in the absence of such a candidate, the Experts shall elect and declare one of themselves as Supreme Leader.[6]

The assembly for instance has never invited the leader to its meetings.

Iran's leader has never been asked to offer a report of his performance over the last few decades. Instead the members of the assembly met with the

leader on several occasions to have his advice. The assembly has very few meetings annually and

the members mainly discuss subjects not related to their duties, as commenting on the president and government's policies and Iran's foreign policy.

As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.

An appointed and constitutionally-mandated 12-member council that wields considerable power and influence

Membership is for phased six-year terms: half the membership changes every three years.

Iranian constitution calls for the council to be1) Six Islamic jurists,

"conscious of the present needs and the issues of the day" selected by the Supreme Leader of Iran,

2) Six Muslim jurists, specializing in different areas of law to be elected by the Majlis (the Iranian Parliament)

from jurists nominated by the Head of the Judicial Power,“ (who, in turn, is also appointed by the supreme leader).

Ensure the compatibility of the legislation passed by the Majlis with the criteria of Islam and the Constitution (as the watchdog of the constitution it can veto any law passed

by the Majlis) The Guardian Council does not introduce bills, but…

Any bill passed by the Majlis must be reviewed and approved by the Guardian Council

According to Article 96 of the constitution, the Guardian Council holds veto power over all legislation approved by the Majlis.

It can nullify a law based on two accounts: 1) being against Islamic laws,

2) being against the constitution.

If any law is rejected, it will be passed back to the Majlis for correction. If the Majlis and the Council of Guardians cannot decide on a

case, it is passed up to the Expediency Council for a decision.

Judicial Authority: The Council of Guardians also functions

similar to a constitutional court The authority to interpret the constitution is

vested in the Council interpretative decisions require a three-quarters

majority of the Council. However, it does not conduct a court hearing

where opposing sides are argued. Electoral Authority:

All candidates of parliamentary or presidential elections, as well as candidates for the Assembly of Experts, have to be qualified by the Guardian Council

Council is accorded "supervision of elections"

The Council has played a central role in interpretation of Islamic values consistently disqualifies reform-minded

candidates has also increased the influence the

Islamic Revolutionary Guard (an ideological fighting force separate from the

Iranian army)

Clergy control Iran’s armed forces Includes regular army, para-military Revolutionary Guard,

volunteers of Basej-e Mostazafin

Leader is commander-in-chief and makes all key military appointments

Also picks Minister of Intelligence, who reports directly to him

Top ranks of military purged immediately after revolution

Built Revolutionary Guards as parallel force to regular armed forces

Given budget, munitions factories, navy, air force Per constitution, protects against internal enemies while army

protects against external enemies Loyalty ensured by placing Muslim chaplains in regular division

Keep theological and political eye on officers

Islamic Republic “Islamized” judiciary Enacted penal code, Retribution Law, based on narrow

reading of shari’a Modern educated lawyers resigned

contradiction of United Nations Charter on Human Rights Division and unequal treatment of male/female and Muslim/non-

Muslim Also passed law to implement shari’a ban on interest Practical experience broadened interpretation of shari’a

Modern, centralized judiciary not dismantled Khomeini argued that central authorities would not intervene

with local shari’a judge Discovered need for central state to retain ultimate control over

justice system State retained appeals system, hierarchy of state courts,

power to appoint and dismiss judges By 1990’s Shari’a had little influence, and rarely

followed

Supreme Leader appoints the head of Iran’s Judiciary

Chief Justice appoints the head of the Supreme Court and Chief Public Prosecutor

Several Courts: Public Courts- deal with civil and criminal

cases “Revolutionary Court”- deal with categories of

offenses Crimes against national security Decisions final and cannot be appealed

Special Clerical Court- handles crimes committed by clerics

Function independently of regular judicial framework

Iran divided into provinces, districts, subdistricts, townships, villages:

Provinces headed by: Governors-

General

Districts headed by: Governors

Sub-districts headed by:Lieutenant-

Governors

Towns headed by: Mayors

Villages headed by: Headman

Per constitution, management of affairs at each level under supervision of directly elected councils (popularly elected) ,which must be consulted by executive

Incorporated because of 1980 demonstrations Conservative opposition prevented elections until

1999 Although liberals did well in first election, conservatives

dominated 2003 Reformers boycotted elections to protest Guardian

Council’s disqualification of liberal candidates

Per constitution, Majles “represents the nation” Drafts legislation Ratifies international treaties Approves the national budget. Authority to enact or change laws (with approval

of Guardian Council) Investigating and supervising all affairs of state Approve or oust cabinet via vote of no confidence

(Exception is the President) Chooses six of twelve Guardian Council members Plays important role in Iranian national politics

Has opposed action of executive, judiciary, Leader

Majles laws known as qanun (statutes) avoids question of whether laws come

from God or people Guardian Council must agree qanun

compatible with shari’a (diving law) and constitution

Majles members elected by citizens for 4 year terms

The Parliament currently has 290 representatives, changed from the previous 270 seats since the

February 2000 election. Summary of 14 March/25 April 2008 Parliament of Iran election resultsOrientation of candidates

Seats (1st rd.) Seats (2nd rd.) Seats (Total)

Conservatives 153 46 199Reformists 29 18 47Independents 23 16 39Armenian(recognized minority religion)

2 2

Assyrian and Chaldean (Catholic)(recognized minority religion)

1 1

Jewish (recognized minority religion)

1 1

Zoroastrian(recognized minority religion)

1 1

Total (Turnout: 60%) 208 82 290

Citizens guaranteed right to organize by constitution Interior Ministry allowed to issue licenses to

political parties per 1980 law Political parties not encouraged until 1997 Most licenses to non-political professional

organizations trusted by ruling elite Three important parties emerged

Islamic Iran Participation Front – Khatami supporters

Servants of Reconstruction Osulgarayan – headed by Ahmadinejad

Association of Militant Clergy and Society of Militant Clergy continue to function

Free elections promised by constitution In practice elections range from relatively free to controlled Currently free of voter intimidation but choice highly

constrained Main source of information from government controlled

media Interior Ministry can ban organizations and newspapers

on grounds that they don’t subscribe to velayat-e faqeh Guardian Council approves candidates

Some reformer victories in 2008• Most supported by Islamic Iran Participation Front

and Servants of Reconstruction• Conservatives openly critical of Ahmadinejad thus

may not maintain unity Not voting used to protest barring of reformers by

Guardian Council

Iranian policy-making is complex because of the constitution and factionalism within ruling clergy

Laws can originate in diverse places, modified by numerous pressures, blocked by variety of state institutions

Clerics believed they alone had divine mandate to govern With constitution in place, clerics divided into blocs

Society of the Militant Clergy – statist reformers or populists

Hoped to consolidate lower-class support through comprehensive welfare state

Recently began to emphasize democratic over theocratic resembling social democrats

Association of the Militant Clergy – laissez-faire conservatives

Wanted to retain middle-class support through free-market practices

Similar to social democrats

Polarization of clerics created gridlock Majles dominated by reformers Guardian Council controlled by conservatives Ultra-conservatives encouraged boycott of taxes and direct

contributions to grand ayatollah of choice Both conservatives and reformers referred to the constitution

to support their positions Khomeini broke gridlock by referring to Sunni concept of

maslahat Claimed Islamic state could safeguard public interest by

suspending religious rulings Public interest was primary ruling and others secondary State could overrule clerics because Islamic state had absolute

authority• Prophet Muhammad exercised absolute power, which he passed down to

Islamic Republic

• Khomeini established Expediency Council for determining the public interest of the Islamic Order

Iran began integrating into world system in latter half of nineteenth century

Opening of Suez Canal, Batum-Baku railway, telegraph lines, European capital outflow, Industrial Revolution

Contact with West had repercussions Economy dependent on world market fluctuations

Some argue that the unequal exchange lies at root of present-day problems

Created strong desire for tariff protection, self-sufficiency, industry development, economic diversification

Imports hurt traditional handicrafts Exports reduced acreage available for domestic food British encouraged opium cultivation Increased class awareness

• Greater integration into world system began early twentieth century driven by oil

– Nationalization of oil industry increased revenues– Oil revenue far surpassed tax revenues, allowed

development programs• State could disregard internal tax base, making it

independent of society – Meant little representation of society

• State dependent on international market– Created rentier state

• Shah tried unsuccessfully to lessen dependency by encouraging exports and attracting foreign investment

– Foreign investments primarily banking, trade, insurance– Foreign investors not confident in Iran’s stability

Early in his presidency: Increased subsidies for consumers,

especially for gas, food and housing Caused lack of supply and corruption

New policies focus on prices based on free market

Citizens have protested high inflation and lack of safety net

“Axis of Evil” Denied membership to World Trade

Organization (but is an observer) Member of OPEC: controls price of oil

exported from member nations 2006 economic sanctions imposed by

United Nations Security Counsel as a result of Nuclear program